NAME:

TEACHER:

Auckland Grammar School

Experimental work
Measurement & Analysis of data

Physics AS/2
Physical quantities for measurement
.
Observation and measurement (i.e. collection of data) are essential to most progress in science.
Therefore standard methods of collecting and reporting data must be common to all scientists.

Two types of measurement/observation

QUALITATIVE e.g. The resistance increases in proportion to the current passing through it.

QUANTITATIVE e.g. When the current was a value of 6.6 A the resistance equaled 15.6 .

Two types of quantity

VECTOR Has magnitude and an associated direction.

e.g. velocity, momentum, force

SCALAR Has only magnitude

e.g. speed, mass, temperature

Systeme Internationale - S.I. units

The majority of physical quantities have an associated unit which must be quoted with the value of the
quantity if it is to make sense. (e.g. 15.6 mm). However, there are many units available for some
quantities (e.g. length - metre, foot, inch, hand, yard, kilometre, mile, etc). To avoid confusion, especially
with calculations, scientists use an agreed international system of units for particular quantities - S.I. units.
There are seven 'basic' quantities and their S.I. units have exact definitions (i.e. standard values)
QUANTITY S.I. UNIT SYMBOL
Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Angle subtended Radian rad
Electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity Candela cd

All other quantities are derived from basic ones and their units are compounded basic units.

QUANTITY S.I. UNIT SYMBOL

-1
Velocity Metre per second ms
-2
Force Kilogram-metre per second-squared kg m s
or Newton or N
2 -2
Energy (work) Kilogram-metre-squared per second-squared kg m s
or Joule or J

Decimal prefixes
Reducing size of unit
prefix power symbol
The S.I. unit system is a metric system (powers of 10). For milli -3
10 m
convenience the unit is reduced or enlarged by using a -6
micro 10
standard set of prefix multipliers. nano 10
-9
n
-12
pico 10 p
e.g. 2.5 A = 2.5 x 10-6 A and 3.3 GW = 3.3 x 109 W Increasing size of unit
prefix power symbol
3
kilo 10 k
6
mega 10 M
9
giga 10 G
12
tera 10 T

2
 Uncertainty in measurement
Instrumentation provides two types of reading;
Analogue these readings are taken from a 'continuous' scale and the precision of the reading depends
upon the size of the divisions of the scale.
Digital these readings give a precise value and it is assumed that the last figure 'cannot be trusted' i.e.
if the displayed value on a top-pan balance was 96g we assume 96 1g.
Readings may be further classified into categories;
Direct readings an absolute value - 'Amps'
Difference reading difference in value - 'Voltage'
Differential reading rate of change of values - 'Speed'
Null point reading balancing two values - 'Galvanometer'
Indirect reading derived from measured values.

Uncertainties (errors)
No measurement is ever EXACT; there is always some uncertainty associated with the act of
measurement. (Hence the term error is a misnomer since it implies a mistake has been made)
When using measured values it is necessary to know how much 'faith' can be placed upon that value. It is
reasonable to quote a value to a certain number of significant figures with an educated estimate of the
uncertainty associated with that value.

Two main types of uncertainty

Random These arise from random operating variations or limitations in the scale of a device on
which the reading is based.
These type of uncertainties are analyzed statistically, it is simplest to obtain a mean value. The spread of
the readings gives an indication of the maximum uncertainty.
Systematic These are due to a bias in the apparatus or its use by the experimenter. The result is that
all the measurements have been shifted in the same direction away from the true value.
Elimination of systematic uncertainties can only be made by comparison with other observations, or
better still, calibration of the device (measurement of a known value).

Precision and accuracy

An accurate measurement is one in which the systematic errors are small.
A precise measurement is one in which the random errors are small.

Ideally, the results of your experiments should be both accurate and precise!

These arrows are imprecise (large random uncertainty)

These arrows are precise (small but accurate (small systematic uncertainty) These arrows are precise
random uncertainty) but (small random uncertainty) and
inaccurate (large systematic accurate (small systematic
uncertainty) uncertainty)

Mistakes These are readings that are obviously wrong because they are inconsistent with other
values. They may arise due to a fault in the apparatus, the use of it or from incorrect
recording of the value.
Mistakes should not be destroyed but omitted from any calculation and if possible accounted for in the
final discussion.

3
Estimating uncertainties
A Physicist must make an estimate of the associated uncertainty for each measurement made. e.g.

Interpolating between
scale marks gives a best
value of 6.65 cm

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
scale cm

The smallest division on the An acceptable estimate of the uncertainty

main scale is 0.2 cm would be say 0.03 cm. based on the size
of scale.

Quoted value: Length = (6.65 0.03) cm.

This is known as the absolute uncertainty. It has units which are the same as the quantity being
measured.

In many experiments a value is to be calculated from a number of measured quantities. To obtain the
uncertainty in the calculated value, it is often more convenient to use the percentage uncertainty of the
measured values. The percentage uncertainty of a measured value can be calculated from the absolute
uncertainty using the formula below.

Percentage uncertainty = absolute uncertainty x 100

best value

Percentage uncertainty = 0.03 x 100 = 0.45%

6.65

Quoted value: Length = 6.65 cm. 0.5%

Other important points

The number of significant figures quoted is an indication of the precision, therefore the measured
value cannot be quoted to a greater number of significant figures than the estimated uncertainty
dictates.
The uncertainty is only quoted to one significant figure (1 s.f.) since the uncertainty is an estimate.
The estimate of the absolute uncertainty for a measured value may be increased to a greater value
than suggested by the size of the scale. (e.g. to take into account procedural difficulties in making the
measurement).

4
Introduction to Physics - Measurement
1. Convert the following quantities (scientific notation) 3.
(a) 223 kJ to joules
(b) 0.51 nm to to metres 0.98
(c) 0.34 g to kilograms
(d) 350 mA to amperes 0.97
(e) 350 MW to watts
0.96

extension (m)
2
2. The quantity s is linked to the s=pq
0.95
quantities p, q and r by the equation; r
calculate the unknown value given the following: 0.94
(a) p = 105, q = 102, r =103
(b) p = 3.2 x 103, q = 2.33 x 10-2, r = 8.72 x 10-6 0.93
(c) p = 103, q = 10-3, s =10-2
0.92
(d) s = 12, q = 2.4 x 102, r =1.1 x 106
(e) s = 6.9 x 103, p = 10-4, r = 2.54 x 10-2 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0
load (kg)
4. Calculate the length of the following bar (quote the uncertainty)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 scale (cm) 10

5. Calculate the length of the perimeter and the area of the rectangle (quote the uncertainty)

6. Using a stopwatch, five measurements were made

for the time it took a cylinder to roll a set distance
Trial Time (s)
down a ramp. The data is shown in the table
opposite. Calculate: 1 10.34
(a) The best value for the time. 2 10.22
(b) The absolute uncertainty in the best value. 3 10.30
(c) The percentage uncertainty in the best value. 4 10.39
5 10.38
7. The following data refers to the motion of a ball.

(a) Plot a graph and draw in the best-fit line. Time (s) Speed (m s-1)
(b) Calculate the gradient including the units. 1.0 3.3
2.2 7.6
4.6 15.6
6.4 21.0
7.2 24.0

5
Graphs and Interpretation
For an experiment a student wanted to fire an arrow into a box filled with crumpled paper.
She was not sure how far the arrow would penetrate or indeed if it would go straight
through, so to be on the safe side she fired a few arrows at the box with the bow only
partly extended as a trial.
Extension of bow Penetration of arrow
(x) / cm (p) / cm
0 0.0
10 0.6
20 1.9
30 4.6
40 7.8
50 15.0
60 17.9
70 24.6
uncertainty 2 0.5

(a) On graph paper draw suitable axes to plot a graph of penetration (y-axis) against
extension of bow (x-axis).
(b) Plot the data on the graph and draw in a curve that best fits the data.

It is suggested that the penetration is proportional to the square of the extension (x2).
(c) Complete the column in the table above to show values of x2
(d) Estimate a suitable uncertainty for x2
(e) Plot a graph of penetration (y-axis) against square of extension of bow (x-axis).
(f) Draw in the best-fit line and calculate its gradient.

(g) Plot error bars and draw the max/min straight lines.
(h) Calculate the associated uncertainty in the best-fit gradient from the max/min.

(i) Write an equation to summarise the relationship between penetration and the
extension of the bow.

(j) The box is 40.0 cm long and the bow is drawn back to its maximum extension of
100 cm. Use the information above to predict the likelihood that the arrowhead
would go through the box when the arrow is released.

6
Relationships between quantities
In physics we often want to know how one quantity varies with respect to another (their
mathematical relationship). It is usual that measurements are taken for the two quantities and
a graph is plotted. The trend line of the graph may be used to identify the relationship
between the two quantities.

Directly proportional
y x
y
y = kx
rise
or y = kx + C
k = rise
run k is a constant equivalent to the magnitude
C of the gradient of the graph.
run C is a constant equivalent to the value of
x the y axis where the trend line crosses.

Inversely proportional
y 1
x
y Plotting y against x will
produce an hyperbola. y = k
x

or y = k+ C
x x

y Hence if the plot of y against x produces an

hyperbola, a plot of y against 1/x may be
Plotting y against 1/x will made. If this plot produces a straight line
produce a straight line. then the relationship is an inverse
proportionality.
1
Square /x

y
y x2

Plotting y against x will y = k x2

produce a parabola.
x Hence if the plot of y against x produces a
parabola, a plot of y against x2 may be
y made. If this plot produces a straight line
then the relationship is a square law.
Plotting y against x2 will
produce a straight line.

x2

7
 Inverse square

y Plotting y against x will y 1

produce an hyperbola. x2

y = k
x2
x
Hence if the plot of y against x produces an
y hyperbola, a plot of y against 1/x2 may be
made. If this plot produces a straight line
Plotting y against 1/x2 will then the relationship is an inverse square
produce a straight line. proportionality.

1
/x2
Power
y xn
y
y = k xn

Plotting y against x will log (y) = log (k xn)

produce a parabola.
x log (y) = log (xn) + log (k)

log y log (y) = n log (x) + log (k)

Plotting log y against log x Hence if the plot of y against x produces a

will produce a straight line. parabola, a plot of log y against log x may
be made. If this plot produces a straight
log x line then the relationship is a power law.

The straight line graph is an important tool used to analyse the relationship between two
variable quantities. When the type of relationship is deduced, the gradient and intercept of the
straight line can be measured to provide their precise relationship.

Many experiments involve finding a constant from either the gradient or intercept. The
associated uncertainty of the value can also be obtained from max/min analysis of the straight
line graph.

Note: all lines must pass best-fit line

through all error bars
y
min gradient line

error bars

range of uncertainty = (max - min)

intercepts max gradient line (in gradient) 2

x
8
Writing of Formal Experiment Reports
1. The writing of a report is an exercise in the production of a scientific paper suitable for
publication. Imagine that the paper will be read by persons having a general knowledge of
physics, but unfamiliar with the laboratory in which the experiment was performed.

2. Every report must have a brief title followed by an aim. The aim should indicate the general
scope of the report. e.g. To measure the acceleration due to gravity at the Earths surface
using a simple pendulum.

3. Annotated diagrams are usually necessary. Avoid perspective sketches - instead draw 2D
simple plans, elevations and cross-sections. Measured quantities should be displayed so
they can be referred to in the Method.

4. It is usual to divide a report into sections, each with a heading, such as "Diagram",
"Method", Theory, etc. The description of what was done should be in the past-tense or
third-person e.g. We measured the time for ten oscillations using a stopwatch or The time
for ten oscillations was measured using a stopwatch.

5. All measured data should be tabulated. Values should be recorded in columns, showing
repetitions of measurements and means. Equations and symbols in the Theory section
must be clearly presented to enable the reader to follow what mathematical processing has
occurred.

6. Graphs should be large and drawn on proper graph paper. Axes lettering in ink, with the
experimental points in pencil, shown as a fine cross. Trend lines should be drawn with a
very sharp pencil and should be smooth. The plotted variables should be fully specified in
words with their label and units.

7. The conclusion should contain final calculated values (preferably with an indication of the
associated uncertainty). e.g. The acceleration due to gravity was calculated to be 9.7 m s-2
(0.4 m s-2). A written statement explaining what has been found from the experiment. e.g.
The square of the period of the pendulum is proportional to its length. The conclusion
must address the Aim of the experiment.

8. A Discussion section reviewing where the major uncertainties in measurement were

incorporated and suggestions for improvement to reduce their effect. Comparisons to
values measured previously or by different techniques. Suggestions for further related
experimental investigation.

9. The report should be free from grammatical and spelling errors and be logical and clear to
read. Do not use generalities be specific. Read over your work critically.