CHAPTER 1
Learning Objectives
Identifying different limit states for designing structural
steelwork.
Understanding the general applications of different types
of structural steel members.
Understanding the material properties of structural steel.
Overview of the commonly used national and international
design codes, including the Chinese National Standard
(GB) and Eurocode.
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The design of steel structures is based primarily on the yield stress or proof
stress of the steel but ductility and weldability are other important properties.
Welded structures give a weight saving and ease of fabrication compared with
bolted or riveted structures.
Ductility and weldability deteriorate with increasing carbon content, while yield
strength increases with carbon content. Hence the carbon content is limited to
0.25% in basic structural steel to give a compromise.
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Structural steel performs badly in fires with the strength decreasing with
increase in temperature. There are statutory requirements for fire protection
and these lay down the fire resistance period that any load bearing element in a
given building must have. They also give the fire resistance periods for
different types of fire protection.
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Ultimate limit states (ULS) represent those limit states beyond which collapse
of or irreparable damage to the structure may take place and a high load factor is
used. Serviceability limit states (SLS) represent those limit states beyond
which the structure becomes unfit for its intended use in service. In general the
load factor used for SLS is unity.
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A summary of the partial safety factors for ultimate limit states below:
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At the ultimate limit state the values given in Table 4.2 of the code (see Table 2
of the handout) should be used. It will be seen that in general higher load
factors are applied to imposed loads than to dead loads, the exceptions being
combined loading situations in which it is unlikely that all the loads will reach
their maximum values at the same time. It should be noted that where dead
loads are required to restrain uplift or overturning, a load factor of unity is
assumed. At the serviceability limit state the load factors are all taken as unity.
Stability against overturning is usually provided by the dead load of the structure
and/or foundations. Where this is not adequate a restraining system should be
provided.
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The structure should be checked to ensure that removal of certain elements due
to accidental damage will not cause collapse of more than a limited proportion
of the structure. If a particular element cannot be removed without causing
disproportionate collapse then it should be classed as a key element and
designed accordingly.
In general, ties should be provided at each principal roof or floor level and be
designed to resist a specified nominal tensile force. Where buildings are to be
designed for accidental damage, the tensile load in the tie or beams should be
increased by the use of formulae based on beams acting in catenary on the
removal of an intermediate column. In addition column splices should be
designed to resist a tensile force based on the load applied at the floor beneath
the splice. This is in order to support, to some extent, the floor below the
splice on the accidental removal of the column beneath that floor.
(a) Welding
(b) Stress concentration
(c) Rapid load application
(d) High stress
(e) Thick material
(f) Low temperature
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Class 1 Plastic cross sections are those in which all elements subject to
compression comply with the values given in Table 7.1 for plastic elements.
Full plastic moment capacity can be developed and a plastic hinge can be
developed with sufficient rotation capacity to allow redistribution of moments
within the structure. Only Class 1 sections may be used for plastic design.
Class 2 Compact cross sections are those in which all elements subject to
compression comply with the values given in Table 7.1 for compact elements.
Full plastic moment capacity can be developed but local buckling may prevent
development of a plastic hinge with sufficient rotation capacity to permit plastic
design.
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Class 3 Semi-compact cross sections are those in which all elements subject to
compression comply with the values given in Table 7.1 for semi-compact
elements. The stress at the extreme fibers can reach the design strength but
local buckling may prevent the development of the full plastic moment. It can
develop elastic moment capacity only (i.e. Mc = py*Z).
Class 4 Slender sections are those which contain slender elements subject to
compression due to moment or axial load. Local buckling may prevent the
stress in a slender section from reaching the design strength.
275
, see table 7.1 of the code.
py
Table 7.1 of the code gives limiting proportion for various types of element.
The entry "Web, with neutral axis at mid-depth" is relevant for a section with
equal flanges subject to bending about the major axis. It is a special case of the
next entry "Web, generally" which covers sections subject to bending and axial
load and is also relevant for webs of sections with unequal flanges subject to
bending only.
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HK Code Eurocode 3
Cross-Sectional Area A A
Elastic Modulus Z Wel
Plastic Modulus S Wpl
Moment of Inertia IX Iy
(about major axis)
Moment of Inertia IY Iz
(about minor axis)
Axial Load P N
Bending Moment MX My
(about major axis)
Shear Force V V
Wrapping Index H Iw
Polar Moment of J It
Inertia
Yield Strength py fy
Buckling Strength pb LTfy
Compressive pc fy
Strength
Radius of Gyration r i
Slenderness
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Revision
Read reference 2 on P.1 - 23.
Main Reference
1. Code of Practice for Structural Use of Steel 2011, Buildings Department, the
Government of HKSAR
2. Structural Steelwork, Design to Limit State Theory, 3rd edition (2004),
Dennis Lam, Thien-Cheong Ang, Sing-Ping Chiew, Elsevier.
3. Limit States Design of Structural Steelwork, 3rd edition (2001), D.A.
Nethercot, Spon Press.
4. The Behaviour and Design of Steel Structures to BS5950, 3rd edition (2001),
N.S. Trahair, M.A. Bardford, D.A. Nethercot, Spon Press.
5. Steel Designers Manual, 6th edition (2003), Oxford: Blackwell Science,
Steel Construction Institute.
6. Structural Steelwork, Design to Limit State Theory, 2nd edition, T.J.
MacGinley and T.C. Ang, Butterworths.
7. Explanatory Materials to Code of Practice for Structural Use of Steel,
Buildings Department, the Government of the HKSAR.
8. EN1993 Eurocode 3: Design of Steel Structures
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