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Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Georg Hegel

Hegel portrait by Schlesinger 1831.jpg

Hegel segn Jakob Schlesinger, 1831.

Informacin personal

Nombre de nacimiento Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Nacimiento 27 de agosto de 1770

Banner of the Holy Roman Emperor with haloes (1400-1806).svg

Stuttgart, Sacro Imperio Romano Germnico

Fallecimiento 14 de noviembre de 1831 (61 aos)

Flag of Prussia (1892-1918).svg Berln, Reino de Prusia

Causa de muerte Epidemia de clera

Nacionalidad alemn

Religin Luteranismo Ver y modificar los datos en Wikidata

Familia

Padre Georg Ludwig Hegel Ver y modificar los datos en

Wikidata

Cnyuge
 Marie von Tucher Ver y modificar los datos en Wikidata

Educacin

Alma mter Tbinger Stift

Informacin profesional

Ocupacin Filsofo

Conocido por La teora del idealismo absoluto, la dialctica y la

dialctica del amo y el esclavo

Empleador

Universidad de Jena

Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitt Ver y modificar los datos en

Wikidata

Movimientos Idealismo alemn Ver y modificar los datos en

Wikidata

Obras notables Fenomenologa del espritu, Ciencia de la lgica,

Enciclopedia de las ciencias filosficas, Elementos de la filosofa del
derecho

Predecesor Aristteles, Platn, Descartes, Goethe, Spinoza,

Leibniz, Rousseau, Kant, Fichte, Hlderlin, Schelling, Adam Smith.

Sucesor Adorno, Barth, Bauer, Bradley, Brandom, Butler.

Distinciones
 Order of the Red Eagle 3rd Class Ver y modificar los datos en
Wikidata

Firma Hegel Unterschrift.svg

[editar datos en Wikidata]

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (Stuttgart, 27 de agosto de 1770

Berln, 14 de noviembre de 1831) fue un filsofo alemn. Recibi su
formacin en el Tbinger Stift (seminario de la Iglesia Protestante
en Wurtemberg), donde trab amistad con el futuro filsofo Friedrich
Schelling y el poeta Friedrich Hlderlin. Le fascinaron las obras de
Platn, Aristteles, Descartes, Spinoza, Kant, Rousseau, as como
la Revolucin Francesa, la cual acab rechazando cuando esta
cay en manos del terror jacobino. Muri vctima de una epidemia
de clera, que hizo estragos durante el verano y el otoo de 1831.
Fue el padre del historiador Karl von Hegel (1813-1901).
Considerado por la historia clsica de la filosofa como el
representante de la cumbre del movimiento decimonnico alemn
del idealismo filosfico y como un revolucionario de la dialctica,
habra de tener un impacto profundo en el materialismo histrico de
Karl Marx. La relacin intelectual entre Marx y Hegel ha sido una
gran fuente de inters por la obra de Hegel. Hegel es clebre como
un filsofo muy oscuro, pero muy original, trascendente para la
historia de la filosofa y que sorprende a cada nueva generacin[cita
requerida]. La prueba est en que la profundidad de su
pensamiento gener una serie de reacciones y revoluciones que
inauguraron toda una nueva visin de hacer filosofa[cita requerida];
que van desde la explicacin del materialismo Marxista, el pre-
existencialismo de Sren Kierkegaard, el escape de la Metafsica de
Friedrich Nietzsche, la crtica a la Ontologa de Martin Heidegger, el
pensamiento de Jean-Paul Sartre, la filosofa nietzscheana de
Georges Bataille, la dialctica negativa de Theodor W. Adorno, la
teora de la deconstruccin de Jacques Derrida y la teora
psicoanaltica de Jacques Lacan, entre otros. Resulta patente, en
este sentido, el impacto que el sistema hegeliano ha tenido en la
filosofa continental y, en especial, en la filosofa francesa del ltimo
siglo, donde la recepcin de Hegel estuvo mediada, principalmente,
por Jean Hyppolite, Alexandre Koyr y Alexandre Kojve.

ndice

1 Formacin

2 Obra

3 Pensamiento

4 Lgica

5 Esttica

6 Dialctica histrica
 7 Eurocentrismo

8 Seguidores

9 Obras principales

10 Vase tambin

11 Referencias

12 Bibliografa

12.1 Sobre Hegel y su obra

13 Enlaces externos

Formacin

Hegel asisti al seminario de Tubinga con el poeta Friedrich

Hlderlin y el idealista objetivo Schelling. Los tres estuvieron atentos
al desarrollo de la Revolucin francesa y colaboraron en una crtica
de las filosofas idealistas de Immanuel Kant y su seguidor, Fichte.

Obra
Se suele considerar la primera obra realmente importante de Hegel
su Fenomenologa del espritu (1807), si bien sus nunca publicados
en vida Escritos de Juventud, entre los que sobresale "El Espritu
del Cristianismo y su destino", han sido objeto de estudio e
interpretacin desde su publicacin a principios del siglo XX. Otras
obras prefenomenolgicas, como La Constitucin de Alemania
(1802), dan cuenta del triste estado del imperio romano-germnico
a comienzos del s. XIX. El sistema que propone para Alemania y el
resentimiento que ah expresa por los dems pases de Europa, con
excepcin de Italia que, segn Hegel, comparte el destino de
Alemania, hace de esta obra un extrao presagio de la Segunda
Guerra Mundial.[cita requerida]. En 1802 aparecen sus primeras
publicaciones en la Revista Crtica de Filosofa, en la que trabaja
junto a su viejo compaero del Seminario de Tubinga, Schelling.

Actualmente, la Fenomenologa del espritu es considerada la ms

importante obra de Hegel.[cita requerida] Public adems la Ciencia
de la lgica (1812-1816), la Enciclopedia de las ciencias filosficas
(1817, con varias reediciones posteriores) y la Filosofa del derecho
(1821). Otras varias obras sobre la filosofa de la historia, la religin,
la esttica y la historia de la filosofa se recopilaron a partir de los
apuntes de sus estudiantes y se publicaron pstumamente.

Pensamiento

Las obras de Hegel tienen fama de difciles por la amplitud de los

temas que pretenden abarcar. Hegel introdujo un sistema para
entender la historia de la filosofa y el mundo mismo, llamado a
menudo dialctica: una progresin en la que cada movimiento
sucesivo surge como solucin de las contradicciones inherentes al
movimiento anterior. Por ejemplo, la Revolucin francesa constituye
para Hegel la introduccin de la verdadera libertad a las sociedades
occidentales por primera vez en la historia.
Sin embargo, precisamente por su novedad absoluta, es tambin
absolutamente radical: por una parte, el aumento abrupto de
violencia que hizo falta para realizar la revolucin no puede dejar de
ser lo que es, y por otra parte, ya ha consumido a su oponente. La
revolucin, por consiguiente, ya no tiene hacia dnde volverse ms
que a su propio resultado: la libertad conquistada con tantas
penurias es consumida por un brutal Reinado del Terror. La historia,
no obstante, progresa aprendiendo de sus propios errores: slo
despus de esta experiencia, y precisamente por ella, puede
postularse la existencia de un Estado constitucional de ciudadanos
libres, que consagra tanto el poder organizador benvolo
(supuestamente) del gobierno racional y los ideales revolucionarios
de la libertad y la igualdad. "En el pensamiento es donde reside la
libertad".

En las explicaciones contemporneas del hegelianismo para las

clases preuniversitarias, por ejemplo la dialctica de Hegel a
menudo aparece fragmentada, por comodidad, en tres momentos
llamados tesis (en nuestro ejemplo, la revolucin), anttesis (el
terror subsiguiente) y sntesis (el estado constitucional de
ciudadanos libres). Sin embargo, Hegel no emple personalmente
esta clasificacin en absoluto; fue creada anteriormente por Fichte
en su explicacin ms o menos anloga de la relacin entre el
individuo y el mundo. Los estudiosos serios de Hegel no reconocen,
en general, la validez de esta clasificacin[cita requerida], aunque
probablemente tenga algn valor pedaggico (vase Trada
dialctica).
El historicismo creci significativamente durante la filosofa de
Hegel. De la misma manera que otros exponentes del historicismo,
Hegel consideraba que el estudio de la historia era el mtodo
adecuado para abordar el estudio de la ciencia de la sociedad, ya
que revelara algunas tendencias del desarrollo histrico. En su
filosofa, la historia no slo ofrece la clave para la comprensin de la
sociedad y de los cambios sociales, sino que es tomada en cuenta
como tribunal de justicia del mundo.

La filosofa de Hegel afirmaba que todo lo que es real es tambin

racional y que todo lo que es racional es real. El fin de la historia
era, para Hegel, la parusa del espritu y el desarrollo histrico poda
equipararse al desarrollo de un organismo, los componentes
trabajan afectando al resto y tienen funciones definidas. Hegel dice
que es una norma divina, que en todo se halla la voluntad de Dios,
que es conducir al hombre a la libertad; por ello es pantesta.
Justifica as la desgracia histrica: toda la sangre y el dolor, la
pobreza y las guerras son "el precio" necesario a pagar para lograr
la libertad de la humanidad.
Hegel se vali de este sistema para explicar toda la historia de la
filosofa, de la ciencia, del arte, de la poltica y de la religin, pero
muchos crticos modernos sealan que Hegel a menudo parece
pasar por alto las realidades de la historia a fin de hacerlas encajar
en su molde dialctico. Karl Popper, crtico de Hegel en La sociedad
abierta y sus enemigos, opina que el sistema de Hegel constituye
una justificacin tenuemente disfrazada del gobierno de Federico
Guillermo III y de la idea hegeliana de que el objetivo ulterior de la
historia es llegar a un Estado que se aproxima al de la Prusia del
decenio de 1831. Esta visin de Hegel como aplogo del poder
estatal y precursor del totalitarismo del siglo XX fue criticada
minuciosamente por Herbert Marcuse en Razn y revolucin: Hegel
y el surgimiento de la teora social, arguyendo que Hegel no fue
aplogo de ningn Estado ni forma de autoridad sencillamente
porque stos existieran; para Hegel, el Estado debe ser siempre
racional. Arthur Schopenhauer despreci a Hegel por su
historicismo y tach su obra de pseudofilosofa.

La filosofa de la historia de Hegel est tambin marcada por los

conceptos de las "astucias de la razn" y la "burla de la historia"; la
historia conduce a los hombres que creen conducirse a s mismos,
como individuos y como sociedades, y castiga sus pretensiones de
modo que la historia-mundo se burla de ellos produciendo
resultados exactamente contrarios, paradjicos, a los pretendidos
por sus autores, aunque finalmente la historia se reordena y, en un
bucle fantstico, retrocede sobre s misma y con su burla y paradoja
sarcstica, convertida en mecanismo de cifrado, crea tambin ella
misma, sin quererlo, realidades y smbolos ocultos al mundo y
accesibles slo a los cognoscentes, es decir, a aquellos que quieren
conocer.

Lgica
El acto del conocimiento es la introduccin de la contradiccin. El
principio del tercero excluido, algo o es A o no es A, es la
proposicin que quiere rechazar la contradiccin y al hacerlo incurre
precisamente en contradiccin: A debe ser +A -A, con lo cual ya
queda introducido el tercer trmino, A, que no es ni + ni - y por lo
mismo es +A y -A. Una cosa es ella misma y no es ella, porque en
realidad toda cosa cambia y se transforma ella misma en otra cosa.
Esto significa la superacin de la lgica formal y el establecimiento
de la lgica dialctica.

Todas las cosas son contradictorias en s mismas y ello es profunda

y plenamente esencial. La identidad es la determinacin de lo
simple inmediato y esttico, mientras que la contradiccin es la raz
de todo movimiento y vitalidad, el principio de todo automovimiento
y, solamente aquello que encierra una contradiccin se mueve.

La imaginacin corriente capta la identidad, la diferencia y la

contradiccin, pero no la transicin de lo uno a lo otro, que es lo
ms importante, cmo lo uno se convierte en lo otro.

Causa y efecto son momentos de la dependencia recproca

universal, de la conexin y concatenacin recproca de los
acontecimientos, eslabones en la cadena del desarrollo de la
materia y la sociedad: la misma cosa se presenta primero como
causa y luego como efecto.

Es necesario hacer conciencia de la intercausalidad, de las leyes de

conexin universal objetiva, de la lucha y la unidad de los contrarios
y de las transiciones y las transformaciones de la naturaleza y la
sociedad. La totalidad de todos los aspectos del fenmeno, de la
realidad y de sus relaciones recprocas, de eso est compuesta la
verdad.
La realidad es la unidad de la esencia y la existencia. La esencia no
est detrs o ms all del fenmeno, sino que por lo mismo que la
esencia existe, la esencia se concreta en el fenmeno. La
existencia es la unidad inmediata del ser y la reflexin: Posibilidad y
accidentalidad son momentos de la realidad puestos como formas
que constituyen la exterioridad de lo real y por tanto son cuestin
que afecta el contenido, porque en la realidad se rene esta
exterioridad, con la interioridad, en un movimiento nico y se
convierte en necesidad, de manera que lo necesario es mediado
por un cmulo de circunstancias o condiciones.

La cantidad se transforma en calidad y los cambios se interconectan

y provocan los unos con los otros. Las matemticas no han logrado
justificar estas operaciones que se basan en la transicin, porque la
transicin no es de naturaleza matemtica o formal, sino dialctica.

Las determinaciones lgicas anteriormente expuestas, las

determinaciones del ser y la esencia, no son meras
determinaciones del pensamiento. La lgica del concepto se
entiende ordinariamente como ciencia solamente formal, pero si las
formas lgicas del concepto fueran recipientes muertos, pasivos, de
meras representaciones y pensamientos, su conocimiento sera
superfluo; pero en realidad son como formas del concepto, el
espritu vivo de lo real y por tanto se requiere indagar la verdad de
estas formas y su conexin necesaria.
El mtodo del conocimiento no es una forma meramente exterior,
sino que es alma y concepto del contenido. Por lo que se refiere a la
naturaleza del concepto el anlisis es lo primero, porque debe
elevar la materia dada a la forma de abstracciones universales, las
cuales, luego, mediante el mtodo sinttico son puestas como
definiciones. El anlisis resuelve el dato concreto, asla sus
diferencias y les da forma de universalidad o deja lo concreto como
fundamento y, por medio de la abstraccin de las particularidades
que aparentan ser inesenciales, pone de relieve un universal
concreto o sea la fuerza de ley general. Esta universalidad es luego
tambin determinada mediante la sntesis del concepto en sus
formas, en definiciones.

La actividad humana une lo subjetivo con lo objetivo. El fin subjetivo

se vincula con la objetividad exterior a l, a travs de un medio que
es la unidad de ambos, esto es la actividad conforme al fin. As, con
sus herramientas, el hombre posee poder sobre la naturaleza
exterior, aunque en lo que respecta a sus fines se encuentra con
frecuencia sometido a ella.

Esttica

Hegel estudi el arte como modo de aparecer de la idea en lo bello.

En sus lecciones sobre esttica define primero el campo en el que
esta ciencia debe trabajar. Realiza para ello una distincin entre lo
bello natural y lo bello artstico. Lo bello artstico es superior a lo
bello natural porque en el primero est presente el espritu, la
libertad, que es lo nico verdadero. Lo bello en el arte es belleza
generada por el espritu, por tanto partcipe de ste, a diferencia de
lo bello natural que no ser digno de una investigacin esttica,
precisamente por no ser partcipe de ese espritu que es el fin ltimo
de conocimiento.
Antes de analizar lo Bello artstico, Hegel refuta algunas objeciones
que catalogan al arte como indigno de tratamiento cientfico (con
tratamiento cientfico Hegel se refiere a tratamiento filosfico y no a
la ciencia como se entiende hoy).

Como primer punto que refutar, habla de la afirmacin que vuelve al

arte indigno de investigacin cientfica por contribuir a la relajacin
del espritu, careciendo as de naturaleza seria. Segn esto, el arte,
tomado como un juego, emplea la ilusin como medio para su fin y,
dado que el medio debe siempre corresponder a la dignidad del fin,
lo verdadero nunca puede surgir de la apariencia.

Tambin Hegel en este punto se refiere a Kant para criticarlo. Kant

viene a decir que el arte s es digno de una investigacin cientfica,
al asignarle el papel de mediador entre razn y sensibilidad. Pero
Hegel no solo no cree esto posible, ya que tanto la razn como la
sensibilidad no se prestaran a tal mediacin y reclamaran su
pureza, sino que adems aclara que, siendo mediador, el arte no
ganara ms seriedad, ya que este no sera un fin en s mismo y el
arte seguira estando subordinado a fines ms serios, superiores.

Dentro del campo de la esttica o filosofa del arte, Hegel distingue

entre arte libre y arte servil, teniendo este ltimo fines ajenos a l,
como por ejemplo el decorar. Es el arte libre el que ser objeto de
estudio, ya que tiene fines propios, es libre y verdadero, porque es
un modo de expresar lo divino de manera sensible. De esta manera
el arte se aproxima al modo de manifestacin de la naturaleza, que
es necesaria, seria y sigue leyes.
En su calidad de ilusin, el arte no puede separarse de toda la
realidad. La apariencia le es esencial al espritu, de manera que
todo lo real ser apariencia de ste. Existe una diferencia entre la
apariencia en lo real y la apariencia en el arte. La primera, gracias a
la inmediatez de lo sensible, se presenta como verdadera, se nos
aparece como lo real. En cambio la apariencia en lo artstico se
presenta como ilusin, le quita al objeto la pretensin de verdad que
tiene en la realidad y le otorga una realidad superior, hija del
espritu. De manera que aunque la idea se encuentre tanto en lo
real como en el arte, es en este ltimo en donde resulta ms fcil
penetrar en ella.

Al tener el arte como esencia el espritu, se deduce que su

naturaleza es el pensar, de manera que los productos del arte bello,
ms all de la libertad y arbitrio que puedan tener, en cuanto
partcipes del espritu, ste les fija lmites, puntos de apoyo. Tienen
conciencia, se piensan sobre s mismos. El contenido determina
una forma.

Al serle al arte esencial la forma, el mismo es limitado. Hay un

momento en el que el arte satisface las necesidades del espritu,
pero por su carcter limitado esto dejar de ser as. Una vez que
deja de satisfacer dichas necesidades, la obra de arte genera en
nosotros, adems del goce inmediato, el pensamiento y la reflexin;
genera en nosotros juicio, y ste va a tener como objetivo el
conocer el arte, el espritu que en l se aparece, su ser ah. Es por
esto que la filosofa del arte es an ms necesaria hoy que en el
pasado.

Entonces, los productos del arte bello son una alienacin del
espritu en lo sensible. La verdadera tarea del arte es llevar a la
conciencia los verdaderos intereses del espritu y es por esto que, al
ser pensado por la ciencia, el arte cumple su finalidad.
Hegel distingue tres formas artsticas: la forma artstica Simblica, la
forma artstica Clsica y la forma artstica Romntica. Estas marcan
el camino de la idea en el arte, son diferentes relaciones entre el
contenido y la forma.

La forma artstica Simblica es un mero buscar la forma para un

contenido que an es indeterminado. La figura es deficiente, no
expresa la idea. El hombre parte del material sensible de la
naturaleza y construye una forma a la cual le adjudica un
significado. Se da la utilizacin del smbolo y ste, en su carcter de
ambiguo, llenar de misterio todo el arte simblico. La forma es
mayor que el contenido. Hegel relaciona esta forma artstica con el
arte de la arquitectura, sta no muestra lo divino sino su exterior, su
lugar de residencia. Se refiere a la arquitectura de culto, ms
especficamente a la egipcia, la india y la hebrea.

La forma artstica Clsica logra el equilibrio entre forma y contenido.

La idea no solo es determinada sino que se agota en su
manifestacin. El arte griego, la escultura, es el arte de la forma
artstica clsica. Las esculturas griegas no eran, para los griegos,
representaciones del dios sino que eran el dios mismo. El hombre
griego fue capaz de expresar su espritu absoluto, su religin, en el
arte. A esto se refiere Hegel cuando habla del carcter pasado del
arte. El arte, en su esencia, pertenece al pasado siempre, porque es
en l en donde la cumple, es en el arte griego en donde el Arte logra
su fin ltimo, la representacin total de la idea.
Pero precisamente por el carcter limitado del arte, este equilibrio
tiene que romperse y aqu se da el paso a la forma artstica
Romntica. Una vez ms hay una desigualdad entre forma y
contenido, dejan de encastrar de manera perfecta, pero ahora es la
forma la que no es capaz de representar el espritu. El contenido
rebasa la forma.

Las artes de esta forma artstica son la pintura, la msica y la

poesa. La idea va de lo ms material, la pintura, a lo menos
material, pasando por la msica, que tiene como materia el sonido,
y llega a la poesa, que es el arte universal del espritu ya que tiene
como material la bella fantasa. La poesa atravesar todas las
dems artes.

Muchos filsofos van a retomar el tema del arte en Hegel, Hans-

Georg Gadamer, por ejemplo, hablar de La muerte del Arte
refirindose a la esttica hegeliana. Hegel nunca habl de una
muerte del arte sino que le otorg a ste el carcter de pasado,
pasado no entendido como algo que ya no existe; el carcter
pasado del arte esta ntimamente vinculado con el fin de la filosofa
hegeliana, conocer al espritu, que ste sea libre. Dentro de este fin,
el arte cumpli su tarea en el pasado, en la poca clsica, para
luego ser superado por la religin y en ltima instancia, sta por la
filosofa.

Dialctica histrica
Hegel expuso extensamente su filosofa de la historia en sus
Lecciones sobre la Filosofa de la Historia Universal. Sin embargo,
la exposicin ms notable de su visin dialctica de la historia es
aquella contenida en la obra que, como ninguna otra, encarna y
simboliza su filosofa: la Fenomenologa del Espritu. Se trata del
anlisis presentado en la seccin central de la Fenomenologa, que
lleva por rbrica El Espritu (Der Geist) y que trata de la historia
europea desde la Grecia clsica hasta la Alemania del tiempo de
Hegel.1
En concordancia con su esquema dialctico, Hegel divide el perodo
a analizar en tres grandes fases: la de la unidad originaria (la polis
de la Grecia clsica), la de la divisin conflictiva pero desarrolladora
(Roma, el feudalismo y la edad moderna hasta la Revolucin
Francesa) y, finalmente, la vuelta a la unidad, pero ahora
enriquecida por el desarrollo anterior (el presente de Hegel). El
punto de arranque es el momento de lo que Hegel llama el Espritu
verdadero (Der wahre Geist). Este momento, representado por las
ciudades estado griegas, nos muestra el Espritu en su unidad
primigenia, an indiferenciado y no desarrollado. Es un momento de
felicidad dada por la armona entre el todo (la ciudad) y las partes
(los ciudadanos), donde los individuos entienden su destino como
una expresin directa del destino colectivo y donde, como lo dice
Hegel de una manera inspirada por la Antgona de Sfocles, la ley
humana y la ley divina coinciden. Los hombres viven aqu de
acuerdo a las costumbres heredadas que forman la base de una
tica espontnea y evidente, an muy distante de la moral reflexiva.
Este estado o momento representa una especie de infancia de la
humanidad: feliz en la inmediatez natural de sus vnculos y en sus
certidumbres an no cuestionadas. Pero esta felicidad de la
armona primigenia no puede durar, ya que su precio es la falta de
desarrollo. Por su naturaleza, el Espritu busca profundizar en su
propio contenido y tal como Adn, y con las mismas consecuencias,
no puede dejar de comer del fruto del rbol de la sabidura. De esta
manera se rompe el encanto del Jardn del Edn y un abismo se
abre entre la ley divina y la ley humana. Los hombres se
individualizan y entran en conflicto unos con otros: la comunidad
original se quiebra. As se enfrentan las familias y luego las
ciudades entre s, cada una de las cuales quiere afirmar su ley y sus
peculiaridades como universales y busca por ello someter a las
dems. La guerra se hace inevitable, pero el Espritu no retrocede ni
ante la guerra ni los sufrimientos. Tanto por las divisiones y
desgarramientos internos como por los conflictos externos pierden
las viejas costumbres su legitimidad natural y espontnea, su
validez evidente e incuestionada. La infancia queda as atrs y se
entra en la fase de la juventud, activa, desafiante y conflictiva. De
esta manera se adentran los hombres en una larga peregrinacin,
en un estado social caracterizado por la divisin y el extraamiento.
El Espritu entra en el reino de la alienacin.

El segundo momento del desarrollo del Espritu es aquel del Espritu

extraado de s mismo (Der sich entfremdete Geist). El Espritu se
ha hecho extrao a s mismo, la unidad y la totalidad han cedido
lugar a la lucha de las partes en un mundo cada vez ms
atomizado, donde lo particular (los individuos o los grupos) se
rebela contra lo general (la sociedad o comunidad). El tejido social
se escinde entre una esfera privada y una pblica. La vida individual
se privatiza y, al mismo tiempo, lo pblico pasa a ser el dominio o la
propiedad de unos pocos: el Estado se separa de la sociedad. La
marcha del progreso que resulta de esta divisin se hace ajena a
sus propios creadores. La historia discurre as, como Hegel primero
y luego Marx gustaba de decir, a espaldas de los hombres. La
prdida de la unidad primigenia y la divisin social crean un fuerte
sentimiento de infelicidad. Es la poca de lo que Hegel llama la
conciencia infeliz (unglcklige Bewusstsein), la cual encuentra en
el cristianismo su expresin religiosa adecuada por medio de la cual
reconoce su propio extraamiento y su incapacidad de comprender
su propia obra en la idea de un Dios trascendente, inalcanzable e
incomprensible. La vida se hace misterio y el misterio pasa a ser la
esencia de Dios. Todo esto es doloroso, pero as es el progreso, la
realizacin de la razn es trgica tal como lo ensea el sacrificio
mismo de Cristo.
El conflicto entre el todo y las partes alcanza su forma ms aguda
en la lucha que directamente precede la poca de Hegel: la lucha
entre la ilustracin y la supersticin (der kampf der Aufklrung mit
dem Aberglauben). La fe, el sentimiento religioso, representa lo
general, la totalidad, la especie, pero de una manera mstica. La
Ilustracin representa, a su vez, la fuerza analtica del intelecto, la
profundizacin por medio de las ciencias especializadas en las
singularidades de la existencia, el dominio ilimitado de lo individual y
lo particular. En este enfrentamiento triunfa la Ilustracin y la fe se
desintegra ante el embate del intelecto. Pero la victoria del intelecto
que es la negacin del todo o la unidad es slo temporal y
prepara la victoria definitiva de la totalidad, bajo la forma del sistema
omniabarcante de la razn del mismo Hegel, que no es sino la
negacin de la negacin y con ello la vuelta a la afirmacin original,
pero ahora enriquecida por el desarrollo intermedio.
El ltimo acto en el drama del Espritu alienado de s mismo es la
Revolucin Francesa. En torno a la misma Hegel desarrolla uno de
sus anlisis ms notables. La Revolucin Francesa representa para
Hegel el intento de instaurar sobre la tierra el reino de lo que l
llama la libertad absoluta (die absolute Freiheit). Se trata de la
razn individual ensoberbecida que se decide a actuar con plena
libertad, sin lmites, como si el mundo pudiese crearse de nuevo y,
adems, a su antojo. El cuestionamiento de la fe y la elevacin del
intelecto humano al sitial de Dios crean la ilusin de que todo puede
ser cambiado de acuerdo al plan de los reformadores
revolucionarios. Se trata de la hybris de la razn que, de esta
manera, se vuelve contra todo lo existente. Pero la revuelta de la
razn revolucionaria o de la libertad absoluta no es para Hegel sino
un malentendido trgico, que no poda sino terminar en el terror (der
Schrecken). Finalmente, cada lder y cada fraccin revolucionaria
trata de imponerle al resto sus utopas y crear un nuevo mundo a su
antojo como si fueran dioses. Y estos nuevos dioses feroces,
decididos a hacerle el bien a la humanidad aunque le costase la
vida a incontables seres humanos, terminaron necesariamente
combatindose unos a otros, con aquella ceguera y ensaamiento
que slo aquellos que se creen los portadores de la bondad
extrema pueden exhibir. La rivalidad y la sospecha mutua se
hicieron as la regla y el reino de la llamada voluntad general
termin en el despotismo de Robespierre. Ahora bien, el final trgico
de la Revolucin Francesa no hace que su evaluacin de conjunto
sea negativa para Hegel sino muy por el contrario. Fiel a su lgica
historicista, donde incluso la violencia ms repugnante juega su
papel, la ve no slo como un momento necesario de la realizacin
del Espritu sino como uno de sus grandes momentos. La revolucin
fue un intento grandioso de transformar a cada individuo en el
dueo del mundo y de su destino, de someter toda objetividad, todo
lo dado, a la voluntad transformadora del ser humano. Se cumpla
as, radicalmente, el programa de la Ilustracin, aquel que Kant
resumi en su famosa definicin de la misma como la salida del
hombre de su minora de edad. Pero al cumplirse de una manera
tan radical y absoluta, el programa de la Ilustracin dej claramente
de manifiesto sus falacias y problemas. El tribunal de la razn se
transform en el tribunal revolucionario, donde no slo se decapit
al pasado sino tambin a los propios revolucionarios. En todo caso,
el apocalipsis revolucionario fue un hito definitivo para el futuro y
posibilit, como la tormenta que despeja el cielo nublado, el paso
del Espritu a la fase de su reconciliacin final.
Despus del fin sangriento del gran sueo de la libertad absoluta,
los individuos volvieron a sus modestos quehaceres cotidianos,
pero la Europa posrevolucionaria ya nunca ms podra ser la de
antes. Un nuevo principio se haba plasmado y se transformara en
el eje de un nuevo Estado, el Estado racional, que no negaba las
distinciones anteriores propias de la sociedad civil ni tampoco al
individuo sino que los subordinaba a todos en una nueva unidad
orgnica, en una armona superior que era as la negacin de la
negacin, el fin de la alienacin, la reconciliacin de las partes con
el todo y de los individuos con la comunidad. Con ello se pasaba al
momento culminante de la realizacin del Espritu, la del Espritu
cierto de s mismo (Der seiner selbst gewisse Geist) que alcanza su
forma ms adecuada en la filosofa absoluta, que no es otra que la
de Hegel. La leccin de la gran revolucin fue verdaderamente
decisiva. Para Hegel signific el abandono definitivo de todo sueo
utpico entre ellos aquellos sueos juveniles de un
restablecimiento de aquel supuesto estado de armona primigenia
representado por la polis de la Antigedad para transformarse en
el pensador profundamente conservador de su edad madura, aquel
pensador que ya no es el filsofo de la revolucin sino de la
restauracin. Lo que el fracaso del intento de instaurar el reino de la
libertad absoluta mostraba era que los hombres, en realidad, nada
tienen que cambiar en lo esencial, que no pueden construir un
mundo como les plazca, que el pasado no es una pura sarta de
estpidas irracionalidades, que lo que ha existido tiene un sentido y
un contenido duraderos, que se trata nada menos que de las
expresiones de la razn en sus distintos momentos, todos ellos
necesarios para alcanzar su forma adecuada. Detrs del teln del
fin de la historia no hay nada ms que la historia misma. Es por ello
que lo que resta no es destruir la herencia de los siglos sino
reconocerla y darle una forma definitivamente armoniosa o racional,
es decir, acorde al conjunto de la Idea ya realizada. Al fin de la
historia no queda sino la reconciliacin o la vuelta del Espritu a s
mismo.

Eurocentrismo
Hegel fue uno de los promotores ms notables de la superioridad
europea, ms exactamente del norte de Europa, sobre las dems
culturas del mundo. Para l, la Historia Universal nace en Asia, y
culmina en Europa. La manifestacin ms alta del pensamiento
humano, que aparece con la modernidad, para l, con la Reforma
Protestante en Alemania, la Revolucin francesa y la Ilustracin,
tambin de cosecha germnica, son los puntos de referencia en
donde la subjetividad se reconoce a s misma. Hegel recuerda que
Inglaterra se otorg a s misma la misin de expandir la
civilizacin por el resto del mundo.

Fue un defensor irrestricto del Espritu germnico, que

acompaado del cristianismo, sera lo ms avanzado de la
humanidad:

El Espritu germnico (der germanische Geist) es el Espritu del

Nuevo Mundo (neuen Welt), cuyo fin es la realizacin de la verdad
absoluta, como autodeterminacin infinita de la libertad, que tiene
por contenido su propia forma absoluta. El principio del imperio
germnico debe ser ajustado a la religin cristiana. El destino de los
pueblos germnicos es el de suministrar los portadores del Principio
cristiano.

(Hegel, Vorlesungen ber die Philosophie der Geschichte, en

Werke, ed. Suhrkamp, Frncfort del Meno, t. 12, p. 413; ed.
espaola, t. II, p. 258.)

Seguidores

Artculo principal: Hegelianismo

Tras la muerte de Hegel, sus seguidores se dividieron en dos
campos principales y contrarios. Los hegelianos de derecha,
discpulos directos de Hegel en la Universidad de Berln,
defendieron la ortodoxia evanglica y el conservadurismo poltico de
la restauracin de los sistemas monrquicos tras las guerras
napolenicas.

Los de izquierda vinieron a ser llamados jvenes hegelianos e

interpretaron a Hegel en un sentido revolucionario, lo que los llev a
atenerse al atesmo en la religin y a la democracia liberal en la
poltica. Entre los hegelianos de izquierda se cuenta a Bruno Bauer,
Ludwig Feuerbach, David Friedrich Strauss, Max Stirner y el ms
famoso, Karl Marx. Los mltiples cismas en esta faccin llevaron
finalmente a la variedad anarquista del egosmo de Stirner y a la
versin marxista del comunismo.

En el siglo XX, la filosofa de Hegel tuvo un gran renacimiento: Esto

se debi en parte a que fue redescubierto y revaluado como
progenitor filosfico del marxismo por marxistas de orientacin
filosfica, en parte a un resurgimiento de la perspectiva histrica
que Hegel aport a todo, y en parte al creciente reconocimiento de
la importancia de su mtodo dialctico. Algunas figuras que se
relacionan con este renacimiento son Herbert Marcuse, Theodor
Adorno, Ernst Bloch, Alexandre Kojve y Gotthard Gnther. El
renacimiento de Hegel tambin puso de relieve la importancia de
sus primeras obras, es decir, las publicadas antes de la
Fenomenologa del espritu. Los estudiosos no estn de acuerdo si
filsofos contemporneos como Wilfrid Sellars, John McDowell,
Robert Brandom y Slavoj iek deberan ser considerados neo-
hegelianos.2

Obras principales
 Fenomenologa del espritu (Phnomenologie des Geistes,
Bamberg, 1807)

Ciencia de la lgica (Wissenschaft der Logik, 3 vols., 18121816).

Trad. esp.: editorial Solar / Hachette, Buenos Aires, segunda ed.
1968. Trad. de Augusta y Rodolfo Mondolfo. Prlogo de R.
Mondolfo.

Enciclopedia de las ciencias filosficas (Enzyklopaedie der

philosophischen Wissenschaften, Heidelberg, 1817; 2 ed. 1827; 3,
1830)

Elementos de la filosofa del derecho (Grundlinien der

Philosophie des Rechts, 1821)

Vase tambin

Hegelianismo

Jvenes hegelianos

Marx y Hegel

Panlogismo

Referencias

G. W. F, Hegel (1951). Hegel Smtliche Werke, Band II. Stuttgart:

Frommann Verlag, pp. 335-516. En espaol: Fenomenologa del
Espritu, Mxico: Fondo de Cultura Econmica 1971, pp. 259-392.
 Jeremy Wanderer y Steven Levine: Crtica de: Chauncey Maher:
The Pittsburgh School of Philosophy: Sellars, McDowell, Brandom.
En: Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews; en lnea.

Bibliografa

Obras; estudio introductorio de Volker Rhle. Dos volmenes.

Carton. Biblioteca de Grandes Pensadores. Madrid: Editorial
Gredos.

Volumen I. 2010, {ISBN 9788424915285}. Incluye: Diferencia

entre los sistemas de filosofa de Fichte y de Schelling (trad. de M
del Carmen Paredes) y Fenomenologa del espritu (trad. de A.
Gmez Ramos).

Volumen II. 2010, {ISBN 9788424917586}. Incluye: Lneas

fundamentales de la filosofa del derecho (trad. de M del Carmen
Paredes) y Lecciones de la filosofa de la historia (trad. de J.M.
Quintana Cabanas).

Ciencia de la lgica; traduccin de Augusta y Rodolfo Mondolfo,

Ediciones del Solar, 1982, dos tomos, ISBN 950-0086-00-X-O.C.

Fenomenologa del Espritu; traduccin de Wenceslao Roces,

Fondo de Cultura Econmica, 1994, ISBN 968-16-0584-5.

Fenomenologa del Espritu; traduccin de Manuel J. Redondo,

Pre-Textos, 2006, ISBN 84-8191-764-8.

Fenomenologa del Espritu; traduccin de Alfredo Llanos,

Editorial Rescate, 1991, ISBN 950-9458-21-X.
 Fenomenologa del Espritu; edicin bilinge y traduccin de
Antonio Gmez Ramos, Editorial Abada, 2010, ISBN 978-84-96775-
71-8.

Filosofa real; traduccin de Jos Mara Ripalda, Fondo de

Cultura Econmica, 2006, ISBN 84-375-0589-5.

Enciclopedia de las Ciencias Filsoficas: Lgica; traduccin de

Antonio Zozaya, Editorial Ricardo Aguilera, ISBN 84-599-0354-0.
(Contiene los Zusats y las observaciones).

Enciclopedia de las Ciencias Filosficas: Lgica; traduccin de

Alfredo Llanos, Leviatn, Buenos Aires, 2006, ISBN 987-514-077-5.
(No contiene los Zusats pero si las observaciones).

Enciclopedia de las Ciencias Filosficas: Lgica, Naturaleza y

Espritu; traduccin de Ramn Valls Plana, Alianza Editorial, 2000,
ISBN 84-206-8193-8. (No contiene los Zusats pero s las
observaciones).

Enciclopedia de las Ciencias Filosficas: Lgica, Naturaleza y

Espritu; traduccin de Francisco Larroyo, Porra, Mxico, 1990,
ISBN 968-432-587-8. (No contiene los Zusats pero s las
observaciones).

Enciclopedia de las Ciencias Filosficas: Espritu; traduccin de

E. Barriobero y Herrn, Ediciones Anaconda, Buenos Aires.

Propedutica Filosfica; traduccin de Laura Mues de Schrenk,

Universidad Nacional Autnoma de Mxico, Mxico, 1984, ISBN
968-837-001-0.

Introduccin a la historia de la filosofa; traduccin de Eloy Terron,

Aguilar, 1984, ISBN 950-511-041-3.

Sobre las maneras de tratar cientficamente el derecho natural;

traduccin de Dalmacio Negro Pavon, Aguilar, Madrid, 1979, ISBN
84-03-63003-4.
 Esencia de la filosofa y otros escritos; traduccin de Dalmacio
Negro Pavon, Centro de Estudios Constitucionales, Madrid, 1980,
ISBN 84-259-0635-0.

Rasgos fundamentales de la filosofa del derecho, o compendio

del derecho natural y ciencia del estado; traduccin de Eduardo
Vsquez, Biblioteca Nueva, Madrid, 2000, ISBN 84-7030-786-X.

Escritos de juventud; traduccin de Jos Mara Ripalda, FCE,

Mxico D.F., 1978, ISBN 375-0155-5.

Poetica; traduccin de Manuel Granell, Espasa-Calpe, Buenos

Aires, 1947.

La positividad de la religin cristiana; traduccin de Alfredo

LLanos, Editorial Rescate, Buenos Aires, 1984.

El espritu del cristianismo y su destino, traduccin de Alfredo

LLanos, Editorial Rescate, Buenos Aires, 1984.

Fe y saber; traduccin de Vicente Serrano, Biblioteca Nueva,

Madrid, 2000, ISBN 84-7030-773-8.

Creer y saber; traduccin de Jorge Aurelio Daz, Grupo Editorial

Norma, Bogot, 1992, ISBN 978-958-04-2791-7.

Lecciones sobre la historia de la filosofa; traduccin de

Wenceslao Roces, Fondo de Cultura Econmica, Mxico, 2005, tres
tomos, ISBN 968-16-0304-4.

Lecciones sobre la filosofa de la historia universal; traduccin de

Jos Gaos, Alianza Editorial, Madrid, 1989, dos tomos, ISBN 84-
487-0119-4.

Lecciones sobre la filosofa de la religin; traduccin de Ricardo

Ferrara, Alianza Editorial, Madrid, 1990, tres tomos, ISBN 84-206-
2969-3.

Lecciones sobre la esttica; traduccin de Alfredo Brotns

Moz, Akal, Madrid, 1989, ISBN 84-7600-336-8.
Sobre Hegel y su obra

Theodor W. Adorno: Tres estudios sobre Hegel, Taurus, Madrid,

1974.

Jean Hyppolite; Introduccin a la filosofa de la historia de Hegel,

caldn, Montevideo, 1970.

Franois Chtelet; Hegel segn Hegel, Laia, Barcelona, 1972.

Richard Kroner; El desarrollo filosfico de Hegel, Kairs, Buenos

Aires, 1971.

Jacques D'Hondt; Hegel, Tusquets, Barcelona, 2002.

Arturo Gaete; La Lgica de Hegel. Iniciacin a su lectura, Edicial,

Buenos Aires, 1995.

Martin Heidegger: Hegel, Editorial Almagesto, Buenos Aires,

2000. Edicin bilinge alemn-castellano, de Dina V. Picotti C.
Ttulo original: Gesamtausgabe, Bd. 68: "Hegel", 19381941 / 1942.
Vittorio Klostermann, Frankfurt a. M. Edicin de Ingrid Schssler
(1993).

Martin Heidegger: La fenomenologa del espritu de Hegel,

Editorial Alianza, Madrid, 1992. Traduccin, introduccin y notas:
Manuel E. Vzquez y Klaus Wrehde. Ttulo original:
Gesamtausgabe (Edicin integral), Volumen 32: "Hegels
Phnomenologie des Geistes". Curso de Friburgo; semestre de
invierno del curso 19301931. Edicin de Ingtraud Grland (1980).

Martin Heidegger: Sendas perdidas o Caminos de bosque (1950),

Editorial Losada, Buenos Aires, 1960 / Editorial Alianza, Madrid,
1995.

Georg Lukcs: El joven Hegel, Grijalbo, Barcelona 1978.

Herbert Marcuse: Razn y revolucin, Alianza, Madrid 2003.

 Jos Mara Ripalda: La nacin dividida. Races de un pensador
burgus: G.W.F Hegel, Fondo de cultura econmica, Madrid 1978.

Lloyd Spencer / Andrzej Krauze: Hegel para principiantes.

Sciacca, Michele Federico (1975). Reflexiones inactuales sobre el

historicismo hegeliano. Fundacin Universitaria Espaola. ISBN
978-84-7392-058-2.

Ernst Bloch:"Sujeto-Objeto. El pensamiento de Hegel", Fondo de

Cultura Econmica, Mxico,1983.ISBN 968-16-1361-9

Edgardo Albizu: "Hegel y Heidegger, las fronteras del presente

filosfico", Jorge Baudino Ediciones, Buenos Aires,2004. ISBN 987-
9020-30-8.

Charles Taylor: Hegel, Anthropos Editorial, Barcelona, 2010. ISBN

978-84-7658-946-5

Eric Voegelin: On Hegel: A Study in Sorcery, en: Published

Essays 1966-1985. The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, vol. 12,
Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge and London, 1990.
Traduccin en castellano: Letras Esenciales: "Sobre Hegel: un
estudio de brujera", por Eric Voegelin: Foro Interno, vol. 10
(Dicembre, 2010), pp. 155-197)

Enlaces externos

Wikimedia Commons alberga contenido multimedia sobre Georg

Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.

Wikiquote alberga frases clebres de o sobre Georg Wilhelm

Friedrich Hegel.

Ignoria - Contiene varias obras de Hegel en espaol: Ciencia de

la lgica (completo), Escritos pedaggicos, Fenomenologa del
espritu, Historia de Jess, Introduccin a la historia de la filosofa.
 Hegel by hipertext Coleccin de textos de Hegel en ingls.

Hegel.net Pgina web muy completa en espaol

El Idealismo y el sistema hegeliano, Jacques D'Hondt.

Hegel. Enciclopedia Oxford de Filosofa, Peter Singer

La filosofa del Estado tico. La concepcin hegeliana del Estado

por Rubn R. Dri

Hegel. Vida, obra y pensamiento - Gonal Mayos, Universidad de

Barcelona.

Congreso Internacional: Hegel. La experiencia de la libertad. 200

aos de la Fenomenologa del Espritu. Universidad Complutense.
AUDIO

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Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Hegel" redirects here. For other uses, see Hegel (disambiguation).

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Hegel portrait by Schlesinger 1831.jpg

Portrait by Jakob Schlesinger dated 1831, the

year of Hegel's death

Born August 27, 1770

Stuttgart, Duchy of Wrttemberg

Died November 14, 1831 (aged 61)

Berlin, Kingdom of Prussia

Residence Germany

Nationality German

Education Gymnasium illustre zu Stuttgart

Alma mater Tbinger Stift

University of Tbingen

Era 19th-century philosophy

Region Western philosophy

School

German idealism

Objective idealism

Absolute idealism

Founder of Hegelianism

Historicism[1]

Naturphilosophie

Institutions University of Jena

(180106)

University of Heidelberg

(181618)

University of Berlin

(181831)

Main interests

Metaphysics

Naturphilosophie

Philosophy of history

Political philosophy
 Logic

Aesthetics

Notable ideas

Absolute idealism

Hegelian dialectic

Masterslave dialectic

"Sublation" (Aufheben)

Geist ("mind/spirit")

Sittlichkeit

Alienation[2]

Dialectical phenomenology

The three moments

of the concept: universality,

particularity, and individuality[3]

(Allgemeinheit, Besonderheit,

Einzelheit)[4]

Abstract particularity[5]

The abstractconcrete distinction[6]

"The true is the whole"[7]

Rationality alone is real[8]

 Panlogism

Distinction between

critical Verstandesmetaphysik[9]

(metaphysics of Understanding) and

speculative Vernunftsmetaphysik

(metaphysics of Reason)[10]

Influences

[show]

Influenced

[show]

Signature

Hegel Unterschrift.svg

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (/hel/;[14] German: [ek

vlhlm fid hel]; August 27, 1770 November 14, 1831)
was a German philosopher and an important figure of German
idealism. He achieved wide renown in his day and, while primarily
influential within the continental tradition of philosophy, has become
increasingly influential in the analytic tradition as well.[15] Although
he remains a divisive figure, his canonical stature within Western
philosophy is universally recognized.
Hegel's principal achievement is his development of a distinctive
articulation of idealism sometimes termed "absolute idealism",[16] in
which the dualisms of, for instance, mind and nature and subject
and object are overcome. His philosophy of spirit conceptually
integrates psychology, the state, history, art, religion, and
philosophy. His account of the masterslave dialectic has been
highly influential, especially in 20th-century France.[17] Of special
importance is his concept of spirit (Geist: sometimes also translated
as "mind") as the historical manifestation of the logical concept and
the "sublation" (Aufhebung: integration without elimination or
reduction) of seemingly contradictory or opposing factors; examples
include the apparent opposition between nature and freedom and
between immanence and transcendence. Hegel has been seen in
the 20th century as the originator of the thesis, antithesis, synthesis
triad;[18] however, as an explicit phrase, this originated with Johann
Gottlieb Fichte.[19]

Hegel has influenced many thinkers and writers whose own

positions vary widely.[20] Karl Barth described Hegel as a
"Protestant Aquinas",[21] while Maurice Merleau-Ponty wrote that
"All the great philosophical ideas of the past centurythe
philosophies of Marx and Nietzsche, phenomenology, German
existentialism, and psychoanalysishad their beginnings in
Hegel."[22]

Contents

1 Life

1.1 Early years

1.1.1 Childhood

1.1.2 Tbingen (178893)

 1.1.3 Bern (179396) and Frankfurt (17971801)

1.2 Career years

1.2.1 Jena, Bamberg and Nuremberg (18011816)

1.2.2 Heidelberg and Berlin (18161831)

2 Thought

2.1 Freedom

2.2 Progress

2.3 Civil society

2.4 State

2.5 Heraclitus

2.6 Religion

3 Works

4 Legacy

4.1 Reading Hegel

4.2 Left and Right Hegelianism

4.3 Triads

4.4 Renaissance

4.5 Criticism

5 Selected works

5.1 Published during Hegel's lifetime

5.2 Published posthumously

6 See also

7 Notes
 8 Further reading

9 External links

9.1 Audio

9.2 Video

9.3 Societies

9.4 Hegel texts online

Life

Early years

The birthplace of Hegel in Stuttgart, which now houses the Hegel

Museum

Childhood

Hegel was born on August 27, 1770 in Stuttgart, in the Duchy of

Wrttemberg in southwestern Germany. Christened Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich, he was known as Wilhelm to his close family. His father,
Georg Ludwig, was Rentkammersekretr (secretary to the revenue
office) at the court of Karl Eugen, Duke of Wrttemberg.[23]:23,
745 Hegel's mother, Maria Magdalena Louisa (ne Fromm), was the
daughter of a lawyer at the High Court of Justice at the Wrttemberg
court. She died of a "bilious fever" (Gallenfieber) when Hegel was
thirteen. Hegel and his father also caught the disease but narrowly
survived.[24] Hegel had a sister, Christiane Luise (17731832), and
a brother, Georg Ludwig (17761812), who was to perish as an
officer in Napoleon's Russian campaign of 1812.[23]:4
At the age of three Hegel went to the "German School." When he
entered the "Latin School" two years later, he already knew the first
declension, having been taught it by his mother.

In 1776, Hegel entered Stuttgart's gymnasium illustre. During his

adolescence Hegel read voraciously, copying lengthy extracts in his
diary. Authors he read include the poet Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock
and writers associated with the Enlightenment, such as Christian
Garve and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. Hegel's studies at the
Gymnasium were concluded with his Abiturrede ("graduation
speech") entitled "The abortive state of art and scholarship in
Turkey"[23]:16 ("den verkmmerten Zustand der Knste und
Wissenschaften unter den Trken").[25]

Tbingen (178893)

At the age of eighteen Hegel entered the Tbinger Stift (a Protestant

seminary attached to the University of Tbingen), where he had as
roommates the poet Friedrich Hlderlin and the philosopher-to-be
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling.[26] Sharing a dislike for what
they regarded as the restrictive environment of the Seminary, the
three became close friends and mutually influenced each other's
ideas. All greatly admired Hellenic civilization, and Hegel additionally
steeped himself in Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Lessing during this
time.[27] They watched the unfolding of the French Revolution with
shared enthusiasm. Schelling and Hlderlin immersed themselves in
theoretical debates on Kantian philosophy, from which Hegel
remained aloof. Hegel at this time envisaged his future as that of a
Popularphilosoph, i.e., a "man of letters" who serves to make the
abstruse ideas of philosophers accessible to a wider public; his own
felt need to engage critically with the central ideas of Kantianism did
not come until 1800.

Bern (179396) and Frankfurt (17971801)

Having received his theological certificate (Konsistorialexamen) from
the Tbingen Seminary, Hegel became Hofmeister (house tutor) to
an aristocratic family in Bern (179396). During this period he
composed the text which has become known as the "Life of Jesus"
and a book-length manuscript titled "The Positivity of the Christian
Religion." His relations with his employers becoming strained, Hegel
accepted an offer mediated by Hlderlin to take up a similar position
with a wine merchant's family in Frankfurt, where he moved in 1797.
Here Hlderlin exerted an important influence on Hegel's thought.
[23]:80 While in Frankfurt Hegel composed the essay "Fragments on
Religion and Love."[28] In 1799, he wrote another essay entitled
"The Spirit of Christianity and Its Fate",[29] unpublished during his
lifetime.

Also in 1797, the unpublished and unsigned manuscript of "The

Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism" was written. It was
written in Hegel's hand but thought to have been authored by either
Hegel, Schelling, Hlderlin, or an unknown fourth person.[30]

Career years

Jena, Bamberg and Nuremberg (18011816)

In 1801, Hegel came to Jena with the encouragement of his old

friend Schelling, who held the position of Extraordinary Professor at
the University there. Hegel secured a position at the University as a
Privatdozent (unsalaried lecturer) after submitting an inaugural
dissertation on the orbits of the planets.[31] Later in the year Hegel's
first book, The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's Systems
of Philosophy, was completed. He lectured on "Logic and
Metaphysics" and gave joint lectures with Schelling on an
"Introduction to the Idea and Limits of True Philosophy" and held a
"Philosophical Disputorium." In 1802, Schelling and Hegel founded a
journal, the Kritische Journal der Philosophie ("Critical Journal of
Philosophy"), to which they each contributed pieces until the
collaboration was ended when Schelling left for Wrzburg in 1803.
In 1805, the University promoted Hegel to the position of
Extraordinary Professor (unsalaried), after Hegel wrote a letter to the
poet and minister of culture Johann Wolfgang Goethe protesting at
the promotion of his philosophical adversary Jakob Friedrich Fries
ahead of him.[23]:223 Hegel attempted to enlist the help of the poet
and translator Johann Heinrich Vo to obtain a post at the newly
renascent University of Heidelberg, but failed; to his chagrin, Fries
was later in the same year made Ordinary Professor (salaried)
there.[23]:22425

Napoleon, the "world spirit on horseback", in Jena

His finances drying up quickly, Hegel was now under great pressure
to deliver his book, the long-promised introduction to his System.
Hegel was putting the finishing touches to this book, the
Phenomenology of Spirit, as Napoleon engaged Prussian troops on
October 14, 1806, in the Battle of Jena on a plateau outside the city.
On the day before the battle, Napoleon entered the city of Jena.
Hegel recounted his impressions in a letter to his friend Friedrich
Immanuel Niethammer:

I saw the Emperor this world-spirit riding out of the city on

reconnaissance. It is indeed a wonderful sensation to see such an
individual, who, concentrated here at a single point, astride a horse,
reaches out over the world and masters it ... this extraordinary man,
whom it is impossible not to admire.[23]:228
Although Napoleon chose not to close down Jena as he had other
universities, the city was devastated and students deserted the
university in droves, making Hegel's financial prospects even worse.
The following February Hegel's landlady Christiana Burkhardt (who
had been abandoned by her husband) gave birth to their son Georg
Ludwig Friedrich Fischer (180731).[23]:192

In March 1807, aged 37, Hegel moved to Bamberg, where

Niethammer had declined and passed on to Hegel an offer to
become editor of a newspaper, the Bamberger Zeitung (de). Hegel,
unable to find more suitable employment, reluctantly accepted.
Ludwig Fischer and his mother (whom Hegel may have offered to
marry following the death of her husband) stayed behind in Jena.
[23]:238

He was then, in November 1808, again through Niethammer,

appointed headmaster of a Gymnasium in Nuremberg, a post he
held until 1816. While in Nuremberg Hegel adapted his recently
published Phenomenology of Spirit for use in the classroom. Part of
his remit being to teach a class called "Introduction to Knowledge of
the Universal Coherence of the Sciences", Hegel developed the idea
of an encyclopedia of the philosophical sciences, falling into three
parts (logic, philosophy of nature, and philosophy of spirit).[23]:337

Hegel married Marie Helena Susanna von Tucher (17911855), the

eldest daughter of a Senator, in 1811. This period saw the
publication of his second major work, the Science of Logic
(Wissenschaft der Logik; 3 vols., 1812, 1813, 1816), and the birth of
his two legitimate sons, Karl Friedrich Wilhelm (18131901) and
Immanuel Thomas Christian (18141891).

Heidelberg and Berlin (18161831)

Having received offers of a post from the Universities of Erlangen,
Berlin, and Heidelberg, Hegel chose Heidelberg, where he moved in
1816. Soon after, in April 1817, his illegitimate son Ludwig Fischer
(now ten years old) joined the Hegel household, having thus far
spent his childhood in an orphanage.[23]:35455 (Ludwig's mother
had died in the meantime.)[23]:356

Hegel published The Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences in

Outline (1817) as a summary of his philosophy for students
attending his lectures at Heidelberg.

Hegel with his Berlin students

Sketch by Franz Kugler

In 1818, Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the chair of philosophy

at the University of Berlin, which had remained vacant since Johann
Gottlieb Fichte's death in 1814. Here he published his Philosophy of
Right (1821). Hegel devoted himself primarily to delivering his
lectures; his lecture courses on aesthetics, the philosophy of
religion, the philosophy of history, and the history of philosophy were
published posthumously from lecture notes taken by his students.
His fame spread and his lectures attracted students from all over
Germany and beyond.

In 181927, he made several trips to Weimar (twice), where he met

Goethe, Brussels, the Northern Netherlands, Leipzig, Vienna
through Prague, and Paris.[32]
Hegel was appointed Rector of the University in October 1829, when
he was 59. His term as Rector ended in September 1830; he was
deeply disturbed by the riots for reform in Berlin in that year. In 1831,
Frederick William III decorated him with the Order of the Red Eagle,
3rd Class for his service to the Prussian state.[32] In August 1831 a
cholera epidemic reached Berlin and Hegel left the city, taking up
lodgings in Kreuzberg. Now in a weak state of health, Hegel seldom
went out. As the new semester began in October, Hegel returned to
Berlin, with the (mistaken) impression that the epidemic had largely
subsided. By November 14, Hegel was dead. The physicians
pronounced the cause of death as cholera, but it is likely he died
from a different gastrointestinal disease. He is said to have uttered
the last words "And he didn't understand me" before expiring.[33] In
accordance with his wishes, Hegel was buried on November 16 in
the Dorotheenstadt cemetery next to Fichte and Karl Wilhelm
Ferdinand Solger.

Hegel's son Ludwig Fischer had died shortly before while serving
with the Dutch army in Batavia; the news of his death never reached
his father.[23]:548 Early the following year Hegel's sister Christiane
committed suicide by drowning. Hegel's remaining two sons Karl,
who became a historian, and Immanuel (de), who followed a
theological path lived long and safeguarded their father's Nachla
and produced editions of his works.

Thought

Portrait of Hegel by an unidentified artist

G. W. F. Hegel

Hegelianism

Forerunners

Aristotle Bhme Rousseau Kant Goethe Fichte Hlderlin Schelling

Successors

Feuerbach Marx Lukcs Kojve Adorno Habermas

Principal works

The Phenomenology of Spirit Science of Logic Encyclopedia of

the Philosophical Sciences Lectures on Aesthetics Elements of the
Philosophy of Right Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion Lectures
on the Philosophy of History Lectures on the History of Philosophy

Schools

Absolute idealism Hegelianism (dialectics) British idealism

German idealism

Related topics

Right Hegelians Young Hegelians

vte

Freedom
Hegel's thinking can be understood as a constructive development
within the broad tradition that includes Plato and Immanuel Kant. To
this list one could add Proclus, Meister Eckhart, Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz, Plotinus, Jakob Bhme, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. What
all these thinkers share, which distinguishes them from materialists
like Epicurus, the Stoics, and Thomas Hobbes, and from empiricists
like David Hume, is that they regard freedom or self-determination
both as real and as having important ontological implications, for
soul or mind or divinity. This focus on freedom is what generates
Plato's notion (in the Phaedo, Republic, and Timaeus) of the soul as
having a higher or fuller kind of reality than inanimate objects
possess. While Aristotle criticizes Plato's "Forms," he preserves
Plato's cornerstones of the ontological implications for self-
determination: ethical reasoning, the soul's pinnacle in the hierarchy
of nature, the order of the cosmos, and an assumption with
reasoned arguments for a prime mover. Kant imports Plato's high
esteem of individual sovereignty to his considerations of moral and
noumenal freedom, as well as to God. All three find common ground
on the unique position of humans in the scheme of things, known by
the discussed categorical differences from animals and inanimate
objects.

In his discussion of "Spirit" in his Encyclopedia, Hegel praises

Aristotle's On the Soul as "by far the most admirable, perhaps even
the sole, work of philosophical value on this topic."[34] In his
Phenomenology of Spirit and his Science of Logic, Hegel's concern
with Kantian topics such as freedom and morality, and with their
ontological implications, is pervasive. Rather than simply rejecting
Kant's dualism of freedom versus nature, Hegel aims to subsume it
within "true infinity", the "Concept" (or "Notion": Begriff), "Spirit," and
"ethical life" in such a way that the Kantian duality is rendered
intelligible, rather than remaining a brute "given."
The reason why this subsumption takes place in a series of
concepts is that Hegel's method, in his Science of Logic and his
Encyclopedia, is to begin with basic concepts like Being and
Nothing, and to develop these through a long sequence of
elaborations, including those already mentioned. In this manner, a
solution that is reached, in principle, in the account of "true infinity"
in the Science of Logic's chapter on "Quality,", is repeated in new
guises at later stages, all the way to "Spirit" and "ethical life", in the
third volume of the Encyclopedia.

In this way, Hegel intends to defend the germ of truth in Kantian

dualism against reductive or eliminative programs like those of
materialism and empiricism. Like Plato, with his dualism of soul
versus bodily appetites, Kant pursues the mind's ability to question
its felt inclinations or appetites and to come up with a standard of
"duty" (or, in Plato's case, "good") which transcends bodily
restrictiveness. Hegel preserves this essential Platonic and Kantian
concern in the form of infinity going beyond the finite (a process that
Hegel in fact relates to "freedom" and the "ought"[35]:133136,
138), the universal going beyond the particular (in the Concept), and
Spirit going beyond Nature. And Hegel renders these dualities
intelligible by (ultimately) his argument in the "Quality" chapter of the
"Science of Logic." The finite has to become infinite in order to
achieve reality. The idea of the absolute excludes multiplicity so the
subjective and objective must achieve synthesis to become whole.
This is because, as Hegel suggests by his introduction of the
concept of "reality",[35]:111 what determines itselfrather than
depending on its relations to other things for its essential character
is more fully "real" (following the Latin etymology of "real:" more
"thing-like") than what does not. Finite things don't determine
themselves, because, as "finite" things, their essential character is
determined by their boundaries, over against other finite things. So,
in order to become "real", they must go beyond their finitude
("finitude is only as a transcending of itself"[35]:145).
The result of this argument is that finite and infiniteand, by
extension, particular and universal, nature and freedomdon't face
one another as two independent realities, but instead the latter (in
each case) is the self-transcending of the former.[35]:146 Rather
than stress the distinct singularity of each factor that complements
and conflicts with otherswithout explanationthe relationship
between finite and infinite (and particular and universal, and nature
and freedom) becomes intelligible as a progressively developing and
self-perfecting whole.

Progress

The mystical writings of Bhme had a strong effect on Hegel.[36]

Bhme had written that the Fall of Man was a necessary stage in the
evolution of the universe. This evolution was, itself, the result of
God's desire for complete self-awareness. Hegel was fascinated by
the works of Kant, Rousseau, and Johann Wolfgang Goethe, and by
the French Revolution. Modern philosophy, culture, and society
seemed to Hegel fraught with contradictions and tensions, such as
those between the subject and object of knowledge, mind and
nature, self and Other, freedom and authority, knowledge and faith,
the Enlightenment and Romanticism. Hegel's main philosophical
project was to take these contradictions and tensions and interpret
them as part of a comprehensive, evolving, rational unity that, in
different contexts, he called "the absolute Idea" (Science of Logic,
sections 17813) or "absolute knowledge" (Phenomenology of
Spirit, "(DD) Absolute Knowledge").
According to Hegel, the main characteristic of this unity was that it
evolved through and manifested itself in contradiction and negation.
Contradiction and negation have a dynamic quality that at every
point in each domain of realityconsciousness, history, philosophy,
art, nature, societyleads to further development until a rational
unity is reached that preserves the contradictions as phases and
sub-parts by lifting them up (Aufhebung) to a higher unity. This
whole is mental because it is mind that can comprehend all of these
phases and sub-parts as steps in its own process of comprehension.
It is rational because the same, underlying, logical, developmental
order underlies every domain of reality and is ultimately the order of
self-conscious rational thought, although only in the later stages of
development does it come to full self-consciousness. The rational,
self-conscious whole is not a thing or being that lies outside of other
existing things or minds. Rather, it comes to completion only in the
philosophical comprehension of individual existing human minds
who, through their own understanding, bring this developmental
process to an understanding of itself. Hegel's thought is
revolutionary to the extent that it is a philosophy of absolute
negation: as long as absolute negation is at the center,
systematization remains open, and makes it possible for human
beings to become subjects.[37]

"Mind" and "Spirit" are the common English translations of Hegel's

use of the German "Geist." Some[who?] have argued that either of
these terms overly "psychologize" Hegel,[citation needed] implying a
kind of disembodied, solipsistic consciousness like ghost or "soul."
Geist combines the meaning of spiritas in god, ghost or mind
with an intentional force. In Hegel's early philosophy of nature (draft
manuscripts written during his time at the University of Jena),
Hegel's notion of "Geist" was tightly bound to the notion of "Aether"
from which Hegel also derived the concepts of space and time;
however in his later works (after Jena) Hegel did not explicitly use
his old notion of "Aether" any more.[38]
Central to Hegel's conception of knowledge and mind (and therefore
also of reality) was the notion of identity in difference, that is that
mind externalizes itself in various forms and objects that stand
outside of it or opposed to it, and that, through recognizing itself in
them, is "with itself" in these external manifestations, so that they
are at one and the same time mind and other-than-mind. This notion
of identity in difference, which is intimately bound up with his
conception of contradiction and negativity, is a principal feature
differentiating Hegel's thought from that of other philosophers.
[citation needed]

Civil society

See also: Civil society

Hegel made the distinction between civil society and state in his
Elements of the Philosophy of Right.[39] In this work, civil society
(Hegel used the term "brgerliche Gesellschaft" though it is now
referred to as Zivilgesellschaft in German to emphasize a more
inclusive community) was a stage in the dialectical relationship that
occurs between Hegel's perceived opposites, the macro-community
of the state and the micro-community of the family.[40] Broadly
speaking, the term was split, like Hegel's followers, to the political
left and right. On the left, it became the foundation for Karl Marx's
civil society as an economic base;[41] to the right, it became a
description for all non-state (and the state is the peak of the
objective spirit) aspects of society, including culture, society and
politics. This liberal distinction between political society and civil
society was followed by Alexis de Tocqueville.[41] In fact, Hegel's
distinctions as to what he meant by civil society are often unclear.
For example, while it seems to be the case that he felt that a civil-
society such as the German society in which he lived was an
inevitable movement of the dialectic, he made way for the crushing
of other types of "lesser" and not fully realized types of civil society,
as these societies were not fully conscious or aware, as it were, as
to the lack of progress in their societies. Thus, it was perfectly
legitimate in the eyes of Hegel for a conqueror, such as Napoleon, to
come along and destroy that which was not fully realized.

State
Hegel's State is the final culmination of the embodiment of freedom
or right (rechte) in the Elements of the Philosophy of Right. The
State subsumes family and civil society and fulfills them. All three
together are called "ethical life" (Sittlichkeit). The State involves
three "moments". In a Hegelian State, citizens both know their place
and choose their place. They both know their obligations, and
choose to fulfill their obligations. An individual's "supreme duty is to
be a member of the state." (Elements of the Philosophy of Right,
section 258.) The individual has "substantial freedom in the state".
The State is "objective spirit" so "it is only through being a member
of the state that the individual himself has objectivity, truth, and
ethical life." (Section 258.) Every member, furthermore, both loves
the state with genuine patriotism but has transcended mere "team
spirit" by reflectively endorsing their citizenship. Members of a
Hegelian State are happy even to sacrifice their lives for the state.

Heraclitus

According to Hegel, "Heraclitus is the one who first declared the

nature of the infinite and first grasped nature as in itself infinite, that
is, its essence as process. The origin of philosophy is to be dated
from Heraclitus. His is the persistent Idea that is the same in all
philosophers up to the present day, as it was the Idea of Plato and
Aristotle."[42] For Hegel, Heraclitus's great achievements were to
have understood the nature of the infinite, which for Hegel includes
understanding the inherent contradictoriness and negativity of
reality, and to have grasped that reality is becoming or process, and
that "being" and "nothingness" are mere empty abstractions.
According to Hegel, Heraclitus's "obscurity" comes from his being a
true (in Hegel's terms "speculative") philosopher who grasped the
ultimate philosophical truth and therefore expressed himself in a way
that goes beyond the abstract and limited nature of common sense
and is difficult to grasp by those who operate within common sense.
Hegel asserted that in Heraclitus he had an antecedent for his logic:
"... there is no proposition of Heraclitus which I have not adopted in
my logic."[43]
Hegel cites a number of fragments of Heraclitus in his Lectures on
the History of Philosophy.[44] One to which he attributes great
significance is the fragment he translates as "Being is not more than
Non-being", which he interprets to mean

Sein und Nichts sei dasselbe

Being and non-being are the same.

Heraclitus does not form any abstract nouns from his ordinary use of
"to be" and "to become" and in that fragment seems to be opposing
any identity A to any other identity B, C, etc., which is not-A. Hegel,
however, interprets not-A as not existing at all, not nothing at all,
which cannot be conceived, but indeterminate or "pure" being
without particularity or specificity.[45] Pure being and pure non-being
or nothingness are for Hegel pure abstractions from the reality of
becoming, and this is also how he interprets Heraclitus. This
interpretation of Heraclitus cannot be ruled out, but even if present is
not the main gist of his thought.

For Hegel, the inner movement of reality is the process of God

thinking, as manifested in the evolution of the universe of nature and
thought; that is, Hegel argued that, when fully and properly
understood, reality is being thought by God as manifested in a
person's comprehension of this process in and through philosophy.
Since human thought is the image and fulfillment of God's thought,
God is not ineffable (so incomprehensible as to be unutterable) but
can be understood by an analysis of thought and reality. Just as
humans continually correct their concepts of reality through a
dialectical process, so God himself becomes more fully manifested
through the dialectical process of becoming.
For his god Hegel does not take the logos of Heraclitus but refers
rather to the nous of Anaxagoras, although he may well have
regarded them the same, as he continues to refer to god's plan,
which is identical to God. Whatever the nous thinks at any time is
actual substance and is identical to limited being, but more remains
to be thought in the substrate of non-being, which is identical to pure
or unlimited thought.

The universe as becoming is therefore a combination of being and

non-being. The particular is never complete in itself but to find
completion is continually transformed into more comprehensive,
complex, self-relating particulars. The essential nature of being-for-
itself is that it is free "in itself;" that is, it does not depend on anything
else, such as matter, for its being. The limitations represent fetters,
which it must constantly be casting off as it becomes freer and more
self-determining.[46]

Although Hegel began his philosophizing with commentary on the

Christian religion and often expresses the view that he is a Christian,
his ideas of God are not acceptable to some Christians, although he
has had a major influence on 19th- and 20th-century theology.

Religion
As a graduate of a Protestant seminary, Hegel's theological
concerns were reflected in many of his writings and lectures.[47]
Hegel's thoughts on the person of Jesus Christ stood out from the
theologies of the Enlightenment. In his posthumously published
Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion, Part 3 Hegel is shown as
being particularly interested with the demonstrations of God's
existence and the ontological proof.[48] He espouses that, "God is
not an abstraction but a concrete God ... God, considered in terms
of his eternal Idea, has to generate the Son, has to distinguish
himself from himself; he is the process of differentiating, namely,
love and Spirit." This means that Jesus as the Son of God is posited
by God over against himself as other. Hegel sees both a relational
unity and a metaphysical unity between Jesus and God the Father.
To Hegel, Jesus is both divine and Human. Hegel further attests that
God (as Jesus) not only died, but "... rather, a reversal takes place:
God, that is to say, maintains himself in the process, and the latter is
only the death of death. God rises again to life, and thus things are
reversed."

Philosopher Walter Kaufmann has argued that there was great

stress on the sharp criticisms of traditional Christianity appearing in
Hegel's so-called early theological writings. Kaufmann admits that
Hegel treated many distinctively Christian themes, and "sometimes
could not resist equating" his conception of spirit (Geist) "with God,
instead of saying clearly: in God I do not believe; spirit suffices
me."[49] Kaufmann also points out that Hegel's references to God or
to the divineand also to spiritdrew on classical Greek as well as
Christian connotations of the terms. Kaufmann goes on:
 In addition to his beloved Greeks, Hegel saw before him the
example of Spinoza and, in his own time, the poetry of Goethe,
Schiller, and Hlderlin, who also liked to speak of gods and the
divine. So he, too, sometimes spoke of God and, more often, of the
divine; and because he occasionally took pleasure in insisting that
he was really closer to this or that Christian tradition than some of
the theologians of his time, he has sometimes been understood to
have been a Christian[50]

According to Hegel himself, his philosophy was consistent with

Christianity.[51] This led Hegelian Carl Friedrich Gschel (de) to
prepare a treatise to demonstrate the presence of the doctrine of
immortality in Hegel's philosophy.[52]

Works

Hegel published four books during his lifetime: the Phenomenology

of Spirit (or Phenomenology of Mind), his account of the evolution of
consciousness from sense-perception to absolute knowledge,
published in 1807; the Science of Logic, the logical and
metaphysical core of his philosophy, in three volumes, published in
1812, 1813, and 1816 (with a revised Book One published in 1831);
Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences, a summary of his entire
philosophical system, which was originally published in 1816 and
revised in 1827 and 1830; and the Elements of the Philosophy of
Right, his political philosophy, published in 1820. During the last ten
years of his life, he did not publish another book but thoroughly
revised the Encyclopedia (second edition, 1827; third, 1830).[53] In
his political philosophy, he criticized Karl Ludwig von Haller's
reactionary work, which claimed that laws were not necessary. He
also published some articles early in his career and during his Berlin
period. A number of other works on the philosophy of history,
religion, aesthetics, and the history of philosophy were compiled
from the lecture notes of his students and published posthumously.

Legacy
Hegel's tombstone in Berlin

See also: Hegelianism

There are views of Hegel's thought as a representation of the

summit of early 19th-century Germany's movement of philosophical
idealism. It would come to have a profound impact on many future
philosophical schools, including schools that opposed Hegel's
specific dialectical idealism, such as existentialism, the historical
materialism of Marx, historism, and British Idealism.

Hegel's influence was immense both within philosophy and in the

other sciences. Throughout the 19th century many chairs of
philosophy around Europe were held by Hegelians, and Sren
Kierkegaard, Ludwig Feuerbach, Marx, and Friedrich Engels
among many otherswere all deeply influenced by, but also
strongly opposed to, many of the central themes of Hegel's
philosophy. Scholars continue to find and point out Hegelian
influences and approaches in a wide range of theoretical and/or
learned works, such as Carl von Clausewitz's magnum opus on
strategic thought, On War (1831).[54] After less than a generation,
Hegel's philosophy was suppressed and even banned by the
Prussian right-wing, and was firmly rejected by the left-wing in
multiple official writings.

After the period of Bruno Bauer, Hegel's influence did not make itself
felt again until the philosophy of British Idealism and the 20th
century Hegelian Western Marxism that began with Gyrgy Lukcs.
The more recent movement of communitarianism has a strong
Hegelian influence.

Reading Hegel
Some of Hegel's writing were intended for those with advanced
knowledge of philosophy, although his Encyclopedia was intended
as a textbook in a university course. Nevertheless, Hegel assumes
that his readers are well-versed in Western philosophy. Especially
crucial are Aristotle, Kant, and Kant's immediate successors, most
prominently Fichte, and Schelling. Those without this background
would be well-advised to begin with one of the many general
introductions to his thought. As is always the case, difficulties are
magnified for those reading him in translation. In fact, Hegel himself
argues in his Science of Logic that the German language was
particularly conducive to philosophical thought.[55]

One especially difficult aspect of Hegel's work is his innovation in

logic. In response to Immanuel Kant's challenge to the limits of pure
reason, Hegel develops a radically new form of logic, which he
called speculative. The difficulty in reading Hegel was perceived in
Hegel's own day, and persists into the 21st century. To understand
Hegel fully requires paying attention to his critique of standard logic,
such as the law of contradiction and the law of the excluded middle.
Many philosophers who came after Hegel and were influenced by
him, whether adopting or rejecting his ideas, did so without fully
absorbing his new speculative or dialectical logic.[citation needed]

According to Walter Kaufmann, the basic idea of Hegel's works,

especially the Phenomenology of the Spirit is that a philosopher
should not "confine him or herself to views that have been held but
penetrate these to the human reality they reflect." In other words, it
is not enough to consider propositions, or even the content of
consciousness; "it is worthwhile to ask in every instance what kind of
spirit would entertain such propositions, hold such views, and have
such a consciousness. Every outlook in other words, is to be studied
not merely as an academic possibility but as an existential
reality."[56]

Left and Right Hegelianism

Some historians have spoken of Hegel's influence as represented by
two opposing camps. The Right Hegelians, the allegedly direct
disciples of Hegel at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitt, advocated a
Protestant orthodoxy and the political conservatism of the post-
Napoleon Restoration period. The Left Hegelians, also known as the
Young Hegelians, interpreted Hegel in a revolutionary sense, leading
to an advocation of atheism in religion and liberal democracy in
politics.

In more recent studies, however, this paradigm has been

questioned.[57] No Hegelians of the period ever referred to
themselves as "Right Hegelians", which was a term of insult
originated by David Strauss, a self-styled Left Hegelian. Critiques of
Hegel offered from the Left Hegelians radically diverted Hegel's
thinking into new directions and eventually came to form a
disproportionately large part of the literature on and about Hegel.
[citation needed]

The Left Hegelians also spawned Marxism, which inspired global

movements, encompassing the Russian Revolution, the Chinese
Revolution, and myriad revolutionary practices up until the present
moment.
Twentieth-century interpretations of Hegel were mostly shaped by
British Idealism, logical positivism, Marxism, and Fascism. The
Italian Fascist Giovanni Gentile, according to Benedetto Croce, "...
holds the honor of having been the most rigorous neo-Hegelian in
the entire history of Western philosophy and the dishonor of having
been the official philosopher of Fascism in Italy."[58] However, since
the fall of the USSR, a new wave of Hegel scholarship arose in the
West, without the preconceptions of the prior schools of thought.
Walter Jaeschke (de) and Otto Pggeler in Germany, as well as
Peter Hodgson and Howard Kainz in America are notable for their
recent contributions to post-USSR thinking about Hegel.

Triads

Main article: Thesis, antithesis, synthesis

In previous modern accounts of Hegelianism (to undergraduate

classes, for example), especially those formed prior to the Hegel
renaissance, Hegel's dialectic was most often characterized as a
three-step process, "thesis, antithesis, synthesis"; namely, that a
"thesis" (e.g. the French Revolution) would cause the creation of its
"antithesis" (e.g. the Reign of Terror that followed), and would
eventually result in a "synthesis" (e.g. the constitutional state of free
citizens). However, Hegel used this classification only once, and he
attributed the terminology to Kant. The terminology was largely
developed earlier by Fichte. It was spread by Heinrich Moritz
Chalybus in accounts of Hegelian philosophy, and since then the
terms have been used as descriptive of this type of framework.
The "thesisantithesissynthesis" approach gives the sense that
things or ideas are contradicted or opposed by things that come
from outside them. To the contrary, the fundamental notion of
Hegel's dialectic is that things or ideas have internal contradictions.
From Hegel's point of view, analysis or comprehension of a thing or
idea reveals that underneath its apparently simple identity or unity is
an underlying inner contradiction. This contradiction leads to the
dissolution of the thing or idea in the simple form in which it
presented itself and to a higher-level, more complex thing or idea
that more adequately incorporates the contradiction. The triadic form
that appears in many places in Hegel (e.g. beingnothingness
becoming, immediatemediateconcrete, abstractnegative
concrete) is about this movement from inner contradiction to higher-
level integration or unification.

For Hegel, reason is but "speculative", not "dialectical".[59] Believing

that the traditional description of Hegel's philosophy in terms of
thesisantithesissynthesis was mistaken, a few scholars, like Raya
Dunayevskaya, have attempted to discard the triadic approach
altogether. According to their argument, although Hegel refers to
"the two elemental considerations: first, the idea of freedom as the
absolute and final aim; secondly, the means for realising it, i.e. the
subjective side of knowledge and will, with its life, movement, and
activity" (thesis and antithesis) he doesn't use "synthesis" but
instead speaks of the "Whole": "We then recognised the State as the
moral Whole and the Reality of Freedom, and consequently as the
objective unity of these two elements." Furthermore, in Hegel's
language, the "dialectical" aspect or "moment" of thought and reality,
by which things or thoughts turn into their opposites or have their
inner contradictions brought to the surface, what he called
Aufhebung, is only preliminary to the "speculative" (and not
"synthesizing") aspect or "moment", which grasps the unity of these
opposites or contradiction.
It is widely admitted today that the old-fashioned description of
Hegel's philosophy in terms of thesisantithesissynthesis is
inaccurate. Nevertheless, such is the persistence of this misnomer
that the model and terminology survive in a number of scholarly
works.[60]

Renaissance

In the last half of the 20th century, Hegel's philosophy underwent a

major renaissance. This was due to (a) the rediscovery and re-
evaluation of Hegel as a possible philosophical progenitor of
Marxism by philosophically oriented Marxists, (b) a resurgence of
the historical perspective that Hegel brought to everything, and (c)
an increasing recognition of the importance of his dialectical method.
Lukcs' History and Class Consciousness (1923) helped to
reintroduce Hegel into the Marxist canon. This sparked a renewed
interest in Hegel reflected in the work of Herbert Marcuse, Adorno,
Ernst Bloch, Dunayevskaya, Alexandre Kojve and Gotthard
Gnther among others. Marcuse, in Reason and Revolution (1941),
made the case for Hegel as a revolutionary and criticized Leonard
Trelawny Hobhouse's thesis that Hegel was a totalitarian.[61] The
Hegel renaissance also highlighted the significance of Hegel's early
works, i.e., those written before the Phenomenology of Spirit. The
direct and indirect influence of Kojve's lectures and writings (on the
Phenomenology of Spirit, in particular) mean that it is not possible to
understand most French philosophers from Jean-Paul Sartre to
Jacques Derrida without understanding Hegel.[62] U.S.
neoconservative political theorist Francis Fukuyama's controversial
book The End of History and the Last Man (1992) was heavily
influenced by Kojve.[63] The Swiss theologian Hans Kng has also
advanced contemporary scholarship in Hegel studies.
Beginning in the 1960s, Anglo-American Hegel scholarship has
attempted to challenge the traditional interpretation of Hegel as
offering a metaphysical system: this has also been the approach of
Z. A. Pelczynski and Shlomo Avineri. This view, sometimes referred
to as the 'non-metaphysical option', has had a decided influence on
many major English language studies of Hegel in the past 40 years.

Late 20th-century literature in Western Theology that is friendly to

Hegel includes works by such writers as Walter Kaufmann (1966),
Dale M. Schlitt (1984), Theodore Geraets (1985), Philip M.
Merklinger (1991), Stephen Rocker (1995), and Cyril O'Regan
(1995).

Recently, two prominent American philosophers, John McDowell and

Robert Brandom (sometimes referred to as the "Pittsburgh
Hegelians"), have produced philosophical works exhibiting a marked
Hegelian influence. Each is avowedly influenced by the late Wilfred
Sellars, also of Pittsburgh, who referred to his seminal work,
Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind (1956) as a series of
"incipient Mditations Hegeliennes" (in homage to Edmund Husserl's
1931 work, Mditations cartsiennes).

Beginning in the 1990s, after the fall of the USSR, a fresh reading of
Hegel took place in the West. For these scholars, fairly well
represented by the Hegel Society of America and in cooperation with
German scholars such as Otto Pggeler and Walter Jaeschke,
Hegel's works should be read without preconceptions. Marx plays
little-to-no role in these new readings. Some American philosophers
associated with this movement include Lawrence Stepelevich,
Rudolf Siebert, Richard Dien Winfield, and Theodore Geraets.

Criticism
Criticism of Hegel has been widespread in the 19th and the 20th
centuries; a diverse range of individuals including Arthur
Schopenhauer, Marx, Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Bertrand
Russell, G. E. Moore, Eric Voegelin and A. J. Ayer have challenged
Hegelian philosophy from a variety of perspectives. Among the first
to take a critical view of Hegel's system was the 19th Century
German group known as the Young Hegelians, which included
Feuerbach, Marx, Engels, and their followers. In Britain, the
Hegelian British Idealism school (members of which included
Francis Herbert Bradley, Bernard Bosanquet, and, in the United
States, Josiah Royce) was challenged and rejected by analytic
philosophers Moore and Russell; Russell, in particular, considered
"almost all" of Hegel's doctrines to be false.[64] Regarding Hegel's
interpretation of history, Russell commented, "Like other historical
theories, it required, if it was to be made plausible, some distortion
of facts and considerable ignorance."[65] Logical positivists such as
Ayer and the Vienna Circle criticized both Hegelian philosophy and
its supporters, such as Bradley.
Hegel's contemporary Schopenhauer was particularly critical, and
wrote of Hegel's philosophy as "a pseudo-philosophy paralyzing all
mental powers, stifling all real thinking."[66] In 1820, Schopenhauer
became a lecturer at the University of Berlin, and he scheduled his
lectures to coincide with those of Hegel, whom Schopenhauer had
also described as a "clumsy charlatan".[67] However, only five
students ended up attending Schopenhauer's lectures, so he
dropped out of academia. Kierkegaard criticized Hegel's 'absolute
knowledge' unity.[68] Scientist Ludwig Boltzmann also criticized the
obscure complexity of Hegel's works, referring to Hegel's writing as
an "unclear thoughtless flow of words."[69] In a similar vein, Robert
Pippin wrote that Hegel had "the ugliest prose style in the history of
the German language."[70] Russell stated in his Unpopular Essays
(1950) and A History of Western Philosophy (1945) that Hegel was
"the hardest to understand of all the great philosophers." Karl
Popper wrote that "there is so much philosophical writing (especially
in the Hegelian school) which may justly be criticized as
meaningless verbiage."[71]

Popper also makes the claim in the second volume of The Open
Society and Its Enemies (1945) that Hegel's system formed a thinly
veiled justification for the absolute rule of Frederick William III, and
that Hegel's idea of the ultimate goal of history was to reach a state
approximating that of 1830s Prussia. Popper further proposed that
Hegel's philosophy served not only as an inspiration for communist
and fascist totalitarian governments of the 20th century, whose
dialectics allow for any belief to be construed as rational simply if it
could be said to exist. Scholars such as Kaufmann and Shlomo
Avineri have criticized Popper's theories about Hegel.[72] Isaiah
Berlin listed Hegel as one of the six architects of modern
authoritarianism who undermined liberal democracy, along with
Rousseau, Claude Adrien Helvtius, Fichte, Saint-Simon, and
Joseph de Maistre.[73]
Walter Kaufmann has argued that as unlikely as it may sound, it is
not the case that Hegel was unable to write clearly, but that Hegel
felt that "he must and should not write in the way in which he was
gifted."[74]

Voegelin argued that Hegel should be understood not as a

philosopher, but as a "sorcerer" -- i.e., as a mystic and Hermetic
thinker.[75] This concept of Hegel as a Hermetic thinker was
elaborated by Glenn Alexander Magee[76] who argued that
interpreting Hegel's body of work as an expression of mysticism and
Hermetic ideas leads to a more accurate understanding of Hegel.
[77]

Selected works

Main article: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel bibliography

Published during Hegel's lifetime

Differenz des Fichteschen und Schellingschen Systems der

Philosophie, 1801

The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's Systems of

Philosophy, tr. H. S. Harris and Walter Cerf, 1977

Phnomenologie des Geistes, 1807

Phenomenology of Mind, tr. J. B. Baillie, 1910; 2nd ed. 1931

Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, tr. A. V. Miller, 1977

Phenomenology of Spirit, translated by Terry Pinkard, 2012

 Wissenschaft der Logik, 1812, 1813, 1816, "Doctrine of Being"
revised 1831

Science of Logic, tr. W. H. Johnston and L. G. Struthers, 2 vols.,

1929; tr. A. V. Miller, 1969; tr. George di Giovanni, 2010

Enzyklopdie der philosophischen Wissenschaften, 1817; 2nd ed.

1827; 3rd ed. 1830 (Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences)

(Pt. I:) The Logic of Hegel, tr. William Wallace, 1874, 2nd ed.
1892; tr. T. F. Geraets, W. A. Suchting and H. S. Harris, 1991; tr.
Klaus Brinkmann and Daniel O. Dahlstrom 2010

(Pt. II:) Hegel's Philosophy of Nature, tr. A. V. Miller, 1970

(Pt. III:) Hegel's Philosophy of Mind, tr. William Wallace, 1894; rev.
by A. V. Miller, 1971; rev. 2007 by Michael Inwood

Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts, 1821

Elements of the Philosophy of Right, tr. T. M. Knox, 1942; tr. H. B.

Nisbet, ed. Allen W. Wood, 1991

Published posthumously

Lectures on Aesthetics
 Lectures on the Philosophy of History (also translated as Lectures
on the Philosophy of World History), 1837

Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion

Lectures on the History of Philosophy

See also

Philosophy portal

God is dead

Hegel-Archiv

Political consciousness

Process theology

Notes

Brian K. Etter, Between Transcendence and Historicism, SUNY

Press, 2006, p. 68.

Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (1998): "Alienation."

John Grier Hibben, Eric v. d. Luft, Hegel's Shorter Logic: An

Introduction and Commentary, Gegensatz Press, 2013, p. 143.

Equivalently: the universal, the particular, and the individual

(Allgemeines, Besonderes, Einzelnes).
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: The Science of Logic, Cambridge
University Press, 2010, p. 609. See also: Richard Dien Winfield,
Hegel's Science of Logic: A Critical Rethinking in Thirty Lectures,
Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2012, p. 265.

David Gray Carlson, A Commentary to Hegel's Science of Logic,

Palgrave Macmillan, 2007, p. 38.

G. W. F. Hegel, Phnomenologie des Geistes (1807), Vorrede: "Das

Wahre ist das Ganze."

G. W. F. Hegel, Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts (1821),

Vorrede: "Was vernnftig ist, das ist Wirklich; und was wirklich ist,
das ist vernnftig." ["What is rational is real; And what is real is
rational."]

G. W. F. Hegel, Vorlesungen ber de Geschichte der Philosophie,

Part 3, Duncker und Humblot, 1844, pp. 502 and 514.

George Kline, On Hegel, Gegensatz Press, 2015; Rugard Otto

Gropp, Zu Fragen der Geschichte der Philosophie und des
dialektischen Materialismus, Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften,
1958, p. 28.

Michael N. Forster, After Herder: Philosophy of Language in the

German Tradition, Oxford University Press, 2010, p. 9.

Franz Wiedmann, Hegel: an illustrated biography, Pegasus, 1968, p.

23.

Butler, Judith (1987). Subjects of desire: Hegelian reflections in

twentieth-century France. New York: Columbia University Press.

"Hegel". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.

Redding, Paul, "Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel", The Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.), URL =
<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/hegel/>.
This term is actually quite rare in Hegel's writings. It does not occur
anywhere in The Science of Logic (though he comes close in a
remark at p.124 of the [2010] di Giovanni translation, GW 21.142). In
the Encyclopedia presentation of his logic it can be found only at
45R. Greraets, Suchting and Harris note in the introduction to their
translation of this later text that the term is more strongly associated
with English movement in that later part of the 19th century (Hackett:
1991, xiii).

Overwhelmingly due to Alexandre Kojve's influential lectures

published as Introduction la lecture de Hegel (Paris, 1947),
selections translated into English by James Nichols as Introduction
to the Reading of Hegel (New York, 1969). See, for instance, Aim
Patri, "Dialectique du Matre et de lEsclave", Le Contrat Social,V,
No. a (JulyAugust 196r), 234, cited in Editor's Introduction (vii) on
the extent of their influence.

Robert C. Solomon, In the Spirit of Hegel, Oxford University Press,

p. 23.

"Review of Aenesidemus" ("Rezension des Aenesidemus",

Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung (de), February 1112, 1794). Trans.
Daniel Breazeale. In Breazeale, Daniel; Fichte, Johann (1993).
Fichte: Early Philosophical Writings. Cornell University Press. p. 63.

"One of the few things on which the analysts, pragmatists, and

existentialists agree with the dialectical theologians is that Hegel is
to be repudiated: their attitude toward Kant, Aristotle, Plato, and the
other great philosophers is not at all unanimous even within each
movement; but opposition to Hegel is part of the platform of all four,
and of the Marxists, too." Walter Kaufmann, "The Hegel Myth and Its
Method" in From Shakespeare to Existentialism: Studies in Poetry,
Religion, and Philosophy, Beacon Press, Boston, 1959 (pp. 88119).

"Why did Hegel not become for the Protestant world something
similar to what Thomas Aquinas was for Roman Catholicism?" (Karl
Barth, Protestant Thought from Rousseau to Ritschl: Being the
Translation Of Eleven Chapters of Die Protestantische Theologie im
19. Jahrhundert, 268 Harper, 1959).
Maurice Merleau-Ponty (trans. Herbert L. and Patricia Allen
Dreyfus), Sense and Nonsense, Northwestern University Press,
1964, p. 63.

Pinkard, Terry (2000). Hegel: A Biography. Cambridge University

Press. ISBN 0-521-49679-9.

Pinkard, Hegel: A Biography, p. 3, incorrectly gives the date as

September 20, 1781, and describes Hegel as aged eleven. Cf. the
index to Pinkard's book and his "Chronology of Hegel's Life", which
correctly give the date as 1783 (pp. 773, 745); see also German
Wikipedia.

Karl Rosenkranz, Hegels Leben, Duncker und Humblot, 1844, p. 19.

Beiser, Frederick C., ed. (1993). The Cambridge Companion to

Hegel. Cambridge University Press. p. 419. ISBN 1-13982495-3.

Harris, H.S. (1995). Phenomenology and System. p. 7.

http://www3.documenta.de/research/assets/Uploads/Hegel-
Fragment-on-Love.pdf

http://www.sunypress.edu/pdf/60921.pdf

Kai Hammermeister, The German Aesthetic Tradition, Cambridge

University Press, 2002, p. 76.

The title of Hegel's thesis was Dissertatio Philosophica de Orbitis

Planetarium (Philosophical Dissertation on the Orbits of the
Planets); published, with a German translation by Wolgang Neuser,
as Dissertatio Philosophica de Orbitis Planetarium / Philosophische
errterung ber die Planetenbahnen, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH,
1986.

Ludwig Siep, Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, Cambridge

University Press, 2014, p. xxi.

Norman Davies, Europe: A history p. 687

par. 378
See Science of Logic, trans. Miller [Atlantic Highlands, NJ:
Humanities, 1989]

Jon Mills, The Unconscious Abyss: Hegel's Anticipation of

Psychoanalysis, SUNY Press, 2002, p. 16.

Steven Schroeder (2000). Between Freedom and Necessity: An

Essay on the Place of Value. Rodopi. p. 104. ISBN 978-90-420-
1302-5. Retrieved 17 December 2012.

Stefan Gruner: "Hegel's Aether Doctrine", VDM Publ., 2010, ISBN

978-3-639-28451-5

Etext of Philosophy of Right Hegel, 1827 (translated by Dyde, 1897)

Pelczynski, A.Z.; 1984; 'The Significance of Hegel's separation of

the state and civil society' pp1-13 in Pelczynski, A.Z. (ed.); 1984;
The State and Civil Society; Cambridge University Press

Zaleski, Pawel (2008). "Tocqueville on Civilian Society. A Romantic

Vision of the Dichotomic Structure of Social Reality". Archiv fr
Begriffsgeschichte. Felix Meiner Verlag. 50.

Hegel, G. W. F. (1979). "Vorlesungen ber die Geschichte der

Philosophie". pp. 336337. Retrieved 2008-07-01.

Hartnack, Justus (1998). An Introduction to Hegel's Logic. Lars

Aagaard-Mogensen (trans.). Hackett Publishing. pp. 1617. ISBN 0-
87220-424-3. Hartnack quotes Hegel, Lectures on the History of
Philosophy, Volume I.

Hegel, G. W. F. (1979). "Vorlesungen ber die Geschichte der

Philosophie". pp. 319343. Retrieved 2008-07-01.

Copleston, Frederick Charles (2003). A History of Philosophy:

Volume 7: 18th and 19th century German philosophy. Continuum
International Publishing Group. Chapter X. ISBN 0-8264-6901-9.

The notable Introduction to Philosophy of History expresses the

historical aspects of the dialectic.
"[T]he task that touches the interest of philosophy most nearly at the
present moment: to put God back at the peak of philosophy,
absolutely prior to all else as the one and only ground of everything."
(Hegel, "How the Ordinary Human Understanding Takes Philosophy
as displayed in the works of Mr. Krug", Kritisches Journal der
Philosophie, I, no. 1, 1802, pages 91115)

Jon Bartley Stewart. 2008. Johan Ludvig Heiberg: Philosopher,

Littrateur, Dramaturge, and Political Thinker. Museum Tusculanum
Press. p. 100

Walter Kaufmann, Hegel: Reinterpretation, Texts, and Commentary,

Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1965, pp. 27677

Walter Kaufmann, Hegel: Reinterpretation, Texts, and Commentary,

Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1965, p. 277

Jon Bartley Stewart. 2008. Johan Ludvig Heiberg: Philosopher,

Littrateur, Dramaturge, and Political Thinker. Museum Tusculanum
Press. p. 100

Jon Bartley Stewart. 2008. Johan Ludvig Heiberg: Philosopher,

Littrateur, Dramaturge, and Political Thinker. Museum Tusculanum
Press. p. 105

W. Kaufmann (1980), Discovery of the Mind 1: Goethe, Kant and

Hegel, p. 203

Cormier, Youri. "Hegel and Clausewitz: Convergence on Method,

Divergence on Ethics" International History Review, Volume 36,
Issue 3, 2014. [1]

Hegel, G.W.F. Science of Logic. trans. George di Giovanni.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2010. p.12

W. Kaufmann (1966), Hegel: A Reinterpretation, Anchor, p. 115

Karl Lwith, From Hegel to Nietzsche: The Revolution in Nineteenth-

Century Thought, translated by David E. Green, New York:
Columbia University Press, 1964.
Benedetto Croce, Guide to Aesthetics, Translated by Patrick
Romanell, "Translator's Introduction", The Library of Liberal Arts,
The BobbsMerrill Co., Inc., 1965

Hegel and Language, edited by Jere O'Neill Surber. p. 238.

Gustav E. Mueller (1996). Jon Stewart, ed. The Hegel Myths and
Legends. Northwestern University Press. p. 301. ISBN 0-8101-1301-
5.

Robinson, Paul (1990). The Freudian Left: Wilhelm Reich, Geza

Roheim, Herbert Marcuse. Cornell University Press. p. 156. ISBN 0-
87220-424-3.

French philosopher Vincent Descombes introduced the term "post-

Kojvian discourse" to designate the period of French philosophy
after the 1930s (Vincent Descombes, Modern French Philosophy,
Cambridge University Press, 1980, pp. 1589).

Williams, Howard; David Sullivan; Gwynn Matthews (1997). Francis

Fukuyama and the End of History. University of Wales Press. pp.
7071. ISBN 0-7083-1428-7.

B. Russell, History of Western Philosophy, chapter 22, paragraph 1,

p. 701.

Russell, 735.

On the Basis of Morality.

Schopenhauer, Arthur. Author's preface to "On The Fourfold Root of

the Principle of sufficient reason. Page 1. On the Fourfold Root of
the Principle of Sufficient Reason

Sren Kierkegaard Concluding Unscientific Postscriptt

Ludwig Boltzmann, Theoretical physics and philosophical problems:

Selected writings, p. 155, D. Reidel, 1974, ISBN 90-277-0250-0

Robert B. Pippin, Hegel's Idealism: The Satisfaction of Self-

Consciousness (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 5
Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific
Knowledge (New York: Routledge, 1963), 94.

See for instance Walter Kaufmann (1959), The Hegel Myth and Its
Method

Berlin, Isaiah, Freedom and Betrayal: Six Enemies of Human Liberty

(Princeton University Press, 2003)

W. Kaufmann, 1966, Hegel: A Reinterpretation, p. 99

Voegelin, Eric (1972). "On HegelA Study in Sorcery", in J. T.

Fraser, F. Haber & G. Muller (eds.), The Study of Time. Springer-
Verlag. 418--451 (1972)

Magee, Glenn Alexander (2001), Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition,

Ithaca: Cornell University Press

"I do not argue that merely that we can understand Hegel as a

Hermetic thinker, just as we can understand him as a German or a
Swabian or an idealist thinker. Instead, I argue that we must
understand Hegel as a Hermetic thinker, if we are to truly
understand him at all." Magee 2001, p. 2.

Further reading

The secondary literature on Hegel is vast. The following references

provide only a small selection of introductory English-language texts.
(For a more complete listing, see the External links section or the
Library resources box to the right.)

Beiser, Frederick C. (ed.), 1993. The Cambridge Companion to

Hegel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-38711-
6.
 Beiser, Frederick C., 2005. Hegel. New York: Routledge.

Burbidge, John, 2006. The Logic of Hegel's Logic: An

Introduction. Broadview Press. ISBN 1-55111-633-2

Findlay, J. N., 1958. Hegel: A Re-examination. New York: Oxford

University Press. ISBN 0-19-519879-4

Francke, Kuno, Howard, William Guild, Schiller, Friedrich, 1913

1914 "The German classics of the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries: masterpieces of German literature translated into English
Vol 7, Jay Lowenberg, The Life of Georg Wilhelm Freidrich Hegel".
Retrieved 2010-09-24.

Harris, H. S., 1995. Hegel: Phenomenology and System.

Indianapolis: Hackett.

Houlgate, Stephen, 2005. An Introduction to Hegel. Freedom,

Truth and History. Oxford: Blackwell

Houlgate, Stephen, 2005. The Opening of Hegel's Logic: From

Being to Infinity. Purdue University Press. ISBN 1-55753-257-5

Hyppolite, Jean, 1946. Gense et structure de la Phnomnologie

de l'esprit. Paris: Aubier. Eng. tr. Samuel Cherniak and John
Heckman as Genesis and Structure of Hegel's "Phenomenology of
Spirit", Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-
8101-0594-2.

Inwood, Michael, 1983. Hegel. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul

(Arguments of the Philosophers)

Kojve, Alexandre, 1947. Introduction la lecture de Hegel. Paris:

Gallimard. Eng. tr. James H. Nichols, Jr., as Introduction to the
Reading of Hegel: Lectures on the Phenomenology of Spirit, Basic
Books, 1969. ISBN 0-8014-9203-3.

Kainz, Howard P., 1996. G. W. F. Hegel. Athens: Ohio University

Press. ISBN 0-8214-1231-0.
 Kaufmann, Walter, 1965. Hegel: A Reinterpretation. New York:
Doubleday (reissued Notre Dame IN: University of Notre Dame
Press, 1978).

Losurdo, Domenico, 2004. Hegel and the Freedom of Moderns.

Duke University Press Books

Lukcs, Georg, 1948. Der junge Hegel. Zrich and Vienna (2nd
ed. Berlin, 1954). Eng. tr. Rodney Livingstone as The Young Hegel,
London: Merlin Press, 1975. ISBN 0-262-12070-4.

Mueller, Gustav Emil, 1968. Hegel: the man, his vision, and work.
New York: Pageant Press.

Maker, William, 1994. Philosophy Without Foundations:

Rethinking Hegel. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-
2100-7.

Marcuse, Herbert, 1941. Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the

Rise of Social Theory.

Pinkard, Terry, 1988. Hegel's Dialectic: The Explanation of

Possibility. Temple University Press

Pinkard, Terry, 1994. Hegel's Phenomenology: The Sociality of

Reason. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.

Riedel, Manfred, 1984. Between Tradition and Revolution: The

Hegelian Transformation of Political Philosophy, Cambridge.

Rose, Gillian, 1981. Hegel Contra Sociology. Athlone Press.

Rosen, Stanley, 2000. G.W.F Hegel: Introduction To Science Of

Wisdom, (Carthage Reprint) St. Augustines Press; 1 edition ISBN
978-1-890318-48-2

Russon, John, 2004. Reading Hegel's Phenomenology. Indiana

University Press. ISBN 0-253-21692-3.

Pippin, Robert B., 1989. Hegel's Idealism: the Satisfactions of

Self-Consciousness. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-
37923-7.
 Rutter, Benjamin (2010), Hegel on the Modern Arts, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press

Plant, Raymond, 1983. Hegel: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell

Singer, Peter, 2001. Hegel: A Very Short Introduction. New York:

Oxford University Press (previously issued in the OUP Past Masters
series, 1983)

Solomon, Robert, 1983. In the Spirit of Hegel, Oxford: Oxford

University Press

Stern, Robert (2013). The Routledge guide book to Hegel's

Phenomenology of spirit (second ed.). Abingdon, Oxon New York:
Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-66445-5.

Stewart, Jon, ed., 1996. The Hegel Myths and Legends.

Northwestern University Press.

Stirling, James Hutchison, The Secret of Hegel: Being the

Hegelian System in Origin Principle, Form and Matter, London:
Oliver & Boyd

Stace, W. T., 1955. The Philosophy of Hegel. New York: Dover.

Taylor, Charles, 1975. Hegel. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press. ISBN 0-521-29199-2.

Williams, Robert R., 2000. Hegel's Ethics of Recognition,

University of California Press; New Ed edition ISBN 978-0-520-
22492-6

Wood, Allen W., 1990 Hegel's Ethical Thought, Cambridge

University Press ISBN 978-0-521-37782-9

External links

Wikiquote has quotations related to: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich

Hegel
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel.

Wikisource has original works written by or about:

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Andrew Chitty's (University of Sussex) Hegel Bibliography

Redding, Paul. "Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel". Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Houlgate, Stephen. "Hegel's Aesthetics". Stanford Encyclopedia

of Philosophy.

Der Instinkt der Vernnftigkeit and other texts - Works on

Hegel in Universit du Qubec site (in French)

Hegel, as the National Philosopher of Germany (1874) Karl

Rosenkranz, Granville Stanley Hall, William Torrey Harris, Gray,
Baker & Co. 1874

Hegel page in 'The History Guide'

Hegel.net - freely available resources (under the GNU FDL)

Lowenberg J., (1913) "The Life of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich

Hegel". in German classics of the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries. New York: German Publication Society.

Audio

Works by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel at LibriVox (public

domain audiobooks)
Video

Hegel: The First Cultural Psychologist 2007 from Vimeo Andy

Blunden

Societies

The Hegel Society of America

The Hegel Society of Great Britain

Hegel texts online

Works by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel at Project Gutenberg

Works by or about Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel at Internet

Archive

Philosophy of History Introduction

Hegel's The Philosophy of Right

Hegel's The Philosophy of History

Hegel by HyperText, reference archive on Marxists.org

Phenomenology of Spirit. translated by Terry Pinkard (2012)

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 Ajuda Enviar feedback Privacidade Termos Usar Google.comSntese do Livro II do
Dicionrio da Eneida - A destruio de Troia

O Livro II da Eneida integra o segmento das Provaes composto pelos quatro

primeiros livros do poema, cuja narrativa se divide em dois grupos, a narrativa do
tempo presente (Livros I e IV) e a narrativa do tempo passado (Livros II e III). O
primeiro grupo narrativo, em terceira pessoa, marca a chegada e sada de Eneias da
Lbia de ento, mais precisamente, do reino de Cartago, em construo pela rainha
Dido. O segundo grupo narrativo, em primeira pessoa, marca a sada de Eneias,
compelido pelos deuses, de Troia em destruio e a atribulada e errante viagem que
ele est obrigado a fazer, em busca da nova terra, em que dever fixar-se. O Livro II
inicia-se com Eneias atendendo ao pedido da rainha Dido, para narrar a sua histria.
O narrador geral do poema ainda comanda os dois primeiros versos e s retomar as
rdeas de sua narrativa nos versos 716-718, fechando o Livro III e os relatos do heri
troiano. Nesse meio tempo, Eneias comandar, em primeira pessoa, a narrativa.
Assim teremos, do verso 3 ao 804, o desenvolvimento do argumento do Livro II A
Destruio de Troia.
Este argumento se desenvolver a partir de um forte componente augural,
presente nas falas do espectro de Heitor, que aparece a Eneias (versos 287-297); da
cabeleira de Iulo em chamas, sem que o menino se queime (versos 681-686); do
trovo de Jpiter, que determina a sada de Anquises com o filho (verso 703), cujo
coroamento se d com o simulacro de Cresa, instruindo Eneias sobre os detalhes de
seu destino (versos 776-789): passado o longo exlio e depois de arada a plancie do
mar, Eneias chegar a uma terra frtil, lavrada pelos homens, onde corre o Tibre. Ali
encontrar reino e esposa rgia, e posses abundantes (res laetae, verso 783).

Sntese do Livro do Dicionrio da Eneida - As errncias de Eneias

O Livro III da Eneida o momento em que Eneias ir provar a sua tmpera,

passando por uma viagem das mais dificultosas, cheia de provaes, sendo jogado l e
c atravs do mar, em busca da terra prometida pelos deuses. Antes de a essa terra
chegar o heri, no entanto, sofrer a maior e mais cruel das provaes: a morte do pai,
em Drpanp, Siclia.
Todas as viagens empreendidas por Eneias so no sentido de cumprimento de seu
destino e enfrentamento de suas provaes. Tambm o Livro III nos revela, com mais
nitidez, o Eneias empreendedor, cumprindo a terceira funo do indo-europeu, alm
das outras duas - guerreiro (Livro II) e sacerdote (Livro V). Eneias funda cidades (na
Trcia e em Creta) e d leis aos homens por onde ele passa, conforme j se anuncia na
Proposio (Livro I, versos 1-7). Ali j se veem as trs funes do indo-europeu
sintetizadas no heri piedoso profetizado (verso 1, o verbo cano no deixa dvidas a
esse respeito, e verso 10), que dever fundar um novo reino, de onde se originar a
altiva Roma (versos 5-6), depois de passar muitas guerras e muitas provaes (versos 5
e 10). Em sntese: o rei-guerreiro enfrentar as guerras pela conquista do novo reino; o
rei-empreendedor fundar o novo reino, que ser mais poderoso que os demais; o rei-
sacerdote desempenhar as duas funes anteriores sem perder de vista a sua
condio de piedoso, com relao aos deuses e ao pai, sobretudo ao realizar a
fundao da cidade a partir dos ritos sagrados.