(between-group difference 0.4 bacteria/child, 95% CI: 0.2, 0.6; p < 0.001), but had no
significant effect upon virus detection rates.
Clinical trial registration: The trial was registered with the Australian and New Zealand
Clinical Trials Register: Clinical trials number: ACTRN1261000036099.
Keywords: bronchiolitis, Indigenous, viruses, bacteria, respiratory syncytial virus, macrolides, azithromycin,
randomized controlled trial
Excluded (n=479)
Did not meet inclusion criteria (n=320)
o Previously enrolled in another RCT (n=20)
o Previously enrolled in this RCT (n=29)
Declined to participate (n=89)
Eligible but not approached (n=21)
Randomised (n=219)
Allocation
Enrollment
Analysis
Azithromycin Placebo
(n = 106) (n = 113)
Azithromycin N = 100 (%) Placebo N = 110 (%) Risk difference (95% CI) p- value*
detection rates for respiratory viruses between treatment groups with potential deleterious long-term effects upon gastrointestinal,
changed little over the 48 h following enrollment, though PCR immunological, and metabolic programing (34). Thus, given our
detects nucleic acids, it is not possible to determine whether studys negative findings and the concerns over the association
differences in viable viruses existed with azithromycin treat- between azithromycin and increased carriage of macrolide-
ment. resistant pathogens (35), the increasing need for anti-microbial
Our study has several other limitations, which may have stewardship, potential immediate and long-term adverse events,
resulted in the negative results of our RCT. First, including and associated costs, it is clear that these factors outweigh any
an older age group increased the risk of including those with postulated, but still unproven benefits of macrolides in this patient
asthma. However, our cohorts median age of 6 months (IQR 3, population.
9) reduced this possibility. Further, in both the UK and USA
bronchiolitis guidelines, the upper age limit is 2324 months. Conclusion
Second, in the Australian centers, we included those hospital-
ized previously for an acute respiratory infection, which may In this RCT of Indigenous infants hospitalized with bronchiolitis,
have contributed to the number of respiratory rehospitalizations we found that three once-weekly doses of azithromycin signifi-
(27, 29). Third, the concurrent use of antibiotics in two-thirds cantly reduced nasopharyngeal bacterial carriage, but did not have
of infants with bronchiolitis may limit the ability of additional any significant impact on viruses or short (reduced LOS or dura-
macrolide treatment to improve outcomes. We were unable to tion of oxygen supplementation) or long-term (decreased odds
influence the clinical practice of physicians on this matter. How- of persistent symptoms at day-21 or respiratory rehospitalization
ever, subgroup analyses on previous respiratory hospitalization, within 6 months of discharge) clinical benefits compared with
or antibiotic use did not show any significant differences on placebo. In light of these results, similar findings in other studies,
any of our outcomes (see Supplementary Material). Fourth, our and fears over rising antibiotic resistance, azithromycin should not
strategy of using three large once-weekly azithromycin doses may be used to treat infants hospitalized with viral bronchiolitis.
have produced sub-optimal results. This, however, is unlikely
as prior RCTs of daily azithromycin found no benefit (16, 17). Author Contributions
Moreover, in children, single large doses of azithromycin can
successfully treat otitis media (18), while for several weeks after GM set up and managed the study, recruited participants, per-
its mass distribution within rural African villages for controlling formed the data analysis, and drafted the manuscript. AC con-
trachoma, azithromycin reduced the risk of acute lower respira- ceptualized the study. AC and KG co-drafted the manuscript.
tory infections by more than one-third (13). Although our RCT AC, PM, KG, TS, AW, IM co-designed the study and con-
(18) used the same regime for long-term therapy of children tributed to obtaining the grant, interpreted the data, and edited
with bronchiectasis and showed that azithromycin significantly the manuscript. CB was responsible for overseeing all aspects of
reduced the exacerbation rate by 50% (compared to placebo), the trial in NZ. CM, AW, and CB were responsible for standard-
the different disease and younger age group in this RCT meant izing the management of bronchiolitis in their units, recruiting
an alternative dose and/or regime for optimal efficacy may have participants, and edited the manuscript. CM, LV, NJ, CM were
been required. Finally, even though parents reported verbally that responsible for recruiting participants and edited the manuscript.
doses-2 and 3 were given, we were unable to directly observe TS and IM assisted in the viral components of the study and edited
these for remote-based infants (n = 145). However, the day-21 the manuscript. HS-V assisted in the microbiological components
follow-up rate of >97% at the local health clinic implies that of the study and edited the manuscript. MC assisted in the data
parents are likely to have adhered to the study protocol. This analysis and edited the manuscript. All authors read and approved
is supported by feedback from research nurses who interviewed the final manuscript.
parents throughout the trial.
Our study was aimed at infants at high risk of future bronchiec- Acknowledgments
tasis and employed a 3-week equivalent course in a multicentre
setting. This design was to maximize the chances of demonstrat- We thank Louise Axford-Haines for assisting in data collection,
ing a clinical benefit for azithromycin in our target population, Kim Hare, Vanya Hampton, Donna Woltring, Chris Wevill, Yuku
by reducing subsequent hospitalization and shortening hospital Ruzsicska, Jemima Beissbarth, Jane Gaydon, and Rebecca
stay (both are independent risk factors for later development Rockett for processing the viral and bacterial samples.
of bronchiectasis). Despite this, no advantage from receiving We also thank the DSMB for their guidance throughout
azithromycin was identified. Moreover, there are now growing the trial (Dr. Kerry Ann OGrady, Dr. William Frishman,
concerns over the increasing global consumption of antibiotics Prof. Alan Isles, A/Prof. Alan Ruben, Ms. Linda Ward).
and rising rates of antibiotic resistance, especially when few new We thank the Indigenous Reference Group (http://www.
anti-microbial agents are in the developmental pipeline (30, 31). menzies.edu.au/page/About_Us/Board_and_Menzies_committe
Much of this antibiotic resistance is being driven by antibiotics es/Indigenous_Reference_Group/), for their advice and support
prescribed for viral respiratory infections, most notably long- through this trial, in Australia, and the Kaiatawhai and the Pacific
acting, broad-spectrum agents, including azithromycin (32, 33). Island Family Support in New Zealand. We thank the medical
An emerging fear for this young age group is that antibiotics and nursing staff for their ongoing support and identifying the
may also adversely affect the developing intestinal microbiome children for the study, including the General Pediatric Teams at
Starship Childrens Hospital. We are grateful for all the children to reduce the morbidity of bronchiolitis in Indigenous infants: a
and families who participated in the study. protocol.
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Copyright 2015 McCallum, Morris, Grimwood, Maclennan, White, Chatfield,
35. Hare KM, Singleton RJ, Grimwood K, Valery PC, Cheng AC, Morris PS, et al.
Sloots, Mackay, Smith-Vaughan, McKay, Versteegh, Jacobsen, Mobberley, Byrnes and
Longitudinal nasopharyngeal carriage and antibiotic resistance of respiratory
Chang. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
bacteria in Indigenous Australian and Alaska native children with bronchiecta-
Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other
sis. PLoS One (2013) 8:e70478. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0070478
forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that
the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic
Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with
interest relevant to this article to disclose. This study was funded by National Health these terms.