Abstract

Presentation of the subject follows classical lines of separate discussions for

conduction, convection, and radiation, although it is emphasized that the physical
mechanism of convection heat transfer is one of conduction through the stationary fluid
layer near the heat transfer surface. Throughout the book emphasis has been placed on
physical understanding while, at the same time, relying on meaningful experimental
data in those circumstances that do not permit a simple analytical solution. Conduction
is treated from both the analytical and the numerical viewpoint, so that the reader is
afforded the insight that is gained from analytical solutions as well as the important
tools of numerical analysis that must often be used in practice. A Liberal number of
numerical examples are given that include heat sources and radiation boundary
conditions, non-uniform mesh size, and one example of a three-dimensional nodal
system. A similar procedure is followed in the presentation of convection heat transfer.
An integral analysis of both free- and forced-convection boundary layers is used to
present a physical picture of the convection process. From this physical description,
inferences may be drawn that naturally lead to the presentation of empirical and
practical relations for calculating convection heat transfer coefficients. Because it
provides an easier instruction vehicle than other methods, the radiation-network method
is used extensively in the introduction of analysis of radiation systems, while a more
generalized formulation is given later. Systems of nonlinear equations requiring
iterative solutions are also discussed in the conduction and radiation chapters but the
details of solution are relegated to cited software references. The assumption is made
that the well-disposed reader should select his or her own preferred vehicle for solution
of systems of nonlinear equations.
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Heat Transfer:
Heat transfer is study of transfer of heat within medium and neighboring
media by molecular interactions, fluid motion or electromagnetic waves.

It has many applications in various field. We discuss its applications in

1. Power Plant

2. Electronics

3. Manufacturing processes

4. Buildings

1) Heat Transfer Applications in Power Plant:

Heat transfer has various applications in POWER PLANT. Some of them are
listed below

Boiler

Condenser

Heat exchanger

Refrigeration

These are individually explained below.

1. BOILER

Boilers are used to generate steam that then provides heat or power. Water is
converted to steam in the boiler. This steam travels through the heating apparatus
which can be any piece of equipment that requires steam for operation. The cooled
steam is then condensed into water and returns to the boiler to start the cycle again.
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Shown in (figure 2.2)

Heat consumer
Boiler
conduction Condenser
convection
convection

Boiler Diagram

Fire Tube Boiler

All steam boilers have four independent systems. The feed water system
supplies water to the boiler (figure), the fuel system transports the fuel, the draft
system controls air flow for fuel combustion, and the steam system collects and
controls the produced steam.

The most commonly used fuels are coal, natural gas, and oil.

EXAMPLES
Most fire tube boilers are portable and are used in oil fields, saw mills, and at
construction sites to generate heat or power. Water tube and cast iron boilers may
be solid-fuel fired, or they may operate on standard liquid and gas fuels. The water
tube boiler below operates on gas fuel and is part of a cogeneration plant where
heat from the fuel is simultaneously converted into electrical and thermal energy.

Fire Tube Boiler Diagram

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Water Tube Boiler

In water tube boilers, on the other hand, the water travels inside the tubes
and the heat on the outside, as shown (figure) below

Figure: Water tube boiler

2. CONDENCER

Condensers make use of a condensing medium, such as air or water, that

absorbs heat from a vapor. As the vapor loses its heat to the condensing
medium, its temperature falls to the saturation point, and it condenses to a
liquid. Condensers can be designed for one or two stages, as shown on the left.
While the two-stage condenser is more efficient, it is also more expensive.

AIR COOLED
Air cooled condensers use air as the cooling medium. They are the most
used type of condensers. Air cooled condensers use circulating air to cool hot
gases. In most large models, a fan is used to either push or pull the air through the
condenser. Smaller models, however, usually depend on gravity to circulate the
air.

Air Cooling Process

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EXAMPLES

Condensers are used in power plants to condense exhaust steam from turbines.
They are also used in refrigeration plants to condense refrigeration vapors such as
ammonia or fluorinated hydrocarbons, and in the petroleum and chemical
industries to condense a variety of chemical vapors. The air cooled condensing
unit shown below is a chilling system used for ice and curling rinks.

3. HEAT EXCHANGER

Heat exchangers take the energy from a hot stream and use it to heat a cooler
stream. Most of the heat exchangers used in industry are shell and tube, air cooled
or plate and frame. The inside of the exchanger contains many tubes and baffles,
as shown in the picture below. These tubes and baffles help direct the two streams
flowing through the exchanger. Shown below is a miniature shell and tube heat
exchanger. It is used in laboratory and pilot scale plants. These small-scale heat
exchangers can handle liquid flowrates up to 20 gpm at temperatures of 1000F
and pressures up to 1500 psig.

Heat Exchanger
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SHELL & TUBE

Shell and tube heat exchangers are the most widely used type of heat
exchanger.

The picture below shows shell and tube heat exchangers in a wide range of sizes.

Figure 2.5

SHELL AND PLATE

Shell and plate heat exchangers can be used for many of the same applications
as shell and tube heat exchangers. A shell and plate heat exchangers is shown in
the photo below.

Figure 2.6
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PLATE & FRAME

Typically, plate and frame heat exchangers are used for liquid-liquid exchange at low
to medium pressures. However, gasket-free plate and frame heat exchangers can safely
operate at high temperatures and pressures. Plate and frame heat exchangers offer
flexibility because plates can be either added or compressed for each different
situation.

Fig 2.7

4. REFRIGERATION

Common refrigeration equipment decreases the temperature of a fluid to create

a cool environment. Shown below is an example of an outdoor walk-in
refrigeration chamber.

Figure 2.8
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EXAMPLES
The most familiar use of refrigeration is in domestic appliances, such as the
household refrigerator shown below on the left. Another example of domestic
refrigeration systems is air conditioning systems for houses or rooms. Refrigeration is
also used in commercial systems. Examples include cafeteria and restaurant displays,
as shown below on the right.

Conclusions:
From the above discussion, it is clear that heat transfer has its major
applications in power plant industry in which one has to find out the rate oh heat
transfer in boilers, condensers, heat exchangers as well as in refrigeration. So, heat
transfer is an important consideration while looking at power plant apparatus to make
it work or progress properly.
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2) APPLICATIONS OF HEAT TRANSFER IN

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Heat transfer is common in all manufacturing processes. Following is the list of

manufacturing processes which observe heat transfer:

1) Casting
2) Extrusion and drawing
3) Rolling
4) Welding
5) Thermoforming
6) Injection molding

1. CASTING

Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into

a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to
solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken
out of the mold to complete the process. Firstly, the metal is melted in furnace where
heat transfer takes place from furnace to metal. A melting process must be capable
of providing molten material at the proper temperature in the desired quantity, with
acceptable quality, and at a reasonable cost.

Heat transfer in casting

Then at the end of casting Solidification is accomplished in casting due to the transfer
of heat from molten metal to the mould, which in turn transfers that heat to the
atmosphere. The heat exchange in the metal-mould system is therefore essential to the
kinetics of cooling and solidifying of a casting, which is in turn decisive for
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casting structure and properties. The heat exchange between metal and the mould
surface is of complex character because it is an effect of various heat transfer
mechanisms, mainly convection and radiation.

Fig 1.1 PRESSURE DIE CASTING

Fig.1.2 COOLING CURVE DURING SOLIDIFICATION

2. EXTRUSION AND DRAWING

Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A

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material is pushed through a die (a certain manufacturing tool) of the desired cross-
section. The two main advantages of this process over other manufacturing processes
are its ability to create very complex cross-sections, and to work materials that are brittle,
because the material only encounters compressive and shear stresses. It also forms parts
with an excellent surface finish.

Drawing is a similar process, which uses the tensile strength of the material to pull
it through the die. This limits the amount of change which can be performed in one
step, so it is limited to simpler shapes, and multiple stages are usually needed.

Drawing is the main way to produce wire. Metal bar and tube are also often drawn.

Heat transfer in extrusion

It also involves heat transfer. The process begins by heating the stock material
mainly by conduction (for hot or warm extrusion). It is then loaded into the
container in the press. A dummy block is placed behind it where the ram then
presses on the material to push it out of the die. Afterward the extrusion is
stretched in order to straighten it. If better properties are required then it may be
heat treated or cold worked. Hot extrusion is a hot working process, which
means it is done above the material's recrystallization temperature to keep the
material from work hardening and to make it easier to push the material through
the die.

Fig.2 EXTRUSION OF METAL

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3. ROLLING
In metalworking, rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock
is passed through one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the thickness and to make the
thickness uniform. The concept is associated to the rolling of dough.

Heat transfer in rolling

Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the metal rolled. If the

temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, then the process
is known as hot rolling. So there is transfer of heat to metal sheet being rolled. If
the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process
is known as cold rolling. In terms of usage

Fig. 3. PHENOMENON OF ROLLING OF SHEET METAL

4. WELDING

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural HYPERLINK )" process that joins materials,

normally metals or thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower
temperature metal-joining techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do not
melt the base metal. In addition to melting the base metal, a filler material is often
added to the joint to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to form
a joint that can be as strong as the base material. Pressure may also be used in
conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce a weld.
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Heat transfer in welding

An analysis of heat transfer during welding has been carried out. The heat transfer
mechanisms considered include conduction, solid-liquid phase change, liquid-vapor
phase change and radiation.

Fig.4 GRAPH SHOWING TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS DURING

WELDING

5. THERMOFORMING

Thermoforming is a polymer processing technique in which an extruded sheet is

heated to its softening temperature and then deformed through the application of
mechanical stretching and/or pressure into a final shape. The stretching operation is
often performed by the movement of a mechanical plug, which contacts some areas
of the sheet.

Heat transfer in thermoforming

During contact it is known that conductive heat transfer between the plug and sheet
materials is an important factor in determining the process output.
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Fig.5 THERMOFORMING

6. INJECTION MOLDING

Injection molding (injection molding in the USA) is a manufacturing process for

producing parts by injecting material into a mould. Injection molding can be
performed with a host of materials, including metals, (for which the process is called
die casting), glasses, elastomers, confections, and most commonly thermoplastic
and thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a heated barrel, mixed,
and forced into a mould cavity, where it cools and hardens to the configuration of
the cavity

Like other manufacturing techniques, the key phenomenon dominating high

productivity of the injection-molding of polymers is rapid cooling of polymer due to
unsteady heat conduction between the polymer and mold made of metals. This is all
due to the heat transfer.

Fig.6 INJECTION MOLDING MACHINE

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CONCLUSION:

All the manufacturing processes being discussed so far are practical examples of
heat transfer. So, we can say that heat transfer is an important consideration while
looking at any manufacturing technique to make it progress properly

3) Application in Electronics Devices

The electronic industry requires increased forced-air cooling limits to cool high-
end server CPUs adequately. Improving air-cooled heat sink thermal performance is
one of the critical areas for increasing the overall air-cooling limit. One of the
challenging aspects for improving heat sink performance is the effective utilization of
relatively large air-cooled fin surface areas when heat is being transferred from a
relatively small heat source (CPU) with high heat flux. To meet the next generation
CPU thermal requirements with a low-profile heat sink, we will describe three heat sink
technologies (i.e., embedded heat pipe; vapor chamber; and oscillating/pulsating heat
pipe) and their associated prototypes. Each of these technologies uses internal liquid-
to-vapor phase change to spread the local CPU heat efficiently to the air-cooled fin
structure.

The increased electrical performance required by the computer industry has created
thermal design challenges due to both increased power dissipation from the CPU and
spatial envelope limitations. Local hot spot heat fluxes within the CPU are exceeding
100 W/cm2, while the maximum junction temperature requirement is 105C or less.
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1. Embedded Heat Pipe Heat Sink

The embedded heat pipe heat sink prototype appears in Figure 1. The
prototype supplier optimized the design by using both internally developed design
tools and a commercial CFD software tool. The supplier indicated that the
performance advantage results from design methods that balance the internal and
external heat pipe geometry to minimize the intrinsic temperature drop in the heat
pipes. This approach distributes the heat over the base of the heat sink. The joining
processes minimize the interfacial temperature drops to get the heat into and out of
the heat pipes. Other embedded designs have a lower performance because they do
not achieve this balance successfully.

A heat pipe may be defined as a two-phase (liquid-vapor) device that provides a

very high uni-directional thermal conductance for the efficient transport of heat along its
length. It consists of a vacuum-tight container lined with a wicking structure on its inner
surfaces and filled with a working fluid, which exists in both liquid and vapor states within
the container. The working fluid absorbs heat and evaporates wherever the container is hot,
carries the heat by physically flowing as a gas through the vapor core to the cooler parts of
the container, liberates heat and condenses into a liquid there, and returns through the wick
to the hot regions, thus completing a thermodynamic cycle. The temperature differences
between the hot and the cold regions within the vapor core of the heat pipe depend only on
the pressure drop that the vapor experiences as it flows through the vapor core. This
temperature drop is typically quite small, giving the heat pipe an effective thermal
conductance significantly greater than that of copper. The wicking structure enhances
evaporative heat transfer at the evaporator and provides the motive force to return the liquid
phase back from the condenser to the evaporator by capillary action when gravity cannot
be utilized to return the liquid.
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Figure 1. Embedded heat pipe heat sink prototype.

2. Vapor chamber heat sink

The prototype vapor chamber heat sink, appearing in Figure 2, is a 3-dimensional heat
pipe located in the heat sink base. It represents a relatively new technology that became
commercially available during the mid-1990s, versus the traditional unidirectional heat
pipe technology available for over 25 years. The prototype supplier carried out an
aggressive development effort, which allowed the wick thermal resistance to decrease
by 50%, thereby offering an advantage over other heat sinks incorporating vapor
chamber technology.

Figure 2: Vapor chamber heat sink prototype and illustrated

liquid-vapor heat/mass transfer.
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The vapor chamber minimizes the spreading resistances in the heat sink base by
allowing the heated vapor to make full contact between the heat input region and the
base of the heat sink fin structure. Figure 2 also illustrates the liquid-to-vapor heat/mass
transfer operation when two heat sources are present. The omnidirectional vapor flow
allows the heat to flow in all directions, thus minimizing the temperature gradient over
the heat sink base area.

3. Oscillating/Pulsating Heat Pipe Heat Sink

The oscillating heat pipe heat sink prototype appears in Figure 3. In this case, the fin
structure flow length is 47.5 mm. Figure 4 also illustrates heat transfer and fluid
flow direction. Unlike the previously described prototypes, the oscillating heat pipe heat
sink does not contain a wicking structure.

The discontinuity of lines at the lower right and the vertical row of black dots
at the center (to the left of Vapor) indicate that the flow path/serpentine duct is
repeated several times. Blue circles are vapor bubbles. Blue oblongs are vapor slugs.
The remaining white background region inside the serpentine-shaped ducting is liquid.
Black arrowheads indicate which regions of the flow through the ducting are liquid and
which are vapor. A flat extruded, aluminum plate incorporates both the working fluid
and an undulating turned capillary tube. For successful operation, liquid slugs and vapor
bubbles must coexist inside the capillary tube along its length (Figure 3). The extruded
aluminum plate is formed into a scroll-like shape (Figure 3) to spread heat not only
horizontally, but also vertically, thereby providing 3-dimensional heat spreading.
When one end of the undulating capillary tube is subjected to high temperature, the
working fluid inside evaporates and increases the vapor pressure, which causes the
bubbles in the evaporator zone to grow. This pushes the liquid column toward the low
temperature end (condenser). The condensation at the low temperature end will further
increase the pressure difference between the two ends. Because of the interconnection of
the tube, the motion of liquid slugs and vapor bubbles at one section of the tube toward the
condenser also leads to the motion of slugs and bubbles in the next section toward the high
temperature end (evaporator).
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This works as the restoring force. As a result, the force of gravity has a minimal
effect on fluid flow direction.

Figure 3. Oscillating heat pipe heat sink prototype and illustrated liquid-vapor
heat/mass transfer.

Conclusion:

The measured sink-to-air thermal resistance for the tested prototypes appear in
Figure 4. At the design flow rate of 35 cfm (0.0165m3/s), the maximum resistance of
these prototypes met the requirement of 0.18C/W. Figure 5 also shows that, for any
given flow rate, the range in thermal resistance for these prototypes was typically
C/W. In addition, the results show that at the 35 cfm (0.0165m3/s) airflow rate, the
optimized all-metal heat sink yielded a thermal resistance of 0.26C/W.

Figure 4. Sink-to-air thermal resistances for the prototypes

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