4/14/2016

Grinding
Dr.AndriyaNarasimhulu
AssistantProfessor,
Div.ofMPAE,NSIT
Sec3,Dwarka,NewDelhi110078

Introduction:
Grinding is the process of removing excess material by the abrasive action
of a rotating wheel on the surface of the work piece.
It is basically a finishing process employed to produce high accuracy and
surface finish.
The grinding wheel consists of sharp crystals called abrasives held
together by suitable bonding. Natural abrasives available in nature
include sand stone (natural silica), diamond, corundum and emery
(natural alumina).
Artificial abrasives are free from impurities and possess better
performance properties. They includeAl2O3, SiC, CBN etc.

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Cutting action of the abrasive grains in Grinding

Desired characteristics of grits:

sharp cutting points
high hot hardness
chemical stability and wear resistance

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Advantages of Grinding:
dimensional accuracy
good surface finish
good form and locational accuracy
applicable to both hardened and unhardened matl.
Applications
surface finishing
slitting and parting
descaling, deburring
stock removal (abrasive milling)
finishing of flat as well as cylindrical surface
grinding of tools and cutters and resharpening of
the same.

Grinding is now termed as abrasive machining

with higher material removal rate

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Grinding wheel workpiece interaction

1. grit-workpiece (forming chip)

2. chip-bond
3. Chip - workpiece
4. bond-work piece

Interaction of grit with workpiece

Grit rake varies from +45 to 60 degrees

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Phenomenon associated with grinding proces

F = Fs +Fp +F
t f
F =A p
t chip
FV
P U t g
C C MRR

Effect of grinding velocity and rake angle on

Grinding force

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Variation of grit depth of cut with grinding velocity

Variation of grit depth of cut with grinding velocity

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D LC= Dd
ta
VC

d vw 1 1
ta d
Dw D j
vw mVg

ta should be very small for;

lesser chip load and force per grit
better surface finish

Specific Energy Consumption in Grinding

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Effect of grinding parameters on forces

40 40
VC= 81.80 m/sec Work Matl. : Bearing Steel vw= 500 mm/min Work Matl. : Bearing Steel
of Hardness RC40 of Hardness RC40
35 VC= 104.72 m/sec 35 vw= 600 mm/min cBN Wheel : 250
cBN Wheel : grit size 250 m m grit size
VC= 130.89 m/sec

Tangential Force, Ft (in N)

Tangential Force, Ft (in N)

30 Table speed, vw:1000 mm/min 30 vw= 750 mm/min Velocity, VC= 130.89 m/s
VC= 157.00 m/sec vw= 1000 mm/min
25 25

20 20

15 15

10 10

5 5

0
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Infeed (in mm)
Infeed (in mm)

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

Ground chips of different steels under different environments: (a) MS30m;

(b) HCS 40 m; (c) CDS 40 m; (d) HDS 30 m; and (e) HSS 40 m

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SelectionofGrindingWheels

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The various bonding materials used are:

a) Vitrified bond (V)
It is made of clay and feldspar (rock forming mineral in earths crust).
This is the strongest bond of all and is not effected by water/oils/acids.
Vitrified bond is suitable for high stock removal even at dry condition.
It cannot be used where mechanical impact or thermal variations are likely to
occur.
This bond is also not recommended for very high speed grinding because of
possible breakage of the bond under centrifugal force.
b) Resinoid bond (B)
It is a synthetic thermosetting resin (phenolic resins) that becomes hard after
heating. This occupies next place to Vitrified bond.
Conventional abrasive resin bonded wheels are widely used for heavy duty
grinding because of their ability to withstand shock load.

c)Silicatebond(S)
Itismadeofsodiumsilicateandisusedforoperationsthatgeneratelessheat.
d)Rubberbond(R)
Itismadeofsyntheticornaturalrubber.Itsprincipaluseisinthinwheelsforwetcut
offoperation.
Theyaredenserthanresinoid bondsbutarelessheatresistant.
Rubberbondwasoncepopularforfinishgrindingonbearingsandcuttingtools.
Theyarealsousedformakingregulatingwheelsincentreless grinding.
e)Shellacbond(E)
Thisisalsoanorganicbondandhasconsiderablestrength.
Thisnotsuitableforheavydutywork.
Atonetimethisbondwasusedforflexiblecutoffwheels.
Atpresentuseofshellacbondislimitedtogrindingwheelsengagedinfinefinishof
rolls.

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ClassificationofGrindingMachines
Conventionalgrindingmachinescanbebroadlyclassifiedas:
(a)Surfacegrindingmachine
(b)Cylindricalgrindingmachine
(c)Internalgrindingmachine
(d)Toolandcuttergrindingmachine

SurfaceGrindingMachines

Horizontalspindleandreciprocatingtable
Verticalspindleandreciprocatingtable
Horizontalspindleandrotarytable
Verticalspindleandrotarytable

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Horizontal spindle reciprocating table surface grinder

Surface grinding (a) traverse grinding (b) plunge grinding

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Surface grinding in Vertical spindle

Vertical spindle reciprocating
table surface grinder reciprocating table surface grinder

SurfaceGrindinginHorizontalSpindlerotary
tablesurfacegrinder

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Grindingofataperedsurfaceinhorizontal
spindlerotarytablesurfacegrinder

CylindricalGrindingmachine

1.Plaincentretypecylindricalgrinder
2.Universalcylindricalsurfacegrinder
3.Centreless cylindricalsurfacegrinder

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PlaneCentreTypeCylindricalgrinder

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Universal cylindricalsurfacegrinder

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ExternalCenterless Grinder

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InternalGrindingMachine

1.Chuckingtypeinternalgrinder
2.Planetaryinternalgrinder
3.Centreless internalgrinder

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InternalCenterless grinding

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Dressing:
Dressing is the conditioning of the wheel surface which ensures that grit cutting edges
are exposed from the bond and thus will be able to penetrate into the work piece
material and substantially influence the condition of the grinding wheel.
Truing:
Truing is the act of regenerating the required geometry on the wheel.
Truing is required whenever a new wheel is loaded to ensure concentricity with
machine spindle.
It is done with a diamond truing tool by removing the outer layer and creating a
concentric layer w.r.t the spindle axis.
Glazing:
Glazing of the wheel is nothing but abrasive particles getting blunt.
As they can be removed by dressing, grinding wheels are called self sharpening
wheels.

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Wheel Loading phenomenon

Effective rake angle of the grit changes leading to

higher forces
higher temperature
poor overall performance of the wheel

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Honing
Thisisusedforfinishingtheinsidesurfaceofahole.Itcanalsobe
usedforfinishingexternalsurfaces.Hereabrasivesareintheformof
stickswhicharemountedonamandrelwhichisgivenareciprocating
motionalongtheholeaxissuperimposedonauniformrotary
motion.Thegritsizeisb/w80to600meshsize.Honingfindsspecial
applicationforcylinderboresasitproducesacrosshatchedpattern
usefulforlubrication.
Specialcuttingfluidslikesulphurised oilsareused.Honingcanalsobe
usedforfinishinggearswheretoolismadeinplasticoranybonding
materialimpregnatedwithabrasives.
Otherexamplesincludebearings,hydrauliccylinders,andgunbarrels

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Lapping
Alapisgenerallymadeofmaterialsofterthanworkandhasthesameshape
oftheopposedmatingpart.Straightnarrowgroovesarecutat90oonthe
lapsurfaceandabrasivepowderissprinkledonthesurface.
Asuitablefluid(carriers)isalsoappliedlikeM/Coil,greaseetc.Lappingis
performedbyhandormachines.Tocarryouttheprocess,thelapispressed
againsttheworkandmovedbackandforthoverthesurfaceinafigureeight
orothermotionpattern,(unrepeatedpaths)subjectingallportionsofthe
surfacetothesameaction.C.I.isthemostlyusedlapmaterial,other
materialsaresoftsteelCu,Brass,hardwoodetc.
AbrasivesareoxidesofAl,Si,Cranddiamondetc.Thegritsizeisb/w120to
1200meshsize.Thisprocesshaswideapplicationslikegauges,measuring
wires,m/cSpindles,threads,gears,lenses,bearingracesetc.

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PolishingandBuffing
Polishingisafinishingoperationtoimprovethesurfacefinishbymeansofa
polishingwheelmadeoffabricsorleatherandrotatingathighspeed.The
abrasivegrainsaregluedtotheoutsideperipheryofthepolishingwheel.
Polishingoperationsareoftenaccomplished manually.Polishingisusedto
removescratchesandburrsandtosmoothroughsurfaces.
Buffingisafinishingoperationsimilartopolishing,inwhichabrasivegrains
arenotgluedtothewheelbutarecontainedinabuffingcompoundthatis
pressedintotheoutsidesurfaceofthebuffingwheelwhileitrotates.Asin
polishing,theabrasiveparticlesmustbeperiodicallyreplenished.Buffingis
usuallydonemanually.Machinesarealsoavailabletodobuffing
automatically.Buffingisusedtoprovideattractivesurfaceswithhighlustre.

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ThreadManufacturing
ThreadsareofprimeimportancetoEngg.Theyareused
asfastenerstotransmitpower/motion.Thefollowing
arethemethodsofthreadmfg.
CastingMethods:Threadsmadebysandcastingare
roughandnotusedmuch,exceptsometimesinvicesand
roughmachinerylikeconstructionequipment,mouthof
glassbottles,spuncastironpipesetc.Threadsmadeby
diecastingareveryaccurateandofhighfinish.Butas
theycanbemadewithlowmeltingpointnonferrous
metals,theyarenotfitforrepeateduseandhenceused
insewingmachines,toys,typewritersetc.

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FormingMethods:
ThreadRollingisacoldworkingprocess
inwhichablankofdia.approximately
equaltopitchdia (or)effectivedia of
reqd.threadisrolledbetweenhardened
steelrollingdieshavingthethread
profile.Thisisthefastestmethodof
producingthreadsatarateof200to
1000pieces/min.Beingchipless
formingthereislotofmaterialsaving.
Thisislimitedtoexternalthreadsonly Video - 1,2
(uptodia.25mm).Thisiswidelyused
formassproductionoffastenerslike
bolts,screwsetc.

MachiningMethods:
Threadcuttingonlathebyasinglepointtoolis
aslowprocessbutproducesveryaccurate
threads.Hencetoincreaseproductivitythread
chasinghasbeendevelopedwithalittle
compromiseonqualitywhereapartlycut
threadusingasinglepointtool(oneortwo
cuts)isfinishedbyamultipointtoolcalled
threadchaserinonecut.
Threadsarecutinmilling(internal&external)
byaformcutterhavingthethreadprofile.Itis
moreefficientandproductivethanlathe,when
largeamountofmetalistoberemoved.Special
purposemachinesarealsoavailable.Usedfor
coarsethreads,trapezoidalthreadsetc.

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FinishingMethods:
ThreadGrindingisusedforproducingvery
accuratethreads.Thisisemployedtocut
threadsonhardenedmaterials,forwhich
othermethodsarenotpossible.Thisis
usedtocutthreadsontaps,micrometer
screws,leadscrews,threadgauges,thread
millingcuttersetc.Theprincipleofthread
grindingissameasthreadmilling.Athread
grindingm/c.issimilartothatofa
cylindricalgrindingm/c.
MiscellaneousMethods:
Tapsareusedforcuttinginternalthreadsin
smallholes.Diesareusedforcutting
externalthreadsonpipesandsmallparts.

Gearsareclassifiedaccordingtotheshapeof
GearManufacturing thetoothpairanddispositionintoSpur,
Helical,DoubleHelical,StraightBevel,Spiral
Bevel,HypoidBevel,WormandSpiralgears.

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Spurgearshavetheirteethparalleltotheaxisandareusedfor
transmittingpowerbetweentwoparallelshafts.Theyhavehighest
efficiencyandexcellentprecisionrating.Theyareusedinhigh
speedandhighloadapplicationinalltypesoftrainsandawide
rangeofvelocityratios.Hence,theyfindwideapplicationsright
fromclocks,householdgadgets,motorcycles,automobiles,and
railwaystoaircrafts.
Helicalgearsareusedforparallelshaftdrives.Theyhaveteeth
inclinedtotheaxis.Henceforthesamewidth,theirteethare
longerthanspurgearsandhavehigherloadcarryingcapacity.They
operatesmootherandquieterthanspurgears.Theirprecision
ratingisgood.Theirefficiencyisslightlylowerthanspurgears.
Theyarerecommendedforveryhighspeedsandloads.Thus,these
gearsfindwide applicationsinautomotivegearboxes.

DoublehelicalorHerringbonegearsusedfortransmitting
powerbetweentwoparallelshafts.Theyhaveopposinghelical
teethandtheirloadcapacityisveryhighandarecostly.Their
applicationsarelimitedtohighcapacityreductiondriveslike
thatofcementmillsandcrushers.
Rackisasegmentofagearofinfinitediameter.Thetoothcan
bespurorhelical.Thistypeofgearingisusedforconverting
rotarymotionintotranslatory motionorviceversa.

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Straightbevelgearsareusedfortransmittingpowerbetween
intersectingshafts.Theycanoperateunderhighspeedsandhighloads.
Theirprecisionratingisfairtogood.Wideapplicationofthestraight
beveldrivesisinautomotivedifferentials,rightangledrivesofblenders
andconveyors.
Spiralbevelgearsarealsousedfortransmittingpowerbetween
intersectingshafts.Theteethcontactlengthis moreandtheyoperate
smootherthanstraightbevelgears.Theyhavehigherloadcapacity,but
theirefficiencyisslightlylower.Usageisinautomobiledifferentials.
Hypoidbevelgearsarealsousedforrightangledriveinwhichtheaxes
donotintersect.Thispermitstheloweringofthepinionaxiswhichisan
addedadvantageinautomobiledrives.Theirefficiencyislowerthan
othertwotypesofbevelgears.Usageisincurrentdayautomobile
drives.

Wormandwormgearpairconsistsofaworm,whichisverysimilar
toascrewandawormgear,whichisahelicalgear.Theyareusedin
rightangleskewshafts.Inthesegears,theengagementoccurs
withoutanyshockresultinginquieteroperation.Highreduction
ratiosarepossible.Efficiencyofthesegearsislow.Theirprecision
ratingisfairtogood.Thedrivesareverycompact.Wormgearing
findswideapplicationinmaterialhandlingandtransportation
machinery,machinetools,automobilesetc.
Spiralgearsarealsoknownascrossedhelicalgears.Theyhavehigh
helixangleandtransmitpowerbetweentwononintersectingnon
parallelshafts.Theirprecisionratingispoor.Theyareusedforlight
loadandlowspeedapplicationsuchasinstruments,sewingmachine,
textilemachineryetc.

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Thefollowingaremanufacturingmethods.
CastingMethods:
SandcastingisusedforlargesizegearsusedinfarmmachineryandHand
operateddeviceslikecementmixerbarrels,hoistgearboxofdamgatelifting
etc.ThematerialsthatcanbesandcastareCI,caststeel,Bronzes,brassand
ceramics.

DieCastingisusedformakinglargequantityofsmallgearsusedinlawn
movers,instruments,cameras,toysetc.Materialsusedtomanufacturedie
castedgearsarezinc,aluminium andbrass.

Centrifugal casting is used for making phosphor bronze (as it is resistant to

sliding loads) worm wheel rims.
Semi Centrifugal casting is used for making Gear blanks.

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Investmentcastingprocessisusedformakingcomplicatedshapes
economically.Theprocessisusefulifthegearisintegralwithsome
complicatedshapethatisverydifficulttoproducebymachining.The
processisusedonlyifnootherprocessissuitablesinceproductioncostis
high.Toolsteel,nitriding steel,monel,berylliumcopperarethematerials
thatcanbeinvestmentcastedforgears.

Injectionmoulding isusedformakinglightgearsofthermoplastics
andusedintoys,projectors,Windshieldwipers,Xeroxm/c,Washing
m/c,Speedometers,etc.Thematerialsforinjectionmolding
componentsareNylon,celluloseacetate,polystyrene,polyimide,
phenolics.

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Formingmethods:
Rollformingisthemethodwherethe
gearblankismountedonashaftandis
pressedinhardrollingdies.Bothspurand
helicalgearscanbemade.
Extrusion isusedforsmallsizedgears.
Afterextrusion,ano.ofgearscanbe
partedfromextrudedrodofgear.
Operationslikepiercing,holeupsetting
areneededafterpartingandusedin
clocks,typewriters,toysetc.Aluminum,
copper,navalbrass,architecturalbronze
andphosphorbronzearethematerials
thatarecommonlyextruded

Forginghaslongbeenusedinthemanufacture
ofgears.Gearblankscanbeproducedbyopen
dieforging,closeddieforgingandhotupset
forging.Precisionforgedgearsrequiringlittle
ornofinishmachiningare commonlyusedin
theautomotive,truck,offhighway,aerospace,
railroad,agriculture,andmaterialhandling
industries,aswellastheenergyandmining
fields.
Gearscanbeforgedfromlowalloysteel,brass,
Alalloys,S.S,titanium,andsomeoftheheat
resistantalloys.
Althoughspurgearsaretheeasiesttoforge,
helicalandspiralbevelgearscanalsobeforged
iftheirconfigurationspermitejectionofthe
gearfromthediecavity.

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PowderMetallurgytechniquesalsoareusedformakingofbalancergears
andoilpumpgearsinautomotives,gearmotorsforhousehold
appliances,cranedrives,motordrivenwindowliftandseatadjustors,
clustergears,differenttypesofgearsthatcan
Becombinedwithbuiltinkeywaysetc.
Accuracyissimilartodiecastgears.
Typicallysuitedforsmallsizegears.
Economicalforlargelotsizesonly.

Sheet metal blanking is used for

producing thin metallic gears form sheet
metal to be used in wrist watches, toys,
electricity & water meters, hand operated
machine gears for slow speed
mechanisms etc.

Machiningmethods:
a)Formcuttermethods:Theyuseaformtoolhavingtheshapeofteeth
space.Disadvantagesarelowproductive,lessaccurate,hightooling
costastheyneedachangeintoolifno.ofteethorpitchdia.is
changed.
Gearcanbecutinshaperbyasinglepointformtool.Toincrease
productivityashearspeedprocesscalledshearspeedgearshaper
wasdevelopedwhichusesaringofsinglepointformtoolsarranged
radiallytocutallteethsimultaneously.Thismethodiseconomical
onlyforlargeqty production.
Gearcanbecutbymillingusingrotatingformcutter.Itisusedfor
spur,helical,bevelandracksandhasthesamedisadvantages.
Gearcutbybroachingareveryaccurateandusedforlargeqty
productionbuthassamedisadvantagesexceptaccuracy.

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b)GearGeneratingmethod:Theprocessisbasedontheprinciplethatanytwo
gearsofsamemodulewillmeshtogetherproperly(module=pitchdia /no.of
teeth).Ifoneofthegearsismadeintoacutterbypropersharpeningandit
mesheswiththegearblank,thentheteethontheblankaredeveloped/
generatedby:
a)Therelativerollingandreciprocationmotionofthecutterandtheblank(for
Planing andShaping)
b)Rotationofhobandblank,feedingofhobandtiltingofhobatthehelixangle
(forHobbing).
IfthegeneratingtoolisarackitiscalledGearPlaning.Ifthegeneratingtoolis
apinion,itiscalledGearShaping.
Ifthegeneratingtoolisthreadedandgashed(likeworm)itiscalledhob,and
theprocessiscalledGearHobbing.

Gearplanningislessaccuratethanothergeneratingmethodsbutmore
accuratethanformcuttingmethods.
GearHobbing ishighlyproductiveandhighlyaccurateamongallgeneration
methods.
GearplanningandGearHobbing arelimitedtoexternalgearsonly.[(i)and
(ii)]
GearShapingcanbeusedforbothexternalandinternalgears.[(iii)and(iv)]
Themajoradvantageofgeneratingisthatsamecutterofparticularmodule
cancutgearsofdifferentno.teeth.

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