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Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles

SRI LANKA

by
Sujatha Premaratne and G.G.C. Premalal
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FAO 2006
3

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 5

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY 7


Soils 7
Topography 7

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES 8


Climate 8
Agro-ecological zones 8

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS 9


General background 9
Agro-ecological regions and livestock production 9
Up-country: tea estate dairy/market vegetable system 10
Mid-country: Kandyan forest garden system 10
Coconut triangle and lowlands 11

5. PASTURE AND GRASSLAND RESOURCES 12


Improved forages 12
Natural (wild) Guinea grass 12
Natural grassland resources of Sri Lanka 13
Grassland productivity 14
Traditional livestock production in natural grasslands 15
Present situation of grassland-based livestock production 16
Issues and development programmes in grassland development 16

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENTS OF GRASSLAND RESOURCES 17


Constraints identified in improvement of national grasslands 17
Opportunities and suggestions for developing grassland resources 17

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL 18

8. REFERENCES 19

9. CONTACTS 21
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 5

1. INTRODUCTION

The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri


Lanka, an island just off the southern tip of
India, (between 50 55 and 90 50 North and
790 42 and 810 53 East; 432 km North to
South; 224km West to East) has a population
of 19.462 million (according to the World
Factbook the July 2006 population estimate
was 20222240 with a growth rate of 0.78%,
although with the ongoing unrest accurate
estimates are problematic) on an area of
65 610 km2 (land area- 62 705 km2; inland
water 2 905 km2). It belongs to the group of
developing countries classified by the UN as Figure 1. Location of Sri Lanka
most seriously affected by the international
economic crisis. The majority of the Sri
Lankan people are Sinhalese (74%; mostly
Buddhists). The minorities are Tamils (18%;
mostly Hindu), Moors (7.1%) and Burghers
(0.3%). Sinhala is the predominant language,
followed by Tamil with English being used
especially in business and urban areas.
Most Sri Lankans live in rural areas, so
special attention has been given to rural
development and land reform. The urban
population (21.5%) is mainly concentrated
in greater Colombo and five other cities. But
70% of Sri Lankas population lives in the
south-western economically and climatically
favoured province, on only 30% of the
countrys land; the dry zone accounts for
60% of the land, but has only 20% of the
population. Population density per square
kilometre was 310 in 2004 (Annual Report
Central Bank, 2004).
Compared to other South and Southeast
Asian countries, Sri Lanka ranks very high
in parameters of life expectancy (males: 71.7
years; female: 76.4 years), health standards Figure 2. Map of Sri Lanka
(crude death rate in 2003: 1.89%; rate of
natural increase in 2003: 1.28%; infant mortality rate in 2003: 1.11%) and education (literacy rate in
20032004: overall: 92.5%; male: 94.5%; female: 90.6%), Annual Report Central Bank, 2004. During
the last few years, the population growth rate was reduced to 1.28% (Annual Report Central Bank, 2004)
and was only 0.79% in 2005 according to World Factbook . Agriculture is one of the most important
sectors of the economy and gives employment to at least 34% of employed persons (7305000) with a
high degree of subsistence farming, and provided 18% of GDP in 2004 (Annual Report Central Bank,
2004).
The agriculture, forestry and fishing sector, which expanded by 1.6% in value added terms in 2003,
contracted marginally by 0.7% in 2004 mainly due to the impact of inadequate rainfall on certain major
crops. The relative importance of the agriculture sector continued to decline from 19% of the GDP
in 2003 to 18% in 2004 owing to the low contribution from paddy production. However, production
of other subsidiary food crops and vegetables improved, as farmers shifted to them from paddy to
6 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Table 1. Sri Lanka statistics for livestock numbers and production for 19982004

ensure maximum use of available water. In fact the other agricultural crops category which includes,
vegetables, subsidiary food crops, minor export crops, animal husbandry, sugar cane, tobacco, and fruits,
expanded by 3.2% in value added terms compared to 1.9% recorded in 2003, while the value added in
the fishery sector recorded an improvement of 1.6%.
The livestock sector, mainly the dairy and poultry industries, recorded a mixed performance in 2004:
it is estimated that total milk production has grown by 3% to 190.8 million litres and total milk collection
increased by 13% due to an improved collection network. Table 1 summarises livestock types, their
numbers and products for 1998 2004.
In Sri Lanka, nearly 12 000 km2 of the total land area is under grass (Pemadasa, 1990). Using
grassland for livestock through traditional means goes back several centuries. The cohesiveness of
traditional societies and social groups in livestock rearing led to holistic approaches that resulted in
appropriate, environmentally sound sustainable technologies. Nevertheless, as in many other countries,
Sri Lankan grasslands have deteriorated due to mismanagement under the existing socio-economic
position. However grasslands remain very important for livestock production and environment stability.
There is a continuing need to maintain a broad spectrum of production and conservation interests in order
to ensure the effective and suitable management of the grassland resource (Premaratne et al., 2003).
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 7

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

Soils
In general, Sri Lankan soils do not pose a major Table 2. Extent of the major soil groups in Sri Lanka
problem for forage and other crop production. Major Soil Group Area (ha)
The major soil groups and their extents are Reddish Brown Earths and Immature Brown
1. 2 683 705
Loams; rolling, hilly and steep terrain
given in Table 2. The physical properties of Non-calcic Brown soils, soils on old alluvium
2. 132 788
major soil groups viz; Reddish Brown Earths, and Solonetz; undulating terrain
Red Yellow Podzolic, Red and Yellow Latosols, 3.
Red-Yellow Latosols; flat to slightly undulating
263 380
terrain
Reddish Brown Latasolic are favourable for 4. Calcic Red-Yellow Latosols, flat terrain 35 152
wide-ranging agricultural purposes. The Solodized Solonetz and Solonchaks; flat
5. 149 963
fertility of wet zone soils is poor because these terrain
6. Grumusols; flat terrain 14 094
soils have been extensively leached due to high
Soils on recent marine calcareous sediments;
rainfall. The CEC values of most of the soils are 7.
flat terrain
26 675

low. Therefore, special fertilizer management 8.


Alluvial soils of variable drainage and texture;
501 978
flat terrain
practices on these soils are required. The base
Regosols on recent beach and dune sands;
saturation of the dry zone soils remains at a 9.
flat terrain
153 249
higher range. Solodized solonetz, Bog and Half 10.
Red-Yellow Podzolic soils with semi-
1 525 906
prominent A1 horizon; hilly and rolling terrain
Bog soils are the major groups of problem soils
Reddish Brown Latosolic soils; steeply
found in the country. 11.
dissected, hilly and rolling terrain
62 326

Immature Brown Loams; steeply dissected,


12. 54 088
hilly and rolling terrain
Topography
13. Bog and Half-Bog soils; flat terrain 57 423
Three topographic zones, namely the central
Latosols and Regosols on old red and yellow
highlands, the plains, and the coastal belt are 14. 54 607
sands; flat terrain
distinguished by elevation. The south-central 15.
Alluvial soils of variable drainage and texture;
51 892
flat terrain
part (Central Highlands) is the heart of the
16. Regosols on recent beach sands; flat terrain 7 852
country and the core of this area is a high
plateau, running north-south for approximately
65 km. This area includes some of Sri Lankas
highest mountains (Pidurutalagala is the highest
at 2524m). On the east, the Uva Basin consists
of rolling, grass-covered hills, traversed by
some deep valleys and gorges. The land
descends from the Central Highlands to a series
of escarpments and ledges at 400 to 500 m
before sloping down to the coastal plains.
Most of the islands surface consists of
plains between 30 and 200m above sea level.
In the south-west, ridges and valleys rise
gradually to merge with the Central Highlands,
giving a dissected appearance to the plain.
The coastal belt, about 30 m above sea level,
surrounds the island. Sri Lankas rivers rise
in the Central Highlands and flow in a radial
pattern toward the sea; most of them are short.
Sixteen principal rivers are longer than 100km;
twelve of them carry about 75% of the mean
river discharge of the country. The longest river
is the Mahaweli Ganga at 335km in length.

Figure 3. Topographic features of the country


Source: http://iri.columbia.edu/~mahaweli/
8 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Climate
Sri Lanka is in the north-equatorial tropical zone. The climate is tropical with high humidity and
temperature which vary with altitude. At a given altitude, temperature is constant throughout the year
and is not a limiting factor to crop production except at higher altitudes, where frosts occasionally occur.
Seasons are not determined by change of temperature, but by the rainfall distribution influenced by
convectional precipitation and two monsoons. The northeast monsoon in November February is locally
called Maha season and the south-west monsoon from May September Yala season.
Topography plays a major role in the pattern of rainfall distribution. While the northeast monsoon
rains are island wide, the mountains intercept the southwest monsoon. Thus the country can be divided
into three climatic zones:
a) The highlands and the southwest receiving both monsoons are the Wet zone. This is the most
intensively exploited zone with 67% of its area under permanent agriculture.
b) The Northern and Eastern lowlands receiving only the Northeast monsoons are the Dry zone.
This zone covers two thirds of the island. It is the most favoured area with regard to radiation
levels. But lack of rainfall during February September is a major constraint to crop production.
With irrigation, yield potential for field crops is high in the zone.
c) A narrow strip of land fringing the highlands to the North and East lies between the two zones and
is the Intermediate zone. It is dominated by coconuts along the Western Coastal region, where
dairy production has a long tradition.

Agro-ecological zones
Sri Lanka has a heterogeneous agro-ecological environment and many workers have made efforts to
classify this situation. A particular agro-ecological region represents fairly even agro-climate, soils
and terrain conditions and would support a particular farming system with a certain range of crops and
farming practices, including forage cultivation and livestock farming.
On rainfall distribution, Sri Lanka has traditionally been classified into three climatic zones viz; the Wet
Zone, Dry Zone and Intermediate Zone. The Wet Zone covers the south-western region including the central

Figure 4. Average annual rainfall (19611990) Figure 5. Agro-ecological zones of Sri Lanka
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 9

hill country and receives relatively high mean annual rainfall over 2 500 mm without pronounced dry
periods. The Dry Zone covers predominantly the northern and eastern part of the country, being separated
from the Wet Zone by the Intermediate Zone. The Dry zone receives a mean annual rainfall of less than
1750mm with a distinct dry season from May to September. The Intermediate zone receives a mean annual
rainfall between 1750 to 2500mm with a short and less prominent dry season.
In differentiating these three major climatic zones; land use, forestry, rainfall and soils are widely used
and as a result, they were divided into 24 agro-ecological regions. Environmental change, availability
of more spatial and temporal data and advancement of GIS technology has led to the sub-division of the
24 agro-ecological regions of Sri Lanka into 46 sub-regions. Figure 5 shows the main agro-ecological
(agro-climatic) zones.
The largest number of cattle is found in the dry zones, where herd sizes are also the largest. The
relative distribution of cross bred dairy cattle is highest in the mid- and up-country as well in the wet
lowlands near Colombo. In the first case, this can be attributed to the temperate climatic conducive to the
health and performance of improved animals. While in the second case, it may be attributed to the high
milk prices available through the informal market close to the urban area, under which circumstances
the risks to improved animals of lowland conditions are acceptable

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS


General background
Livestock numbers for the period 19982004 have been described earlier in Table 1.
Livestock keeping in the country not only depends on the agro-ecological conditions (like climate
or pasture) but also on the farming traditions (crop-livestock integration for example) and the farmers
socio-cultural and religious environment. The main purpose of cattle keeping varies according to the
type, breed, and agro-ecological zone. For example, up-country, improved cattle are kept only for milk
and manure, whereas the local Lankan cattle are also used as draught animals. In the coconut triangle,
buffaloes provide both milk and draught. In Sri Lanka, cattle and buffaloes are not reared for meat per se
because of religious barriers and, meat is a by-product of the dairy industry. Most of the older animals,
culled animals, male animals and native animals are being slaughtered to produce beef. It is illegal to
slaughter buffaloes. Leather is a by-product from the slaughtered animals.
In general, 1.8million smallholdings covering 1.42millionha (approximately 0.8ha per holding)
produce food crops and animal products mostly for domestic consumption; a third of holdings have
livestock. On the other hand, holdings of the cattle population (holdings of less than 4 ha) account for
about 95% in the livestock sector.
In 2004 and 2005 beef and veal production in Sri Lanka was estimated at 28 200 and 29 000 mt
respectively, buffalo meat was 3503 and 3955mt, chicken meat 94700 and 99500mt, eggs 49590
and 52000mt, goat meat 1430 and 1500mt and mutton and lamb 148 and 156mt. (FAOSTAT 2006).
Milk is the principal element of the livestock sector, having reached a level of about 165580Mt in
2004 and 174100Mt in 2005. Of this about 6070% is domestically consumed or locally marketed.
Only about one-third of the total production is processed into milk powder, yoghurt, butterfat etc.. To
satisfy the national demand, a total of 65792177kg of dairy products, mainly milk powder are annually
imported, which cost US$ 109512105 per year (Livestock Statistics, 2002). According to FAOSTAT
the value of all dairy products imported in 2003 was US$119908000 and US$122359000 in 2004, of
which almost US$112M (2003) and US$113M (2004) was for dry milk powder. In addition beef and
veal imports in 2003 and 2004 were 50 and 54mt, chicken meat was 2314 and 1645mt, with milk
equivalent imports totalling 506901 and 434483mt.

Agro-ecological regions and livestock production


From the point of view of livestock production, the country is divided into four agro-ecological regions.
Up-Country and Mid-Country
Coconut Triangle
10 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Table 3. Cattle and buffalo systems: topography, climate and animal husbandry
Zone Elevation Rainfall Temp. range Animal types Husbandry practices
(m) (mm) 0
C
Up country >450 >2 000 1032 Pure exotic and crosses; some Zero grazing, small herds; some
zebu crosses tethering
Coconut triangle <450 1 5002 500 2138 Crosses of exotic breeds. Zebu Limited grazing, tethered under
types, Indigenous animals and coconut palms medium size
crosses, Buffaloes herds
Wet lowlands <450 1 8752 500 2435 As above Limited grazing, medium size
herds
Dry lowlands <450 1001 750 2138 Indigenous cattle, zebu cattle Free grazing, large nomadic
and their crosses, Buffaloes herds, Sedentary small herds in
irrigated schemes.
Source: Ibrahim et al., 1999

Low Country Wet Zone (Wet Lowland)


Dry Zone (Dry Lowland)
There zones reflect the effects of both altitude and precipitation. The common topographic and
climatic features, type of animals and husbandry practices in the major systems are given in Table 3.

Up-country: tea estate dairy/market vegetable system


This zone is characterized by tea plantations and dairy production from cattle kept in two systems, the
estate- and village-based system (the system can also be found in mid-country tea lands).The zone has
few buffalo. The mean herd size is 3 - 4 with an average of one lactating cow. Many employees of the
tea estates have dairy cattle, mainly European breeds, Friesian, Jersey and Ayrshire and their crosses
(Ibrahim, 2000) which are kept in sheds beside workers quarters. There is extensive use of artificial
insemination. In the village-based system most smallholders are crop-livestock farmers, growing
vegetables and paddy. Manure is a major product of their cattle, with milk often a secondary source of
income (Zemmelink et al., 1999).
Feed resources are generally constraining with producers dependent on cutting from small plots of
steep pasture above the tea land, in gullies or valleys or on scavenging Gliricidia, Erythrina, etc. from
plantations (Premaratne et al., 1997, 1998; Stewart et al., 1998). Fodder supplies are seasonal as are
concentrate prices and there is very little or no grazing. Milk marketing systems are well developed and
are assisted by the concentration of estate workers into villages, with usually twice a day milk collection.
Multiple milk collection and processing organizations operate in the area.
Manure is an important output of the system and is marketed through private entrepreneurs who
collect directly from farms and sell to market gardeners in the Nuwara-eliya area. There is very little
room for expansion of production in these areas due to feed and land constraints. Allocation of unused
tea lands for fodder could increase the animal production in this area.

Mid-country: Kandyan forest garden system


The mid-country zone has the highest (75%) proportion of dairy cattle, mainly Jersey, Ayrshire and
Friesian crosses, and the highest proportion of purebreds (25%). Artificial insemination is widespread
and increasing. The zone is characterized by medium-intensity dairy production. but also has some zebu
cattle and local buffaloes (Ibrahim, 2000). Average milk yields are about 6 litres/cow/day or around
1500litres/cow/lactation. Farms combine a homestead tree garden system with rice production in the
low-lying land, generally cultivated by buffalo. Farm or landholding size averages 1.6ha, encouraging
the adoption of more intensive feeding. There is an increasing dependence on off-farm fodder and on
bought concentrates that are influenced by the level of household income (Zemmelink et al., 1999).
Feed resources are not a severe constraint overall, although they can be seasonally. Cattle are often
grazed tethered on paddy land or bunds (Premaratne, 1993b; Premaratne and Sivaram, 1995; Premaratne,
1996 and 2000). Concentrates, mainly poonac (copra cake) and rice bran, are used. Manure is used on
paddy or other crops or sold. A number of dairy co-operatives are well established and are providing
services such as concentrate feed on credit, and in some cases AI and extension, as well as loans. In this
zone the immediate constraint to increased milk production may be the inefficient feeding of dairy cattle.
Access to livestock extension is poor and is a constraint to greater productivity. Access to AI and health
services is generally good but variable, constrained in some areas by terrain, infrastructure and distances.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 11

Coconut triangle and lowlands


In this area, which forms most of the peri-urban dairy
system around Colombo, there is wide variation in
level of integration of crop and livestock and in
level of intensification. The system is relatively
extensive, with landholdings reported at about 4
acres/household (Ibrahim, 2000). Cattle and buffalo
form an integral port of farming systems, helping
in weed control and providing manure in coconut
lands. Buffaloes are used for paddy cultivation. In
both zones cattle and buffalo graze or are tethered
on fallow paddy fields and on natural pasture under Figure 6. Cattle grazing under coconut
the coconut plantations and in non-cultivated areas,
including common properties. This is supplemented
with grass from roadsides. Coconut poonac and
some bran are often fed as local availability is
high. Rice straw is not generally used, but it
may occasionally be in dry seasons (Perera et
al., 1999; Premaratne et al., 1999; Ibrahim and
Premaratne, 1999). Manure is used in situ, on crops,
or sold. There is considerable variety of genotype
of cattle including zebu, crossbred, local and Indian
buffaloes. Under intensive management system,
Jersey and Holstein Friesian are used in the area. Figure 7. Sheep grazing under coconut
The F1 sire breed for intensive systems is Jersey x
Sahiwal, Holstein Friesian x Sahiwal, AMZ or AFZ. In addition, Zebu breeds such as Sahiwal are used
under extensive management. AI is being used and appears to be on the increase.
Milk marketing is generally adequate and market infrastructure is good. Buffalo milk is generally
converted to curd for which there is high demand. The potential for fodder production is not fully
exploited in spite of current availability of pasture subsidies. Labour constraints again are likely to play
a role in this due to proximity of urban areas.

Dry lowland systems


This large zone encompasses a considerable variety of settings, from sub-humid forest to dry scrub to
large irrigated rice-growing areas. The zone is typified by use of indigenous breeds. Cattle and buffalo
form an important capital asset for peasant farmers and where there is the possibility to sell milk, are
becoming an important source of income.
In the north and south systems focus on low technical efficiency, low cost and labour-efficient
extensive beef-dairy production. On average cows make up 40% of the cattle herds and 50% of the
buffalo herds which graze for most of the year on paddy lands, bunds and scrub jungles. There is
almost no use of concentrates and little of crop residues, although buffaloes are fed rice straw. Silage is
produced in most of the government farms but hay production is more common with farmers, although
amounts produced are small (Ibrahim et al., 1989; Panditharatne et al., 1986a and b; Premaratne et al.,
1993; Samaraweera et al., 2001). In the rainy season milk collection may fall as animals are moved
off paddy lands. AI is severely constrained by open herd management, so that upgrading is occurring
through use of studs. There is very poor access to extension services.
The average production of milk from an indigenous breed is less than 1litre/cow/day, with 2-5 times
more from dairy-cross breeds. The primary product is beef animals, mostly males up to 2 years old,
which are sold once or twice a year to traders. Milk is sold when available and some of the standard
collection structures apply, although distance is a limiting factor, as is low milk density. Milk prices are
relatively high due to high fat and SNF, providing a good incentive for increased production. In some
areas curd marketing is well organized but milk spoilage is relatively high due to poor refrigeration
facilities.
12 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

There is some potential for increased production if market systems and price incentives are improved.
The most direct means for increase could be upgrading of local animals, with focus on buffaloes and in
that case a focus on the use of stud bulls to overcome the practical constraints to AI.

5. PASTURE AND GRASSLAND RESOURCES


Improved forages
A number of reports have dealt with improved forages in Sri Lanka, including those by Chadhokar
(1980), Chadhokar and Lecamwasam (1982), Dissanayake and Waidyanatha (1987), Jayasundera and
Marasinghe (1989), Jayawardana (1985), Lane (1981), Liyanage (1986), Liyanage (1989), Liyanage
(1990), Liyanage (1991), Liyanage and Jayasundera (1988), Liyanage et al. (1989), Liyanage and
Pathirana (1992), Westenbrink (1986) and Zemmelink et al. (1999).
Chadhokar (1980) focused on the forage
problems of small dairy farmers in the Mid-
Country and Coconut Triangle and reported on
forages, silage making, drought feeding, useful
fodder trees and forage seed production. Liyanage
and Jayasundera (1988) demonstrated the value
of Gliricidia as an animal feed and Chadhokar
and Lecamwasam (1982) reported the results of
feeding Gliricidia maculata to milking cows;
Jayawardana (1985) reported on the pastures of Sri
Lanka while most of the studies dealt with various
aspects of integrating pastures with coconuts. For a Figure 8. Cultivated fodder (Hybrid Napier var.
comprehensive study of the integration of pastures CO-3)
and coconuts reference should be made to Reynolds
(1995).
However, in spite of various research, farm
grown or improved pastures are not practiced to
any great extent in Sri Lanka especially among
smallholdings due to socio-economic limitations.
These limitations are; unavailability of land, lack
of inputs, lack of establishment and management
experiences, low awareness of improved forage
technology and poor animal production outcomes.
However, among middle level holdings and large
scale farms, there is a considerable trend for Figure 9. Fodder grass chopping
improved pasture and fodder utilization. Types of
forages presently available or grown in the country
and their yields under different management
conditions are summarized in Table 4.

Natural (wild) Guinea grass


Guinea grass (Panicum maximum Jacq.) was
introduced to Sri Lanka in the 1820s for forage and
has become naturalized in most ecological zones,
ecosystems and habitats with the exception of hilly
and semi-arid parts of the country. This is generally
called Wild Guinea Grass and has become a Figure 10. A fodder growth and yield trial at the
valuable forage (Premaratne, 1993a; Premalal et Veterinary Research Institute at Gannoruwa,
al., 1990). Two main varieties are found: a coarse, near Peradeniya
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 13

broad leaved, hairy, stemmy, robust grass Table 4. Common forages and their yields under different
up to 3 metres high, known locally as management conditions
Forage type Yield (dry or fresh as mentioned below)
Guinea-A and a finer, narrower leaved, (species, varieties
leafy grass with smaller culms of 1-2 etc.)
Hybrid Napier (Var. Fresh yield: 58kg / Plant at 45d cutting interval
metres known as Guinea-B. CO-3 and Bana) and 1 x 1 m spacing under good management
Naturally, it now overruns road (Pennisetum Dry Matter Yield: 40 000 75 000kg/ha/yr at
purpureum x P.
and railway sides, natural forests, crop americanum)
45d cutting interval and 1 x 1 m spacing under
good management
plantations, natural grasslands and Napier grass Dry Matter Yield: 20 000 40 000kg/ha/yr at
scrubland at low and mid elevations. (Common Napier) 45d cutting interval and 0.75 x 1 m spacing
(Pennisetum under good management
There are several Guinea grass dominant purpureum)
grasslands occurring in the low country dry Napier grass Fresh yield: 3-5kg / Plant at 45d cutting interval
zone areas. Forest Department statistics (Clone -13) and 1 x 1 m spacing under good management
(Pennisetum Dry Matter Yield: 40 000 60 000kg/ha/yr at
show that the vegetation under natural purpureum) 45d cutting interval and 1 x 1 m spacing under
Guinea grass in Sri Lanka now covers good management.
approximately 35000ha. Guinea Grass Dry Matter Yield: 12 000 15 000kg/ha/yr at
(EcotypeA) 45d cutting interval and 0.60 x 0.75 m spacing
(Panicum maximum) under good management
Natural grassland resources of Sri Dry Matter Yield: 10 000 12 000kg/ha/yr at
45d cutting interval and 0.60 x 0.75 m spacing
Lanka under normal management
Sri Lankas grasslands have been catego- Dry Matter Yield: 8 000 10 000kg/ha/yr at
rized in many ways, based on their origin 45d cutting interval under roadside and natural
grassland conditions
and evolution, geographical distribution Guinea Grass (Var. Dry Matter Yield: 15 000 20 000kg/ha/yr at
and floristic composition. However, natural 435, Hamil, TD-58) 45d cutting interval and 0.5 x 1 m spacing under
(Panicum maximum) good management
grasslands in Sri Lanka can be recognized
Dry Matter Yield: 10 000 12 000kg/ha/yr at
as plant communities in which dominant 45d cutting interval and 0.5 x 1 m spacing under
species are perennial grasses with very normal management
Setaria (var. Dry Matter Yield: 12 000 15 000kg/ha/yr at
few or no shrubs and trees (Moore, 1964). Kazungula) 45d cutting interval and 0.5 x 0.75 m spacing
Stability of grasslands often depends on (Setaria sphacelata) under good management
the direct or indirect influences of man Brachiaria spp. Dry Matter Yield: 10 000 12 000kg/ha/yr at
Signal Grass - 35d cutting interval, and under full sunlight and
(Moore, 1964). Pemadasa (1983) has car- Brachiaria brizantha good management
ried out a comprehensive survey of natural Ruzi Grass - B. Dry Matter Yield: 8 000 10 000kg/ha/yr at 35d
ruziziensis cutting interval, and under coconut and good
grassland resources in the country and management
Table 5 lists the major and sub grassland Kikuyu Dry Matter Yield: 12 000kg/ha/yr at 40 d cutting
types based on this survey. (Pennisetum interval, and good management
clandestinum)
Sri Lankan grasslands are likely to Perennial Rye Dry Matter Yield: 12 000 15 000kg/ha/yr at
play an economically vital role because (Lolium perenne) 40d cutting interval and good management
they have a potential as feed for livestock. Gliricidia Fresh Yield: 2-3kg/plant/cut at 75 d intervals as
(Gliricidia sepium) 2 yr old hedgerows and 30 cm spacing
However, their exploitation has been rather Ipil-Ipil Fresh Yield: 1.5-2kg/plant/cut at 75 d intervals
unsystematic due to increasing biotic (Leucaena as 2 yr old hedgerows and 30 cm spacing
leucocephala)
interference by haphazard clearing for
Sources: Various research publications in Sri Lanka
short-term cultivation, illegal burning, and

Figure 11. Kandyan forest garden system Figure 12. Wild Guinea grass along road sides
14 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

extensive removal of herbages for fodder Table 5. Grassland types of Sri Lanka
Main type Main-sub type Sub-type
and over-grazing. These activities have
Montane Dry Humid zone dry Patana
caused considerable floristic and habitat (Patana) Summer zone dry Patana
changes and severe erosion of many types Intermediate Intermediate Patana
of grassland with near complete destruction Lower wet Patana
Wet
of some areas (Pemadasa, 1981). In terms Upper wet Patana
of climatic and vegetation contrast, the Savanna Upland savanna
Lowland savanna
grasslands of Sri Lanka can be divided into
Lowland Inland grasslands
three general categories; Patana, Savanna Wet zone pastures
Maritime grasslands
and Lowland grasslands. Further, they are Damana grasslands
sub-divided into several forms. Important Thalawa grasslands
Dry zone pastures
characteristics of some grassland types, Villu grasslands
which have a potential for livestock farming, Tank bed grasslands
Intermediate zone pastures Coconut grazing grounds
are summarized in Tables 5 and 6.
Dry pastures
Arid zone pastures Humid pastures
Grassland productivity Mixed pastures
The economic viability of grasslands as Source: Extracted and arranged from Pemadasa (1983).
grazing grounds depends partly on their
productivity and quality of constituent forage species (Pemadasa, 1990). Further, grassland productivity
depends on many factors, including annual rainfall and its seasonal variations, soil fertility, species
composition, stocking rates and, anthropogenic and other biotic pressures (Murphy, 1975). Although
little is known of the productivity of the grasslands of Sri Lanka, the general view is that most are of
low productivity. This is probably due to a deficiency of nutrients, particularly nitrogen, phosphorus
and potassium (Pemadasa, 1981). The low density of legumes, loss of nutrients by leaching and erosion
and, slow rate of microbial activity are some of the possible causes (Muller-Dombois and Perera,

Table 6. Characteristics of grassland types


Grassland Rainfall (annual), Distributional Dominant Potential for Important remarks
type climatic zone and locations forages * livestock**
elevation
Dry Patana 1 750-2 250mm Uva Basin Arundinella spp. Moderate The burning of grass just
upcountry intermediate Pollinia spp. before the rain results in
500-2 000 m Ischaemum spp. the soil being exposed and
Themeda tremula. consequently eroding. This
Andropogon spp. probably accounts for the
absence of any trees.
Wet Patana 2 500-4 000mm Horton Plains, Chrysopogon Poor Grasses are tufted, coarse
upcountry wet Elk Plain, zeylanicum and wiry. Scattered trees
>2000 m Moon Plain, are prominent.
Bopaththalawa
Lowland 1 450-1 750mm Bibile, Monaragala Panicum spp. High The grass cover is much
Savanna low country Themeda tremula taller. Fire-tolerant species
intermediate Desmodium spp. are rather sporadic.
300-400 m Themeda triandra
Upland 1 500 - 2 000mm Wellawaya Panicum spp. Moderate The grass cover is much
Savanna mid country wet Pethyagoda Themeda tremula taller. Soil is eroded and
4 00-500 m Heteropogon denuded as a result of
triticeus frequent destruction of
Desmodium spp. vegetation.
Mimosa pudica
Villu 1 500 2 000mm Polonnaruwa Cynodon dactylon High Wet grasslands found in the
low country dry Manampitiya Stenotaphrum flood plains of the rivers in
0-200 m Thamankaduwa secundatum the dry zone. Grasses are
Maduru Oya Bothriochloa glabra more succulent. Soil is rich
in nutrients.
Damana 1 250-1 750mm Damana Ampara Imperata cylindrica High Origin seems to be the
l ow country dry Inginiyagala result of forest clearing
0-100 m followed by repeated fire.
Talawa 2 000-2 500mm Kalutara Cynodon dactylon High Arise as a result of forest
low country wet Galle felling and chena cultivation
0-200 m Matara in wet zone.
Source: Modified from Pemadasa, 1983
* Forages are tentatative and up-to-date studies are needed.
** Authors observations
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 15

Figure 13. Patana grasslands after burning Figure 14. Cattle grazing on a natural dry zone
pasture

Figure 15. Savanna grassland Figure 16. Dry season foraging

Figure 17. Cattle grazing on tank bed grassland Figure 18. Cattle under scrub jungle in the dry
zone

1971). Amarasinghe and Pemadasa (1983) estimated the annual productivity of green forages of some
dry Patana grasslands to be around 68000 to 111000kg/ha, however, information on current studies
under Sri Lankan conditions is lacking. These yields are less than those for similar Indian grasslands
(according to Ambasht et al., 1972).

Traditional livestock production in natural grasslands


There was a strong tradition among the pastoralists based on natural grasslands. When considering
the history of community oriented systems, the sustainable production pattern, protection of grassland
resource and, protection and appreciation of wild life were positive key factors. These strong traditions
gave environment stability to large parts of the country together with other agricultural practices.
Traditionally different pastoral systems were found in various regions in the country.
Further, these livestock raisers were heirs to centuries of accumulated experience and skills for locally
available resources of the grassland. Indigenous knowledge has been brought down from generation
to generation and functioned as a part of the information base in the society. The pastoralists had a
16 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

wide knowledge of the ecosystem in which they survive and ensured the use of natural resources in a
sustainable manner (Naheesan, 2002). However, in the past, due to availability of land and free from
various out side threats, farmers were able to have many more animals and therefore livestock farming
was a first-class business.

Present situation of grassland-based livestock production


With an increase of human population the traditional feeding, breeding and surviving habitats for
livestock (and wildlife) have been acutely restricted due to large-scale development activities (e.g.
irrigation schemes, agricultural settlements, urbanization etc.). Nowadays, farmers have developed a
complex culture, including a wide variety of on- and off-farm activities to deal with an unfavourable
economic and social environment (Zemmelink et al. 1999).
Available information on the socio-economic background of livestock farmers in grassland areas
and their production systems, forages and botanical composition, and soil and animal status are
limited. However, preliminary studies on farmers socio-economic background and production systems,
investigations on available forage species and their botanical composition, and, some chemical properties
of soils in selected grassland types and locations have been carried out recently by the authors. The main
findings of these studies are summarized in Table 7.
Preliminary investigations by the authors reveal that the so-called traditional pastoralism is no
longer economically sound, basically due to land limitation and other unsettling reasons (Premalal and
Premaratne, unpublished). This paper does not discuss the matters pertaining to number of classifications
in livestock production systems previously made by a number of workers.

Issues and development


programmes in grassland Table 7. Some basic information on grassland based livestock
production systems
development
Information category Description
According to experiences in Grassland types and locations Dry Patana grasslands/Knuckles range
other countries, development and studied Tank bed grasslands/ Tabbowa and Inginimitiya
demonstration of a sustainable Lowland Savanna/ Bibile and Monaragala
Open grasslands/ Wasgomuwa
grassland management and Forage resource Grassland is the main forage.
livestock improvement strategy high in seasonal variability
low in productivity
is not merely a technical matter. herds are moved on availability of forages
Further, it has very little to do with Constraints loss of animals due to drought and cattle raiding
basic principles such as, stocking threats from illegal cultivation and activities
rates, grazing patterns and systems. Grazing management Mostly free grazing, Animals are either not
gathered at night or graze for 8-10 hrs from early
Issues such as water, extension, morning to late afternoon and housed at night
education, and health are rated Facilities and support needed reliable markets
appropriate veterinary and extension facilities
much higher in many instances. government and other organizational supports
The capacity of local, community- income diversification opportunities
based structures where they exist, water supply in dry season
Degree of crop-livestock very low; but increasing in some areas where
to address their own problems in intensification and cropping is possible
an organized manner was very diversification of income
limited. On the other hand most sources
Livestock species Mainly traditional breeds of cattle, buffaloes and
farm communities had a very clear goats
picture of a prosperous future, but Livestock products meat, milk and draught power
very few of them had the capacity some hoofs and hides
collection of manure is rare
to get their own, or had thought of milk production ranges from 200-400 litresper
soliciting the right support to get lactation
there (Reynolds et al., 1999). The Degree of economic stability low; systems are predominantly lacking in inputs
With increasing population the systems tend to
authors of this paper have also evolveinto mixed systems
noticed the same chain of issues Environmental concerns overgrazing, soil erosion, weed invasion and
burning
as a core problem pertaining to adverse changes in floristic composition
development of local grasslands. competition with wildlife and recreation
However, many positive results Source: Information of preliminary studies carried out by authors (unpublished)
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 17

are available in other instances with a clear mandate of developing and demonstrating grassland
management for livestock production through a participatory and multi-disciplinary manner (Reynolds
et al. 1999 and Miller, 2001).
The authors have observed that the current livestock management systems are incompatible with the
area and, are not sustainable because of:
Rapidly growing population has failed to adjust the management system on which farmers and
their livestock depend,
The lack of a land tenure system that permits free access to communal resources,
The absence of long-term development policies, plans and strategies for particular regions and
communities,
Uncoordinated and poor governmental and institutional support,
Making livestock breeding policies particularly on the climatic zone, but not for a particular grass-
land community,
Inadequate information base and extension service, and inadequate marketing opportunities and
support.
To face the ever more complex challenge to sustainable grassland resource management, the
authors recognize the importance of fundamental social and socio-economic issues in the design and
implementation of related interventions through participatory and multi-disciplinary approaches.

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENTS OF GRASSLAND


RESOURCES

Constraints identified in improvement of national grasslands


Management of grasslands for sustainable development remains a major challenge for researchers,
policy makers and development agencies. The livestock sub-sector together with the larger agricultural
sector now has considerable limitations which are listed below: climatic, biotic and edaphic factors are
coupled with these limitations when development activities are implemented:
Inadequacy of grassland management policies coupled with other functional policies such as eco-
nomic, socio-economic, land use and wildlife management
Inadequate funding and many other complex issues in the national research system
Difficulty in management of research due to dispersion of agricultural research under several min-
istries of the government
Poor infrastructure in many grassland associated areas. e.g. market outlets and veterinary facilities
Inherent low productivity of grasslands due to seasonal variation of rainfall, poor nutritional status
of soils, weed invasion, unpalatability and low quality of forages
Lack of current research information on productivity, soil properties, existing forage species and
their nutritional quality and, persistence of improved forage species under particular grassland
ecosystem
Unavailability of functional sources of planting materials for improved forages for local conditions
Main focus of current livestock policy towards agroclimatic issues but not towards the actual back-
ground of the grassland ecosystem
Lack of collective agreement, poor-cooperation and disorganization of the pastoralists
Poor involvement of governmental and private organizations in participatory approach.

Opportunities and suggestions for developing grassland resources


Opportunities
Despite the constraints, every grassland-resourced country should develop this resource in a sustainable
manner to reduce poverty and meet food needs.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock of the Government of Sri Lanka has launched a revised
Agriculture and Livestock Policy which generates a new approach to traditional livestock production.
18 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

The ministry has started to allocate funds for communal grassland development activities. The research
sector especially the state and universities have made efforts to identify the relevant institutional
structure, present grassland resources and socio-economic background of the farmers involved in
selected grassland ecosystems.
Milk marketing seems to be improving and consumption of liquid milk increasing gradually and
farmers are now becoming interested in investing more money in dairying. Natural grasslands have to
play a key role in providing feed for dairy stock.
The Council for Agricultural Research Policy (CARP) now provides funds for demand-driven
research and development to ensure sustainability in the agriculture and livestock sector without
irreversible degradation of environment resources. With this objective, the Government has also
increased fund allocation to the CARP for implementing such research for reducing poverty and meeting
the future food needs
The universities and state sector institutions have access to highly qualified, well-trained human
resources with laboratory and field equipment and this is a big boost for grassland research activities in
the country. A keen and enthusiastic group of researchers will be formed in the near future to implement
the development of grassland resources.

Suggestions
There is a considerable hidden harvest from the grassland resources of Sri Lanka. Further, the
grasslands are multifunctional with importance for livestock, wildlife use and other domestic uses, each
of which generates marketed and non-marketed outputs. Researchers and policy makers should pay much
more attention to extract these uses and outputs, integrating the fundamental, social and socio-economic
issues into the design and implementation of development interventions through a multidisciplinary
manner. The key policy question is how to increase total land productivity in a sustainable way while
minimizing degradation. The following suggestions are made for a sustainable development of the
grassland resources of the country:
Models together with agricultural and livestock must be developed as a base for communal grass-
land management
Research must continue and more case studies are required to deepen understanding of locally
appropriate solutions
Logical statistical databanks must be compiled and revised for regular planning development activities
A strong extension service with effective veterinary background needs to be strengthened
Planning must take account of the potential effects of climatic changes, e.g. effect of drought on
herbage productivity, and soil and water resources
A national level review and mapping of the status of present grassland cover of the country are
urgently needed
Monitoring of various aspects of land deterioration is essential
Participation of pastoralists must be encouraged during development and implementation of
strategies
Pastoralism in wildlife protected areas must be gradually proscribed and encouraged to develop
communal grasslands in adjoining public localities.
Issues such as development of water resources, extension and education must be considered in
addition to basic grassland principles.

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND


PERSONNEL

Department of Animal Production and Health: A key department of the Ministry of Agriculture and
Livestock. It is responsible for various development actions on livestock production and health including
pasture/forage development.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 19

Animal Science Departments of all major agricultural universities in the country: University of
Peradeniya, University of Ruhuna, University of Jaffna, University of Sabaragomuwa and Eastern
University. Responsible for academic and research activities on livestock management.

Veterinary Research Institute: This institute is under the Department of Animal Production and
Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock. The Pasture and Fodder Division of the institute has the
mandate to carry out research on forage production, utilization and management, grassland development
and conservation of forage germplasm.

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Peradeniya: Responsible for
academic and research activities on livestock diseases and management.

National Livestock Development Board (NLDB): This belongs to the Ministry of Agriculture and
Livestock and is responsible for management of the Ministrys livestock farms.

Milk Industries of Lanka Company Limited (MILCO): belongs to the Ministry of Agriculture and
Livestock, and is responsible for forage development activities in the country.

Mahaweli Livestock Enterprise: managed by the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka and is for the
management of livestock farms of the Mahaweli Authority.

Fodder Resources Centre, Kotadeniyawa: One of the regional centres of the Ministry of Agriculture
and Livestock. It is answerable for production of forage planting materials and distribution among the
farmers throughout the country.

8. REFERENCES
Amarasinghe, A. and M.A. Pemadasa.1983. The ecology of a montane grassland in Sri Lanka, VII, Biomass
production, Ceylon Journal of Science. 16: 15-21.
Ambasht, R.S, Manuryan, A.N. and U.N. Singh. 1972. Primary production in certain protected grassland of
Varanasi, India. pp 43-50. In: Golly, P. M. and Golly, F.B. (eds.) Tropical ecology with an emphasis on
organic production, Athens.
Annual Report - 2004. Central Bank of Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Chadhokar, P.A. 1980. Recommendations on tropical forage development. Report of the UNDP/FAO Tropical
Pasture Development Project Sri Lanka/IDA Dairy Development Project, Peradeniya. 33 pages.
Chadhokar, P.A. and A. Lecamwasam. 1982. Effect of feeding Gliricidia maculata to milking cows. A
preliminary report. Tropical Grasslands, 16, 46-48.
Dissanayake, S.N. and U.P.D.S. Waidyanatha. 1987. The performance of some tropical forage grasses interplanted
with young Hevea trees and their effect on growth of the rubber. Tropical Agriculture 64(2): 119-121.
Ibrahim, M.N.M. 2000. Dairy Cattle Production. Printing unit, Faculty of Agriculture, University of
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. (ISBN:955-97074-0-x.).
Ibrahim, M.N.M., Premaratne, S. and H.G.D. Perera. 1989. Ensiling characteristics and nutritive value of
Guinea grass (Panicum maximum, Jacq) as affected by growth stage. Australasian Journal of Animal
Science. 2 (2) : 123-128.
Ibrahim, M.N.M.and S. Premaratne. 1999. Nutrient Requirements of Buffaloes. Water Buffalo in Asia : 1.
Nutrition of the Buffalo. M.N.M. Ibrahim, K.K. Pathirana and J.A. de S. Siriwardene. SAREC/NARESA
Buffalo Information DisseminationProgramme. Pp 49-68. ISBN 955-590-034-5.
Ibrahim, M.N.M., Staal, S. J., Daniel, S.L.A. and W. Thorpe. 1999. Appraisal of the Sri Lanka Dairy Sector.
Volume 1, Main Report. Ministry of Livestock Development and Estate Infrastructure. 97p.
Jayasundara, H.P.S. and R. Marasinghe. 1989. A model for integration of pasture, tree fodder and cattle in
coconut smallholdings. Coconut Bull. (Sri Lanka), 6 (2), 15-18.
20 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Jayawardana, A.B.P. 1985. Pastures in Sri Lanka. In Proc. of International Sympos. on Pastures in the Tropics
and Subtropics, 2-6 October 1984, Tsukuba, Japan. TARC Trop. Agric. Res. Series No. 18, 71-85.
Lane, I.R. 1981. The use of cultivated pastures for intensive animal production in developing countries. In:
Intensive Animal Production in Developing Countries (ed. Smith, A.J. and Gunn, R.G.). Occas. Pub. No.
4, BSAP, 105-143.
Liyanage, L.V.K. 1986. Pasture Management and Animal Husbandry in Coconut Lands. Coconut Bulletin
3(1), 1922.
Liyanage, L.V.K. 1989. Pasture and fodder production in Sri Lanka-present status and future trends. Paper
presented at the Consultation Meeting on Tropical Pastures, Los Banos, Philippines. May 1989.
Liyanage, L.V.K. 1990. Techno-economic feasibility of pasture/fodder/tree/animal integration in coconut
lands. In: Coconut Based Farming Systems (ed. Silva, de S.), Proc. of the XXVII COCOTECH Meeting,
2529 June, 1990, Manila, Philippines, 103113.
Liyanage, L.V.K. 1991. Forages for plantation crops in Sri Lanka. In: Forages for Plantation Crops (eds.
Shelton and Stur). Proceedings of a Workshop, Sanur Beach, Bali, Indonesia, 27-29 June 1990, 157-161.
Liyanage, L.V.K. and H.P.S. Jayasundera. 1988. Gliricidia as a multipurpose tree for coconut plantations.
Coconut Bull., Coc. Res. Inst., Sri Lanka Vol. 1, 1-4.
Liyanage, L.V.K., Jayasundera, H.P.S., Mathes, D.T. and D.N.S. Fernandos. 1989. Integration of pasture,
fodder and cattle in coconut small holdings. Coconut Research and Development J., 5, 53-56.
Liyanage, M. de S. and K.K. Pathirana. 1992. Productivity and sustainability of the coconut/ cattle integrated
system in the Wet Zone of Sri Lanka. Paper presented at the 2nd Asian Farming Systems Symposium,
Colombo, Sri Lanka 25 November 1992.
Miller, D. 2001. Sustainable development of mountain rangelands in central Asia: 5235, Western Ave., NW,
New Washington, DC 20015.
Moore, C.W.E. 1964. Distribution of grasslands. In: Barnard, C. (ed.) Grasses and grasslands, Macmillan,
Melbourne, pp. 182-205.
Muller-Dombois, D. and M. Perera. 1971. Ecological differences and soil fungal distribution in the montane
grassland of Ceylon. Ceylon Journal of Science. 9: 1-41.
Murphy, P.G. 1975. Net primary productivity in tropical terrestrial ecosystems: pp 217-131, In: Leith, H. and
Wittaker, R.H. (ed.) Primary production of the biosphere, Springet, New York.
Naheesan, S. 2002. Role of Sri Lankas diversity in traditional (organic) paddy and other field crop farming
systems for promoting sustainable practices in Agriculture, IFOAM, Asia.
Panditharatne, S., Allen, V.G., Fontenot, J.P.and M.C.N. Jayasuriya. 1986a. Effect of stage of growth and
chopping length on digestibility and palatability of Guinea A grass silage. J. of Animal Science, 66:
1005-1009.
Panditharatne, S., Allen, V.G., Fontenot, J.P. and M.C.N. Jayasuriya. 1986b. Ensiling characteristics of
tropical grasses as influenced by stage of growth, additives and chopping length. Journal of Animal
Science. 66: 197 -207.
Pemadasa, M.A. 1981. The mineral nutrition of the vegetation of a montane grassland in Sri Lanka. J. Ecol.
69: 125-134.
Pemadasa, M.A. 1983. Grasslands. In: Fernando C.H. (ed.) Ecology and Biogeography in Sri Lanka. Junk
Publishers. 99-131.
Pemadasa, M.A. 1990. Tropical grasslands of Sri Lanka and India. Journal of Biogeography. 17: 395-400.
Perera, A.N.F., Siriwardene, J. A. de S.and S. Premaratne. 1999. Fibrous Crop Residues as aRuminant Feed.
Cattle and Buffalo Farming, Handbook for Veterinarians. H. Abegunawardena and J.A.de S. Siriwardene.
SAREC/NSF (NARESA) Water Buffalo Research Development Programme. pp24-34. ISBN 955-590-025-6.
Premalal, G.G.C., Bandara, D.C. and S. Premaratne. 1990. Establishment and growth of legume pasture
mixture in the Mid-country of Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan Journal of Agricultural Science.27: 90-97.
Premaratne, S. 1993a. Effect of frequency of cutting on yield and chemical composition of four tropical
grasses. Journal of National Science Council of Sri Lanka. 21 (2):189-194.
Premaratne, S. 1993b. Role of tree fodders in livestock feeding. Proceedings, Fourth regional workshop on
Multipurpose Tree Species in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka. 77-79.
Premaratne, S. 1996. Importance of fodder as a feed supplement for goats. Seventh National Workshop on
Multipurpose Trees, National Research Network on Multipurpose Trees, Sri Lanka, 183-197.
Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile 21

Premaratne, S., 2000.Straw and fodder based supplementation for buffaloes, Proceedings of changing role of
the buffaloes in the new millennium in Asia, National Science Foundation, Sri Lanka, 197-207.
Premaratne, S. and A. Sivaram. 1995. Development of systems of supplementary feeding for buffaloes in
Sri Lanka. Proceedings of a Regional Symposium on Role of the Buffalo in Rural development in Asia.
SAREC and NARESA, Sri Lanka, 219-225.
Premaratne, S., Ibrahim, M.N.M. and H.G.D. Perera. 1993. Effect of stage of growth and additives on
digestibility and palatability of Guinea (Panicum maximum, Jacq) grass silage. Journal of National Science
Council of Sri Lanka. 21 (2):175-182.
Premaratne, S. Ibrahim, M.N.M., Siriwardene, J.A. de S. and A.N.F. Perera. 1999. Utilization of Tree
Fodder and Non-conventional Feed Resources. Cattle and Buffalo Farming, Handbook for Veterinarians.
H. Abegunawardena and J.A.de S. Siriwardene. SAREC/NSF (NARESA) Water Buffalo Research
Development Programme. pp16-23. ISBN 955-590-025-6
Premaratne, S., Premalal, G.G.C. & V.P. Jayawardena. 2003. Sustainable Management of Grassland Resources
for Ruminant Livestock production in Sri Lanka. Tropical Agricultural Research & Extension 6; 60 65.
Premaratne, S., Van Bruchem, J. and H.G.D. Perera. 1997. Effect of type and level of foliage supplementation
on voluntary intake and digestibility of rice straw in sheep. Australasian J. of An. Sci. 10 (2): 223-228.
Premaratne, S., Van Bruchem, J., Chen, X.B., Perera, H.G.D. and S.J. Oosting. 1998. Effect of type and level
of forage supplementation on voluntary intake, digestion, rumen microbial protein synthesis and growth of
sheep fed a basal diet of rice straw and cassava. Australasian J. of An. Sci. 11 (6): 692-696.
Reynolds, S.G. 1995. Pasture-Cattle-Coconut Systems. RAPA Publication 1995/7. FAO, Regional Office,
Bangkok, Thailand. 668 p.
Reynolds, S., Batello, C. and S.T. Bass. 1999. Perspectives on rangeland development. The Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Proceedings of the VI International Rangeland Congress,
1999/1, Townsville. p. 160-165.
Samaraweera, E.S.D., Silva, L.P. and S. Premaratne. 2001. Effect of caged layer manure and molasses
on ensiling characteristics and composition of Guinea (Panicum maximum, Jacq.) Ecotype A. Trop.
Agricultural Research, PGIA, Univ. of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 13: 395 -400.
Sri Lanka Livestock Statistics. 2002, 2003. Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock, Sri Lanka. Department of
Agriculture, Peradeniya.
Stewart, J.L., Dunsdon, A.J., Kass, M., Lopez Ortiz, S., Larbi, A., Premaratne, S., Tangendjaja, B., Wina, E.
and J.E. Vargas. 1998. Genetic variation in the nutritive value of Gliricidia sepium. Animal Feed Sci. and
Technology. 75: 111-124.
Westenbrink, G. 1986. Livestock and cash crops integration. In: Integrated Farming Systems (ed. Gunasena
and Herath), National Agric. Soc. of Sri Lanka, University of Peradeniya, 1-20.
Zemmelink, G., Premaratne, S., Ibrahim, M.N.M. and P.H. Leegwater. 1999. Feeding of dairy cattle in the
Forest-Garden farms of Kandy, Sri Lanka, Tropical Animal Health and Production, 31(5), 307-319.

9. CONTACTS
This profile was prepared by Prof. Sujatha Premaratne and Mr. G.G.C. Premalal.

Prof. Sujatha Premaratne


Professor in Animal Science,
Faculty of Agriculture,
University of Peradeniya,
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
B.Sc. (Agric.) (Sri Lanka)
M.Sc. and PhD (Animal Science) (USA).
Tel: 94-0812-387179
Fax: 94-0812-203677
E-mail: suep@pdn.ac.lk
22 Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profile

Mr. G.G.C. Premalal


Senior Research Officer,
Head/ Division of Pasture and Fodder,
Veterinary Research Institute,
Gannoruwa,
Peradeniya,
Sri Lanka.
Tel: 94-0812-388312
Fax: 94-0812-388125
E-mail: premala@vri.lk

[The profile was prepared by the authors in October 2005, edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G. Reynolds in
November/December 2005 and some data slightly modified in November 2006.]

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