NOTE BOOK #4

PSP Imaging Cassette

Computed radiography (CR) uses photostimuable storage phosphor imaging
plate which is typically in a cassette. This is an indirect image converter. This
plate is a rigid sheet with several layers that record and enhance the
transmission of the image. The layers included are:
Protective layer- insulates the imaging plate from trauma.
Phosphor layer (scintillator)- this holds the photostimuable
phosphors, which is the active layer of the plate. In CR the common
phosphors are Barium Fluorohalides bromides and iodides with
europium activators (turbid). The construction of this layer will
determine the resolution of the image. They are either turbid or needle
(cesium iodide).
Reflective Layer- this layer will send the light forward when it is
released from the cassette reader, some detail can be lost during this
process.
Conductor layer- grounds the plate to eliminate electrostatic
problems and absorb light to enhance the sharpness of an image.
Color Layer- This is in the newer plates, which absorbs the stimulating
light, but will reflect the light that is emitted.
Support layer- a base to coat the other layers.
Light shielding layer- prevents light from erasing the data on the
imaging plate or to keep it from leaking through the backing and
decreasing spatial resolution.
Backing layer- soft polymer that protects the back of the cassette.

The Processing of an Image

These PSP plates are more sensitive to scatter than with film to provide an
optimal image. The first step in creating an image with CR is image
acquisition. This begins with x-ray exposure to the imaging plate. When
radiation is exposed it causes fluorescence but than some energy is stored in
the plate. This energy is than used during the processing and reading to form
the image. Some excited electrons are trapped in the crystal structure of the
phosphor layer at high energies. A latent image is stored in the imaging
plate. Next is the latent image production. This is where the latent image
created by the energy transfer during photoelectric interactions is processed
into a digital image. The lower energy electrons create holes in the crystal
phosphor which hold or trap electrons which turns out to be the actual latent
image. The latent image will lose about 25% of its energy in 8 hours, so
processing needs to being shortly after the exposure is made, any longer
than the 8 hours the imaging plate loses the latent image. An image reader
device than scans the imaging plate by a helium neon laser beam. This
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causes the phosphors to emit the latent image in the form of light photons,
which get detected by photosensitive receptors that turn it into an electrical
signal. The electrical signal is converted into a digital value for the level of
luminescence. Once the plate is read the latent image is erased, unless the
image was over exposed than a primary erasure may be necessary to
prevent ghosting on the next image. Reading CR data is the next step
which involves reading the plate with a finely focused red laser beam. This
frees and traps electrons, allowing them to return to photostimuable
luminescence level. High energy to lower energy electrons emit blue purple
light photons in proportion to the absorbed radiation. The scanning of the
image occurs usually in a raster pattern. First in the left upper collection, to
the right upper corner, then drops down a line a continues that pattern.
There is also a scan line reader which reads side to side. The light from the
imaging plate emits isotopically that is collected and directed to one or more
photodetectors, most commonly photomultiplier tubes or linear CCD array.
This is when the light is converted into an electric signal whose output is in
analog form. This analog signal is than converted into a digital signal which
is a binary number (Bit) in order for the computer to work with the image
information. Each electron is given a binary number based upon their color,
gray, black, or clear. Pixel pitch is than measured for the image. This is
dependent on the sampling frequency (pixels/mm). The ADC coverts the
range of values emitted into limited values that can be stored as a digital
code. The ADC will also determine the density values for the analog system.
Pixel size, matrix, and bit depth determine the size of the computer file.
Quantization is the process the will determine the brightness or grayscale for
the pixels of the image. Data manipulation is the next step in forming our
image. Once the plate has been scanned and the data was sent over to the
computer it starts to undergo initial image processing. This is where the raw
image is prepared according to the propriety algorithms. The CR determines
the orientation of the part and number of projections present per plate.
During the processing the following occur exposure field recognition,
histogram analysis, and grayscale analysis. The electrons return to a lower
state of energy after being processed. Imaging plates should undergo
primary erasures at least ones a week to prevent ghosting of an image. This
is where the plate is exposed to white light to return the electrons back to
the normal state.

Term definition
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ADC- Analog to digital converter

CCD- Charged couple device
Spatial resolution- the amount of detail present on an image.
Pixel- Basic picture element display
Matrix- square table of numbers that represent pixel intensity to be
displayed on the monitor.
Bit depth- the number of bits stored per pixel.; defines the shades of gray
for each pixel.
Byte- made up of 8 bits and is the amount of memory needed to store one
alpha numeric character.
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