SARAJEVO COLLEGE

GRADUATION WORK FROM CHEMISTRY

Topic: BIOCHEMICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF
HORMONES AND VITAMINS

Student: Amila Mahini Mentor: prof. Armin Trenjo

Mostar, 2017.
 CONTENT:

INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................... 3
1. HORMONES OF POLYPEPTIDE STRUCTURE.......................................................4
1.1. Hormones of the pancreas........................................................................4
1.1.1. Insulin................................................................................................. 4
1.1.1. Glucagon............................................................................................. 5
1.2. Hormones of the digestive tract................................................................5
1.2.1. Secretin............................................................................................... 6
1.2.2. Pancreozymin...................................................................................... 6
Pancreozymin.................................................................................................. 6
1.2.3. Gastrin................................................................................................ 6
Gastrin............................................................................................................. 6
1.2.4. Pentagastrin........................................................................................ 6
1.3. Hormones of the parathyroid....................................................................6
1.3.1. Parathormone..................................................................................... 6
1.4. Hormones of the pituitary gland...............................................................7
1.4.1. Somatotrophic hormone (STH)............................................................8
It......................................................................................................................... 8
1.4.2. Tireotrophic hormone(TSH).................................................................8
1.4.3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ATCH)..................................................8
1.4.4. Sonadotrophic hormones....................................................................9
1.4.5. Oxytocin.............................................................................................. 9
1.4.6. Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH)......................................10
2. HORMONES AS AMINO ACID DERIVATIVES.....................................................11
2.1 Thyroid hormones................................................................................... 11
2.1.1 Triiodothyronine................................................................................... 12
2.1.2 Thyroxine.......................................................................................... 12
2.2 Adrenal gland hormones.........................................................................12
2.2.1 Adrenalineor epinephrine..................................................................13
2.2.2 Noradrenaline................................................................................... 13
2.3 Hormones of Sex Glands.........................................................................14
2.3.1 Male sex hormones...........................................................................14
2.3.2 Female sex hormones.......................................................................15
3. VITAMINS....................................................................................................... 17
Fat soluble vitamins.............................................................................................. 17
Antioxidant vitamins............................................................................................. 18

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4. CONCLUSION................................................................................................. 23
LITERATURE AND SOURCES.................................................................................. 24

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INTRODUCTION

The name hormone comes from the Greek word horman which means initiate, urge,
stimulate. Hormones are biocatalysts of endogenous (Greekendos - inner + gens-kind) origin.
Hormones are connected in the glands, so called inner secretion. They operate in the same
organism, but also on cells in other organisms, away from the place of their origin. Their
activity is specific, so the lack of them leads to characteristic changes in the organism. They
are transferred by blood, and they have a meaningly active participation in very small
amounts. According to the place of their activity we divide them into:
Local or tissue hormones
Glandular hormones

Hormones

Hormones are credited with the regulation of various physiological processes such as
metabolism, growth and development, and they affect moods (ex. stress). The part of
medicine which deals with that is endocrinology, from the branch of internal medicine.
Hormones are secreted by glands with internal secretion: pituitary, thyroid and parathyroid
glands, breast, adrenal glands, pancreas, male gonads (testes) and female gonads (ovaries).
The most important gland with internal secretion is the pituitary gland and it is set at the
base of the brain, just below the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland secretes many hormones
and it directs the work of other glands, for example thyroid and adrenal glands, as well as the
ovaries and testes. The brain monitors the work of the glands by adjusting their mutual
correlation in the secretion of hormones. In that way, they maintain the health of the
organism. The main classification of hormones is based on their chemical structure. They are
divided into:
Hormones of polypeptide structure
Hormones of amino acid derivatives
Hormones of steroid structure

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 Glands which secrete hormones

1. HORMONES OF POLYPEPTIDE STRUCTURE

Molecules of this group of hormones are, as the name suggests, polypeptides. They can be
cyclical or open-stringed with a different amount of amino acids. These include:
Hormones of the pancreas
Hormones of the digestive tract
Hormones of the parathyroid
Hormones of the pituitary gland

1.1. Hormones of the pancreas

1.1.1. Insulin

Insulin is the hormone which is secreted by the pancreas and it regulates the sugar level of
blood as well as the metabolism of carbohydrates and body fats. It is the transporter that
enables glucose to pass from the blood to the cells where it is converted into energy for the
body. Glucose is a grape sugar which is created during digestion, when foods which contain
carbohydrates are broken down. Insulin also enables excessive glucose to be stored in the
muscles and the liver (glycogenesis)and it regulates the synthesis of new sugars which enter
the liver from the bloodstream (glycogenolysis). It cannot enter the body per os (by mouth), it
must enter by injection. If there is too little or no insulin at all, sugar can only partially reach
the cells. The remaining sugar stays in the blood. This can be measured.Normal sugar level in
the blood is 3,75 - 6,0 mmol/L (67 - 108 mg%).

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 Insulin

Diabetes (lat. Diabetes melitus) is formed by a disrupted regulation of insulin.

1.1.1. Glucagon

Glucagon is a pancreas hormone which is involved in the carbohydrate metabolism. By its

chemical structure, glucagon is a polypeptide composed of 29 amino acids. Scientists
Kimball and Murlin where the first ones to describe glucagon in 1923. Glucagon is created in
the pancreas (alfa cells of Langerhans' islets). It is secreted into the bloodstream when the
glucose level in the blood is too low (hypoglycemia).

Pancreas

Glucagon's main task is the degradation of glycogen into glucose which is then released into
the bloodstream. Glucagon and insulin work in the opposite way, insulin allows glucose entry
into the cells. Glucagon stimulates insulin secretion, so the glucose inside the blood can enter
the cells of tissues which cannot take glucose without insulin.

1.2. Hormones of the digestive tract

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Hormones of the digestive tract are secreted by the intestinal mucosa of the stomach and the
duodenum. They have a polypeptide structure. They affect the secretion of digestive juice and
bowel movement. These include: secretin, pancreozymin i gastrin.

1.2.1. Secretin
Secretin is similar to glucagon by structure. It is secreted by intestinal mucosa. It stimulates
the secretion of bile, insulin and bicarbonate into the pancreas juice. It is the first hormone
isolated in the digestive system. Secretin is a linear polypeptide composed of 27 amino acids.

1.2.2. Pancreozymin
Pancreozymin stimulates the secretion of enzymes into the pancreas juice.

1.2.3. Gastrin

Gastrin stimulates the secretion of chloric acid into the gastric juice. The gen for gastrin is
located on the second part of the 17th chromosome. Gastrin is a linear polypeptide hormone,
and it comes in three shapes:

gastrin-34 ("Big gastrin")

gastrin-17 ("Small gastrin")
gastrin-14 ("Minigastrin)

1.2.4. Pentagastrin

Pentagastrin is a synthetic polypeptide that is composed of 5 amino acids. It is used in

medicine for diagnosis.

Digestive tract
1.3. Hormones of the parathyroid

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 1.3.1. Parathormone

Parathyroid hormone or parathormon, PTH, is a polypeptide hormone. It is made of 84

amino acids.
It is produced by the parathyroid glands after which it is released into the bloodstream. The
secretion of PTH is inversely proportional to the level of calcium in the blood, so low levels
of calcium increases the work of parathyroid glands. The main objective of PTH is to
mobilize calcium and phosphate from the skeletal system along with vitamin D and kalciton.
It also increases the absorption of calcium from the intestine and the secretion of phosphate to
the kidneys. Increased activity leads to hypercalcemia.
Hypercalcemia caused by primary hyperparathyroidism (pHPT) means higher level of
calcium in the blood which was caused by excessive secretion of parathormone (PTH) from
one or more parathyroid glands.

Parathyroid hormone (system)

1.4. Hormones of the pituitary gland

Hormones of the pituitary gland are peptides. That means that they are bigger molecules
composed of amino acids bonded by an amide bond like proteins. However, due to a smaller
number of amino acids (to 20) we call them peptides. They cannot enter the body per os
because they hydrolyse in the digestive tract. These include: somatotrophic, thyroid-
stimulating, adrenocorticotropic hormones, oxytocin and vasopressin.

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 Pituitary gland

1.4.1. Somatotrophic hormone (STH)

It stimulates the growth of the entire organism and it is mostly secreted until the age of 20.
The growth hormone is composed of 191 amino acids. It improves the growth of long bones.
People with lowered secretion of this hormone have short stature (dwarfism) which can be
prevented by adding this hormone, but only while the child is still growing. If secreted in
bigger than normal proportions giant stature can occur.

Gigantism and dwarfism

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If excessive secretion happens in adults, then acromegaly occurs, or enhanced growth of
the peripheral parts of the body (chin, fist, nose, tongue). The most common cause of
excessive secretion of this hormone is a pituitary adenoma.

1.4.2. Tireotrophic hormone(TSH)

It stimulates growth and thyroid gland function. It is secreted by the pituitary gland. Its half-
life in the blood is only 54 minutes. Degradation mostly takes places in the kidneys but also
in the liver and the thyroid gland. Even the slightest changes in the concentrations of the free
hormones of the thyroid cause big changes in TSH levels, so it is particularly suitable for
early diagnosis.

1.4.3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ATCH)

It is also known as corticotropin is a hormone of the anterior pituitary. This peptide hormone
is composed of 39 amino acids. The function of ACTH is the stimulation of growth and
secretion of glucocorticoid adrenal cortex. Their biological synthesis takes place in the
pituitary gland. Increased secretion of ATCH causes stress (wounds, infections). It is used in
the treatment of diseases of the adrenal glands, various inflammatory diseases and by
veterinarians.

Stress

1.4.4. Sonadotrophic hormones

They are secreted from the anterior pituitary and from the placenta and they affect the
growth, development and physiological cycles of sexual organs. They include prolactin and
the hormone of follicle maturation (FSH). Prolactin is a hormone which is secreted by the
pituitary gland. It is a polypeptide made of 198 amino acids. It is synthesized in the
adenohypophysis and secreted into the blood. It affects the growth of mammary gland and the
secretion of milk.

1.4.5. Oxytocin

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It is a hormone of the anterior pituitary. It is secreted by neuron endings whose cores are in
the hypothalamus. It is a polypeptide made of 9 amino acids by chemical structure. This
hormone strengthens labor and increases contraction of the musculature of the uterus. It is
used for inducing labour. Oxytocin enhances muscle tone of smooth muscle of the intestinal
tract, urinary and gall bladder. It also affects the breast gland during lactation period and
increases the secretion of milk.

Labor

1.4.6. Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

It has a similar structure to oxytocin. It is a polypeptide made of 9 amino acids. The secretion
of vasopressin is affected by the central nervous system and osmotic pressure. The secretion
of this hormone stimulates emotions, pain and trauma. It regulates the concentration of matter
in urine and the arterial blood pressure. Its absence causes large amounts of diluted urine. It is
used in clinical practice to increase the pressure.

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 2. HORMONES AS AMINO ACID DERIVATIVES
2.1 Thyroid hormones

Thyroid hormones affect growth and oxidation processes in cells. They affect the
psychophysical growth because they regulate the cerebral cortex. If a person takes in enough
iodine, which is needed for hormone synthesis in the thyroid then a disorder in its function
occurs and goiter appears. This problem can be solved by iodizing kitchen salt.

Goiter

An increased function of the thyroid leads to Basedow disease (enlarged metabolism, loss of
weight, increased sweating, rapid heartbeat and anxiety). Thyroid hormone function is to
increase the general metabolism level, which means that if excess hormones appear, then
metabolism consumption will increase. The thyroid affects the strengthening of mental
processes, increase in heart rate, breathing and digestion. They also affect the entire
neuroendocrine system so the effects on the mood and behaviour are quite apparent.
Therefore, the normal level of thyroid hormones-euthyroid, is one of key preconditions for
normal functioning of the organism.

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 Increased sweating - one of Basedow disease symptomes

2.1.1 Triiodothyronine

It is by composition a triodic derivate of tyrozine and it can be found in the form of many
different isomers. It is very physiologically active. It is involved in the regulation of almost
all physiological processes, including the ones for growth and development, metabolism,
regulating body temperature and heart beat frequency.
2.1.2 Thyroxine
It is a hormone which is secreted by follicle cells of the thyroid. Thyroxine is formed by
iodization and covalent binding of the phenyl part of thyrozine onto the thyroglobulin
peptide. Secretion of thyroxine is controlled by thyrotropin, a hormone of the anterior
pituitary. Thyroxine is a prohormone and a container of an active thyroid hormone
triiodothyronine. Normal thyroxine level in an adult is 4 - 11 mcg/dL. By regulating
oxidation processes in cells, these hormones affect lipid levels in the blood, activate glycogen
in the liver and accelerate biosynthesis of sex hormones. Lack of these hormones leads to a
sudden increase in mass, difficulties while moving and atherosclerosis (enlarging of artery
walls and canal narrowing). In children, physical and mental development is disabled.

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Atherosclerosis-disease stages Atherosclerosis-artery appearance

2.2 Adrenal gland hormones

The main function of the adrenal gland is the regulation of stress by synthesizing
corticosteroids and catecholamines, including cortisol and adrenaline. There are two adrenal
glands one above each kidney.

They are made up of two parts:

1. outer layer (cortex)
2. inner layer (medula).

Adrenal glands

Each of these hormones secretes hormones that are different in structure and physiological
effect. When the nervous system feels a physical or mental danger, adrenal gland start
releasing adrenaline and noradrenalin into the blood.
2.2.1 Adrenalineor epinephrine
It is a hormone which is secreted by the medula of the adrenaline gland in situations when the
heartbeat must be increased. It is a derivative of thyrozine. It is one of the stress hormones.
Adrenaline is secreted because of a stressful reaction. It reaches all of the organs by blood.

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Blood pressure is increased, pupils are dialated, themetabolism of carbohydrates is
accelerated. The lack of adrenaline causes anaemia, low blood pressure, cardiac weakness.

Adrenaline sports

2.2.2 Noradrenaline
Noradrenaline belongs to the group of ketones (biogenic amine).It is a transporter-substance
in the nervous tissue. It has a similar structure and effects as adrenaline. It is one of the stress
hormones. It is secreted in stressful situations.
Activity of this neurotransmitter leads to:

activation of brain structures and focusing

increased heart rate
increasing the strength of the heart
narrowing of blood vessels (peripheral tissue)
pupil dilation
inhibition of intestine and gall bladder activity, enhancement of sphincter muscle tone
2.3 Hormones of Sex Glands
Sex hormones are essential in both, growth and sex differentiation of reproductive organs and
in sex differentiation in brain. Besides having an effect on growth of male and female bodies,
they also have an important role in sexual activation of men and women. According to their
chemical structure they belong to steroids. Sex hormones found in men and women are
similar. Estrogens (estradiol, estron) and progesterone are secreted from ovaries, and
androgens (testosterone i androsterone) are secreted from testicles.

Small amount of androgen hormones are secreted from the cortex of adrenal glands.
Estrogens and progesterone are also called female sex hormones, and androgens are male sex
hormones. However, they are all present in both, male and female organisms, but in different
amounts. Androgens are abundant in men and their secretion is controlled by hypothalamus

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pituitary gland testicles. Estrogens and progesterone are abundant in women and their
secretion is controlled by hypothalamus pituitary gland ovaries.

2.3.1 Male sex hormones

They are called androgens (Greek Andros man). Testicles secrete several male sex
hormones: testosterones, dihydrotestosterone, and androsterone. These hormones take a role
in growth of secondary sex characteristics in male: facial hair (beard, moustaches), developed
musculature and skeleton, wider shoulders, voice change, higher thickness of the skin.

Testosterone is primary male sex hormone secreted by testicles. Women also secrete this
hormone in their ovaries and adrenal glands, but in lower amount. Its highly present during
the puberty up until the age of 18. Its structure is steroid, its secreted from a cholesterol and
is soluble in oils, which means it goes through the cell membrane into the nucleus of the cell.
In the nucleus it activates parts of the DNA and synthesis of proteins. Its the main male sex
hormone and it has an important role in health of men and women. It also prevents
osteoporosis. In average, male body secretes twenty to thirty times more testosterones than a
female body does. Synthesis of testosterone in men takes place in Leydigs Gland in testicles
under the control of pituitary gland and hypothalamus. In women, it takes place in granule
cells of follicles, but in both, men and women it is secreted in the cortex of adrenal glands. In
our blood there is about 2% of free testosterone and the rest is attached to the protein albumin
and globulin.

Androsterone is a male sex gland, similar to testosterone, only weaker. It is mostly found in
the adrenal glands and testes. It also affects the protein metabolism.

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 Androsterone

2.3.2 Female sex hormones

They are important in a woman sexual function. Theyre important for secondary sex
characteristics, the skeletal system and complex behaviour. They are secreted in the ovaries.
After ovulation the follicle is filled with blood and with the surrounding cells it makes
yellow body(corpus luteum) which stays there until the next menstruation or in case of
pregnancy, secretes estrogen and progesterone with the placenta.
Estrogens are classified as steroid hormones which means they are made from cholesterol.
Estrogen is, along with progesterone, one of the two main female hormones. Estron, estriol,
and estradiol are types of estrogen.
From the first period until menopause, the main hormone is estradiol, but after menopause,
more strone appears. Estradiol comes from testosterone and estrone, which come from
androstedione. Estradiol is stronger than the other so it is considered the main estrogen. The
biggest amount of estrogen is made in the developing follicle of the ovaries, the yellow body
and the placenta.
Follicle stimulators (FSH) and the luteinising hormone (LH) stimulate estrogen production in
the ovaries. The liver, adrenal glands and breasts also produce estrogen but in much smaller
amounts. Estrogen affects many systems in the body and by using them for treatment, some
side effects might show up. It is proven that taking estrogen from the outside increases the
risk of breast cancer. They also affect blood vessels and the bulging of blood; this can lead to
cardiac arrest, vein trombosis and pulmonary embolism.
The lack of estrogen also causes other changes on the skin and affects collagen levels, which
is important for skin formation. This causes aging of the skin: it becomes dry and thin.

Estrogens

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Progesterone is secreted in the yellow body of the ovary after ovulation. It causes the
endometrium to change and become ready for the fertilized egg to be implanted. In case of
pregnancy the trophoblast secretes horonic goandotropin which helps the yellow body and
during the third month, the placenta begins to secrete large amounts of estrogen and
progesterone. This causes the yellow body to lose its function. It also plays a role in the
formation of the breast gland, increases the body temperature and stops the ovulation when
needed.

Progesterone

It is used in oral contraception and hormone therapy during menopause and for the treatment
of some diseases. The big issue with this is hypertension and a risk of uterus cancer.
Progesterone is essential for a regular pregnancy. In case of a low progesterone level a
miscarriage can occur.

3. VITAMINS
Vitamins are essential nutrients which the human body cannot synthesise, so we have to take
them in by eating. Vitamins are made inside of plants with the help of the sun and bacteria. In

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some cases, they can be created inside humans or animals. There are about 40 different
nutrients that are considered essential for human health. Out of those 40, 13 are vitamins, 15
are minerals and 12 are amino acids.

The name, vitamin, was given to them by a Polish biochemist by the name of Kazimiere Funk
in 1912. Vita is latin for life, and amin stands for amin because he thought they belonged to
the amin group. He was wrong, but the name stuck until today.

Vitamins are divided into two main groups:

Vitamins which dissolve in water

Vitamins which dissolve in fats

Hydrosoluble vitamins

The main vitamins in this group are B-complex and vitamin C. These vitamins are easily
absorbed directly into the blood. When absorbed, they circulate through the body and are
ready for the organism needs. Most hydrosoluble vitamins dont stay in the body for very
long. When excess vitamins form in the body, it becomes excreted through the urine. The
urine becomes white, not yellow as usual.

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) - vitamin G

Vitamin B3 (Niacin) - vitamin P

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid)

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

Vitamin B7 (Biotin) - vitamin H

Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) - vitamin M

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

Vitamin B15

Vitamin B17 (laetrile)

Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)

Fat soluble vitamins

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These vitamins need emulsifiers, to change their chemical composition so they can be
absorbed into the blood. When absorbed, these vitamins are stored and they can later be used.
When needed, proteins carry them so they can be used.

Vitamin A

Vitamin D

Vitamin E

Vitamin K

Antioxidant vitamins

The cell metabolism for creating energy is dependent on oxygen. When there is a lack of
oxygen the so called free radicals appear. They need to be regularly controlled for the
organism to function properly. It is here that the antioxidants come into play:

vitamin A (beta-carotene)

vitamin C (together with vitamin E)

vitamin D (synthesised with sunlight)

vitamin K

LIPO SOLUBLE VITAMINS

VITAMIN A

By chemical composition, vitamin A is a derivative of carotene. Variations of this vitamin can

be found in animal foods such as eggs, fish, liver.
Its biggest role is the formation of retina cells. It is also believed that vitamin A strengthens
the immune system. The lack of vitamin A causes various disorders, from night blindness to
some dermatological problems. But even worse problems occur when taking in too much
vitamin A. It leads to problems with digestion, skin, bones and joints..

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VITAMIN D

Vitamin D is by itself extremely important not only for our bones, but for the immune system
as well. Vitamins D2 and D3 are the most important for us. The difference between them is
the way that they are bonded at atomic levels. Ergosterol is transformed into vitamin D2 due
to the effect of ultraviolet rays.

Richest sources of this vitamin are :

Fish oil
Fish
Milk
Eggs
Mushroom yeast

Early stage of rickets

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Symptoms in children are weaker skulls, ping pong ball phenomenon (KRANIOTABES) it
manifests itself by making the skull softer, making the chest deformed, leg deformities among
other things.

Late rickets

They are a product of disorders during ossification.

CHARACTERISTICS: pains in the bones of the spine, pelvis and legs which lead to
deformities.

VITAMIN E
Tocopherol is an antisterility vitamin, it represents a group which is denoted by alpha, beta,
gamma tocopherols. It is not soluble in water so supplements which contain fat must be
present near it.. The lack of vitamin E is very rare. Symptoms are shown after a long-term
absence of the vitamin. Problems that may occur are: anaemia, fat absorption disorders,
bladder disease. Excessive intake of vitamin E can lead to bleeding problems.

VITAMIN F
Essential fatty acids : arachidonic, linoleic. Most of these are found in vegetable oils. They
are crucial for dispersing fat throughout the organism, for regular growth and oxidation of
fatty substances. Vitamin F deficiency isnt ascertained.

VITAMIN K
Vitamin K represents more the one vitamin(K1, K2, K3, K4, K5). The most important are:

K1 (phtyomenadione), which is found in green vegetables

K2 (menakinom), which is produced by red bacteria

HYDRO SOLUBLE VITAMINS

VITAMIN C
Vitamin C or ascorbic acid. It is a derivative of alpha-glucose acid. It plays a key role in the
human body. It is found in fruit (melon, pomegranate, orange, grapes, kiwi, lemon, pineapple)
and vegetables (green and red pepper, cauliflower, broccoli, cabbage, spinach) along with
some grains which contain small amount of this vitamin.
Function and Significance of Vitamin C
Vitamin C, alongside with protein found in organism, plays an important role in formation of
skin, tendons and ligaments, and blood vessels of the body.
Vitamin C is a nutrient which helps with wound treatment and helps blood clotting.
Vitamin C also plays a role of an antioxidant in the body.

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Vitamin C eases colds.
Vitamin C helps in the metabolism process.

The lack of vitamin C causes:

Scurvy is a disorder which is found in underfed children.
Anaemia can occur as a symptom of vitamin C deficiency.
Vitamin C deficiency causes gum bleeding.
Vitamin C deficiency affects the immune system.
A person with low levels of vitamin C will have thin and light hair.
Nose bleeds are a symptom of vitamin C deficiency
Changes on the skin are one of the main disorders.

VITAMIN B1
Vitamin B1 (thiamine) is a vitamin which dissolves in water and has an important role in
carbohydrate metabolism. It is very important for the nervous system and its deficiency
causes beriberi disease. Rich B1 sources are : grains, yeast, milk, meat, fruit, vegetables and
nuts.

Beriberi
Beriberi is a disease which causes neurological and cardiovascular disorders. It is a big
problem in the Far east because rice is used in everyday nutrition. Beriberi causes pain in the
limbs and changes in skin colour.
Christiaan Eijkman discovered that this disease is caused by a poor diet and in 1929 he
received a Nobel prize for his work.

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VITAMIN B2
Vitamin B2 or riboflavin is a vitamin of the B-complex. It is often called the growth factor. It
is involved in the metabolic processes of the entire organism and it is vital in deriving the
energy from the food. Rich sources of vitamin B2 are: liver, kidney, eggs, milk, cheese, yeast.
Vitamin B2 deficiency is called ariboflavnosis.
ARIBOFLAVINOSIS
Ariboflavinosisis a disorder which is caused by a lack of vitamin B2 in the organism. The
usual suspects are : alcoholism, liver disease. It is manifested through changes in mouth and
eye mucosa.

VITAMIN B3
Vitamin B3 can be found in two forms: nicotine acid (niacin, vitamin B3) and nicotinamid
(vitamin PP). They are soluble in water. It can be found in yeast, liver, muscles, adrenal
glands. Lack of this vitamin causes pellagra disease.
PELLAGRA
Pellagra is a disease which occurs when eating corn foods but not taking in enough essential
amino acids. It can also show up during tuberculosis treatment. Pellagra is a disease
manifested by uneven skin pigmentation. Changes on the skin occur on exposed parts of the
skin, in the form of a rash, burns, dark pigmentation. In the end, scabs form. Other symptoms
include headaches, dizziness and muscle cramps.

VITAMIN B6

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Vitamin B6 or pyridoxine is a vitamin of the B-complex and its soluble in water. Pyridoxine
is found in animal and plant tissues, liver and kidneys, eggs and in dry fruit and vegetables.
Vitamin B6 deficiency is very rare. Symptoms of the deficiency appear on the skin and in the
nervous system.
VITAMIN B12
Vitamin B12, cobalamin is the only vitamin of the B complex which can be stored in the liver
for 10-12 years. Together with the folic acid, its main job is the formation of new cells. It is
found mostly in cheese, eggs, fish, especially tuna, salmon. The main disease caused by its
deficiency is anaemia, when the red blood cells are larger in size, but smaller in number.
MEGALOBLASTIC ANAEMIA
Megaloblastic anaemia lack of B12 or folic acid leads to disordered synthesis of DNA,
morphological change in peripheral blood and the bone marrow. The main cause of its
deficiency is a surgical operation of the stomach.

4. CONCLUSION

Throughout this graduation work the term hormones was explained. The term hormones
is derived from the Greek word horman which means to move, to affect.
Hormones are endogen biocatalysts. They are secreted in glands of internal secretion.
According to the place of action, they are divided into
Local hormones
Gland hormones
The classification of hormones is based on their chemical structure and they can also be
grouped like this:
Hormones of polypeptide structure
Hormones which are derivates of amino acids
Hormones of steroid structure
Everything that was mentioned and explained related to hormones is vital to the human
organism. Hormones regulate and control the entire metabolism, structure of blood and other
bodily fluids, normal organ functionin and they also control the growth and development of

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different types of tissue, organs, and the entire organism. There are almost no processes
which are not influenced by the function of one or more types of hormones.
Each hormone has a specific influence on the metabolism and functioning of certain orgains.
Sex hormones influence the development of primary and secondary sexual characterists,
cortisol affects the metabolism of carbon hydrated, aldosteron affects the content electrolytes,
etc. Lack of hormones and decreased or increased synthesis of hormones can result in
changes of chemical reactions which disrupt the metabolism and cause various diseases and
conditions.
Another thing that needs to be mentioned today is the disruption of hormones which many
people face nowadays. This occurs when a hormones is secreted too much or too little. It is
more common with women and statistics say that around 40-60% or women suffer from
premenstrual syndrome. Additionally, a large number of women struggle with an early
menopause. Stress is a common factor and it is something normal for this society. There is no
definite cure for hormone disruptions and only thing that can be done is regular visits to the
doctor, various analysis and decreasing stress.

The term vitamin is also explained and they are organic compounds which cant be
synthesised by a human organism (except vitamin K) and they come in certain types of food.
They are made in plants with the help of sunlight or in bacteria. There are some cases when
they are made in animal of human organisms. They are vital to keep humans healthy; they
help humans grow and reproduce. Roles and functions of vitamins in the organisms can vary
and some of them have special functionality

LITERATURE AND SOURCES

1. Miholji M., Biohemija III izdanje, Oktoih, Sarajevo, 1998.

2. Lili M., Hemija za etvrti razred gimnazije, Tugra Sarajevo, 2005.
3. http://www.plivazdravlje.hr/centar/prehrana/6/Bolesti-stitnjace.html
4. http://www.hormoni.info/hr/index.php/za-zene/bioidenticni-hormoni-zene/estrogen
5. http://www.lab-breyer.com/pretrage/sve-pretrage/parathormon-pth
6. http://www.znanje.org/i/i20/00iv03/00iv0306/mat/desna.htm
7. http://www.zdravosfera.com/dijabetes/
8. http://www.amoic.hr/KORTIKOSTEROIDI/441.aspx

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Datum predaje rada: ___. april 2014.godine

Datum odbrane rada: ___. ___. 2014. godine

Ocjena:________________________________

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