College of Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department
By:
Ali Mohammad Al-Eshwy
Supervised By:
December
Table of Contents
Table of Contents i
Abstract iii
2-1 Introduction 7
2-2 Control of DC-DC Converters 7
2-3 Step Down DC-DC Converter (Buck converter) 9
2-3-1 Continuous Conduction Mode in Buck Converter 12
2-3-2 Discontinuous Conduction Mode with Constant Vd 14
2-3-3 Output Voltage Ripples 16
3-1 Introduction 27
3-2 Control Circuit Components 28
3-2-1 DC Power Supply 28
3-2-2 Voltage Controlled Saw-tooth Oscillator and Comparator 31
3-2-3 Comparator. 33
3-3 Power Circuit. 36
Chapter 4: Conclusion
4-1 Conclusions 39
References 40
Abstract
Chapter
REVIEW OF POWER ELECTRONICS AND DC MOTORS
During the last century, industry has boomed and the DC motor has been an
integral part of the electrical industrys history. Most power at the beginning of the
century was constant voltage direct current because of its easy of use and it only
requires two transmission buses, unlike the three-phase transmission of today.
Last century DC drives were typically constant speed, due to the limited of
knowledge of commutation. This caused problems with commutator sparking and
reduced life of brushes. The variation of speed was only possible through adjustment
in field flux of the most durable motors. However with improvements in commutation
then came improvements in speed control.
In the 1890s a more successful method of speed control was introduced, the Ward-
Leonard method. The system utilized a motor generator set to vary the power supplied
to the DC machine by varying the generator excitation. This consequentially varied
the voltage and then provided continuous control of the motor of a wide range. This
system was the first to provide better performance in machine speed control.
Meanwhile, the development of AC systems continued to become more attractive due
to their durability. They also exhibited no problem with commutation as current was
passed to the machine via a set of slip rings located on the rotor.
In the late 1940s, electronic control gas filled rectifiers brought a significant
change to the speed control industry. They provided advantages of electronic control
by possessing faster response, increased accuracy and allowed the first automatic
closed loop system to operate. This began the move of electronic drives, a movement,
which is still increasing accuracy, response and controllability of motors.
As the decades rolled on the use and new innovation of solid state electronic devices
took over, with the introduction of the thyristor. The thyristor was a semi-controlled
device, which allowed greater control, rugged systems.
Today the electronic drives are increasing smaller and able to handle larger currents
and voltages. In addition, with the introduction of micro-controller drives the limits
seem endless. The direction into the new millennium is uncertain but all the same
assured for the use of electronic drives. Perhaps the next step will be into cheaper
electric cars.
The stator, so called because it is stationary, consists of salient poles that carry the
main field coils, commonly called the field windings. These coils are connected in
series to ensure that each coil carries the same current and the same magneto-motive
force (mmf). The current through each conductor must be equal, as the magnitude is a
function of current.
= N I
(1.1)
Where = magneto-motive force (mmf),
I = the current in the coil (A),
N = the number of turns in the coil.
The main flux path is shown in the diagram above by the broken lines. The stator
yoke, pole shoes and rotor are constructed from ferromagnetic materials to enhance
the flux of the machine. The pole shoes are used to increase the output of the machine
by placing more armature windings, on the rotor, under strong influence from a
magnetic field. With the rotation of the armature, there will be eddy currents present
in the pole shoe material. Therefore, laminated steel sections are used to reduce eddy
current loss.
The armature, or rotor, named so because it rotates, caries the armature windings that
under the influence from the field windings. This interaction between the armature
windings and the field windings causes rotational torque to be produced. The rotor
should possess a uniform small air gap (typically 0.05cm to 0.25cm) between the pole
shoes and the armature to reduce losses due to the reluctance torque, TR. The
reluctance can be described simply as the unwillingness of the magnetic circuit to be
at a point other than equilibrium (un-aligned with the poles).
This reluctance torque is the force required overcoming the reluctance of the armature
when it is not aligned with the pole faces (at minimum reluctance). It reduces the
maximum possible output and efficiency of the motor.
The commutator converts the direct current of the supply voltage to an alternating
current to develop a unidirectional torque within the rotor. The commutator is a series
of small copper conducting segments around the rotor shaft, and a stationary set of
brushes. This is shown below in Fig.1.3.
2-1 Introduction
There are literally hundreds of different circuit configurations for switch mode
converters. However, one can classify most of them into two basic categories:
. Step-down or buck converters.
. Step-up or boost converters.
Many of the other topologies that are in the literature are combinations of these two
basic topologies.
The basic layout of a SMPC system is shown in Fig.2.1 below. The input to the
converter is usually the mains. Since this is AC the first step is to convert this to DC
via a rectifier. Notice that one can also feed DC, from a battery, directly in at the
output point of the rectifier. The unregulated DC is usually filtered with a capacitor,
before feeding the DC-DC converter electronics. The output of this stage then feeds
the load.
In the PWM switching frequency, the switch control signal, which controls the state
(on or off) of the switch, is generated by comparing a signal-level control voltage
v control with a repetitive wave form as shown in Fig.2.2 and Fig.2.3
The control voltage signal generally is obtained by amplifying the error, or the
difference between the actual output voltage and it desired value. The frequency of
the recitative waveform with a constant peak, which is shown to be a saw tooth,
establishes the switching frequency. This frequency is kept constant in a PWM
control and is chosen to be in a few kilohertz to a few hundred kilohertz range. When
the amplified error signal, which varies very slowly with time relative to the switching
frequency, is greater than the saw tooth waveform, the switch control signal becomes
high, causing the switch to turn on. Other wise, the switch is off. In terms of vcontrol
and the peak off the saw tooth waveform? In previous figure the switch duty can be
Remark 2.1 Note that the maximum current that can flow through the inductor if the
switch is left closed is Vd / RL .
Remark 2.2 If the inductor current goes to zero then the converter is said to be
operating in discontinuous mode. If it does not go to zero, then the converter is
operating in continuous current mode. Generally speaking, it is desirable to operate
the converter in one mode or the other, without a change of mode. Changes in mode
can result in difficulties in controlling the output voltage of the converter. A change of
mode can occur depending on load changes.
Remark 2.3 If the filter were not present in Fig.2.4 then the output voltage would
exactly mirror the input voltage i.e. if the switch is opened and closed then the
output would be a square wave voltage. The filter has to be designed so that the cut
frequency is significantly below the switching frequency. If this is the case then the
filter will reject most of the AC components present at the Vod, so that the output
voltage will essentially be a DC value equal to the average value of the voltage Vod.
Remark 2.4 One of the distinguishing features of this type of circuit is that when the
switch is closed the input is connected to the output, but when the switch is open the
input is disconnected from the output.
Another distinguishing feature of the buck converter is that the inductor is not placed
across the input voltage when the switch is closed. The inductor has a voltage
imposed across it that is usually somewhat lower than the input voltage.
This means that the inductor does not store all the energy being supplied by the input.
Remark 2.5 If multiple output voltages are required then the buck converter as
depicted here is not the topology to use. Other converters, such as the forward
converter, that are related to the buck converter can be used.
Remark 2.6 Since the switch is at the input to the converter, and then the input
current is discontinuous. Therefore, the input filter to this circuit is more complicated
compared to other converter types.
Practical Issue 2.1 Driving the gate of a buck converter can be a problem. If we
assume that the switching element is a n-channel MOSFET (as it would be)
A buck converter or step- down switch mode power supply can also called a switch
mode regulator.
Popularity of a switch mode regulator is due to its fairly high efficiency and
compact size and a switch mode regulator is used in place of a linear voltage regulator
at relatively high output, because linear voltage regulators are inefficient. Since the
power devices used in linear regulators have to dissipate a fairly large amount of
power, they have to be adequately cooled, by mounting them on heat sinks and the
heat is transferred from the heat sinks to the surrounding air either by natural
convection or by forced-air cooling. Heat sinks and provision for cooling makes the
regulator bulky and large. In applications where size and efficiency are critical, linear
voltage regulators cannot be used.
A switch mode regulator overcomes the drawbacks of linear regulators. Switched
power supplies are more efficient and they tend to have an efficiency of 80% or more.
They can be packaged in a fraction of the size of linear regulators. Unlike linear
regulators, switched power supplies can step up or step down the input voltage. A
simplified diagram of a step down DC-DC converter is shown in Fig.2.5 The output
voltage is shown in Fig.2.6 This average output voltage depends on the duty ratio, D
t on
where D = .
TS
vo
Vo Vd
ton toff
Ts
Id
L
iL Vo
Vd R
vL
Vd -Vo
A
t
-Vo B
ton toff
Ts
TS t on TS
vL dt = vL dt + vL dt = 0
o o t on
(2.3)
In Fig.2.7 the forgoing equation implies that the areas A and B must be equal.
Therefore;
VO ton
Then, = =D
Vd TS
(2.5)
Neglecting power losses associated with all the circuit elements, the input power Pd
equals the output power PO:
Pd = PO
(2.6)
Vd I d = VO I O
(2.7)
I O Vd 1
= =
I d VO D
(2.8)
At the edge of the continuous conduction mode, Fig.2.9 shows the waveforms for
vL and iL . Being at the boundary between the continuous and discontinuous mode,
by definition, the inductor current iL goes to zero at the end of OFF period. At this
boundary, the average inductor current, where the subscript B refers to the boundary
is:
1 t DTS
I LB = I L, peak = on (Vd VO ) = (Vd VO ) = I OB
2 2L 2L
(2.9)
iL,peak
iL
I LB = I OB
vL
Vd -Vo
-Vo
ton toff
Ts
controlled by adjusting the converter duty ratio D. Since VO = DVd , the average
inductor current at the edge of the continuous conduction mode from equation (2.9)
TS Vd
I LB = D(1 D)
2L
(2.10)
Using this equation, we find that the output current required for a continuous
conduction mode is maximum at D = 0.5 .
TS Vd
I LB , max =
8L
(2.11)
I LB = 4 I LB ,max D(1 D)
(2.12)
Next, the voltage ratio Vo / Vd will be calculated in the discontinuous mode. Let
us assume that initially the converter is operating at the edge of continuous
conduction mode as in Fig.2.9, for given values of T, L, Vd and D. If these parameters
are kept constant and the output load power is decreased (i.e., the load resistance goes
up), then the average inductor current will decrease. As is shown in Fig.2.10, this
dictates a higher value of VO than before and results in discontinuous inductor current.
iL,peak
iL
I L = IO
vL
Vd -Vo
-Vo
1Ts 2Ts
ton
Ts
During the interval 2Ts where the inductor current is zero, the power to the load
resistance is supplied by filter capacitor alone. The inductor voltage vL during this
interval is zero. Again, equating the integral of the inductor voltage over one time
period to zero yields:
(Vd VO ) D TS + (VO ) 1 TS = 0
(2.13)
VO D
Then, =
Vd D + 1
(2.14)
VO
I L, peak = 1TS
L
(2.15)
D + 1
Therefore, I O = I L, peak (2.16)
2
VO TS
= ( D + 1 ) 1
2L
(2.17)
Vd TS
= D1
2L
(2.18)
= 4 I LB , max D 1
(2.19)
IO
Then 1 =
4 I LB , max D
(2.20)
VO D2
=
Vd 1 I
D2 + O
4 I LB , max
(2.21)
TS VO
I LB = (1 D)
2L
(2.22)
I LB = (1 D) I LB ,max
(2.24)
Vd
From equation (4.12), 1 = D D (2.25)
VO
VO TS 2 Vd Vd
IO = D 1
2L VO VO
(2.26)
Vd Vd
I O = I LB , max D 2 1
VO VO
(2.27)
1/ 2
V I I
Then, D = O * O LB ,max
Vd (1 VO Vd )
(2.28)
-Vo
ton toff
Ts
iL,peak
iL
Q I LB = I OB
Ts / 2
VO
VO
In case continuous conduction mode, assume that all of the ripple component in iL
flows through the capacitor and its average component flows through the load
resistor, the shaded area in Fig.2.11 represents an additional charge to the capacitor,
the peak to peak voltage ripple VO can be written as:
Q 1 1 I L TS
VO = =
C C2 2 2
(2.29)
VO
I L = (1 D)TS
L
(2.30)
Therefore, substituting from equation (2.29) into the previous equation gives:
TS VO
VO = (1 D)TS
8C L
(2.31)
2
VO 1 TS2 (1 D) 2 f
= = (1 D) C
VO 8 LC 2 fS
(2.32)
1
Where switching frequency f S = 1 TS and f C =
2 LC
iL
I L = IO
vL
Vd -Vo
-Vo
1Ts 2Ts
ton
Ts
iL,peak
iL
Q
I L = IO
t 2 t1
t1 t2
VO
VO
di V
=
dt L
(2.33)
Vd VO
Then t1 = I O
L
(2.34)
L IO
Then, t1 =
Vd VO
(2.35)
DTS
iL , peak = (Vd VO )
L
(2.36)
L (i L , peak I O )
But t 2 = DTS +
VO
(2.37)
L IO L (i L, peak I O )
t 2 t1 = + DTS +
Vd VO VO
(2.38)
Then:
DT
DTS (Vd VO )VO L I OVO + L (Vd VO ) S (Vd VO ) I O
t 2 t1 = L (2.3
VO (Vd VO )
9)
Then;
Q 1 1
VO = = (iL, peak I O )(t 2 t1 )
C C2
1 DTS
= (V V ) I (t 2 t1 )
2 C L
d O O
(2.40)
Then;
[DTS (Vd VO ) L I O ]DTS (Vd VO )VO L I OVO + L (Vd VO ) DTS (Vd VO ) I O
VO = L
2 LC VO (Vd VO )
(2.41)
Remark 2.7 If the voltage on the capacitor is larger than the supply voltage, the
inductor will produce whatever voltage is required so that Vd + VL = Vo. This is
required in order for the current to continue to low in the inductor. One can see that
because the polarity of VL shown in Fig.2.13 always has to reverse for this situation,
then the output voltage must always be greater than the input voltage (except under
initial start-up conditions).
Remark 2.8 The main feature of the boost converter is that current can flow through
the switch regardless of the relationship between the input and output voltages. This
usually occurs because the input to the circuit is disconnected from the output when
the switch is closed. It is this feature that one must look boost distinguishing for when
one is trying to ascertain what category a particular topology falls into. When the
switch is opened, the input is connected to the output because the diode switches on.
Another distinguishing feature is that when the switch is closed the input voltage is
placed across the inductor (so that it stores all the energy being supplied by the input),
and when the switch is opened the inductor is placed in series with the load. and this
stored energy is transferred to the load.
Remark 2.9 In a boost converter the inductor fulfills an energy storage function,
whereas in the buck converter the inductor forms a filtering function. Therefore, one
can view the boost converter as not having a filter capacitor. This distinction is not
very clear for the non-isolated converter, but when we look at isolated converters in
the next chapter, we shall see that there is a clear distinction.
Remark 2.10 There is a maximum power that is practical to build for converters that
rely on the energy storage principle. This is especially true for low input voltages. As
we shall see in the next chapter, a related converter is the fly back converter, which
operates using the same principle, and hence suffers from the same power limitations.
In order to cater for high power output with an energy storage converter, one needs to
1 2
have a very small energy storage inductor (since E = Li , and therefore the current
2
contributes most significantly to the stored energy). It turns out that for powers much
above 50W when the input voltage is low, the inductance becomes very small and is
comparable with the parasitic of the circuit. Therefore, the circuit becomes very
difficult to manufacture.
Vo
Vd RL
Fig.2.14 shows the steady state waveform for this mode of condition where the
inductor current flows continuously [ iL (t ) > 0 ].
vL
Vd
iL
IL
ton Ts toff
Since in steady state the time integral of the inductor voltage over one time period
must be zero,
Vd t on + (Vd VO ) t off = 0
(2.42)
VO TS 1
= =
Vd Toff 1 D
(2.43)
Vd I d = VO I O
(2.44)
IO
And = (1 D)
Id
(2.43)
1 1 Vd T V
I LB = I L, peal = t on = S O D(1 D)
2 2 L 2L
(2.44)
TS VO
I OB = D(1 D) 2
2L
(2.45)
TS VO
I LB ,max =
8L
(2.46)
2 TS VO T V
I OB ,max = = 0.074 S O
27 L L
(2.47)
I LB = 4 D(1 D) I LB ,max
(2.48)
27
I OB = D(1 D) 2 I OB ,max
4
(2.49)
IO 1
And =
Id 1 + D
(2.52)
From Fig.2.16, the average input current, which is also equal to the inductor
current, is
Vd
Id = DTS ( D + 1 )
2L
(2.53)
T V
I O = S d D1
2L
(2.54)
1/ 2
4 VO VO I O
D= 1
27 Vd Vd I
OB, max
(2.55)
The peak-to-peak ripple in the output voltage can be calculated by considering the
waveform shown in Fig.4.17 for a continuous mode of operation. Assuming that all
the ripple current component of the diode current iD flows through the capacitor and
its average value flows through the load resistor, the shaded area in Fig.2.17
represents charge Q. Therefore, the peak-to-peak voltage ripple is given by:
Q I O DTS VO DTS
VO = = =
C C RC
(2.56)
VO DTS T
= = D S (Where =RC time constant)
VO RC
(2.57)
Fig.2.17 Step-up converter output voltage ripple in continuous conduction mode of
boost converter.
Chapter3
Project Specifications
3-1 Introduction
With a full working background of DC motor characteristic operation achieved in
Chapter 1, the project specification can then be developed. The aim of this chapter is
to express the system as a series of interconnected systems that interact to provide a
collective response.
The expression of the project as sub-system blocks constitutes a significant portion of
this text where each subsequent block is examined in proceeding chapters. By
dividing the project into these sub system blocks the design can become a simpler
project with each block relying on set assumptions and design goals. The goal of this
approach is to design a system that can be altered with ease and can more importantly
be tested on a per entity basis. This testing concept allows each system to have a
greater reliability due to the high reliability of surrounding components. Thus
prerequisite for each sub system module is justified. The system can be simplified for
design purposes by breaking down the system into a series of sub-systems connected
together in a network configuration. Consider the block representation of the system
below.
The system of a DC speed controller was separated into several components, which
rely on each component around them for operation. This may be related to an object
oriented design approach taken in software design.
The project was divided into sub-sequent parts, control circuit components and
power circuit components.
Each of these component parts is related together to represent the entire system.
This approach was also useful in regards to testing the various features of the system
where the functionality of each block could be completed separately.
These sub-systems are the subject of analysis, design and implementation throughout
the remainder of the chapters comprising this project composition.
Transformer Connection
To convert the AC mains voltage to a useable voltage to then be filtered a
transformer is required to step down the voltage rectifier bridge. for input to a The
transformer connections to supply the regulators are as shown in Fig.3.2.
Rectifier Circuit
The voltage output from the transformer is given as shown in Fig.3.3 But when the
transformation through the rectifier bridge occurs, the output DC voltage is obtained
from the following equation:
2 Vm 2 * 24 * 2
Vdc1 = = = 15.2V
(3.1)
The initial stage of this project was to prototype a Power Supply Module. LM7815
and LM7915 are used to supply +15 Volts and 15 Volts respectively. The expected
total power consumption required by the circuits is approximately 10 Watts. All
capacitors should be the highest quality, especially the output capacitor. The input
capacitor is an easier-to-get size capacitor of 100 microfarads; I included the output
capacitor of 10 microfarads to help eliminate any distortion when it is supplying the
analog circuits.
2- LM7812.
3-LM7912.
+ 100uF +
10uF
24
In 7915
out -15
(R2 )Vcc 1 1
fs = *
R1 + R2 Ri C VP 1
(3.2)
R4
Where VP = (Vcc ) + 0.7
R3 + R4
(3.3)
10
Then, V P = (15) + 0.7 = 10.075 V
6 + 10
(3.4)
Then the minimum switching frequency can be obtained when the input resistance is
at its maximum value as following:
f s _ min =
(6)*15 * 1 1
= 1042 Hz
6+6 100 * 10 * 10 * 10 9
3
8 .2 1
(3.5)
The maximum value can be obtained from the performance of the circuit. The
sawtooth signal has to be compared using voltage comparator (see Fig.3.6) with
variable control signal by us 100 k potentiometer. The output from comparator
depends on the following logic.
So, if we need the output voltage to be zero when Vcontrol < Vsawtooth we can use
diode at the output signal as shown in Fig.3.6 . Therefore, with the diode connected at
the output, The output from comparator depends on the following logic.
10k R3
2n6027
2
3 1 6k R4
-15V 10nF
R1 +15V
6k 100k
2 +15V
7
6k R2 Ri 741 2
6 7 100
4
3 +15V 741 6
4
-15V 3
1 k -15V
Pot., 100k
0.5kHz to 10kHz Duty
3-2-3 Comparator
+15V
2
7 10 k
+12V 324N 6
4
3
1 k -15V
Pot., 100k
Duty
Fig.3.8 The comparator circuit.
Fig.3.9 The output of voltage of the comparator circuit.
PUT 2n6027 1
OP-amp 741 2
diode Any 1
Potentiometer 100 k 2
Resistors 6k 3
Resistors 10k 2
Resistor 1k 1
Table 3-2 power supply for the controlling circuit.
regulator LM7812 1
regulator LM7912 1
bridge diode 10 w 1
Power circuits feed the DC motor with a voltage between 10V and 80V as a variable
DC voltage. The DC Motor speed is proportional with the applied voltage on it. So we
design our power supply to vary the input voltage of the DC motor to change its
speed. Power Circuit (see Fug.3.10) is consisting of the following components:
Power Transformer
We choose a suitable step down transformer with the following specification:
Primary voltage is 220V sinusoidal AC
Secondary voltage is 12V sinusoidal AC
It has VA equal 25 VA
Inductance
The main question is how we can get a coil which inductance of it is 12mh?
As we know inductance is depends on the:
Number of turns in the coil, the radius of the coil and on the type of material around
which the coil is wound (core).
So there are important electrical specifications to consider when searching for
inductors, chokes, and coils include inductance range, inductance tolerance,
maximum DC resistance, and operating current range
Switch(MOSFET or IGBT)
MOSFET plays a significant role in controlling the applied voltage on the DC
Motor. Its Gate triggered by the out put of the controlling circuit. We can recognize
that the MOSFET is used on these design in place of IGBT switch.
Smoothing capacitor
We use this capacitance to make the output nearing the pure DC voltage. We
choose this capacitance suitable and can be withstand with the applied voltage (80 V).
MOSFET Irpfpc50 1
Conclusion
4-1 Conclusions
There are several advantages to this specific approach of speed control of DC
motors incorporating the use of input DC voltage control. However, there are also
some limitations within the design. These factors are discussed in the following items:
The flexibility of the system where the whole construct can be changed or
added-on so as to improve the future design.
The structure can be seen to be simply plug and play as the whole project
requires only a main supply and connection to the DC motor. This represents a
much improved and user friendly structure.
There also exists flexibility within the magnetic design where the inductance
may be changed or the power handling can be increased if necessary.
The design also offers lowered ratings of components required for the power
circuit as the field winding is considered an individual output. Therefore, it
also involves a very essential cost savings.
Experimental results