Back Garden Astronomy

BACK GARDEN ASTRONOMY
CONTENTS
UNDERSTANDING
THE NIGHT SKY
8 Stars, constellations 20 Your first night outside
and asterisms 22 The secrets of star hopping
10 Star brightness 24 Start stargazing the right way
and magnitudes 26 Seeing and transparency
12 Why the stars move 28 How to deal with light pollution
14 The celestial sphere 30 Keeping a log book
16 The ecliptic
18 Star names and star charts
32 SUBSCRIBE
WHAT TO USE
EQUIPMENT AND ADVICE
36 Introducing planispheres
38 The value of binoculars
40 Your first telescope
56 Go-to telescopes
58 Choosing accessories
60 Introduction to eyepieces
40
44 Know your scope stats 62 Choosing eyepieces
46 Know your field of view 64 Understanding filters
48 Know your telescope mounts 66 Astrophotography
50 Equatorial mounts
WHAT TO SEE
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
70 The Moon 86 The moons of Jupiter and Saturn
74 Top 10 Moon sights 88 Meteors
76 Observing the Sun 90 Comets
78 Solar and lunar eclipses 92 The ISS and other satellites
80 Introduction to the planets 94 Noctilucent clouds
82 The rocky planets 96 Auroral displays
84 The gas and ice giants
WHAT TO SEE
DEEP-SKY OBJECTS
100 The Milky Way 108 Star clusters
102 The Messier catalogue 110 Nebulae
104 Double stars 112 Galaxies
106 Variable stars
114 INSTANT EXPERT: ASTRONOMY MYTHS DEBUNKED 100
4 WWW.SKYATNIGHTMAGAZINE.COM
CONTENTS
70
110
58
96
THE WRITERS
PAUL ABEL is an astronomer at the
University of Leicester
ADE ASHFORD is an astronomer and
science journalist
WILL GATER is an astronomy journalist,
author and astrophotographer
PETE LAWRENCE is an astronomy
expert and regular on The Sky at Night
TOM MCEWAN is a noctilucent cloud
observer and founder of the NLC
Observers Homepage
PAUL MONEY is BBC Sky at Night
Magazines reviews editor and an
equipment expert
ELIZABETH PEARSON is an
astrophysicist and space journalist
STEVE RICHARDS is an astronomy
equipment expert and a keen
astro imager
STEPHEN TONKIN is a binocular
astronomer and stargazing
outreach expert
ANTON VAMPLEW is a seasoned
observer and astronomy author
WWW.SKYATNIGHTMAGAZINE.COM 5
Constellations provide
welcome landmarks
in starry skies; here
we see Leo, the Lion
STARS, CONSTELLATIONS
AND ASTERISMS
There are patterns in the skies that have been observed and mythologised for millennia
JOHN SANFORD/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY, ISTOCK X 8
There are all sorts of celestial bodies tens of thousands are within your reach. oxygen and on to iron releases the
to see in the night sky: the famous All of the individual stars that you energy that causes a star to shine.
planets, wispy nebulae, far-flung can see exist within our Galaxy, the
galaxies and transient visitors such Milky Way, which is home to around Shining surprises
as comets and meteors. But it is best 200 billion stars in all. If you scan across the night sky youll
to start with the stars themselves. Stars are balls of hot plasma in which notice that the stars dont all shine with
At a glance they appear innumerable, nuclear fusion reactions are taking place. the same brightness, nor are they all the
and they may as well be. Under dark The transformation of light elements same colour, but a glittering array of rich
skies you can see a few thousand with into heavier ones, such as hydrogen into golds, warm oranges, glinting sapphires
the naked eye; peer through a pair of helium and through successive cycles and angry reds. The fact we see different
binoculars or a small telescope and of reactions into carbon, nitrogen and colours is down to each stars surface
UNDERSTANDING THE NIGHT SKY
temperature: the hotter it is, the bluer

the light it emits. They become more
yellow in the middle of their lives and
STARTER STAR PATTERNS
Top constellations for amateurs learning the northern hemisphere sky
eventually red as they begin to exhaust
their fuel and cool down. Stare long
enough, and you will notice that the
stars dont stay still, but appear to
gradually move against the background
sky. Well find out why thats the case
in a few pages time.
The sky is split into zones called
constellations, each of which is based
on a pattern of stars that is said resemble URSA MAJOR ORION
an object, an animal or a figure from
folklore or mythology. Some of these Represents: The nymph Callisto, transformed Represents: Orion, son of Poseidon and
patterns are large and obvious, but others into a large bear by Jupiters jealous wife the Gorgon Euryale. A gifted hunter
are much smaller, have fewer bright stars, Best visibility from UK: All year Best visibility from UK: December to March
Home to: The Plough asterism, easy to split Home to: The spectacular Orion Nebula
and require a bit imagination to see
double star Mizar and Alcor and the Orions Belt asterism
what they are named after.
The stars that form the shape that
gives each constellation it its name are
not necessarily related to each other
in fact many of them are vast distances
apart, only appearing close in the sky
from our perspective on Earth.
Constellation class
There are 88 recognised constellations in URSA MINOR CASSIOPEIA
modern astronomy, and together they
cover the entire sky. These arent the only Represents: Arcas, son of Zeus and Callisto, Represents: The queen Cassiopeia, mother to
constellations that have ever existed many turned into a small bear by jealous Hera Andromeda, sent to the sky as a punishment
more have faded into obscurity, been Best visibility from UK: All year Best visibility from UK: All year
broken up or otherwise abandoned but Home to: Polaris (the Pole Star) Home to: The W asterism
they are the only ones you need to know.
Most people will be aware of at least 12
constellations, the ones that make up the
astrological zodiac. (In astronomy there
are 13 zodiacal constellations, the extra
one being Ophiuchus).
Because the constellations span the
entirety of the sky, by extension this
means that every celestial object can be PERSEUS PEGASUS
found within a constellation. For bodies
beyond the Solar System, such as galaxies Represents: The Greek hero Perseus Represents: A winged horse, offspring of
and nebulae, the constellation is fixed Best visibility from UK: August to April Poseidon and Medusa, ridden by Bellerophon
they will always appear to be in that one Home to: Algol, the best beginner variable Best visibility from UK: August to December
constellation. Bodies within the Solar star; the radiant of the Perseid meteor shower Home to: The Great Square asterism
System, such as the Moon and planets,
appear to move across the constellations.
Particularly bright and easily
identifiable star patterns are known as
asterisms, and they can be comprised of
stars within a single constellation or span
several. For example, the Plough is
entirely made up of stars within the
constellation of Ursa Major, but the
ANDROMEDA HERCULES
Summer Triangle comprises the brightest
stars of Cygnus, Lyra and Aquila.
Represents: The princess Andromeda, Represents: The Roman hero adapted from
Its these brighter patterns that chained to a rock to be eaten by Cetus the Greek Heracles, with his club raised
astronomers use as signposts to help Best visibility from UK: August to December Best visibility from UK: April to October
them identify other stars and find their Home to: M31, the Milky Ways big brother Home to: M13, the brightest globular cluster
way to the faint denizens of the deep sky. galaxy, 2.5 million lightyears away in the northern hemisphere
A quick glance of the sky will

reveal that not all stars shine
with the same brightness
STAR BRIGHTNESS
AND MAGNITUDES
Knowing that not all stars are the same brightness will help you navigate the night sky
Occasionally the night sky just sparkles, is therefore brighter than one thats mag. see was it. Nowadays, not only can we
and its a terrific sight. After a rain +5.0. Why the plus sign? Because there see much fainter celestial objects than
shower, or something else, has cleared the are stars brighter than zero the scale Hipparchus could, but we have also been
air of all the dust, the stars look amazing. extends into negative numbers. able to more accurately measure and
Nights like these can be truly To understand why, we have to cast our refine Hipparchuss original magnitudes.
memorable, and reveal the full beauty minds back more than 2,000 years and The basic system that he invented
and majesty of the Universe. Or rather, a think about how the ancient Greeks tried remains intact, but the mixing of old and
small part of it. At such times we seem to to make sense of the heavens. new has led to some interesting changes.
see lots of stars, and the best ones stand We now consider the mathematical
out even more than usual. This effect can Astronomy Greek difference between one magnitude and
even happen in a built-up area where, If you could travel back to ancient Greece, the next to be about 2.5 times in
thanks to the clearer air, the streetlights the best person to seek out would be an
do not have so much to illuminate and so astronomer and mathematician called
there is less light pollution. Hipparchus. His initial thoughts about
One thing that is instantly apparent the night sky were probably the same as
WHY MAGNITUDES
is that not all stars shine the same. yours: its immediately clear that not all
ARE USEFUL
There are a few that are very bright, of the stars and other astronomical
some medium ones, and heaps of fainter objects are the same brightness. Knowing the visual magnitude of a
stars that are more difficult to discern. Hipparchus called this variation in particular star, planet or deep-sky object
can also give you some idea of what its
How bright a star looks is called its brightness magnitude, and based on this
going to look like in the sky. For example,
apparent visual magnitude. You may he catalogued the stars into six groups. you can expect to find the mag. +7.5
see this written as apparent magnitude, He labelled the brightest stars as being of Dumbbell Nebula in Vulpecula easily
visual magnitude or just magnitude. the first magnitude. Slightly fainter stars in a small telescope, but the dimmer
mag. +10.6 Little Dumbbell Nebula in
PETE LAWRENCE X 5, ISTOCK
You may also see it abbreviated to mag., he classed as second magnitude, and so
as we do throughout this special edition. on down to sixth magnitude. These are Perseus would be more of a challenge.
There are many other things to consider,
Whats strange about magnitude scales typically the faintest stars that can be
such as the objects size and the
is that the numbering system is back to seen with the naked eye alone. equipment being used, but visual
front the brighter the star, the lower the The telescope hadnt been invented magnitude is a good starting point.
number it is given. So a star of mag. +2.0 back then, so what the naked eye could
brightness. What this means is that a

first magnitude star is 100 times brighter
than a sixth magnitude star. In the
TOP TEN BRIGHTEST
The most brilliant bodies in the northern hemispheres night sky
process, astronomers realised that
some of the stars in Hipparchuss first
magnitude group were wildly different
in brightness, and so the scale had to
be extended upwards into negative
numbers. And so the brightest star in
the night sky, Sirius in the constellation
of Canis Major, is mag. 1.5.
The bottom of the scale is now
open-ended, growing as we find fainter
and fainter stars a 6-inch amateur scope
THE MOON VENUS
can reveal objects as dim as mag. +13.0, Magnitude: 4.5 (at its brightest)
Magnitude: 12.7
while the Hubble Space Telescope has
seen celestial bodies of mag. +31.0.
Hipparchus envisaged the magnitude
system as a way of categorising stars, but
today we apply it to all celestial bodies.
The planet Venus can be as brilliant as
mag. 4.5, the full Moon mag. 12.7
and the Sun an intense mag. 26.8.
Absolutely fabulous
So far weve been talking solely about MARS JUPITER
apparent magnitude, which refers to how Magnitude: 2.9 (at its brightest) Magnitude: 2.8 (at its brightest)
bright a star looks to us from Earth. It
tells us nothing about how luminous an
object truly is its absolute magnitude.
Brightness decreases with distance, so a
very luminous star a long way away may
appear fainter than a dimmer star that
sits closer to us. Consider Sirius: if it were
the same distance from Earth as the Sun,
it would appear brighter than our star.
To work out an objects absolute
magnitude, we calculate how bright it MERCURY SIRIUS (ALPHA CANIS MAJORIS)
would be if it were an arbitrary distance Magnitude: 1.9 (at its brightest) Magnitude: 1.5
of 10 parsecs 32.6 lightyears away. By
lining up celestial objects like this, we can
see how they differ from one another.
Hipparchus and his contemporaries
knew nothing of these great distances.
Just looking up at the sky, they are not
readily apparent. Everything looks like it
sits at the same distance from Earth.
Absolute magnitude gives us some insight
into the true nature of an object, but it SATURN ARCTURUS (ALPHA BOTIS)
has nothing to do with how it appears in Magnitude: 0.2 (at its brightest) Magnitude: 0.0
a telescope. Happily, most star charts and
observing guides list celestial objects in
terms of apparent magnitude as standard.
THE FAINTEST STARS
O Visible in a light-polluted sky: mag. +3.0

OVisible from a dark-sky site: mag. +6.5
OVisible with 10x50 binoculars: mag. +9.5
OVisible with a 6-inch scope: mag. +13.0 VEGA (ALPHA LYRAE) CAPELLA (ALPHA AURIGAE)
Magnitude: 0.0 Magnitude: +0.1
NORTHERN SPRING EQUINOX

Day and night are nearly the same length
EARTHS AXIS
It tilts from the vertical by 23.5
THE SUN
APHELION
Earth is 152.1 million km
from the Sun
NORTHERN
SUMMER SOLSTICE
The longest day
NORTHERN AUTUMN EQUINOX

Day and night are nearly the same length
WHY THE
STARS MOVE
The movement of Earth makes the stars appear to march across the sky
EARTH ORBIT ILLUSTRATION BY ADRIAN DEAN, CHARTS BY PETE LAWRENCE
We take it for granted that Earth is one rotation on its axis relative to the rather than circular, which leads to a
spinning and travels around the Sun. We Sun, which lasts for 24 hours. A year is difference of 5 million km between
have to, because there is no way any of us the time it takes for Earth to complete an Earths closest point to the Sun
can feel the spin or the speed of our orbit of the Sun. It is the fact that Earth (perihelion), and its farthest (aphelion)
planet as it travels through space. is spinning on its axis that gives us the but you might be surprised to know
Cast your mind back to when you were impression that the Sun and every other that during northern hemisphere winter,
seven years old. Youre informed that the celestial object move across the sky. Earth is as close to the Sun as it can get:
Sun crosses the sky because Earth turns Many people think that Earth perihelion happens around 3 January.
on its axis once a day. And before youve experiences seasons because of its The seasons are due to Earth spinning
had time to take this in youre told the changing distance from the Sun. The on a tilted axis as it moves around the
Earth takes a year to go round the Sun. distance between Earth and the Sun Sun, which varies the duration of sunlight
A day in this context is the solar day, does change, as our planets orbital path hitting each hemisphere throughout the
the time it takes our planet to complete is slightly elliptical (like a squashed oval) year. Model globes of Earth show this:
EARTHS JOURNEY 15 DECEMBER, 7PM
ROUND THE SUN

As it orbits the Sun, Earth spins
on a tilted axis. Either the northern or
southern hemisphere gets more direct
sunlight, causing the seasons
15 JANUARY, 7PM
PERIHELION
Earth is 147.1 million km
from the Sun 15 MARCH, 7PM
NORTHERN
WINTER SOLSTICE
The shortest day
15 MAY, 7PM
DAY AND NIGHT
Earth spins on its axis
once every 23.93 hours
A YEAR
Earth orbits the Sun in 365.26 days
Earths motion through space causes the stars to rise earlier

by four minutes every evening, with the long-term effect of
causing the constellations to move over the course of the year
they lean by 23.5 from the vertical. north pole leans away. This marks the sidereal day. The reason for this
You can see this lean in relation to shortest day in the northern hemisphere discrepancy is that, from one day to
our orbital path around the Sun in and the longest day in the southern the next, Earth completes 1/365th of
the diagram above. hemisphere. As Earth goes round the its orbit around the Sun. So each night,
Sun, its axis always tilts in the same if you were to look due east, you would
Poles apart direction in relation to the stars. be looking out onto a slightly different
On the day that the north pole is tilted The Earths motion doesnt just region of space.
23.5 towards the Sun, the south pole create the seasons. It also explains why This time difference between the solar
points away by the same inclination. our view of the constellations changes. and sidereal days, although short, causes
For the northern hemisphere, the day We have covered how the solar day the stars to rise almost four minutes
this happens is the longest in terms of lasts for 24 hours, but Earths rotation earlier each day. Over the weeks and
daylight hours (the summer solstice) with respect to the stars is nearly four months, this causes the constellations
and for the southern hemisphere it is the minutes shorter it only takes 23 hours visible in the night sky to change. After
shortest (the winter solstice). Six months and 56 minutes for the stars to return 12 months, the stars will have cycled all
later, the tilt is reversed so that the south to the same position that they were the the way back to the same positions they
pole points towards the Sun and the night before, a period known as the were in a year ago.
NORTH CELESTIAL POLE
APPARENT ROTATION
OF THE NIGHT SKY
DECLINATION
(DEC.)
NORTH POLE
EQUATOR
SOUTH POLE
ECLIPTIC
Celestial equator
RIGHT
ASCENSION (RA)
VERNAL EQUINOX
The celestial sphere: Earth sits
at the centre of this system, with
the stars moving as if fixed to
the inside of the sphere
SOUTH CELESTIAL POLE
THE CELESTIAL
SPHERE
The imaginary lines that span the sky make locating a star as easy as reading a map
Individual stars are brain-defying is over 70 times farther away from Earth hundred thousand kilometres. Include
distances apart in space, but you can than Vega in Lyra. man-made satellites and you bring the
STEVE MARSH, PAUL WHITFIELD
forget all about that for now. Its all truly The fact is, celestial bodies are all so far figure down to a few hundred kilometres.
fascinating stuff and great for discussions away from us that for observing purposes What is the point of assuming
with a cup of tea over the garden fence or we can consider them all to be the same everythings at one distance? It allows us
to win a tricky pub quiz, but when you distance. This applies as much to a to describe the position of a celestial
are out stargazing there is no practical distant galaxy billions of lightyears away object in relation to any of the others, as
benefit to knowing that Deneb in Cygnus as it does to the Moon at just a few well as locate it in the sky. This is all done
by the power of an imaginary construct

known as the celestial sphere. WHY ASTRONOMERS NEED RA AND DEC.
Consider Earth as a sphere with north
and south poles. The celestial sphere is
similar: a larger sphere, with Earth at its
centre, and with north and south poles of
its own. These poles, which we know as
the north and south celestial poles, the
NCP and SCP, are positioned above their
Earthly counterparts.
If you were to stand on Earths north
pole and look directly upwards, you
would be looking at the NCP, and the
reverse applies to the SCP. By happy
coincidence there is a mag. +2.0 star very
Setting circles can help you to track down targets in lieu of a Go-To mount
close to the NCP; this star is Polaris, in
Many popular targets are charts, online via a web manual equatorial mounts.
the constellation of Ursa Minor, and it
small or dim, making them search, or through Start by locating a bright
acts as a marker for the NCP from any star close to your target;
difficult to locate through planetarium programs and
location in the northern hemisphere. the eyepiece even with star apps. If you have a Go-To dial in its co-ordinates
Directly above Earths equator lies the hopping. Using RA and mount, it will be able to carefully and check its
celestial equator, an imaginary circle that dec. co-ordinates allows us calculate the position of position. Move the scope
divides the celestial sphere. Observing to easily locate these more any objects in its database in RA and dec. until they
elusive objects. The and automatically point to match the co-ordinates of
the horizon from the poles would show
co-ordinates for a given the correct place in the sky. your target; it should now
stars located on the celestial equator. be visible in a low-
target can usually be found However, you can also use
Observing from Earths equator, the from various sources: star the setting circles on many magnification eyepiece.
celestial equator would stretch from the
eastern horizon to the western horizon in
an arc directly over your head, and the sphere, whereas those at the poles only Earth, crossing the equator and ending at
celestial poles would lie at your northern ever see their respective half of the the south pole. These locate things east to
and southern horizons. sphere. At any point between the poles west on the plane and are also measured
Over the course of a year, observers at and the equator, you would see some stars in degrees. Here, of course, longitude
the equator will see the whole celestial from both halves. crosses all the points around the equator
There is a second important line on the (a circle), amounting to 360 in total.
celestial sphere you need to be aware of, Actually, we move westward up to 180
RA AND DEC. called the ecliptic, and it represents the and eastward 180, but it all adds up to
EXPLAINED path of the Sun through the year. We 360 in the end.
discuss why it is so important over the For the celestial sphere, we throw the
Every celestial object has celestial
page. Because Earths axis is tilted at an whole latitude and longitude Earth grid
co-ordinates in right ascenscion (RA) and angle of 23.5 with respect to its orbit up into the sky its a mirror image.
declination (dec.). For example, Deneb in around the Sun, the ecliptic too is tilted Theres no reason why we couldnt have
Cygnus can be found at RA 20h 41m at the same angle with respect to the used celestial latitude and celestial
25.9s, dec. +45 16 49. celestial equator. longitude as titles, but those who know
In declination the symbol represents
better decided otherwise. So instead we
angular minutes (arcminutes) and the
represents angular seconds (arcseconds).
Total ecliptic have declination for latitude and right
A degree is a pretty large unit on the sky Mapping on the celestial sphere works ascension for longitude. We can describe
two widths of the full Moon, in fact! So, much like mapping on Earth. As youll the position of any object in the night sky
1 is divided into 60 arcminutes and each remember from geography lessons at using these co-ordinates.
arcminute has 60 arcseconds. The + or school, to locate something down here Declination is how far an object is
at the start shows whether it is in the we use latitude and longitude. The located above or below the celestial
northern hemisphere (+) or southern
hemisphere ().
equator is the most famous line of equator, and is measured in degrees
Right ascension is written as hours, latitude and is the starting point for (), arcminutes () and arcseconds ().
minutes and seconds (as in regular time, measuring northward or southward we Right ascension is an angular
not the arc variety). So, one hour in RA call this 0 latitude. We use degrees () measurement in hours (h), minutes (m)
describes the movement of the sky due to because when we locate places on Earth, and seconds (s) eastwards from a point
Earths spin over an hour which is 15, or on the celestial sphere, its done using on the celestial sphere known as
because 15 multiplied by 24 (hours) is
angular measurements. Latitude the vernal equinox, which forms the
360, and thats all the way round over
the course of a day. increases as we move round Earth zero point for the entire grid. This is
Needless to say, star charts are all northwards or southwards, reaching a the location of the Sun on the celestial
divided up so theres no need to convert maximum of 90N at the north pole and sphere at the point that it crosses the
anything just plot the position and there 90S at the south pole. celestial equator at the March equinox
will be Deneb. Lines of longitude, meanwhile, start the date in March when day and night
from the north pole and run down are nearly equal in length.
The planets orbit in the

same plane due to the way
the Solar System formed
billions of years ago
THE ECLIPTIC
The path of the Sun, where youll find the rest of the Solar Systems planets, is the
second of two important lines that astronomers use to divide up the night sky
Up until the early 1600s, the idea that cosmic Hansel and Gretel, this is the gas surrounding our nascent star was
the Sun orbited the Earth was perfectly trail it would leave behind. The Sun pulled into a disc under the influence
acceptable to a lot of people. The reason can always be found on the ecliptic of gravity. The planets we know today
our ancestors believed in this geocentric it never deviates from it. But it also all formed within this disc, and hence
(Earth-centred) model was, of course, represents something else: the orbital they all occupy planes similar to the
DETLEV VAN RAVENSWAAY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY, THINKSTOCK X 6
because thats what we see happening in plane of our planet. ecliptic. In plain terms, when the
the sky. Or so it appears. planets are visible, they will always
From our planet, it looks as though Disc formation be near to this line.
the Sun moves around us over the course All of the planets in the Solar System Its this coplanar nature of the Sun
of a year. As we now know, this isnt really occupy orbital planes similar to our own. and planets that allows many of the
the case in truth our planet orbits the This is because when the Solar System events that captivate astronomers to
Sun, as do all the other planets in the formed, billions of years ago, dust and occur so often. When our Moon and
Solar System. But this illusion forms
one of the most important markers on
the sky, the line we call the ecliptic. The planets all formed within
The ecliptic is the invisible path that
the Sun traces as it moves around the a disc, and hence they all occupy
sky. Think of it like this: if the Sun were
to drop breadcrumbs behind it like a planes similar to the ecliptic
the Sun line up, we see an eclipse.

When a planet appears to be in the
PLANET OPPOSITIONS
same region of sky as another, or our
Oppositions, another result of the Solar orbits farther out from the Sun than
own Moon, we call it a conjunction.
System being coplanar, occur when the Earths reach opposition.
Even seemingly rare events, such as Sun, Earth and another planet form a line, A planet at opposition is usually at its
a transit of Venus, are really quite with Earth in the middle. From our closest to Earth, and therefore appears
frequent in cosmological terms. perspective, the planet is in the opposite larger than at any other time. Due to its
position in the sky from our star. As such, position relative to the Sun, a planet can
Equal nights only the superior planets those with be brighter than usual too.
The two points at which the ecliptic
crosses the celestial equator mark
the moments when the hours of day
and night are roughly the same.
These are known as equinoxes, from
the Latin for equal night. In the
northern hemisphere, the equinox
in mid-March heralds spring, while the
one in mid-September signals the
beginning of autumn. At these two
points in its orbit, Earth has no tilt
relative to the Sun. SUN
From the March equinox, the days EARTH
slowly lengthen until mid-June, when
Earth reaches the point in its orbit JUPITER
where it is at its greatest tilt relative to
the Sun a solstice. This is both the
first day of summer and the longest day
of the year. At this point, the ecliptic
and the celestial equator are at their
farthest apart.
Theres another solstice six months
later in mid-December, when the tilt SATURN
of the poles is completely reversed in Planets tend to be at their
relation to the Sun. In the northern biggest and brightest
hemisphere, this marks the start of when at opposition
winter and is also the shortest day.
THE SHIFTING ECLIPTIC

The Sun always sits on the ecliptic, so its easy Sun and hence the ecliptic is higher in the night? If you can work out where the ecliptic
to work out where the line is on any clear day. sky through the day in the summer months and traces across the sky after darkness falls, you
Looking at the whole year, we know that the lower during the winter. But what about at can work out where you might spot a planet.
Summer at 10pm: the Winter at 10pm: the angle

ecliptic is low, at a shallow of the ecliptic is radically
angle to the horizon different high and steep
EC
LI P
EC L
I P TI
TI C
W W
SPRING SUMMER AUTUMN WINTER

The ecliptic sits low down in the In summer the ecliptic sits at a low In a reflection of the northern The ecliptic path in winter is
morning, but in the evening it elevation by dusk, so any planets hemisphere spring, the ecliptics quite high when its dark, and
stretches high across the sky are mired in the atmospheric evening path is now low down, moves higher until it reaches
from east to west, making the murk. The ecliptics orientation but in the morning it stretches high maximum elevation at midnight.
dusk skies the best time to see swings from northwest-southeast across the sky from east to west. This is a great time for observing
Mercury and Venus, as they in the evening to northeast- This makes the dawn skies the best planets, as youre able to look at
never stray far from the Sun. southwest in the morning. time to see Mercury and Venus. them though less atmosphere.
STAR NAMES AND

STAR CHARTS
Learning how astronomers name stars is critical to finding your way around the sky
Of the thousands of stars visible from astronomer Johann Bayer changed that
planet Earth, only a few hundred have in 1603 with the publication of his star
been given proper names, mostly by atlas, Uranometria. In homage to earlier
the astronomers of antiquity. Many astronomers, he labelled the brightest
of these are based on corruptions of stars of a constellation with Greek letters
Arabic phrases that describe their place usually alpha for the brightest, then
within a constellation for example, beta, gamma, all the way to omega. So
Algol in Perseus is derived from Ras Sirius in Canis Major, the constellation
al Ghul, an expression meaning head of the Great Dog, also became known as
of the demon. It represents the eye of Alpha (_) Canis Majoris. When the Greek
the Gorgon Medusa being held aloft letters ran out, he used Latin letters.
by Perseus. Some have been named
entirely on their own merits, such as A sense of belonging
Sirius, the brightest star in the heavens, Youll notice that the constellations
which is derived from an Ancient name is spelt differently when being
Greek word meaning scorcher. used to describe a star. This is the
Most of the information we have genitive form of the constellations name,
about the Greeks thinking and meaning belonging to. All constellations
constellation designs comes from a have this Latin possessive, such as
giant multi-volume work, The Almagest Geminorum for belonging to Gemini.
(also known as The Great Syntaxis Of They also have three-letter abbreviations:
Astronomy), by the mathematician and Canis Majors is CMa, so you might see Bayers Uranometria uses star position data
astronomer Ptolemy around 150 AD. Sirius referred to as _ CMa. more accurate than Ptolemy had access to
Well over a thousand years later, this We say that the alpha star is usually
book found its way to Italy and was the brightest because there are a handful of similar brightness and simply
translated into Latin, which is why of instances where Bayer either got it named Betelgeuse as the alpha star
we have Latin names for the wrong or decided to apply a different because it rises first.
constellations that endure today. convention. In Orion, for example, Bayers is not the only stellar catalogue
Up until the dawn of the 17th century Rigel is brighter than Betelgeuse, but in fact almost every star in the night sky
these were the only widely accepted Betelgeuse is the alpha star, ostensibly is part of one catalogue or another but
stellar designations we had, but German because Bayer recognised they were it is the most widely referenced. Of the
ITS ALL GREEK TO US

Its well worth getting to know the Greek alphabet, rather than thinking of
Bayer designations as Egg, Fish, and That One I Remember From Maths Lessons
Beta Gamma Delta Epsilon Zeta Eta Theta Iota Kappa Lamda Mu
US NAVAL OBSERVATORY
Nu Xi Omicron Pi Rho Sigma Tau Upsilon Phi Chi Psi Omega
RIGHT
ASCENSION
CONSTELLATION
BORDER
ECLIPTIC
STAR CHART KEY

MILKY
WAY
GALAXY
PLANETARY NEBULA
DOUBLE STAR
VARIABLE STAR
DECLINATION OPEN CLUSTER
GLOBULAR CLUSTER
myriad other star catalogues, perhaps the shown by the biggest dots. Although they are, of course, vitally important if
most useful is John Flamsteeds, which all stars are points of light in the real youre trying to learn the sky. With
organises stars by constellation and night sky, it is impossible to show their symbols that dont detract from the
designates them with a number. In this brightness any other way on a printed overall view, you can identify stars that
scheme, Sirius is 9 Canis Majoris. page. If your chart happens to be are variable in brightness or appear
circular as is the case with the monthly together with another star, forming a
Chart to chart all-sky charts often found in astronomy double star. Depending on your atlas
Thats how stars are named, but how do magazines be aware that the there may also be additional symbols
you translate this knowledge onto the constellations will appear warped at for deep-sky objects such as nebulae,
night sky? The answer is to consult a star the edges. When a 3D sky dome is globular clusters and galaxies.
chart. Stars are most commonly marked flattened, the sky at the horizon gets A useful atlas should have charts
by their Bayer designations or, if they lack stretched, which means the star patterns that vary in detail. You may, for example,
a Bayer letter, their Flamsteed number. will not match those in the sky. have general seasonal charts or monthly
One thing that youll immediately But theres more to atlases than just charts, close-ups of some constellations
notice is that the brighter stars are star positions and brightness although and possibly a location chart for some
of the deep-sky objects. It may also
display the ecliptic and celestial equator,
Bayer labelled the brightest stars as well as the coordinate lines of right
ascension and declination. As a beginner
of a constellation with Greek letters its probably the seasonal or monthly
charts that youll use the most, so make
usually alpha for the brightest sure youre happy with the style.
So, youve found a nice dark Heres where its called the Plough,
spot in the northern hemisphere and its a recognisable pattern made
for your first night of stargazing, up of seven bright stars. In UK skies,
but where do you begin? it never goes below the horizon
YOUR FIRST
NIGHT OUTSIDE
Begin your astronomical adventure by learning your way around
the Plough asterism and using it to find the pole star
Standing under a starry sky, awash with easy to find, but because we have to take night, which means some constellations
pinpricks of light, can as bewildering as it into account the rotation of the Earth. enter and leave our skies over the course
is mesmerising. So, once you have a clear Just as the Sun rises, moves over the sky of a year. Again, the Plough is a constant
night, where do you begin? Assuming you and sets, so many of the stars do the presence, visible throughout the year.
live in the northern hemisphere at a same thing at night though not all. Combined, this means it is a handy
mid-to-high latitude which do if you From UK latitudes some stars remain pattern to learn, and a good place from
live in the UK your first goal is to find above the horizon all night long, which to launch your stargazing quest
the group of seven stars known as the including those in the Plough. As the and get to know the starry skies.
Plough. The Plough is an asterism within Earth itself moves around the Sun we The Plough can be found in the
the constellation of Ursa Major, the Great also see a slight shifting of stars night-by- northern sky. To locate it, you need to
Bear; an asterism being a bright and
recognisable pattern of stars often (but
Just as the Sun rises, moves over
T CREDNER X 3, ISTOCK X 1
not always) from a single constellation.

This one happens to look like a saucepan,
and it marks the bears tail and back. the sky and sets, so many of the
The reason were starting here is not
only because the Plough is bright and stars do the same thing at night
know which direction north is. You could

use the Sun to guide you: north will be
to the left where the Sun rises, or to the
right of where the Sun sets. The highest
Dubhe the Sun gets in any day is due south, so
of course north is opposite to this.
Alternatively, you can use a compass.
Name that star

Megrez Merak Its worth noting that each of the
Alcor
Ploughs seven stars has a name; not
Mizar Alioth all stars do. Were going to start with
the star at the crook of the Ploughs
handle, which is called Mizar. It has
Phecda
a companion thats not quite as bright,
Alkaid and together they form a well-known
double star that is visible to the naked
eye. Look above and left of Mizar at a
distance of about one-third of the
diameter of the Moon, and you should
be able to spot the companion, Alcor.
This is the first of many double stars
waiting for you.
Both Mizar and Alcor are white
stars, but on the other side of the Plough
Get to know the stars that make up the Plough: Alkaid, the Alcor-Mizar double, Alioth, youll find your first coloured star. The
Megrez, Phecda, Dubhe and Merak. In case youre wondering, these stars all owe their
top-right star of the Ploughs bowl has
names to medieval Arabic astronomers. American sources may refer to it as the Big Dipper
a slight orangey-yellow hue. This star
is called Dubhe, and it is the brightest
star in the asterism. The best way of
seeing its orangey-yellow hue is to
compare it with the star below it in the
Plough: the pure white Merak. If you
flip your gaze between the two, the
orangey-yellow colour of Dubhe
should become readily apparent.
Now that you know where Dubhe
and Merak are, youve discovered two
of the most useful stars in the night
sky. These two stars are known as the
Pointers, because they can make it easy to
locate the Pole Star, which astronomers
know by the name Polaris. Well do this
using a technique that has been tried and
tested over thousands of years, known as
star hopping.
Starting at Merak, draw an imaginary
line through Dubhe and keep going.
The next star of any note you come
across is Polaris. Dont expect this to
be a super-bright example of stellar
marvellousness it isnt. Polaris is just
an ordinary-looking star. Its famous
because it sits almost directly above
Earths north pole and so appears to
stay practically in the same place as our
planet spins, with the rest of the night
sky rotating around it.
This is just the start. In the Plough,
you have a launch pad from which
you can explore many more stars
A long-exposure photograph centred on Polaris will show the way the heavens rotate and constellations.
THE SECRETS OF
STAR HOPPING
You dont need to completely memorise the night sky to find things
to look at; instead, you can jump from one star to another
For those new to astronomy, staring points to less obvious and fainter regions the field of view, as you can use this to
into the clear night sky and seeing or objects of interest. estimate angular distances.
hundreds of points of light can lead The key to star hopping is accurately
to a common conundrum: how will estimating directions and distances. For Surprising size
I ever find my way around this directions, use pairs of bright stars that One thing you will need to practice is
bewildering confusion of stars? approximately align to your target, imagine relating the scale of your star chart to the
One way is to buy a telescope with a a line between them and follow it to your scale of the sky. Find a constellation or
mount that can take you to any object destination. Alternatively, if you know asterism in the sky and then locate the
in its database at the press of a button. the angular distance your target is from same group on your chart: you will
But there is a much simpler alternative, another star (how far away it is in degrees), probably be surprised at how much bigger
tried and tested over thousands of years, you can use your hands to estimate those it looks in the sky! Now look for other
which experienced observers still use distances. Stretched out at arms length, prominent groups of stars on your chart
to find objects we cannot see with the your hand is a rudimentary angle and locate them in the sky, trying to keep
naked eye. We call it star hopping. measurer, offering easy approximations the relative scales in mind. Reverse and
The brighter stars form recognisable of angles ranging from 1 to 25. repeat. Take your time with this: you are
patterns constellations, asterisms, and When you transfer these skills to building a firm foundation that will serve
even simple geometric shapes and we binoculars or telescope finders, make you well for the rest of your observing
can use those patterns as jumping off sure you know the angular diameter of career. Here are a few to get you started.
SIGNPOSTS IN THE STARS

The Plough is a useful asterism to know. Here are four celestial regions it can point you towards
EIA
CASSIOP
Me
Du
rak
bh
e
Po
lar
or GEMINI
Cast
i
W
s
e
bh x
Du Pollu
rak
URSA
Plough Plough Me
UR
SA
MAJO
MI
ALL CHARTS: PETE LAWRENCE, ILLUSTRATION STEVE MARSH
rez
URSA MAJOR
NO
Meg
CANCER
R
THE W OF CASSIOPEIA CASTOR AND POLLUX IN GEMINI

Youve already seen how to locate Polaris. Now continue this To get to Castor and nearby Pollux, the main stars of Gemini
imaginary line onwards for the same distance that youve already (the Twins) start from the Plough star Megrez. Draw an
come from the Plough, take a slight bend to the right, and you imaginary line to Merak, diagonally opposite it, and keep
arrive at the constellation of Cassiopeia (the Queen), which going. Almost halfway to your target youll pass the two stars
appears in the form of a W of stars. that form the front paws of Ursa Major.
ADVANCED STAR HOPPING FROM ORIONS BELT
NAKED EYE Extend a the Winter Triangle

line through Orions Belt asterism. Imagine that GEMINI
Elnath
`
AURIGA
northwest for 22, where Sirius and Betelgeuse

you will find the bright are the base of an CANIS
MINOR
orange star Aldebaran equilateral triangle. _
`
Procyon Pleiades
at one tip of a V of stars. At the other apex is the
This is the Hyades open third star, Procyon. Winte
r Tria
ngle _
Aldebaran
cluster. Now extend it 14 Betelgeuse
_
a
Hyades
farther on and you will BINOCULARS Start a TAURUS

find the Pleiades open at Sirius and look 5 MONOCEROS
cluster, commonly called towards Procyon, where

M50
the Seven Sisters. you will find the star ` a
Theta Canis Majoris. e
ORION
M42
NAKED EYE From Nearly the same distance a
Orions Belt, look about farther on lies M50, an CANIS Rigel `
_ Sirius
20 southeast to reach the open cluster that will MAJOR
M27 ERIDANUS CETUS
bright star Sirius which, appear as a fuzzy patch ` LEPUS
with Betelgeuse, is part of in your binoculars. _
1 5 10 15 25
Your fingers
can help
you get to
grips with
distances
in the sky
CAMELOPARDALIS
he
D ub URSA MAJOR
k
URSA MAJOR era
M
CANCER Megrez Du
bh
Me e
gre da
z hec
P Plough
Me
rak
Plough
Sickle
Capella
Regulus
LEO N X
LY AU
R IGA
REGULUS IN LEO CAPELLA IN AURIGA

To get to Leo (the Lion) you also start from Megrez, but this time To find Auriga (the Charioteer) start again from Megrez,
trace a line through Phecda, the star below it in the Plough. but this time take a route through Dubhe, to its right. After an
Continuing on this line will take you to Regulus, the brightest star expanse of emptiness that includes the very faint constellation
in Leo. The head of the Lion is made by an easily seen hook- of Camelopardalis (the Giraffe) you will eventually arrive at
shaped asterism called the Sickle that works up from Regulus. the yellow star Capella, the brightest star of Auriga.
START STARGAZING
THE RIGHT WAY
Practical advice for a good first night under the stars
1. NO EQUIPMENT NEEDED 2. WRAP UP

There is a widespread perception that to WARM
be a proper astronomer your need to We know this
PETE LAWRENCE, ISTOCK X 5, PAUL WHITFIELD, JON HICKS
have a telescope. This is complete rubbish. sounds obvious,

There are a host of things you can see but astronomy
with the naked eye alone from the involves a lot of time
constellations to meteors showers, the band spent being still, so its important to
of the Milky Way and even the occasional guard against the cold. Multiple thin
galaxy. If you want to take things further, layers of clothing are a good idea, as
consider buying a pair of binoculars before are waterproof shoes, a hat and gloves.
a telescope you get to see more of the If you have pages to turn or equipment
night sky without having to deal with the (especially touchscreens) to operate,
practicalities of setting up. fingerless gloves may be best.
3. FIND SOMETHING TO LIE ON

Youll find that you get neck ache within something you can lie back on. A reclining 4. LET YOUR EYES ADJUST
a very short amount of time if you stand garden chair, a sunlounger or even an This is crucial. If you go outside from a
still staring upwards old-fashioned deck chair is ideal, but brightly lit room, youll probably only see
at the sky. So your spine will thank you even if all you a handful of stars. Wait and let your eyes
avoid the have to hand is a camping groundsheet, adjust to the darkness ideally for 30
pain entirely a yoga mat or a blanket to spread minutes and youll notice an incredible
by finding over the grass. difference. Doing so should allow you to
see much fainter stars.
NORTH
VEN NES
6. TAKE A RED TORCH

CA
MAJOR
k URSA Cor Caroli
era ` a _
M94
M
T
Plough
M63 ES
Mizar
b HW
RT
51
AND A COMPASS
_
LYN
NO
M
he
Dub
X
r
M81
ub Alco
a
M82
an
1
M10
S
TE
Th
Kite
N
O
BO
_
Your eyes are dark-adapted, yet youd still like to
RT
Kochab
`
HE
AS
_ Gemma
b
`
T
`
a
MINOR
URSA
Polaris
see charts and be sure that youre not about to step
b
CORONA
BOREALIS
`
CA
b a
AURIGA
_
ELO O
M
AC
35
b
PA DR
_
`
RD
`
M ALI
3
on a hedgehog. The answer is a red-light torch, as
M M38 36 S
M1
37
_
a
Capella
M92
Keystone
`
a
`
CEPH
`
b
EUS
dark-adapted eyes are much less sensitive to red light

Double Cluster
a
`
e
M S
Hous
min
ULE
TAURUS
irp
CA
RC
ha
b
Aldera
HE
SS
PERS
k
M1
a
_
b
IO
03
PE
EUS
_
NGC 884
than they are to white. You can buy dedicated red-light

a
NG
a
IA
WEST
M52
_ Veg
C
b
86
Ald
` Deep-sky
W
9
hi
_
Alg tour, p57
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LYRA
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M10
ol _ b sa
` b b Ra
an
M34
OPHIUCHUS
_
Alm
_
Sch
`
US
Dene
Pleiad
torches, or make a DIY one by taking a normal torch

M57 ague
ed
b Hyades
`
GN
ach
Rasalh
ar
_
ANDR
M39 a
CY
es
a NGC14 a
7 _
LACE
NGC18 56
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M
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` Albir
M31
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Northern
Su
RTA
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and fixing a piece of red acetate over the front. A compass

Cross
m
a
M110
CULA
m
`
a
er
EAST
ira +
ch Tr VULPE _
M32
ia
ng
SERPENS
le
CAUDA
ARI
`
M3
ES
M27
q TA _
Alp
will help you find north, and is useful not only in using star
l
Hama b SAGIT
her
_
a
Sc
b `
atz
M71
he
at
UILA
M18
`
`
DE
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a
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LP
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charts but also in setting up your telescope mount.

HIN
_
19 Ec a
b
_
`
th lip
US
b`
Alta
tic SCUTUM
Menk
`
Great Square PEGASUS
a
Uran
PISC of Pegasus
b
M11
a M15
ar
ES a
_ 22
us
b
M
b
b ` _ LEUS
Mir
a t UU tor
Equa
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tial
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` Wheel Celes
HW
Circlet a Steering M2
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_ UT
CET c `
SO
US a
AQUARIUS
`
8. TAKE YOUR TIME

16th
h
SO f 13th
UT US
Nep
HE ORN
7. AVOID
a f
AS IC
tune
` b APR
T b
C
Deneb
The fact is that there is an awful lot to

Kaitos
M30
SCULPTO
R US
ARTIFICIAL LIGHTS
PISCIS AUSTRIN
Fomalha
ut
get your head around, and no one has

_
SOUTH
Make sure any light sources are ever looked at the night sky and instantly
5. PICK UP A STAR CHART obscured from your observing understood how to find their way around.
We publish one of these in BBC Sky at position, as they will prevent your Not even Sir Patrick Moore was immune
Night Magazine every month, and they eyes from acclimatising to the to this; he did it by learning one new
are a great way to learn your way darkness properly. If you can get constellation each night.
around the night sky. You can begin by out to the countryside you can take
identifying patterns of bright stars. advantage of properly dark skies
From there you can gradually learn this will really make a difference.
your way around the constellations,
and before too long theyll become
familiar and youll be able navigate
your way around the night sky without
reference to a book or chart. They
frequently list the locations of prominent
deep-sky objects, which, being dim, can
be harder to locate.
ADVANCED TECHNIQUES
Get better views of night sky objects with these tips
AVERTED VISION stars, the dimmest of which is mag. +2.8. is +4.0. If you can spot three, your sites
Averted vision is way of seeing faint celestial You need to wait for your eyes to adapt to limiting magnitude is +4.75; at five stars it is
objects through binoculars or a telescope the dark to do this accurately, so head mag. +5.25; at nine stars it is mag. +5.75. If
more easily by looking using peripheral outside a good 15 minutes in advance to you can count all the way up to 13 stars, you
vision. This involves glancing to the side of acclimatise. Then look for the Great Square can see down to mag. +6.0.
your target rather then directly at it, to use with your eyes only and count the Try this on a few nights. You may find the
your eyes more sensitive rod cells. number of stars you can see inside it. If you atmospheric conditions are different each
A good way to practice using averted cant see any, then your limiting magnitude time, and this can affect what you can see.
vision is to seek out the Blinking Planetary
Nebula, designated NGC 6826 (RA 19h Using this asterism is one Scheat
44m 48s, dec. 50 31 30). When viewed way of working out limiting
directly through a small telescope, the magnitude; counting stars
nebulas bright central star overwhelms the in the Pleiades is another
view; looking with averted vision reveals the
nebula itself, which appears to blink on
and off as the viewer shifts their gaze. ANDROMEDA
LIMITING MAGNITUDE Alpheratz GREAT SQUARE

Its really worthwhile getting to know the Markab
OF PEGASUS
faintest stars you can see from where you
live in other words, the limiting visual PEGASUS
magnitude of the skies above you.
As light pollution increases, so the number
of stars you can see decreases. If your skies
are very bad you may be limited to the
second magnitude or worse, with only a
handful of the brightest stars on show. PISCES
One way of determining your limiting Algenib
magnitude is to use the Great Square of
Pegasus asterism it is comprised of four
SEEING AND
ATMOSPHERIC
TRANSPARENCY
The movement of the atmosphere can affect your ability
to observe stars and planets to a surprising extent
The weather is generally considered to your telescope is disturbed by whats

be the biggest hindrance to astronomy. going on in the atmosphere above you.
Whats the betting that the night you At times of good seeing, youll get
decide to head out for the night that sharp, steady views through your
spell of fine weather changes for the telescope. But bad seeing produces
worse? So youd have thought that when turbulent, unstable telescope views of
the skies finally clear, your problems the Moon and shuddering, shaky images
would be over. Surprisingly, though, of stars. On the other hand, deep-sky
even a clear night may not be the best objects like galaxies and nebulae arent
time to go out and observe. as badly affected by bad seeing.
The issue is the seeing. In astronomy, This is thanks to the layers of moving
this doesnt mean how you look at air between you and the object youre
something. Its a term that describes looking at, the effects of which are
how much the view you see through magnified by your telescope. In the
A sunset will have a jagged

STEVE MARSH, PETE LAWRENCE
appearance thanks to sunlight

moving through turbulent air
atmosphere, air at different temperatures pool with a coin resting on the bottom. ground, so it can be a good idea to raise
is always moving around and mixing The water represents our atmosphere up your scope on a platform.
together. Light travels through hot and and the coin the starry object youre 4 If you build an observatory, make it
cold air at different speeds, so it is looking at. Through completely still using thin materials such as wood that
continually bent this way and that before water with no currents, the coin can cool quickly.
it finally arrives at your telescope all looks still, crisp and clear. In this 5 The geography of your observing site
shaken and stirred. case the seeing is perfect and so is affects how air behaves. Being near the
Sometimes there are very few moments the transparency. If the water is made sea gives you calmer air than if youre
of clarity. One of the best ways to see this to move causing ripples the coins near a range of hills, where air is forced
distortion is to watch the Sun setting on image will shake around; the upwards, causing turbulence.
a clear horizon. It will have a jagged transparency is still good but the seeing
appearance, thanks to the sunlight is bad. And if some milk is spilt in the
moving through layers of turbulent air. pool so you cant see the coin very clearly, USING THE
The other factor that affects observing the transparency will be reduced. ANTONIADI SCALE
conditions is the transparency of the It goes to show that youre at the mercy
night just how clear the sky is. After of the atmosphere and that moments of
Its very useful to note down what the
its been raining, the sky is transparent clarity are a wonderful thing.
seeing is when youre observing. Many
because the rain clears away particles of astronomers use the Antoniadi scale as
dust and smog from the air. However, Clear and present a measure of what the atmosphere is
when its been raining it also tends to be You cant do anything about high-level up to. Its a five-point scale using Roman
windy, which means that the seeing is seeing the air currents far above you numerals. I indicates the best conditions,
bad. Youll notice that the stars are but you can influence the low-level while V describes the worst.
twinkling because of this. Transparent seeing to create steadier air conditions
I Perfect seeing, without any quiver of
conditions are, however, good for large, immediately around you and your scope. turbulence whatsoever.
faint objects like nebulae and galaxies, Heres how: II Slight shimmers; moments of stillness
which really benefit from the better 1 Leave your scope outside to cool to the last several seconds.
contrast. Poor transparency generally ambient temperature, eliminating any air III Average seeing; larger air tremors
means the air is steady with good seeing, currents in the tube. blur the view.
but dust and particles are sitting in the 2 Observe on grass rather than concrete. IV Poor views, with constant troublesome
undulations of the image.
still atmosphere. These conditions are Concrete absorbs more heat from the V Bad views with severe undulations; so
good for looking at the Moon and stars. Sun and radiates it out to the air above unstable that even quick sketches are out
A good way to think of seeing and it for longer. of the question.
transparency is to imagine a swimming 3 Air currents tend to stay low to the
5.0 HOW
6.7
4.2
6.5 2.0
7.1
6.3
FAINT
5.9
5.2
5.6
6.4
CAN
4.7
4.4
YOU SEE?
Atmospheric conditions have an
impact on the faintness of the stars
star names in Futura. you can observe. Use the chart here
4.8 to check the faintest stars you can see
Heavy, 8pt by looking at Ursa Minor on a very
4.2 clear night to work out your limiting
6.4 magnitude. This is the faintest star
4.3
magnitude, or brightness, that you
can see from your location higher
4.3 5.2 numbers mean fainter stars.
2.1
5.6
Work out your limiting magnitude
5.5 by finding the dimmest stars you
5.0 can see in Ursa Minor. Under a
6.4
perfect sky you should be able
to spot mag. +6.5 stars
HOW TO DEAL WITH

LIGHT POLLUTION
Dont despair of your garden there are many ways to fight glow and glare
Britain is blossoming with accredited
particularly
garden, and that often means dealing cities. However, stargazers who live
dark skies. It was only in late 2015 that a with light pollution. in more rural locations can be just
2,170km2 chunk of Snowdonia National This vexation comes in two flavours: as bothered by the annoying bright
Park became the third swathe of Wales to sky glow, the rusty orange haze cast by light from a neighbours badly adjusted
gain endorsement from the International the massed lights over a wide area, and security light. Thankfully, there are a
Dark Skies Association, meaning that local glare from line-of-sight sources few things you can try to mitigate their
nearly 18 per cent of the country now nearby streetlights, security lights, car unwanted effects.
boasts night skies recognised for their headlights, even the light emanating
lack of light pollution. It is the most from your neighbours windows. Sky Focus on what you can fix
recent member of a slowly growing club, glow washes out the night and blots out For local sources of light pollution, your
ILLUSTRATION BY PAUL WOOTTON, JON HICKS, ISTOCK
joining Exmoor in Devon, Galloway the stars, while local sources are more biggest consideration is where you
Forest Park in Dumfries and Galloway, prone to ruining your night vision. Under position your scope in your garden. You
and the Isle of Sark in the English dark skies you can see stars down to need to find a spot that puts a barrier
Channel to name a few. mag. +6.5 with the naked eye, but light between yourself and the irksome source
These designations are great news in pollution can cut this to just a handful of glare. That barrier could be anything
terms of protecting the skies for future of first magnitude stars. Another a fence, a tree, the side of a building so
generations, and indeed for a spot of common casualty is the pale band of the long as it isnt so big it also masks the
practical astronomy if you are lucky Milky Way, the river of stars that part of the sky you want to look at.
enough to live within travelling distance stretches high across the autumn skies. If no suitable cover already exists,
of any of them. But for many of us, Not surprisingly, the worst places for consider making some. A simple shield
stargazing is the preserve of the back light pollution are the major towns and consisting of a frame of wood or plastic
The light pollution is particularly

troublesome over cities, but there
will be pockets of darkness
wherever you are
Scope pointing to the area of sky

least affected by rising heat and
shielded from streetlights
STREETLIGHTS Heat rising
Heat rising
Astronomer shielded from

streetlights by trees and fence
FENCE
Heat rising
GRASS
PATIO
Your scope should ideally be situated on grass, shielded from external lights and pointing between or away from heat sources such as rooftops
piping with blackout cloth stretched alternative to eye guards, throw another
across it can work wonders, though make piece of blackout cloth over your head, WHAT IF MY GARDEN
sure you brace the legs. The last thing just as a Victorian photographer would.
IS HOPELESS?
you want is for it to catch the wind and It may look a little odd (another great
clatter into your setup mid session. If DIY reason to tell your neighbours what you
If you truly cannot find a way to cut out
is not your thing, ditch the frame and are up to) but it can help you establish
the glare, see past the glow or simply
simply hang the blackout cloth from a and preserve your night vision. dont have the space to create a dark
washing line, a garden trellis or similar, Adding a light pollution filter to your corner, try looking for an alternative,
though again you will need to weigh it setup, and depending on your target, darker location nearby. Its imperative to
down to forestall lift-off. colour or narrowband filters, can increase do some research before heading out in
Getting to know your neighbours clarity and enhance detail. At the this case: once you have found a
potential location, make sure that you
better can also go a long way, if the lights opposite end, a dew shield can also help
have a right to be there and above all
that are causing you consternation come stop light getting in; if you dont own one, that it is safe at night, especially if you
from their home. Many astronomers you can make one cheaply from a rolled will be observing alone. Another option
report reciprocal arrangements that work up camping mat. If the glow above you is is to join your local astronomical society.
well in this regard in return for feeding so bad that you have trouble navigating to Many host observing evenings for
the cat while they are on holiday, they your intended targets in the first place, members, and it is likely that some of
your fellow stargazers will be able to
may acquiesce to, say, drawing their purchasing a Go-To mount may be the
suggest some good observing spots in
curtains when you are in the garden least stressful way to reach them. your area.
observing. You can only ask. In many places there is a noticeable
Your next consideration should be drop off in sky glow after midnight as
optimising the equipment you have, and more and more people and businesses
this can help you deal with both glare turn off their interior lights, meaning
and generic glow. Your goals are to the wee hours often offer better views.
maximise the contrast of what you see You may also find that your local
and minimise the ingress of stray light. authority turns off streetlights at a set
Opt for eyepieces that have eye guards to time. If sky glow is a particular problem,
block extraneous light, and make sure make sure you wait until your chosen
their lenses are free from eyelash grease target is well clear of the horizon before Get out of town to maximise darkness
as this can degrade the view. As an you attempt to view it.
KEEPING A
LOG BOOK
How making notes can improve your observing
experience and help you become a better astronomer
Two pages from an astronomers log

book; detailed notes and drawings
will help you to spot patterns in the
night sky, and anything unusual
PAUL ABEL X 2, ISTOCK, ROBIN SCAGELL/GALAXY
The journey from absolute beginner to first glimpses, you must accurately observing and drawing skills have
seasoned amateur astronomer is full of record what you have seen. improved; youll have a tangible past
poignant personal cosmic discoveries. Keeping a log book will transform on which to build. By repeating
Your observing adventures out there in you from a casual viewer to a reliable observations, old friends will be revealed
the Universe will be marked by a number observer. Observation is much more in a new light, their subtle aspects slowly
of important first-time events locating than just looking through the eyepiece coming to the fore. All of this will make
a much sought after Messier object, for of a telescope. By writing up your astronomy much more rewarding.
example, or perhaps seeing the polar observations in a systematic way youll Theres also a scientific aspect to
ice caps of Mars for the first time. find that your eyesight sharpens; you keeping a log book. You may be able to
However, if you are to build on these can look back and see how your provide confirmation of a rarely observed
WHAT TO RECORD
DATE The full date in the format yyyy-mm-dd. OTHER CONDITIONS
Any cloud or mist present,
TIME The time of each observation in UT. moonlight, the level of
light pollution at your
TELESCOPE The size of telescope and its location, etc.
type (Newtonian, Schmidt-Cassegrain, etc).
TARGET-SPECIFIC
MAGNIFICATION The powers you use for DETAILS For planets,
drawings and observing. note the value of the
central meridian, phase (if
EYEPIECES Focal length, and whether you applicable) and disc size.
used a star diagonal or Barlow lens. For deep-sky objects and
comets, indicate north in any
FILTER WORK Include the Wratten number drawings and include the
(printed on the side of the filter) of any filters constellation. Variable stars
used in your observations. require magnitude estimates.
SEEING This is a measure of how steady PERSONAL THOUGHTS

the atmosphere is. Use the Antoniadi scale Make a note of anything else Make sure you choose a strong hardback
from I-V, where I is a perfectly sharp image that strikes you as interesting notebook that can stand regular use; consider
and V is an unfocused blob. or unusual. investing in several for different targets
phenomenon such as a bright fireball, or specialise and decide which aspects of cheaper books can fall to pieces after
the beginnings of a dust storm on Mars. astronomy interest you the most. There a couple of months under the British
If you have no accurate record of what are still many areas in which amateurs winter skies! Loose-leaf observations in
you have observed, you may never know can make useful contributions to ring binders should be avoided, as it is
if you have seen something important. astronomy, including planetary and only a matter of time before individual
By recording your observations in a variable star work, provided their entries become lost.
consistent manner, youll find that your observations are recorded systematically. What you record will largely depend
whole approach to astronomy shifts on what you are observing. Although
into a much more rewarding pursuit: A tome to last there are some standard things you
rather than just checking off objects The log book itself should be sturdy, hard must always note down such as the
you have seen, you can begin to study backed and contain good quality paper. date, time and the details of your
them properly. This will allow you to Its worth spending some money on it as telescope some are specific to the
type of object you are looking at.
Planets, for example, require drawings
that provide an important visual
THE VALUE TO SCIENCE impression of what youve seen, along
with details such as phase and disc size.
Keeping a log book is more Variable stars require no drawings, but
than a personal endeavour:
will need magnitude estimates and
the details you record can
help contribute to real
details of the finder chart used.
science. Variable star For this reason, you might want to
enthusiast Gary Poyner has keep a log book for each object. Perhaps
clocked up a total of 269,753 separate books for all the planets,
variable star observations. variable stars, solar work and the deep
The records from his log
sky. A good way to work can be to
books allow light curves of
a number of variables to
make rough drawings and observations
be extended back into the outside, then a neat copy in your log
1970s. One of the greatest books indoors afterwards. This makes
visual observers was British the layout easier, with drawings on one
amateur George Alcock, who page, and written notes on the following.
discovered five comets and Make your drawings on a separate piece
five novae with binoculars
of paper and stick them into your book,
the last at the age of 78.
His logs were full of as you may need a few attempts at
meticulous notes and fine rendering them.
drawings of the objects George Alcock was a firm proponent of binoculars Your log books will be your observing
hed discovered. all of his discoveries were made using them legacy you should regard them as one
of amateur astronomys essentials.
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INTRODUCING
PLANISPHERES
Even in the digital age, the planisphere is an invaluable aid
when you need to get your bearings in the night sky
As a budding stargazer, a planisphere amateur astronomers alike. For

is one of the greatest aids to helping example, it could help you to
you find your way around the night sky. learn the constellations or
They dont look like much usually even just identify a bright star
theyre just two discs of cardboard or you can see at a particular
plastic fastened together with a central time. It can also be a useful
pin. But this deceptively simple design aide-mmoire when planning
belies the fact that a planisphere allows an observing session.
ALL PICTURES STEVE MARSH
you to work out which bright stars are in Although the two discs are
the night sky on any date and at any time pinned together, they can still
throughout the year. be rotated independently of each
This basic knowledge is useful for other. Printed over most of the
casual stargazers and more serious lower disc are the stars,
WHAT TO USE
constellations and brighter deep-sky

objects that you can see from a given THE PLANET PROBLEM
latitude. Marked around the outside of
this lower disc are the days and months. Why cant I use a planisphere to find the planets or the Moon?
Talking circles Plansipheres show objects
that are fixed in the night sky
The upper disc will be slightly smaller
relative to Earth thats why
than the lower one or will have a clear they can be used year after
rim, so you can still see the day and year. However, this means that
month markings underneath. It also they cant predict the location
has an oval window in it, revealing of planets or the Moon. Some
part of the star chart on the lower disc. manufacturers try to overcome
The edge of this window represents this by printing details of
planetary locations for several
the horizon with appropriate north, years on the back, but there is
south, east and west markings, and also a line printed on the chart
everything within it is the visible sky. itself that can help. The ecliptic,
Just like the lower disc, the upper often shown as a dotted line,
disc has markings around its edge. In marks the plane of the Solar
this case, they denote the time of day. System, in which most of the
planets orbit the Sun. If you
By lining up the date and time, the stars
discover a star in the sky thats
visible in the window will match the not shown on the planisphere,
ones in the night sky at that time. We then it is probably a planet.
explain how to use the planisphere in
the step-by-step guide below.
On some planispheres, you may notice arsenal. Planispheres are cheap, easy or south of the location it has been
that some of the stars (particularly those to use, robust (plastic ones more so), designed for, youll find that the stars
near the southern horizon) are rather lightweight, portable and best of all dont appear in the right positions. UK
stretched out. This is because the sky is they dont need electricity. latitudes vary from 50 N (southern
3D and it is being forced onto a 2D disc, The one important point to keep in England) to 60 N (northern Scotland).
so it has to be expanded towards the mind when using one is that planispheres Both Philips and the David Chandler
edge of the chart. This tool should be are designed to work at specific latitudes. Company produce planispheres for
an essential part of your night-sky If you try using one too far north this region.
HOW TO USE A PLANISPHERE

1 GET YOUR 2 SET THE
BEARINGS PLANISPHERE
Theres one thing you Lets say youre
need to know before heading out at 9pm
using a planisphere, on 15 January. Align
the cardinal points the 9pm marker
from where you live. on the upper disc
If you dont have with the 15 January
a compass, use marker on the lower
the Sun. It rises disc. The stars in the
roughly in the east oval window should
and sets roughly now match those
in the west in the skies above.
3 HOLD IT UP 4 STAR HOPPING

To start with, look The central pin CASSIOPEIA
north, holding the represents Polaris and
planisphere so the north celestial Polaris
that the word pole. Just to its lower (the Pole Star)
north is at the right will be the
bottom. If you change seven bright stars THE PLOUGH
the direction youre of the Plough. Use
facing, move the these and the five
planisphere round so stars forming the W
that the corresponding shape of Cassiopeia
compass point is now to get to know the
at the bottom. constellations.
THE VALUE OF
BINOCULARS
Telescopes arent the only option for observing astronomical objects
Starting out in astronomy and wondering to an exquisite binary juxtaposition of that the binoculars let you find as
what to buy for your first telescope? gold and sapphire. And you can easily see you cast your gaze among the stars.
Theres a simple answer to that question: galaxies by the light that left them Before you even realise it, you have
dont buy one, buy two. Two small ones millions of years ago, when our ancestors begun to learn the sky and youll soon
that are joined with a hinge so that the were thinking about leaving the trees. be able to navigate around it better
distance between them can be adjusted to Binoculars are still suitable even if you than the entry-level Go-To telescope
exactly match your eyes. We are of course want to do serious astronomy. There are you nearly bought instead.
talking about binoculars a Best of all, you can have this
valuable tool in the armouries
of most active observers.
Binoculars are classified complete observing system for
two eyes for less than the price
There are hundreds of of one reasonably good
astronomical bodies that a by two numbers: their telescope eyepiece.
pair of binoculars will bring
into view for you. Not only magnification and aperture What to look for
will they let you see many Binoculars are classified
more objects than you can with the variable star observing programmes by two numbers that refer to their
naked eye, but the detail and colour specifically for binoculars, and their magnification and aperture. A 10x50 pair
in those objects become a lot richer. portability makes them ideal for taking of binoculars has a magnification of 10x,
With binoculars, the Coathanger to the narrow track where a lunar graze and each of the objective lenses has an
asterism in Vulpecula actually looks like or asteroid occultation is visible. aperture of 50mm. These numbers
a coathanger and the Orion Nebula Alternatively, you could wrap up also enable you to calculate the size
becomes a fantastically detailed painting warm, lie back on your garden recliner of the circle of light or exit pupil
of light. The Milky Way is no longer a and just enjoy that emerges from the eyepieces: all
tenuous glowing band, but a knotted the objects you have to do is divide the aperture by
tangle of stars, interspersed with the magnification. This means a 10x50
mysterious dark patches. pair of binoculars has an exit pupil of
Albireo goes from being an 5mm. The exit pupil should be
ordinary-looking star that no larger than the dark-dilated
marks the head of Cygnus
PAUL WHITFIELD X 3, GRAHAM GREEN, ISTOCK X 3
Dont be tempted to go for the

biggest binoculars you can
afford larger pairs are harder
to hold steady, and large
night-sky features can be better
seen with less magnification
WHAT TO USE
CAN I USE ANY

OLD BINOCULARS?
In principle, yes: even plastic-lensed 4x20
toy binoculars can show you astronomical
objects that you otherwise couldnt see,
such as the moons of Jupiter. If you already
have a pair of small binoculars, for example
a 6x30 or 8x32 pair, try them out under the
stars: youll be amazed at how much more
you can see. The optical quality will also
make a difference and you may find that
there are things you can see with good-
quality small binoculars like 8x42s that are
beyond the capability of an entry-level
15x70. But avoid zoom binoculars: good
ones dont exist.
The bigger your binoculars get, the harder they become to hold steady. A mount will provide Even toy binoculars give a decent view of the
a stable viewing platform for larger binoculars, and camera tripod adaptors are available night sky if the kids will let you have them
pupils of your eyes: a pupil of anywhere steadily (this size is a popular (eye relief) from the eyepiece to your
between 4-6mm is fine for your first compromise between size and weight) ideal eye position; 18mm or more
pair of binoculars. O 15x70, which really needs to be should be fine.
Larger apertures potentially show you mounted, although they can be There are two basic types of binoculars:
more, but may need mounting if you briefly handheld Porro-prism and roof-prism. In any
want steady views over prolonged You should also check that the price range, roof-prisms are lighter, but
periods. Common sizes are: distance between the eyepieces, or Porro-prisms tend to have better optical
O8x40, which almost anyone over interpupillary distance will adjust to quality. Once youve decided on size and
the age of 10 can hold steadily your eyes. If you wear glasses, ensure type, get the best quality you can for your
O10x50, which most adults can hold that the binoculars have enough distance budget and start exploring the night sky.
BETTER THAN A TELESCOPE?
If your passion is planetary detail, close

double stars, globular clusters or planetary
nebulae, then consider buying a telescope.
But for the rest of the visible Universe,
binoculars are the better option. Setting up
handheld binoculars takes a few seconds,
and even mounted ones can be set up in a
few minutes, so youll be observing long
before your Go-To telescope-using
buddies are ready to start.
Many objects are ideally framed in
the wider field of handheld binoculars:
asterisms like Kembles Cascade or the
Leaping Minnow overflow most telescope
fields, as do large open clusters such as
the Pleiades and the Beehive Cluster. Even
large faint objects like the Triangulum
Galaxy and the North America Nebula
can be easier to see in budget 10x50
binoculars than in amateur telescopes
of several times the price. The Pleiades (left) and the Beehive Cluster (right) are popular targets for binoculars
YOUR FIRST
TELESCOPE
Buying a telescope can sometimes be a daunting task.
We cut through the jargon to help you make up your mind
Astronomy is an immensely rewarding an array of equipment and technical
adventure full of exploration and terminology waiting to confuse and
discovery. Planets, stars, nebulae and entice you as you start your journey of
galaxies, among many other wonders, discovery. Well take a straightforward
are all waiting to amaze and inspire look at the four most common types of
you. But buying your first telescope telescope and how they work, to give you
is not always an easy business. Theres a better idea of your options.
ALL PHOTOS PAUL WHITFIELD
Investing in a scope will

let you explore many
more of the marvels
in the Milky Way
WHAT TO USE
REFLECTOR
Reflectors were invented by Sir Isaac Newton smaller, flat, secondary mirror supported by
and use a specially curved main mirror to wires in the centre of the tube; this secondary
collect celestial light. In the Newtonian design is angled at 45 to send the light beam out
(shown here), the light collected by the to the side, passing through a focuser and
primary (main) mirror is reflected and focused eventually into an eyepiece, which is what
back up the telescopes tube to a much you look through.
SECONDARY MIRROR FINDERSCOPE

The secondary mirror is located towards the The finderscope helps you to home in on
front of the telescope tube and is set at a 45 your target. It can either be a miniature
angle. It reflects the light into the focuser, which telescope with a wide field of view or a
is located on the side of the tube. zero-magnification red-dot finder.
FOCUSER AND EYEPIECE

SLOW-MOTION CONTROLS The focuser allows you to adjust the position of the
Slow-motion controls allow you to eyepiece in order to focus the view of what youre
move the telescope manually in one looking at. Eyepieces enlarge the view produced
or both axes. They allow you to by the telescope. Different eyepieces can be used
carefully place a celestial object in to increase the apparent size of your target.
the centre of the eyepieces field
of view and then keep it there. TUBE RINGS AND
DOVETAIL BAR
COUNTERWEIGHTS The tube rings hold the telescope tube
and allow you to rotate it to a suitable
One or more counterweights are
viewing position. The rings attach to
necessary to balance the telescope
a dovetail bar (the black bar running
on the mount. This reduces the strain
between the two tube rings), which is
on any motorised drives and can
used to secure the tube to a mount.
prevent the scope from falling over.
PRIMARY MIRROR
Light from distant objects is collected by the primary
(main) mirror, which is at the bottom of a Newtonian
telescopes tube. The mirror is specially curved so that
it focuses light back up toward the secondary mirror.
JARGON BUSTER POLARSCOPE

Many equatorial mounts have a built-in
APERTURE polarscope. The polarscope is effectively a
The most important specification miniature telescope that allows you to align one
of a telescope. Aperture is the size axis of the mount very accurately to the rotation
of the main mirror or lens, usually axis of the night sky, allowing you to track the stars
given in inches. more easily.
MOUNT HEAD
MOUNT
The mount holds the telescope and The mount head for a Newtonian
allows you to point it at the sky. telescope is usually an equatorial design
There are two main types: (see left). This allows you to align the
mount to the night sky to track stars more
EQUATORIAL easily.
Mounts aligned to the night skys axis TRIPOD
of rotation. They use a coordinate
system mapped onto the sky similar The tripod provides the support for
to longitude and latitude. the whole system. They are usually
made of aluminium and have
ALTAZIMUTH adjustable legs so that you can
Mounts that move in two axes: vary the height of the telescope for
azimuth (measured in degrees from ease of use. The tripod needs to be
north) and altitude (up and down stable and give firm support.
from 0 at the horizon to 90 right
above your head).
>
REFRACTOR
Refractors are the oldest and simplest light down the tube directly to the focuser.
telescope design this is the type used A star diagonal, which bends the light
by Galileo to record the phases of Venus, through 90, is often added between the
among other things. Refractors have a focuser and the eyepiece to make viewing
curved lens at the front, which focuses the more comfortable.
DEW SHIELD
The dew shield protects the objective lens from becoming dewed
up by moisture in the atmosphere. It also helps prevent stray light
entering the tube and scattering off the objective lens, which
would degrade the view.
OBJECTIVE LENS EYEPIECE

The objective (main) lens is Most beginners scopes use
located at the front of the telescope eyepieces with a 1.25-inch
tube. It focuses the light down the tube barrel. You can usually place
to the focuser. Modern lenses are often them directly into the focuser,
multicoated to provide better light transmission. though many people add a
star diagonal for comfort.
FOCUSER
The focuser allows you to make
the image produced by the
telescope sharp. The focuser on
a basic refractor is often a rack
and pinion design, which has two
thumbwheels for easy adjustment.
MOUNT HEAD
Like the reflector on the previous
page, this refractor has an
equatorial mount head design.
However many basic refractors STAR DIAGONAL
use simple altazimuth mounts. If the refractor has a long focal length
the eyepiece can end up being quite
low to the ground and uncomfortable to
look through. A star diagonal redirects
JARGON BUSTER the light by 90 to provide a better
viewing experience.
FOCAL LENGTH
The focal length is the distance
between a telescopes main mirror
or lens and the point at which light
is brought to focus. For a given TRIPOD
eyepiece, long focal length scopes Like reflectors, refractors need
show a narrower (more zoomed- strong and sturdy tripods that
in) view, whereas short focal length dont wobble.
scopes give a wider field of view.
EYEPIECES
You look through the eyepiece to
see celestial objects. The view can
be magnified or reduced by using
different eyepieces. Be warned, its
not all about magnification; you
should choose the right eyepiece to
ALL PHOTOS: PAUL WHITFIELD
use based on the observing conditions

and the limitations of your telescope
(such as how bright the view is through
the eyepiece).
WHAT TO USE
SECONDARY
MIRROR
The secondary
DOBSONIAN
mirror redirects The Dobsonian telescope is a itself is mounted on a rotatable
the light path reflecting telescope mounted on platform, so you can turn the
through 90, a simple but effective altazimuth telescope around in azimuth.
out towards the mount popularised by amateur Basic Dobsonians cant track
side of the tube astronomer John Dobson in the stars, but their simple
to the focuser. the 1960s. It sits in a box (or design means you can generally
cradle) that allows it to be get a larger aperture telescope
tilted up and down. The box for your money.
TUBE ASSEMBLY
The tube assembly houses the
secondary and primary mirrors. The FOCUSER AND EYEPIECE
focuser and finderscope attach on the As in the Newtonian design, the eyepiece and
outside. Some Dobsonians use a truss focuser assembly sits at the top of the tube and
system rather than an enclosed tube. juts out from the side of the telescope.
ALTAZIMUTH MOUNT
Dobsonians use an altazimuth mount,
where one axis tilts up and down and PRIMARY MIRROR
the other rotates horizontally. The primary mirror collects and focuses the light
from distant celestial objects and reflects it back
FINDERSCOPE up to the secondary mirror.
The finderscope is a miniature telescope with
a wide field of view that allows you to home in
on your target.
EYEPIECE AND
CATADIOPTRIC STAR DIAGONAL

In this design the eyepiece
and star diagonal are
Catadioptric, or compound, telescopes located at the rear
use a combination of a mirror and of the telescope.
a front corrector lens to capture and
focus celestial light in a compact and CORRECTOR PLATE AND
much shorter tube than refractors or SECONDARY MIRROR
reflectors. Light emerges from the rear; The corrector plate is at the
a star diagonal and eyepiece are front of the tube. It both corrects
used for comfortable viewing position. the light path and supports the GO-TO HANDSET
Popular designs include the Schmidt- secondary mirror. The mount is controlled
Cassegrain and Maksutov-Cassegrain.
by a Go-To handset, which
Compound scopes can be mounted
holds a large database
on equatorial mounts, but are often
found on altazimuth Go-To mounts. PRIMARY MIRROR of celestial objects. You
choose one, the telescope
The primary mirror aims itself at it.
collects and reflects light
from celestial objects.
GO-TO MOUNT
JARGON BUSTER It has a central hole
allowing the light to The electronic Go-To mount
pass through it from the carries the telescope,
GO-TO and is specially geared
secondary toward the
Some mounts possess motorised to allow fine and fast
focuser and eyepiece.
drives and computer handsets that are
slewing rates for
capable of aligning and controlling
moving around
a telescope as well as pointing it
the sky.
at selected celestial objects. These
Go-To mounts make viewing many
objects light work, however it can be
a hindrance to learning your way
around the sky if you use one when
starting out.
KNOW YOUR
SCOPE STATS
Get to grips with the often mysterious figures that describe the
optical performance of your telescope focal length and focal ratio
1. FOCAL LENGTH
The focal length of a refracting telescope is lengths mean smaller fields of view,
the distance between its lens and the place which are not always best for observing
where light rays from that lens are finally wide star fields or star hopping. You
brought to a focus, known as the focal can, however, increase a telescopes
point. For a reflecting telescope, simply focal length by using an accessory
swap the word lens for mirror. known as a Barlow lens.
Focal length is one of the important Eyepieces also have focal lengths,
numbers if you want to find out what but since they take the focused light
magnification you are viewing the night and magnify the image into your eye,
sky with. The magnification is the focal the numbers mean the reverse. So the
length of your telescope divided by the smaller an eyepieces focal length,
focal length of your eyepiece. You get the higher its magnification. For
higher magnifications good for viewing example, an 8mm focal length
detail on the planets, for instance with eyepiece will give you a
telescopes that have longer focal lengths. closer view than a
The downside to this is that longer focal 20mm eyepiece.
FOCAL POINT
3. VISUAL
VS PHOTO
Your telescopes f/number will tell you if it is mostly use your telescope for visual observing, then
particularly suited to observations with just the eye, larger focal ratio (slow) instruments are ideal. To get
or whether it will be good for astrophotography too. 100x magnification with a small focal ratio (fast)
Smaller focal ratio (fast) telescopes are good for telescope, youd need a small focal length eyepiece
astrophotography especially if you want to image that can be uncomfortable to look through, especially
large star fields because they can get an image if you have to wear glasses. Opting for a slower
with shorter exposure times than their long focal ratio scope removes this problem. To get the same 100x
PAUL WHITFIELD
counterparts. Theres also less chance of stars blurring magnification with a slower, large focal ratio scope
as a result of your mounts tracking falling behind the youd use a longer focal length eyepiece, which has
movement of the night sky. If youre intending to longer and more comfortable eye relief.
WHAT TO USE
2. FOCAL RATIO
The focal ratio of any telescope is its focal length
divided by the diameter of the front lens or mirror.
This leads to another way of describing it the
f/number. Lets say you end up with a 6 once youve
done the calculation. The resulting focal ratio would
be written as f/6. A scope with an f/number lower
than six is said to have a small focal ratio. F/numbers
of nine or above are considered large. Knowing your
focal ratio is important for astro imaging.
Theres yet another way of describing a scopes
focal ratio, as fast or slow, a throwback to the days
LIGHT PATH when cameras used film. Small focal ratios meant the
aperture of a cameras lens was open wide, which let
in a lot of light and caused a fast reaction between
the chemicals on the film and the light. The opposite
happened with large focal ratios: the narrower
apertures in the lens let in less light, causing a slow
reaction with the light in the chemicals on the film.
F/NUMBER PROS & CONS

This general guide compares fast and slow focal ratios, and applies
to most (but not all) telescopes
FAST SLOW
Smaller focal ratio: f/4 and below Larger focal ratio: f/9 and above
Shorter focal lengths: shorter telescope Longer focal lengths: longer telescope
Wide field of view: good for observing Narrow field of view: good for zooming in on
large swathes of the night sky planets or viewing double stars
Smaller eyepiece eye relief: have to Larger eyepiece eye relief: can use higher
use lower magnifications or viewing magnifications more comfortably
can be uncomfortable
Smaller depth of focus: precise focusing Greater depth of focus: more tolerance in
required for a crisp image focusing on objects
Telescopes can be smaller and easier Telescopes may be larger and heavier and so
to transport not as portable
THE BEST OF BOTH WORLDS
Choosing a telescope is not simply about move. However, knowing the limitations of
deciding on the best focal ratio. It may be fast and slow telescopes is a useful addition
that portability overrides everything; many to the buying process. If you want to hedge
scopes languish in sheds and garages your bets, then its best to go for the area
because they are too heavy or awkward to between fast and slow scopes.
KNOW YOUR
FIELD OF VIEW
Different equipment will show you different portions
of the sky, but whats best for your chosen target?
When youre out stargazing, the field of
view is the amount of sky that you can THE NAKED EYE
see at any one time. It varies depending Your eyes are excellent for expansive views of the
on what equipment youre using here constellations, asterisms, meteor showers, the Milky Way and
we show you how the appearance of the bright comets. Of course, you can see other objects, but its the
constellation of Cassiopeia changes general majesty of the heavens that you get with such an amazing,
near-180 left-to-right field of view. It makes the naked eye an
when you look through different
enjoyable means of looking at the night sky. The main image here
types of instrument. shows what the constellation of Cassiopeia, with its easily
recognisable W shape, looks like to the naked eye.
Its said that the eye has a magnification of 1x and the faintest
stars you can see are mag. +6.5. Some people have claimed to
be able to see stars as dim as mag. +7.0; even if you can, youll
still miss nearly all of the wondrous deep-sky objects and any
hint of their structure. For these objects you need a pair of
binoculars or a telescope.
JERRY LODRIGUSS/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY, MARKUS BLAUENSTEINER/CCDGUIDE.COM, HANNES BACHLEITNER/CCDGUIDE, PETE LAWRENCE
BINOCULARS 9
Using a standard pair of
10x50 binoculars you instantly
increase your magnification to 10x,
The Double Cluster looks
meaning things look 10 times bigger.
great through binoculars
Also, instead of the standard 5-7mm
width of your pupils, you have the
binoculars 50mm-diameter lenses to collect starlight. This allows
you to see faint stars deep into mag. +10.0 territory.
Depending on the make, 10x50 binoculars have a field of
view between 5 and 9. This gives you lovely wide views to
sweep across the sky in search of objects such as nebulae,
galaxies and star clusters, which look great through binoculars.
Just outside Cassiopeia theres something well worth
viewing with binoculars, the Double Cluster in the neighbouring
constellation Perseus. With the naked eye, you can just make it
out as a faint smudge. Binoculars, though, reveal it as a true
marvel: hundreds of stars in two distinct clusters spanning an
area about 1 across. Its a stunning sight that easily fits into the
field of view of a pair of 10x50 binoculars.
WHAT TO USE
The W shape of
the constellation
LARGE TELESCOPE of Cassiopeia as
Bigger telescopes work with higher magnifications and narrow it appears to the
the fields of view further still, a result of their wider aperture. If you
were to take a look at Cassiopeia using an 8-inch Dobsonian fitted
0.5 naked eye
with a 12mm Plssl lens, you would be looking with a magnification

of over 100x that of your eye at an angular field of 0.5.
Our target is the open cluster called M52. Viewed through
binoculars, this object is simply a faint fuzzy patch. A small
telescope begins to resolve the individual stars and shows its
roundish appearance. However, a big Dobsonian reveals a fine
group of about 200 stars with a diameter of about 0.25, which
fits easily into the field of view. M52 sits within the Milky
Way, so the surrounding sky is full of stars and other
treasures to investigate.
The large aperture of a Dobsonian scope means
that you can see stars and other objects as faint as
mag. +14.0. Dobsonians, though, are not built to track
(follow) the sky. They point at the same fixed spot. This
means that youll see stars move across the sky as you
look through the eyepiece. If your eyepiece increases Enjoy the full majesty of
the magnification to a powerful 400x, the stars will M52 with a large telescope
move across your field of view very fast indeed.
1.3
SMALL TELESCOPE You can split the beautiful double

To see more detail than you a good example of this with mag. +7.4 star Achird with a small scope
get from binoculars you need a higher Achird (Eta (d) Cassiopeiae), a red star with
magnification and an instrument that a brighter, mag. +3.0 yellow companion
captures more light. Welcome to the though some people say the colours in
realm of the telescope. this double are more golden and purple.
Even with a small scope, like a 4-inch A small telescope will reveal objects well
refractor fitted with a 26mm Plssl lens, into the 12th magnitude and, because of its
youll get a magnification of almost 40x enhanced light-gathering power, things like
greater than the eye. However, this comes at the shapes of nebulae and detail on planets
the cost of a reduced angular field of view, become apparent. Plus, for the first time in
which goes down to about 1.3. our equipment choices, you have the option
This kind of setup is useful for taking a to increase the magnification further by
look at double stars. Cassiopeia provides changing eyepieces.
KNOW YOUR
TELESCOPE
MOUNTS
The basic types explained, plus what to consider when buying
Try holding even a small telescope for available to todays amateur astronomers
any length of time and it will quickly suit a range of needs, from a simple
become apparent that you need tripod right up to a sophisticated
something to support it this vital piece instrument fit for an observatory.
of any setup is the mount. There are Most mounts are a variant of two
several types, and which one is best for basic designs, altazimuth (altaz) and
you, and indeed how much youll have equatorial. Altaz mounts move in two
to pay for it, depends on what you want axes, one perpendicular to the horizon
to use your telescope for. The mounts (altitude, giving an up and down motion)
ISTOCK, PAUL WHITFIELD, WWW.SECRETSTUDIO.NET
CAMERA TRACKING ALTAZ GERMAN

MOUNT MOUNT EQUATORIAL MOUNT
These recently developed mounts attach to The simplest form of altaz mount is the A popular mount design that allows for the
a standard tripod and the hinge is angled humble tripod, which is easily portable and tracking of the stars as Earth turns by having
towards the celestial pole, allowing for comes in styles from lightweight models to one axis parallel to our planets rotational
tracking with a camera so long as a polar sturdy affairs that are more than capable of axis. With a variety of carrying capacities
alignment is performed during set up. Many holding a small refractor or small compound from non-motorised mounts up heavy-duty
can even support small telescopes, making telescope. Dual-mounting manually operated tracking systems suitable for an observatory,
them useful if you want to travel. altaz tripod mounts are also available. this is the mount of choice for many.
WHAT TO USE
and the other parallel to the ground

(azimuth, giving horizontal motion),
but most basic designs cannot track
the sky though there are a few
exceptions to this.
In equatorial mounts, one of
the axes is parallel to that of
Earths rotation, meaning they
can track the night sky and keep
targets centred in the field of view,
provided they are properly polar
aligned prior to use. This makes them
ideal for prolonged observing or for
long-exposure astrophotography.
There are other considerations to
take into account. If you want a
permanent setup, then a heavy-duty
mount with excellent tracking would
be ideal. Being portable and easy to set
up may be a more practical solution for
some, perhaps where space is limited,
so a lightweight but robust mount could
be a better choice.
Weight and see

Similarly, you need to consider the
mounts payload capacity in other
words, how much weight can it
support? Remember, if you want to
do any astrophotography, this weight
has to account for all of your kit, not
just the telescope. Can the mount-
telescope system be easily dismantled
if the clouds roll in or, conversely, set
up quickly if a patch of clear sky
appears? If youre thinking of a
computerised mount, you need to check
to see if it has the relevant ports for any DOBSONIAN FORK
accessories you might want to use. MOUNT MOUNT
Choosing a mount can be a daunting Devised by renowned amateur John Dobson, Typically altaz, though they can be converted
thing; there are a lot of options. But it the Dobsonian is a simple rocker box on a to equatorial using an equatorial wedge.
is also true that there is a suitable turntable made from basic materials that Motorised or computerised fork mounts can
supports a large Newtonian reflector. The move the telescope through the southern
mount for all occasions. With a little
design is an easy to use, manually operated meridian without a meridian flip, allowing for
consideration you should be able to altaz system, although there are now some imaging sessions across the meridian, which is
choose the right one for your needs. computerised models that can track the sky. a problem for German equatorial mounts.
GRAB AND GO-TO
Go-To is a computerised to find an object, experienced astronomers

setup involving a especially if they are to quickly locate and
handset with the ability faint, and can do track deep-sky objects
to smoothly control the away with using for astrophotography.
mount and point it at printed star charts. These days, Go-To
a huge database of Their databases technology is available
celestial objects once usually include the on German equatorial
an initial star alignment Messier and NGC and fork mounts both
routine has been catalogues, and the large and small, and
performed. Go-To major planetary bodies. can even be found on
systems take the hassle This opens up the sky to some altaz systems,
out of manually trying novices and allows including Dobsonians.
EQUATORIAL
MOUNTS
PART 1 Putting your telescope on an equatorial mount enables you to
follow stars as they continue their steady progress across the
night sky. The mount may look complex, but it really doesnt
SETTING UP take long to master.
Over the next six pages, were breaking down everything
about these mounts into easy-to-follow steps, starting with
Equatorial mounts let you track an putting them together. Were using an EQ3 mount, but the
object as it moves across the night sky techniques will work for other types, too.
MOUNT HEAD TUBE RING

LOCKS
An equatorial mount is made up of a tripod TUBE RINGS
and a mount head, which holds the telescope These go round the telescope Make sure
to fix it to the plate, which these are
and moves it about on two axes, one called fixes to the mount head screwed in
right ascension (RA) and the other called RA SLOW
tightly to hold
the tube firm
declination (dec.) MOTION CONTROL
With the axis locks
RIGHT DECLINATION
tightened, this is used to
ASCENSION (RA) (DEC.) AXIS
DEC. SLOW fine-tune exactly where
AXIS LOCK LOCK
MOTION the scope is pointing
CONTROL Loosening the RA
and dec. axis locks AZIMUTH LOCK
lets the scope turn
Moves the mount
freely to a new
parallel to the horizon
target. Tighten them
for setting it up. Not
up again when
used to find targets
youre close
COUNTERWEIGHTS
These balance the
weight of the scope
RA SETTING
CIRCLE
DOVETAIL
Scales for dialling
MOUNTING
POLARSCOPE FITTING in the coordinates ALTITUDE PLATE
The mounts RA axis of celestial targets. SETTING
Theyre useful, but This is where
may be hollow to Tilts the mount
not essential the tube, in its
accomodate a small and scope to the rings, is held in
polarscope, which same angle as the mount
will help you set it up your latitude.
Not used to DEC. SETTING
find targets CIRCLE
ALL PHOTOS: PAUL WHITFIELD
WHAT TO USE
HOW TO ASSEMBLE YOUR MOUNT

Follow these steps to make sure your equatorial mount is solidly
built and wont collapse when you fit your telescope onto it
1. The scope and mount head sit on a 2. Place the MOUNT HEAD onto the top 3. Screw the COUNTERWEIGHT bar
TRIPOD. Set this up in daylight if its your of the tripod. Line up the metal peg on the into the mount head. With the rods locknut
first time. Adjust the height of the tripods top of the tripod with the gap underneath tightened against the mount, take the safety
legs so the top is level with your hips and, the mount, between the azimuth locks screw off the end of the bar and slide the
if there is one, fit the central accessory two bolts. Secure the mount head onto the counterweights halfway up the bar, tightening
tray. Make sure that the top is level and tripod by tightening the big bolt hanging the screws on the weights to secure them.
that the leg labelled N is pointing north. from the underside of the tripod top. Then replace the safety screw on the end.
4. The RA axis needs to point up to the 5. Fit a SLOW MOTION CABLE onto the 6. The telescope is held in the mount head by
north celestial pole. To do this, the mounts small D-shaped shafts on the RA and the dec. two TUBE RINGS, which are attached to a
ALTITUDE SETTING needs to be the same axes, tightening the screw at the end of each mounting plate clamped tightly into the mount
as your local latitude. Release the front and cable to hold it in place. If using a refractor, head. Our example has a short dovetail
back bolts and tilt the mount head so that the rotate the dec. axis so that the cable extends mounting plate with two tube rings already
pointer lines up with the right number on the to the bottom. For a reflector, fix the cable on attached, but yours may not be fixed to the
altitude scale, then do the bolts up again. at the top, closest to the eyepiece. mount head. In which case, attach the rings.
7. With the tube rings open, PLACE THE 8. Slip the FINDERSCOPE into its bracket 9. BALANCE YOUR SCOPE. With the tube
TUBE IN THE RINGS, then flip the top half and screw this into the clamp on the telescope horizontal and the dec. axis lock loose, slide
of the rings over the tube and screw down the tube. To align it, put a low-magnification the tube back and forth in the rings until the
locking bolts tightly so the tube doesnt slide eyepiece in the main scopes focuser and scope rests flat. Then do the RA axis: with
out. You might need an extra pair of hands find a target on the horizon. Look through the counterweight shaft horizontal, loosen
to help you at this point. Remember, if youve the finderscope and adjust the screws on its the lock and adjust the counterweights until
got a reflector the eyepiece goes at the top! bracket until your target is in its crosshairs. the scope stays put when you let go.
Aligned on the
north celestial pole,
an equatorial mount
makes it easy to
track stars as they
NORTH move from east to
CELESTIAL POLE west through
the night
TOPO
W LAR
AR IS
DS
STAR
RISES
STAR SETS
EQUATORIAL
MOUNTS
PART 2 ALIGNING
The second part of our guide to equatorial mounts
ILLUSTRATIONS STEVE MARSH: PHOTOS PAUL WHITFIELD X 4, ISTOCK
shows you how to align one so that it can track the stars
In Part 1, we looked at setting up an north celestial pole. This is the point the surface of the spinning Earth, it looks
equatorial mount so it would be a solid that the sky appears to rotate around. as though its the night sky that is
and stable platform for holding your Its a notional spot that denotes the rotating around us.
telescope. Now were going to explain point at which our planets axis of
how to make the mount follow, or track, rotation meets celestial sphere, that Pole position
stars and other objects as they move with imaginary ball with the Earth at its Since the sky rotates (or appears to)
the sky as the night hours tick by. centre, onto whose inner surface all around the north celestial pole, the
To do this properly, the equatorial the stars are projected. The sky, in mount also has to be aligned to this
mount has to be polar aligned that fact, only appears to rotate; its actually axis of rotation to track the stars
is its right ascension (RA) or polar axis Earth thats rotating, once every 24 movement. Equatorial mounts are
must be lined up so that it points at the hours. But since were observing from designed specifically to be polar aligned
WHAT TO USE
ALIGNMENT TIME
Four steps to lining up on the north celestial pole
THE POLE STAR
In the northern hemisphere, were lucky

enough to have a fairly bright star sitting
practically at the point that the sky
appears to rotate around: the
north celestial pole. This star
is Polaris, the Pole Star, in
Ursa Minor. Find it and
youll have found true
north. Whats more,
it never shifts from
1. Adjust the mounts altitude setting so that 2. As well as being angled up, the polar that position during
its the same as your local latitude. In the UK, axis needs to be aimed so its highest end the night while
this will be between 58N (John OGroats) points due north. Some mounts have a big everything else in the
and 50N (Lands End). Release the front N at the top of the tripod to show which sky turns around it.
and back bolts and tilt the mount head so side should face north. You can use a Polaris is actually
the pointer lines up with the right number compass to find out which direction is north, 0.7 away from the
on the altitude scale, then do the bolts up but remember that this will show magnetic north celestial pole. This
again. Doing this aligns the mounts right north and we want true north, which is a few tiny offset doesnt matter for
ascension (RA) or polar axis with Earths axis degrees east. At night, find the star Polaris visual observations, but to take astro
of rotation, so that the two are parallel. and line up the polar axis with it. images youll need more accuracy: polar
aligning through a polarscope takes that
0.7 offset into account. Polaris is easy to
find, courtesy of two stars in Ursa Major
known as the Pointers. Simply draw a
line through them and youll end up at
Polaris, as shown below.
DRACO
URSA URSA
MAJOR MINOR
North celestial pole
3. The mount should now be polar aligned. 4. If you need to make any fine adjustments The Pointers
To check that it is, when the stars are out look to get the polar axis aimed at the north Polaris
along the polar axis up at the sky and make celestial pole, use the altitude and azimuth
sure that it is pointing at the star Polaris. This settings. Make altitude adjustments like
kind of visual alignment is fine for making those covered in Step 1. To make azimuth
observations through the eyepiece. But for adjustments, unscrew the two azimuth bolts
more accuracy if you want to take photos to move the mount head and scope left or Find Polaris by drawing a line to
through your scope, for instance youll need right slightly, parallel to the horizon. This is it through the two stars in Ursa
to polar align looking up through a easier than lifting the tripod and the whole Major known as the Pointers
polarscope fitted in the RA axis. setup to aim the scope due north.
if you dont bother, you might as well accurate in your polar alignment. Simply the stars with ease and youll find it
have saved your money and bought a adjust the altitude setting so its the simple to keep objects in your eyepiece
cheaper altazimuth mount. same as your local latitude (find this at for longer. You only need to adjust the RA
When it comes to getting your mounts http://itouchmap.com/latlong.html), then or polar axis with its slow-motion control
polar axis pointing in the right direction, pointing the polar axis north so its lined to do this. Its unlike a camera-type
those of us in the northern hemisphere up on Polaris. If youre intending to do altazimuth mount, which needs its two
have a helping hand because the bright any astrophotography youll need to be axes to be adjusted to track objects. But
star Polaris sits very close to the celestial more accurate, and you should polar remember that even an equatorial mount
pole. This provides an instant marker align using the mounts polarscope. will need both its axes adjusted when you
and the good news is that, for visual Once the mount has been lined up on want to move the scope so that it points
observations, you dont need to be overly the celestial pole, your scope will track at another star.
EQUATORIAL
MOUNTS +20
NORTH
MOVING SCOPE NORTH OR SOUTH
+15
CHANGES DECLINATION
MOVING SCOPE EAST OR WEST

CHANGES RIGHT ASCENSION
+10
ORION
+5
EAST WEST
Line of right ascension
Line of declination 0
SOUTH 5
5h 20m
5h 50m
5h 10m
6h 10m
5h 40m
5h 30m
6h 20m
4h 50m
6h 40m
6h 30m
4h 40m
4h 20m
6h 50m
4h 30m
7h 10m
4h 10m
5h
6h
7h
4h
Declination can be thought of as latitude, and right ascension as longitude, in a sky-wide system of co-ordinates that can pinpoint any object
PART 3 HOW THE MOUNT MOVES

How to move an equatorial mounts axes to keep you on target
In the first two parts of this guide to latitude and longitude; you just imagine sky has dec. and RA co-ordinates, just
equatorial amounts, weve looked at the grid projected onto the starry realm. as every location on earth has a latitude
how to set up your mount so that it will The only difference is that on the celestial and a longitude. By using the dec. and
CHART BY PETE LAWRENCE, PAUL WHITFIELD X 5
do its job properly, making it easy to find sphere, latitude is known as declination RA setting circles on your equatorial
and follow objects out there in space. (or dec. for short) and longitude is known mount, you can point your scope to
A star, planet or nebula can be found as right ascension (or simply RA). find anything in the sky with just these
by using its co-ordinates on the great Both of these systems work in exactly two figures.
imaginary sphere projected onto the the same way as they do for locations Assuming youve already polar-aligned
night sky, with the Earth at its centre on Earth. Declination (latitude) lines your scope as detailed in Part 2, the first
the celestial sphere. run parallel to the equator from east to step to finding that galaxy is to make sure
As we mentioned previously, finding a west, while right ascension (longitude) your right ascension setting circle is set
galaxy in this way is almost identical to lines run up and down, from north to correctly. For this youll need the RA
the way you locate places on Earth using south. Every single object in the night co-ordinates of an easily found bright
WHAT TO USE
WHEN THE TUBE BUMPS THE TRIPOD

To keep track of your quarry as it moves from east to west, you might need to
do a meridian flip heres how to perform this manoeuvre in three steps
DEC. AXIS
RA AXIS
1. If your telescopes tube bumps into the 2. Next, rotate the declination axis so that 3. Youre ready to begin observing again.
tripod as youre tracking an object moving the telescope tube is pointing at the object A meridian flip is often needed on objects
with the night sky, rotate the telescope tube again. You can use the declination axis that are at their highest in the sky, so the
by 180 in right ascension. setting circle to get back to the original spot. tube is pointing straight up.
star, like Vega in the constellation of this is the case, dont worry: simply motion control to keep it in your eyepiece
Lyra. Vegas co-ordinates can be found rotate the RA setting circles dial until as it moves from east to west across the
from a star atlas, or a planetarium the pointer reads the correct co-ordinate. sky. And if you find the occasional
program such as Stellarium. The dec. setting circles dial is fixed in twiddling of the RA slow-motion control
position, so you neednt fret about this a little tedious, you can get a motor to
Head for Vega going out of alignment. Now you can attach to this axis, which will do the
Loosen the locks on both the RA and use the setting circles to find your star, tracking for you automatically.
Dec. axes and move the scope until it is simply by moving the axes so that the As for the declination axis, you dont
more or less visually aligned with the setting circles match the galaxys dec. have to touch that or its slow-motion
star, then use the slow-motion controls and RA co-ordinates. You can use this control until you want to look at a
and your finderscope to zero in on method to locate objects that are below different object. Then you just look up
the target. naked eye visibility, too. the co-ordinates of your next quarry,
Now take a look at the RA setting The beauty of the equatorial mount and move the dec. axis and the RA
circle dial. If this is your first setup, it now comes into play: as you gaze in axis until the setting circle dials give
might not be reading the exact RA wonderment at your star, you only need the right readings.
position that you looked up earlier. If to adjust the RA axis with its slow- So, a well-handled equatorial mount is
pretty much the perfect solution to
hassle-free stargazing. Well, almost; there
is one thing it cant do, and thats track an
object all the way across the sky. There
will come a point when the bottom of the
scopes tube will bump into the tripod
leg, especially if its a long tube. Luckily,
theres an easy trick to get around this
called a meridian flip see above.
Hopefully, if youve read all three parts
of this guide, youve now got a bit more
confidence when it comes to using an
equatorial mount. Astronomers have
been fixing their telescopes on this kind
Adjusting the declination axis moves your Adjusting the right ascension axis moves of mount for almost two centuries; now
telescope in a north-south direction your telescope in an east-west direction you can too.
GO-TO
TELESCOPES
Locate celestial objects at the push of a button
with our guide to using a Go-To telescope
To get an idea of just how much modern
technology has influenced astronomical
observing, take a look at the Go-To
scope. A Go-To is basically an ordinary
telescope, but added to its mount are
motors and a digital map of the night
sky containing tens of thousands of
astronomical objects. All this is stored
in computer circuitry within the
mount and its this, rather than the
scope itself, that is really the Go-To
part of the system. AN EQUATORIAL
Once the Go-To has been correctly GO-TO SCOPE
set up, you simply choose a celestial
object that you want to view by using
the buttons on the handset. Its at GO-TO MOUNT
AND DRIVE
this point the motors kick in and the
whole mechanism whirs and turns The nerve centre
of a Go-To system
around, going to the object youve
includes a digital
chosen, which will eventually appear map of the night sky
in the eyepiece. Sounds pretty
straightforward, dont you think?
Certainly, but theres a reason why
Go-To telescopes come with such a
substantial manual. Before you can
get to the impressive stage of being
driven around the sky to objects youve
selected, you first need to have your POWER
Go-To scope set up correctly. Using a The mounts on equatorial
Go-To is not the straight-out-of-the- Go-Tos need an external
box method of stargazing it might at power source. Altaz Go-To
mounts often take batteries
first appear.
PAUL WHITFIELD X 3, THINKSTOCK, NATIONAL MARITIME MUSEUM/LONDON
CABLE HANDSET
Setting up
Be careful that the You key in destination
There are a few things you need to know
cable doesnt catch details here. The buttons
in order to get a Go-To scope working. in the mechanics, and readout should be
Firstly, not every scope has the same particularly on an illuminated in red to
setup routine, nor are these routines equatorial mount preserve night vision
all as easy to perform as each other.
When deciding on a Go-To scope, TRIPOD
you should do plenty of research to
The tripod needs
avoid buying one that youll never use
to be sturdy and
because its too complicated. level to ensure the
Theres some basic information that Go-Tos readings
the Go-To computer needs to know are accurate
when youre setting it up: your location,
the date and the time. With these details
keyed in to the Go-To, the telescope can
WHAT TO USE
LATITUDE
AND LONGITUDE
If you live in a small town or a rural Britain east of Greenwich, and all of Europe
environment, the computer database in and Australia, have a positive longitude, but
the Go-To handset may not have location dont need a plus sign.
details for your area. In this case youll
need to supply the co-ordinates of your
latitude and longitude. There are plenty of
websites that make it easy to discover these
location details. They often feature a world
map so you can zoom in and click on your
location to find your co-ordinates.
You may need to convert the latitude
and longitude of your location from the
decimal version into hours, minutes and
seconds. A search online for latitude
longitude conversion will bring up
myriad sites that will do this.
Only use the minus sign for latitude if
you are south of the equator, as it means
the southern hemisphere. For longitude,
minus means that the location is west of
Some Go-To scopes the Greenwich Meridian, pictured right,
sit on altaz mounts so this includes all of western Britain,
North and South America. Parts of The Greenwich Meridian marks 0 longitude
correctly orientate the star charts in its

memory. Some Go-To scopes come with THE PROS & CONS
a GPS receiver built-in that helps with
this initialisation procedure. CONS
Now youre ready for alignment. O The database may contain tens of
Firstly, make sure the tripod and thousands of objects, but how many you
telescope are level. If theres any sloping can see will also depend on the scopes
optics and seeing conditions.
ground you havent compensated for, O You need to ensure the battery
the scope will miss its target object. has enough charge for the observing
This is especially true for a Go-To session once a Go-To scope has
on an equatorial mount. With lost its power there is no way to use
scopes like these, you should polar it manually.
align the mount first. The Go-To system O By not manually scanning the heavens,
and with the scope doing all the locating,
will then ask you to centre several
you may miss chance encounters with
alignment stars in the eyepiece. When Light pollution intriguing objects.
caused by artifi
youve done this, youre ready to go. can make it ha cial lighting O You need to set up and align a Go-To
rd to see the sta
Other Go-To scopes are mounted rs correctly each time you head out to
on an altazimuth mount either a observe, in order for it to accurately
single-arm or fork type. With an altaz PROS locate objects. This takes time.
mount, you will need to centre one OIn light-polluted skies, its easier
or two alignment stars in the view. to locate objects that you wouldnt
otherwise be able to find if you were
With either equatorial or altaz Go-
manually star hopping when the stars
Tos, the more stars you align on, the might be washed out.
more accurate the mount will be. This O Go-Tos are good for taking photos that
is a consideration that becomes are free of star trails, as the scope will
particularly important if youre track the movement of the night sky.
planning to do any astrophotography. O If youre planning to show friends
several objects in the night sky, a Go-To
Finally, remember that theres one
is fast and efficient.
essential link in this high-tech chain of O A Go-To database can be updated an eye
technology batteries. Always carry , so keep ck
when new comets or supernovae
ly h av e sockets nt tra
spares, or consider buying a powerpack Dark site
s rare o p es d o
are discovered, so you can find new
b a tt e ri es: flat sc
to ensure you dont run out of power objects quickly and easily. o n yo ur
while observing.
CHOOSING
ACCESSORIES
How to make smart choices when it comes to astronomy add-ons
Eyepieces and filters

are good early
investments; they can
make a huge
difference to your
observing experience
Weve all heard it before: The telescope accessories. Sometimes dismissed as just A good place to start is with the most
is the important bit, right? To some extras, they are often the important essential accessories of them all your
people, it is the thing that makes you an finishing touches that make stargazing eyepieces. Most telescopes are supplied
astronomer and is, as far as they are enjoyable and fulfilling. with one or two, but that is no guarantee
PAUL WHITFIELD X 5, STEVE MARSH
concerned, the be all and end all when it Heres the thing: there are hundreds of their suitability or their quality. Your
comes to stargazing. They are, of course, of accessories available. Once youre eyepieces are as important as your
quite wrong. comfortable with your basic setup telescopes main mirror or lens, as they
A telescope tube is nothing without a and well assume youre happy with take the light gathered by the scope and
suitable mount, tripod and eyepiece at your mount and tripod what do you magnify it for your eye. Poor eyepiece
the very least, and this is just the tip of add next? Do you need to invest in optics could introduce aberrations that
the burgeoning world of astronomical anything at all? deteriorate the view; if you wear glasses,
WHAT TO USE
and back in one piece may prove more

useful. Likewise, portable power packs
for computerised mounts might be
optional if you can simply run an
extension cable from your kitchen, but
they become invaluable when you are
away from home.
Embarrassment of riches
If your interest extends to imaging then
there is an even wider range of accessories
to consider. In addition to a camera and
an adaptor to connect it to your scope,
there are filter wheels to help you switch
filters speedily, autoguiders to help keep
your target centred during long imaging
sessions and dew heaters to keep the view
fog free. These are just a few examples.
Remember that accessories dont have
to attach to the telescope itself. Star
charts, guide books and even smartphone
apps are invaluable if you want to start
star hopping around the night sky with
aplomb and youll be hard pressed to
protect your night vision while reading
Dew shields come into their own on cold nights, while power packs offer extra portability
them without a red light torch. Apps
have an added benefit if you want to
you may want to buy an eyepiece with Filters can help you see more detail travel abroad, in that they weigh nothing
particularly long eye relief to make in night-sky objects, but youll need and, in some cases, can be set to match
observing more comfortable. different ones depending on whether the sky over your location.
you want to pick out the polar caps on Astronomers love to accessorise and
Beyond the essential Mars or the faintest regions of emission it could be said that for every star in
You should pay the same heed to the nebulae. If you live in an urban area that our Galaxy there is an appropriate
other accessories often bundled with new has a lot of street lighting you may find astronomical add on. However, what
telescopes: finderscopes, Barlow lenses that a light pollution filter becomes a this should serve to illustrate is that
and (with refractors and compound greater priority than either, regardless accessories are a vital part of your toolkit,
scopes) star diagonals. But beyond these of what you want to see. and picking the ones that are right for
essential items, what you add to your If you regularly take your scope to a you, your setup and your stargazing goals
astronomy toolkit entirely depends on dark-sky observing site, on the other is worth some careful thought if you want
what you want to achieve. hand, a strong carry case to get it there the best experience.
Just a few of the useful extras for

the budding astronomer. Left to
right: a dew heater, filter wheel,
red light torch and smartphone app
INTRODUCTION
TO EYEPIECES
Eyepieces may be small, but t i o
when it comes to ensuring yo
most from your observing ses o
The importance of eyepieces can take

a long time to realise. To say they can
make or break you as an amateur
astronomer may be going a little
too far, but certainly when you
look through a good eyepiece
for the first time you realise
that what youve been
observing for all those
years could have looked
much clearer. It all comes
down to experience.
Some astronomers are
glad they went through
the years of wrestling with
low-quality eyepieces, as it
gives them an appreciation
of what it takes to see the
night sky properly.
Small refracting telescopes
sold at a reasonable price are
frequently packaged with a metal
tripod, a basic altazimuth mount,
a finder, a couple of eyepieces and
a Barlow lens that will double
their magnification.
The mount often comes with an
eyepiece tray that sits between the tripod JARGON BUSTER
legs and holds the Barlow lens always a
useful feature when observing. As all EXIT PUPIL This is the size is the figure that lets you POWER This is just another
eyepieces are a slightly different length of the image that comes out know how much of the sky name for magnification. A
depending on their power, it becomes of the eyepiece. Ideally it you can see through your telescope just captures the
quite easy to feel which was which in should be close to the size eyepiece. This measurement light it is the eyepiece that
of your dark-adapted pupil is given in degrees. magnifies the image.
the dark when you want to change the
around 5mm to 7mm.
view. And their owners carry out many,
PAUL WHITFIELD X 3, ILLUSTRATIONS BY STEVE MARSH
many happy observing sessions with that EYE RELIEF This tells you
first telescope and its eyepieces. how far your eye must be
Like most that come with small from the eyepiece in order
refractors, or indeed reflectors, the to see the entire field of
view. A bigger distance
eyepieces are not of the greatest quality,
(called longer eye relief) is
but get the job done, especially if you put useful if you wear glasses.
them back into their little boxes after
every observing session and make sure FIELD OF VIEW
they stay scrupulously clean. The last This is sometimes
thing you want to do with these abbreviated to FOV, and
seemingly insignificant, yet important,
WHAT TO USE
HOW AN
EYEPIECE WORKS
PLSSL EYEPIECE
Of the 25 or so types of eyepiece around,
this is the one you will mostly hear about
as its the most common. The internal
construction of two back-to-back convex
and concave lenses, and the quality needed
for the lens elements, makes them fairly
costly to make and buy. Plssls benefit from
a wide field of view (around 52), but eye
relief can be a bit short if the lens has a
An eyepiece sits in a telescopes focuser, held there tightly by a little screw
focal length of 12mm or less.
COATINGS
As light passes through the eyepieces are still good. Try

lenses in your eyepiece, a to avoid eyepieces that are
little bit of it is taken away. described as fully coated
To minimise this loss of or just coated. One way to
light, manufacturers coat test the coatings is to fix a
the lenses with substances black cap on the bottom
BARLOW LENS
like magnesium or calcium of your eyepiece and look
fluoride. The best eyepieces down the barrel in daylight.
will be the ones that say The darker the glass looks, This is not so much an eyepiece, but an
they are fully multi-coated, the less light is lost and the eyepieces friend. A Barlow lens intercepts
though multi-coated better the eyepiece. the light from the telescope before giving
it to an eyepiece. What this lens does is
double or triple the magnification you
things that you pop into the end of your manufactured to an exceptionally high would otherwise get from just an eyepiece
telescope is to get them scratched or standard. Some have multiple glass lenses alone. So, buy your eyepieces carefully and
let a single well-made Barlow effectively
damaged. Failing to do this means youll inside that fit together to give you a
double the number of eyepieces, and
have to replace them sooner, yet this beautifully crafted accessory that will last therefore powers, you have.
could mean realising earlier how much and last. You can pay anything from
you have been missing! around 30 up to 400 for a good
An eyepiece is just as important as eyepiece and an item with that kind of
the scopes main lens or mirror. It takes price tag is something youll definitely
the light thats captured and focused want to look after.
by the scope and magnifies the image The diameter of an eyepiece gives some
that goes into your eye. It sounds indication of how well its built. If the
simple, but the eyepiece needs to do barrel measures just under an inch in
this effectively if youre to get a really diameter (and most eyepieces are
good view. described in imperial units) then its ULTRA-WIDE ANGLE
most likely been given away with one As the name suggests, this provides you
Cost and quality of the cheaper telescopes. But in truth, with an ultra-wide 82 or so field of view,
Another reason to keep your eyepieces neither the telescope nor the eyepiece which is just gigantic. There is are also
in the best possible condition and will be with you for the long-term. Most super-wide variants with around 67
fields of view, but the scene through an
possibly one reason why they are not decent telescopes for beginners have a
ultra is something else. If you took one apart
always a major consideration when 1.25-inch eyepiece barrel; when you get (though this is certainly not recommended)
youre buying observing equipment up to the really good, and expensive, you would find six or seven elements, all
is the cost of replacing them. The stuff, though, its two-inch barrels all coated to provide you with the best
better little cylindrical eyepieces are the way. light-gathering possible.
CHOOSING
AN EYEPIECE
Make sure you get the best view of the night sky by using the right eyepiece
Which is more important: the telescope eyepiece, youll get more detailed views
or the eyepiece? The telescope gets lots of
attention because its the most expensive
of the planets and double stars.
As you progress in astronomy, you
You want a range
and impressive-looking part of your
setup but without decent eyepieces, the
will undoubtedly start to experiment
with the different views that a range
of eyepieces, as
views you get can be disappointing. of eyepieces can offer. So make sure
What you ideally want is a good range you dont underestimate these different focal
of eyepieces, because different focal small, seemingly insignificant bits
lengths are useful for producing better of astro equipment! lengths are useful
views of different kinds of objects. This
is due to the fact that each eyepiece will for producing
have a differing field of view and
magnification, depending on the
telescope used.
better views of
Size matters
different kinds
To find out what
magnification youre
of objects
getting with any
eyepiece takes a very
easy calculation
you simply divide
the focal length of
the telescope, which
is usually printed on a
label on the scope near
the eyepiece end, by the
focal length of the
eyepiece. The focal length
of any decent eyepiece
will be marked in
millimetres around
PAUL WHITFIELD X 4, WWW.SECRETSTUDIO.NET, TELE VUE, STEVE MARSH
its collar. So for

example, to work
out the magnification
of an 800mm focal
length telescope with a
standard 25mm focal
length eyepiece, you
divide 800 by 25, which is
32. This setup will magnify
objects you see in the eyepiece
by a factor of 32.
For wider views of nebulae and
star clusters, this is the kind of
number you will want. With higher
magnifications, maybe with a 10mm
62
WHAT TO USE
KNOW YOUR EYEPIECES

There are four main types of eyepiece; a Barlow will increase their magnification
PLSSL RADIAN NAGLER

Plssls have a wide field of view (around 52), The Radian is one of the The Naglers most
so they can be used successfully for planetary newer types of eyepiece impressive attribute is its
as well as deep-sky viewing. The drawback is on the market. With a huge field of view. While
the short eye relief that becomes an issue with field of view comparable other manufacturers keep
focal lengths of 12mm or less. Eye relief refers to a Plssl, you may their eyepieces within the
to how far your eye must be from the eyepiece wonder what the human eyes 50 field of
in order for you to see the entire field of view. difference is? Well, one is view, Naglers go the extra
The internal construction of a Plssl eyepiece the big eye relief even mile to develop an
consists of two back-to-back lens systems. with focal lengths down to ultra-wide 82 field.
Theres quite a price variation between the 3mm. This is a lifesaver if Imagine the amazing vistas
highest quality examples and those produced you need to wear glasses of star fields and nebulae you
more cheaply. while observing, and very get with that! The design
user-friendly for everyone else. incorporates six or seven
The design suits medium and elements, all coated with special
higher magnifications in order to chemicals to increase the amount of light that
get plenty of detail when looking at the planets. travels through the eyepiece. The downside to
Internally, there are six or seven lens elements some of these eyepieces is their weight, which
that have very short focal lengths. may require you to rebalance your scope.
ORTHOSCOPIC DOUBLE UP WITH A BARLOW LENS

These were the This is a marvellous bit of kit. It isnt actually an
mainstay for many eyepiece, but has optical elements that work
an amateur with an eyepiece to increase the magnification.
astronomer This is achieved by a very simple process: you
until the Plssls basically slot the eyepiece into the Barlow
took over, but lens and the whole contraption gets
Orthoscopics are still popped into where the eyepiece would
good little eyepieces. Theyre made normally go. Depending on the
with a four-element optical system that Barlow, you can double or
provides very good eye relief. The design triple the magnification you
also keeps down the amount of light that is would get from the eyepiece
refracted within the system very effectively. alone. This means that with
The field of view, at only 40 to 45, may one Barlow lens you have
not be as great as a Plssl, but they are effectively doubled the
still pretty good all-rounders. They number of eyepieces and
come in particularly useful for making therefore magnifications that
observations of the Moon and planets. you have at your disposal.
FIELD OF VIEW
These three diagrams show FOV: 27 FOV: 51 FOV: 25

what field of view (FOV) is all
about. Needless to say, the
wider the field of view, the
more of the sky you can see.
The first view of the Moon
shown here is that seen using
just a 25mm eyepiece. In the
next image we take an even
closer look, with a narrower
field of view, by changing to
a 10mm eyepiece. Finally, an
even smaller field of view as
we use a Barlow lens with
the 10mm eyepiece. The FOV
is given in degrees () and 25mm eyepiece 10mm eyepiece 10mm eyepiece and 2x Barlow
arcminutes () above each view. with a 650mm telescope with a 650mm telescope with a 650mm telescope
Filters come in many guises and their effects are just as varied; some can help give you better views of planets, other galaxies and nebulae
UNDERSTANDING These tiny accessories can
FILTERS make a huge difference

to what you can see
If there is one seriously neglected But this is precisely the point of filters:
and underused tool in your they remove the light you dont need
astronomical toolbox, then it and only deliver the wavelengths
surely has to be the filter. These you want for a given situation.
often-colourful discs are Its for this reason that there
available in 1.25-inch or are so many filters out
2-inch sizes and screw there. Some are coloured,
into the barrel of an some are clear, but each
IAN KING IMAGING, PETE LAWRENCE, GREEN-WITCH.COM X 3, TELESCOPE PLANET.CO.UK X 3
eyepiece, the end has a slightly different

that attaches to a effect and is designed
telescope. The with a different
point of filters is purpose in mind.
that they alter how Sometimes the
astronomical effects can be
targets appear. remarkable: there
They work by are, for instance,
stopping filtering filters that can
out some enhance the polar
wavelengths of light caps of Mars and
from passing through reveal the subtle
your telescopes tube, shadings of clouds
changing what you see on the otherwise
through the eyepiece.
This flies in the face of A neutral density filter
conventional astronomical reduces glare from bright
wisdom that every photon counts, objects, which has the
that more light means better views. effect of improving contrast
WHAT TO USE
COLOUR FILTERS
Colour filters are designed for planetary work. They often referred to by their Wratten
number, written in the style #1. This is based on the original Eastman Kodak filter
range, which had 100 shades, although for most astronomical purposes only a few
are required. Among the most useful are:
#8 (Yellow) For cloud bands on Jupiter and Saturn
#25 (Red) For picking out surface detail on Mars and cloud details on Venus
#47 Violet Useful for Venus and enhances the Schrter effect
#58 (Green) For improving red features such as Jupiters Great Red Spot
#80A (Blue) For Martian dust storms and clouds, and the belts of Jupiter
ULTRA-HIGH LIGHT POLLUTION

CONTRAST REDUCTION
Like narrowband filters, ultra-high These are designed to suppress the
contrast filters improve contrast, making specific wavelengths giving the orange
the background sky darker and glow from sodium streetlights, with the
helping deep-sky targets to stand out result that they darken the background
better. They pass both hydrogen-beta sky. This can help you see deep-sky
and oxygen III light, so will improve objects better, particularly nebulae and
your view of a wider range of nebulae galaxies, as they are more easily washed
than any single narrowband filter. out than the planets are.
NARROWBAND NEUTRAL DENSITY/ ANTI-FRINGING

As the name suggests, narrowband filters POLARISING These filters can help you to combat the
cut all but a few select wavelengths of Both of these filter types reduce the glare chromatic effects often seen through
light typically the ones emitted by of bright targets the Moon, Venus, Mars, achromatic refractors, which most
bright emission and planetary nebulae. Saturn and Jupiter. Neutral density filters commonly take the form of noticeable
By blocking the rest, they help to reduce the intensity of all wavelengths, blue or violet halos around bright stars.
improve contrast and so bring out but are particularly favoured for lunar Hence these filters are also sometimes
subtle detail. Typical narrowband filters use. Polarising filters can often be tuned to referred to as minus violet filters. They
include hydrogen-beta and oxygen III. control the amount of dimming they deliver. can be used on any target.
bland disc of Venus. It has to be said, enhanced effect, but bear in mind that filters in particular are often sold in
though, that filters cant perform feats of stacking them in this manner will further sets. If you get to the point that you are
magic. There is still no filter in existence dim the view. using a lot of filters, you may wish to
that acts as a cure-all for poor seeing or If, once you have read up on all the consider another accessory, the filter
poor sky transparency. different types, you decide filters might wheel. Some are motorised, some are
be of use to you, where should you begin? manually operated, but the basic premise
Where to begin Many suggest a neutral density filter is the same they allow you to swap
Most astronomers, whether budding or otherwise known as the Moon filter. filters without having to remove your
experienced, are aware of colour filters, This one simply dims the view, and as eyepiece each time.
which are used for planetary work to such it is great for observing our close Do be aware that all of the filters
tease out hidden details like the ones companion when it is in its dazzling discussed here are intended for night-
already described. But there are many fuller phases. time use only. Under no circumstances
more types, and they can cut down on As always, if you can try before you should they be used to view the Sun,
lunar glare, help to reduce the insipid buy, then do so astronomical society as they will do nothing to mitigate the
orange glow of streetlighting and even events and the larger star parties around dangerous intensity of its light. But, just
block out all light bar one specific the country are both good opportunities as with any other object in the sky, the
wavelength, which can work wonders if to get some hands-on insight into the Suns appearance changes once viewed
you are keen on examining the denizens kinds of changes filters can deliver. through different (certified) filters. See
of the deep sky. We cover all of these in a Once youre committed to making a page 76 for more on observing the Sun,
bit more detail in the box above. Some purchase, be aware that you dont always and never view it without a certified solar
filters can even be used together for an have to buy filters individually: coloured filter in place.
ASTROPHOTOGRAPHY
Making a lasting record of the night skys beauty with your camera is easier than
it sounds you may already own all the equipment you need to do it
Imaging the heavens is a fun and the bright planets and noctilucent operate the shutter remotely and take a
increasingly popular part of modern clouds can all be seen in twilight skies. picture without causing any wobble as
day astronomy, and thanks to advances The most versatile camera for new you press the capture button down. If
in digital cameras its also one thats astro imagers is the DSLR, which can your camera has a time-delay feature,
never been easier or more affordable. take wide-field shots of the sky while which is when it waits for 10 seconds or
With the right kit in hand, it will mounted on a tripod or attached to a so before taking the shot, its just as
provide you with some lasting memories telescope using an adaptor. They have good as a cable release. Turn on the
that will really show what an amazing features useful for astrophotography, timer, press the button, stand back and
Universe we all live in. including wide ISO ranges, interchangeable wait for the shutter to open and close.
There are so many different ways to lenses and a bulb setting that allows you Prosumer and compact cameras
take pictures of the night sky that to hold the shutter open for as long as have come a long way in recent years,
sorting out which method is right for you want. Theyre self-contained, and provided that they offer the ability
you can seem almost as daunting as portable and can show you an image as for you to alter their settings they can
actually taking the images. soon as youve taken it, so you can adjust deliver excellent photos. There are also
Its not as bad as it first seems, though. settings to get the shot just right. more specialist cameras high frame
You dont need expert equipment, or rate and cooled CCD devices, which
even need a standalone camera most Where to begin excel at planetary and deep-sky imaging
likely, the smartphone in your pocket When taking photos with a DSLR in low respectively but they are not ideal
has a camera thats capable of taking a light, your cameras shutter will need to for beginners.
decent photo of the Moon through a stay open for longer than it does in the If you already own a small telescope
telescope eyepiece. daytime to gather the light it needs you can also try the most straightforward
You also dont have to wait for the sky perhaps several seconds. If youre imaging technique, afocal imaging. This
to become completely dark. The Moon, holding the camera by hand, it will be is the technical name for simply pointing
almost impossible not to wobble it a bit you camera down the eyepiece of your
during the exposure, and this will telescope. You can do this with a DSLR,
introduce blur to your photos. To get a point and shoot, or even a smartphone.
around this youll need a steady tripod. The hardest thing is making sure you
Another bit of kit called a cable hold your camera in line with the
release is useful. This allows you to eyepiece and keep your hands steady.
The smartphone in your pocket

likely has a camera thats capable of
taking a decent photo of the Moon
ISTOCK X 2
WHAT TO USE
LEARN HOW TO
CAPTURE THE HEAVENS
Three great starter projects to get you started in astrophotography
PROJECT 1: PROJECT 2: PROJECT 3:

TWILIGHT LANDSCAPE STAR TRAILS AFOCAL MOON SHOT
This is a great way to start your The aim here is to capture the movement Youll need a telescope for this one, but
astrophotography journey. Look for a of the stars over time, showing you that any kind of camera will do even the one
composition that includes a twilight sky, Earth is spinning. As well as a tripod- in your smartphone. Focus it on the Moon,
a low crescent Moon, and maybe even a mounted camera, youll need a remote then hold the camera up to the eyepiece
planet or two. Youll get a better picture if shutter release cable. The camera has to and click away. Getting the angle between
you can frame the shot with some trees or gaze at the heavens for a long time to the camera and the eyepiece right, then
buildings that will silhouette themselves show the movement exposures can be holding it steady, are the trickiest bits.
against the sky. If you have a DSLR, set it to anything from 15 minutes to a few hours. Live view screens make this easier. For the
manual mode so you can vary the results. The longer you leave the camera shutter best results, use an eyepiece with a long
Fix it to your tripod and open the cameras open the longer the star trails will be. On eye-relief, because the camera lens may
lens as wide as it will go. Turn off the such long exposures, any light pollution not be able to get as close to the eyepiece
autofocus, as the low light will cause it to will really show up, so the darker and as your eye and youll miss some of the
hunt back and forth, then manually focus clearer the skies the better. Make sure image. If your camera has a wider field of
at infinity and use different exposure times you include Polaris, the star around view than the eyepiece, you may get some
until you get a pleasing result. which the sky appears to rotate. darkening around the edges of the image.
JARGON BUSTER
EXPOSURE (SHUTTER SPEED) lets less light in, as the full Moon. High ISO
The shutter speed determines how long the but can give a values around 3200 allow you
imaging chip is exposed to light thats been sharper view due photograph faint subjects, but
focused on it by the lens. In long exposures to an increase in with a decrease in quality.
the shutter is open for longer, allowing more focus depth.
light to strike the camera sensor. NOISE
ISO SETTING A random pattern of pixels that
APERTURE (F/NUMBER) (SENSITIVITY) are the wrong colour across your
This controls the amount of light that can The ISO is an international image. Often the result of a high
reach the imaging sensor. The amount of standard for the sensitivity of the sensitivity setting, techniques such
light let in can be expanded or diminished sensor in digital cameras. The as image stacking can be used
with an iris in the lens that determines the lower the ISO, the less to reduce the effect. Modern
f/number. A small f/number, for instance sensitive the camera is to cameras, especially those
f/1.8, gives the widest aperture and lets the light. Low ISOs are typically with larger sensors, suffer
most light in. A large f/number, such as f/8, used for bright targets, such less from noise.
THE MOON
Our planets only natural satellite is home to a wealth of interesting sights for all
kinds of astronomers, and always has something new or interesting to show
The source of our ocean tides, subtle Moon observed in Western tradition, Moon, the proportion of the lit side we
chronobiological cycles and the only the Rabbit pounding rice of East Asian are able to see depends on where the
other world that humankind has so far folklore, or the Lady Reading a Book Moon is in its orbit around Earth, giving
set foot upon, the Moon seems a familiar from the southern hemisphere, to give rise to the phases we see.
and tangible place. A quarter of Earths just three examples. Imagine you are looking down on the
diameter and just a quarter of a million The reason we see the same lunar Earth, Moon and Sun from above. When
miles away, its 100 times closer than features staring back at us is because the the three line up with the Moon in the
Venus. Given its proximity, brightness Moon has a synchronous rotation with middle, the Moons lit half points away
and large apparent size, its easy to see respect to Earth, meaning that spins from us on Earth, producing a new Moon.
why the Moon has enchanted once on its axis in the same 27.3 days Slowly emerging from its new phase into
humankind for centuries. (the sidereal month) it takes to complete the evening sky, the lunar crescent thickens
Pre-telescopic observers noticed an an orbit of our planet. from one day to the next. The term waxing
unchanging pattern of darker patches Its equally obvious that the is used to indicate this thickening phase.
that would later become known as illumination of the Moons Earth-facing The waxing crescent leads to the Moon
maria, or seas, because they were hemisphere changes over the course of appearing as an illuminated semicircle
WOOTON ?
assumed to be vast bodies of water. They the month a word, incidentally, that roughly a week after new.
act as a Rorschach test for different we get from Moon. Although the Sun This is somewhat confusingly called
ISTOCK
PAUL
cultures the face of the Man in the is always shining on a full half of the first quarter, referring to the Moons >
WHAT TO SEE: SOLAR SYSTEM
position in its 29.5-day orbit rather than phase. The Moon takes the appearance of novice observers is the variation it holds.
proportion of its disc is illuminated from a semicircle once again, although its the Though the same hemisphere faces Earth
our vantage point on Earth. The bulging opposite half that is illuminated than that at all times, what you can see on the
phases after first quarter are known as at first quarter. After this, it takes Moon changes from night to night.
waxing gibbous. These increase in size approximately a week for the Moon to You may be forgiven for thinking that
until, roughly two weeks after new, the go through its waning crescent phases, full Moon is the best time to examine
Moon is on the opposite side of its orbit visible in the early morning sky, before our close companion not so. While this
from the Sun and appears fully lit as a it once again becomes new again. It is a good time to see the long, bright rays
full Moon. The point of new and full takes 29.5 days for the Moon to return of ejecta surrounding prominent craters
Moon, when our planet, satellite and star to complete this cycle of phases or such as Tycho, the high altitude of the
are aligned, is known as a syzygy. lunation, slightly longer than it does Sun in the lunar sky means no shadows
After full Moon the phases reverse, and to complete an Earth orbit. This is are cast, resulting in a washed-out view
the illuminated part of the Moon begins known as a synodic month. of the Moon.
to shrink or wane. After passing through The Moon is the ideal place to begin In general, the best time to view a given
the waning gibbous phases, the Moon your observing odyssey because it is lunar feature is when the terminator, the
reaches the three-quarter point of its big, bright and covered with amazing demarcating line that separates lunar
orbit, giving rise to the last quarter detail. But the thing that surprises most day and night, is nearby. This is the
THE MOONS PHASES

The Moons appearance changes because of its relative position to Earth and the Sun
FIRST QUARTER
SUNLIGHT
WAXING GIBBOUS WAXING CRESCENT

ILLUSTRATION STEVE MARSH, PHOTO LARRY LANDON/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY
FULL MOON NEW MOON
WANING GIBBOUS WANING CRESCENT
LAST QUARTER
region where the Sun is either rising or

setting, where crater rims and mountain
EARTHSHINE
peaks stand out in stark relief, casting
inky black shadows across the lunar
surface that exaggerate their presence.
Those further from the terminator
show hardly any shadows and are harder
to make out.
At day zero of the lunar cycle new
Moon the whole of the dark lunar
hemisphere points towards Earth. Over
the next 15 days the terminator slowly
creeps across the lunar surface from east
to west until the disc is fully illuminated
at full Moon. Then the tables are reversed
as the encroaching darkened hemisphere
heads west with each passing day, until
the diminishing crescent becomes lost in
the pre-dawn twilight.
Moonrock and roll

The nature of the Moons orbit generates
another effect that is a boon to lunar
observers, a rocking and rolling motion
that we call libration. The Moons orbit
is elliptical, and as a result its distance
from Earth does not remain constant.
When closest it speeds up slightly;
when more distant it slows down. This
small variation is enough to cause the
Moon to nod back and forth on its
axis, giving us an occasional chance
to see a little more around its eastern
and western edges.
The Moon is not solely lit possible to see its dark known as earthshine. Our
The orbit is also slightly inclined, and
by sunlight. When it is in portion gently glowing due planet actually reflects
this causes it to sometimes appear above a slender crescent phase to sunlight reflected off the more light onto the lunar
the Earths orbital plane and sometimes in the evening or dawn oceans and clouds of surface than the Moon
below. This gives us an opportunity to twilight, its sometimes planet Earth. This effect is gives us when it is full.
peek over the top, and under the bottom,
of the Moon over time. Taken together,
this libration allows us to see a total of tantalising features normally hidden closer and give you opportunity to roam
59 per cent of the Moons globe, revealing from our view. around the lunar landscape.
With the naked eye its easy to see the The view you have of the Moon
progression of lunar phases, full disc through a telescope will differ from
LUNAR LINGO effects such as earthshine and the major what you see with the naked eye or
lunar seas. Binoculars increase the detail binoculars depending on its optical
The Moons features have Latin youll see: as well as dark seas, youll now arrangement. Through a refractor or
names here's what they mean be able to spot individual craters and compound instrument, the Moon will
large mountain ranges, especially close to appear flipped west to east, while through
Catena .................... Crater chain the terminator. The smallest craters youll a reflector the image will be inverted.
Dorsum (pl. Dorsa)... Mare ridge
be able to pick out will depend on how With a telescope you may also notice
Lacus....................... Lake
Mare (pl. Maria) ...... Sea
still you can hold your binoculars, but a the surface appears to gently wobble or
Mons ...................... Mountain pair of 7x50s should comfortably reveal sometimes even shimmer. This effect
Montes .................... Mountain range features down to about 50km across. is caused by air moving through the
Oceanus ................. Ocean A telescopic view of the Moon is atmosphere of our planet, and the greater
Palus ....................... Marsh amazing and one that never gets old. At the turbulence the worse the views.
Promontorium .......... Cape
low magnifications, the amount of detail The seeing can vary from minute to
Rima (pl. Rimae) ...... Fissure
Rupes ...................... Escarpment
visible is breath-taking, especially close minute and night to night. The best views
Sinus ....................... Bay to the terminator where relief shadows will always be when conditions are steady
Terre (pl. Terrae) ...... Highland really help to emphasise the detail. and the undulations are less intense; poor
Vallis ....................... Valley Upping magnification by using shorter seeing, on the other hand, results in loss
focal length eyepieces will get you in of detail and fuzzy lunar features.
TOP TEN
MOON SIGHTS
Our celestial neighbour has enough to keep astronomers busy for
a lifetime, but here are 10 highlights to get you started
9
5
1
3
2
OLIVER SCHNEIDER/CCDGUIDE.COM, MICHAEL KARRER/CCDGUIDE.COM X3, NASA, STEVE MARSH X 5
10
8
2 CRATER GRIMALDI 3 CRATER COPERNICUS

EQUIPMENT: BINOCULARS EQUIPMENT: SMALL SCOPE
Visible to the naked eye, this At the heart of a huge system
dark, 173km-wide basin reveals of bright rays that spread for
lots of detail through binoculars hundreds of kilometres, this
and telescopes, including eroded 93km-wide crater has a
walls, ridges and low hills. distinctive terraced rim.
1 HADLEY RILLE
EQUIPMENT: LARGE SCOPE
Famous as one of the features explored by the Apollo 15 astronauts,
Hadley Rille is also a great target to look for with a large telescope.
Under suitable illumination it appears as a little meandering black
line near the northern end of the lunar Apennines.
6 THE VALLIS ALPES

EQUIPMENT: SMALL SCOPE
Cutting through the lunar Alps, the 130km-long Vallis Alpes is one
of the most interesting features on the Moons surface. This valley
can be spotted with even a small telescope.
4 CRATER PLATO 5 THE LUNAR

EQUIPMENT: SMALL SCOPE APENNINES
This beautiful 109km-wide crater EQUIPMENT: SMALL SCOPE
lies nestled among the jagged The Apennines mountain range
landscape near the northern stretches over 900km across the
edge of the Mare Imbrium. It lunar surface. It is particularly
has a smooth floor and is striking when lit from the side 7 CRATER GASSENDI 8 RUPES RECTA
surrounded by interesting when the peaks cast huge, EQUIPMENT: SMALL SCOPE EQUIPMENT: SMALL SCOPE
features, including Rima Plato inky black shadows onto the
A fascinating 110km crater on Best known as the Straight Wall,
and the Montes Teneriffe. surrounding landscape.
the northern edge of the Mare this 110km-long fault reaches
Humorum. Under the right light, over 270m above the lunar
youll be able to see a superb surface. Look for a thin black
network of rilles on its floor. line near to crater Birt.
9 MARE CRISIUM
EQUIPMENT: BINOCULARS
10 CRATERS PTOLEMAEUS, ALPHONSUS
This 620x570km lunar sea is one of the most distinctive features
on the Moon. Located close to the eastern limb, its clearly visible AND ARZACHEL
to the naked eye as a dark oval patch. Unlike the other seas, the EQUIPMENT: SMALL SCOPE
Mare Crisium is completely detached. Its dark, smooth-looking These three imposing craters sit close to the centre of the Moons
floor has a higher boundary that shows fantastic shadows as the near side. The largest of them, Ptolemaeus, has a smooth floor
terminator approaches and crosses the sea. that is pockmarked with lots more tiny craters.
THE SUN
Its possible to see the amazingly
HYD
RO GEN A
LPHA*
dynamic nature of our nearest star

in white light and hydrogen alpha*
*A hydrogen-alpha filter makes the Suns disc appear slightly larger than
a white light one because it reveals the chromosphere, which sits on top of
photosphere. Only the photosphere is visible through a white light filter.
WARNING
Do not look directly
at the Sun with the
naked eye or any
unfiltered optical
instruments
ACTIVE REGIONS
Sunspot groups, or active regions, take on a whole new
appearance in hydrogen alpha. Dark sunspots become harder
to see, partially hidden under the surrounding chromospheric
blanket. Around them, dark fibrils follow the intense magnetic
fields associated with these regions. Large, bright areas called
plage appear throughout and around sunspot groups.
SPICULES
The edge of the Suns disc seems
to have a thin skin running around
it. This is a cross-section of the
chromosphere. Under good seeing
you can make out that its made
up of tiny jets known as spicules.
Together, they make the edge of
the Sun appear furry.
PROMINENCES AND FILAMENTS

Giant clouds of magnetically influenced hydrogen plasma can often be
seen hanging off the edge of the Sun through a hydrogen-alpha filter.
Known as prominences, these can change appearance day-to-day or, in
extreme circumstances, real time. When seen against the chromosphere
away from the limb, they appear dark and are known as filaments.
DYNAMIC BRIGHTENING
Active regions may also show dynamic bright
regions. Tiny star-like points of light called
Ellerman Bombs may come and go, each releasing
the same energy as several million atomic bombs.
Larger ribbons of light called flares are associated
with magnetic reconnection events, which may
ALL PICTURES: PETE LAWRENCE
throw out huge clouds of charged particles known

as coronal mass ejections.
DARK MOTTLING
A hydrogen-alpha filter shows the Suns inner layer of atmosphere, known as the
chromosphere, which sits on top of the photosphere. This is covered in a coarse,
magnetically influenced light and dark pattern collectively known as dark mottling. The
pattern is visible across the entire disc and makes the Sun resemble a giant orange.
WAYS TO OBSERVE
WHITE From DIY to precision
LI GHT
engineering, you can
view the Sun in safety
PROJECTION
Solar projection is
suitable for small
refractors. The
idea is to point the
scope at the Sun
and place a
SUNSPOTS screen, typically
Sunspots appear dark against a piece of white
the photosphere, often card, behind
occurring in groups known the telescopes
as active regions. A eyepiece. This
typical sunspot shows method can show solar granulation, dark
a dark inner core sunspots and bright faculae.
called the umbra, and
a lighter surrounding
region called the WHITE LIGHT SOLAR FILTER
penumbra. Sunspots An inexpensive
appear dark sheet of white
because they are light solar safety
cooler than the material can easily
surrounding be fashioned into
photosphere. a filter for use
with any type or
size of amateur
telescope. Its
FACULAE available in A4
The limb- sheets, and allows
darkened you to view and image granulation, sunspot
edge of the groups and faculae.
Suns disc
provides PST
excellent contrast
for viewing An entry level
faculae. These hydrogen-alpha
are magnetically scope such as the
affected regions Coronado PST
where the Suns will set you back
surface becomes around 800.
more transparent, This instrument
allowing you to see is able to show
into the deeper, hotter prominences, dark
areas below. mottles, filaments
and many of the
bright phenomena associated with active
regions, such as plage and flares.
LIMB DARKENING
When the Suns disc is viewed
through a white light filter, the centre H-ALPHA SCOPES
appears brighter than the edge. This AND FILTERS
is called limb darkening, and occurs
For finer detail,
because at the centre of the disc you can
larger aperture,
see deeper into hotter, brighter layers.
narrower
bandwidth
hydrogen-alpha
scopes are
available, typically
GRANULATION for several thousand
The Suns visible surface, or photosphere, to tens of thousands
is covered in a fine pattern called solar of pounds. Solar
granulation. This can be tricky to see and hydrogen-alpha
image as its easily hidden by poor seeing. filter kits in a
Granulation represents the tops of huge rising similar price range can also be used to
convective cells reaching the photosphere. convert night-time telescopes.
The ancient Chinese thought

that total solar eclipses were
the Sun being eaten by a
dragon now we know better
SOLAR AND
LUNAR ECLIPSES
Eclipses are eerily beautiful events involving the Sun, Earth and
the Moon and the result of a piece amazing cosmic good luck
When most people think of an eclipse, varying magnitude, depending on their eclipses happen during this time, they
ISTOCK, STEVE MARSH, DETLEV VAN RAVENSWAAY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY
they think of totality, the apex of a distance from it. Some parts of the Earth are annular instead of total: a thin ring
total solar eclipse, where the Sun, are so far from the track that they wont of solar disc remains visible around the
Moon and Earth are in perfect alignment see an eclipse at all. edge of the Moons silhouette, and this
and the Moon completely covers the That total solar eclipses can happen can be just as beautiful as totality.
Sun. Even here, the Suns light doesnt at all is the result of a fantastic cosmic There are also extremely rare hybrid
completely disappear. With the central coincidence the Moon is both 400 times eclipses, which transition from total
brightness gone, its possible to see the smaller than the Sun and 400 times closer to annular mid-event.
beautiful arcing curves of the Suns to us, so they appear to be the same size
corona, while Earth is plunged into a in the sky. Most of the time, at least. Align in the sky
false twilight. The Moons orbit around the Earth is We know solar eclipses occur when the
Totality can only be seen if you happen not a perfect circle, which causes the Sun, Moon and Earth line up in the sky.
to be along a narrow corridor on the Moons apparent size to change over Why then, dont we see eclipses every
Earths surface, known as the path of the course of each month by 14 per month at new Moon? Its because the
totality. Observers situated away from cent. When the Moon appears smallest Moons orbit is inclined by 5.3 to the
this track will see a partial eclipse of it no longer fills the Suns disc. When ecliptic, the plane in which Earth orbits
THE PHASES OF SOLAR ECLIPSE (SUN-MOON-EARTH)

A SOLAR ECLIPSE
FIRST CONTACT
The point at which the Moon first UMBRA
touches the solar disc, marking the
beginning of the eclipse
SECOND CONTACT
The moment the Moon is fully within the
solar disc, marking the start of annularity
or totality. Partial eclipses do not have
second or third contacts
GREATEST ECLIPSE PENUMBRA

The point of totality or annularity
THIRD CONTACT
The instant the lunar disc touches the other Totality is only visible on the parts
side of the solar disc, ending totality/ of Earth under the Moons umbral
annularity and marking the start of egress shadow; areas under the penumbral
shadow see a partial eclipse
FOURTH CONTACT
The point when the edge of the Moons
trailing edge breaks contact with the
solar disc, ending the eclipse LUNAR ECLIPSE (SUN-EARTH-MOON)
UMBRA
the Sun. That means that even if the
Earth, Moon and Sun are aligned in a
straight line as seen from above (known
as a syzygy), the Moon may be too high
above or too low below the orbital plane
to block the Suns light.
While every eclipse is partial
Only sunlight refracted by Earths
somewhere on the planet, there are some
atmosphere reaches the Moon PENUMBRA
during which the darkest part of the when it is in the umbral shadow
Moons shadow misses the Earth,
meaning there is no totality anywhere on
the planet. This happened on 23 October sunlight shines directly on the Moon, the sunlights path. The eclipse in 1884,
2014, when there was a partial eclipse that but some is refracted onto it via Earths after the huge volcanic eruption of
could be seen from North America but atmosphere. As our atmosphere filters Krakatoa, was so dark that the Moon
in order to see totality you would have out blue light, the Moon often gains a could only just be made out, such was
had to have been several hundred strange orange-brown colour. the amount of dust in the atmosphere.
kilometres above the north pole. As the Moon goes into eclipse and There are two other types of lunar
dims, the sky gets darker too. You may eclipse: partial, where only a portion
Like Sun, like Moon not have realised how bright a full of the Moon passes through Earths
Just as the Sun experiences eclipses, so Moon can be. It lights up the sky around dark umbral shadow, and penumbral,
does the Moon. Lunar eclipses, where the it with a blue haze, out of which only where part of the Moon only passes
Moon passes into Earths shadow, are the brighter stars are visible. During a through the lighter, outer shadow.
more relaxed affairs than their solar total lunar eclipse, the darker Moon Partial eclipses can be quite noticeable,
counterparts, typically lasting for over means that the fainter stars can come but penumbral eclipses often only cause
an hour rather than a matter of minutes. out and we end up with the eerie sight a slight dimming.
The intensity of a lunar eclipse of a deep-red Moon surrounded by Lunar eclipses can be observed
depends on how much of the Moon twinkling stars. without optical aids. For solar eclipses,
passes into the Earths shadow, and How dark the Moon gets during a you always need to use equipment
which part of the shadow it passes total lunar eclipse is described by the with certified filters, or project the
through from your viewpoint the Danjon Scale, which runs from L0 event onto a piece of card. The one
darker umbra or lighter penumbra. through to L4. As the Moon is only exception is during the brief window
During a total lunar eclipse, the entire lit by light that has passed through of totality during a total solar eclipse.
Moon passes through the penumbra and Earths atmosphere, its precise colour This is the only time it is safe to look
into the umbra, gradually darkening and darkness will depend on how directly at the Sun, and then only for a
until it is completely covered, a point much dust, volcanic ash and water moment. The simple rule is: if youre not
known as totality. During totality no vapour is in the atmosphere to affect absolutely sure about safety, dont do it.
THE PLANETS
Our Solar System neighbours are popular targets for astronomers
NEPTUNE
The number of planets has changed stronger its pull of gravity and the faster farthest angular distance from the
over the years. Currently there are it has to move to keep from being pulled Sun, a position astronomers call
eight bodies recognised as planets and into solar destruction. elongation. At these times, the planets
five as dwarf planets, including Pluto, All this speed, or lack of it, affects how are only half lit by the Sun, but after
Eris and Ceres. Pluto lost its planetary a planet moves across the night sky as this they swing back into the solar
status in 2006, after other similar (and seen from Earths surface. Whereas glare, where they become less visible.
some larger) objects were found where Saturn crawls around the sky, barely When Mercury and Venus are at
it orbits. To meet todays definition of a moving among the stars, Mercurys fast eastern elongation, they set after
planet, as well as being rounded by its pace means it shifts considerably day by the Sun in the evening; at western
own gravity and in orbit round the day. This is what the gravity of the Sun elongation they rise before the Sun in
Sun, a body has to have cleared its does, but theres also its light to consider. the morning. The Sun interferes with
orbit of other objects its size, which We only see the planets because the Sun our views of the inferior planets twice
Pluto hasnt done. lights them up. Their brightness is due during their orbits: when they all line
All the planets move in the same to many things, including their actual up, the two points being known as
anticlockwise direction around the distance from the Sun, the distance inferior and superior conjunction.
Sun, if we take Earths north pole as they are from your eye, and their size, The planets further out from Earth
DETLEV VAN RAVENSWAAY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY, PAUL WOOTTON X 2
an arbitrary reference of up. The composition and colour. are called superior planets. These
Suns gravity well is immense dont present the same problems for
imagine a great bowling ball creating Mercury rising observers as Mercury and Venus in
a dip in a trampoline. The planets are Because Mercury and Venus are closer to that they can be visible all night long.
like marbles rolling along inside this the Sun than Earth, they are known as When any of them line up with Earth
dip around the bowling ball Sun. the inferior planets. The best time to on the far side of the Sun, it is said to
The closer they are to the Sun, the observe them is when they are at their be in conjunction. The best time to
observe the superior planets is when
The Suns gravity well is immense they are close to Earth. This happens at
opposition, when the planet is on
imagine a great bowling ball the opposite side of the sky to the
Sun, so we are presented with a fully
illuminated disc: visually its close to
creating a dip in a trampoline or at its biggest and brightest.
MARS
EARTH
VENUS
MERCURY
URANUS
SATURN
JUPITER
ASTEROID BELT
INFERIOR PLANETS SUPERIOR PLANETS
SUPERIOR CONJUNCTION
CONJUNCTION
EASTERN WESTERN
ELONGATION ELONGATION
INFERIOR
CONJUNCTION
SUN SUN
EARTH
OPPOSITION
EARTH
THE ROCKY
PLANETS
MERCURY
Diameter: 4,880km Moons: 0 Distance from Sun: 58 million km
The closest planet to the Sun, Mercury is a

place of extremes. It is the smallest and densest
planet in the Solar System, barely larger than
our Moon. It takes 59 Earth days to rotate
once, and 88 to orbit the Sun, meaning its
parched surface experiences temperatures hot
enough to melt lead on the sunward side, but
is sub-Antarctic on the side in shadow.
This small world is a real challenge to
observe for a variety of reasons. Its a fast
mover, travelling around the Sun four times
more quickly than Earth, so dont expect it to
hang about in any part of the sky for very long. Mercurys orbit is a fairly eccentric
oval shape, and its on a bit of a tilt too, which means some times are better for
viewing it than others: spring evenings and autumn mornings. If thats not tricky
enough, you only have a relatively short observation window on any day you
choose to look, as Mercury never strays very far from the Sun.
In spring, start looking 30 minutes after sunset, after which youll have about
another 45 minutes to see it. Autumn gives you a longer view, from about an hour
and 45 minutes before sunrise, but that does mean getting up exceedingly early.
MARK GARLICK/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY, NASA/JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY APPLIED PHYSICS LABORATORY/CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON,
JACQUES DESCLOITRES MODIS RAPID RESPONSE TEAM NASA/GSFC, NASA/JPL, NASA/JPL-CALTECH/CORNELL/ASU, NASA/ESA
DWARF PLANETS Diameter range: 975km to 2,330km

A dwarf planet is, according to the International Astronomical Union, a
body that orbits the Sun (and is not a satellite), is spherical in shape (due
to its own gravity), and is too small to have cleared its orbit of debris and
so warrant being called a fully fledged planet. This classification was
agreed after the 2005 discovery of Eris, an icy body in the outer Solar
System very similar to Pluto, which was then considered a planet. In the
fierce debate that followed Pluto was demoted into the newly created
class, which also contains outer Solar System bodies Haumea and
Makemake, and Ceres (pictured right) in the Asteroid Belt.
Ceres is the largest, but still comparatively small, so you will need
binoculars to find it. Pluto is best seen by taking images of the region of
sky it is in over consecutive nights and looking for the faint moving dot.
VENUS
Diameter: 12,100km Moons: 0
Distance from Sun: 108 million km
Venus is sometimes called

Earths twin occasionally
its evil twin. It is similar in
size and composition to our
planet, but a dense carbon
dioxide atmosphere and
sulphuric acid clouds make
its surface a hellish 470C.
The planet spins slowly, in
the opposite direction to
most planets, and takes
about the same time to
rotate on its axis (243 Earth
days) as it does to travel around the Sun (225 days).
Because Venuss orbit is slower than Mercurys, it can be visible for
months on end, and sometimes for up to three hours after sunset or
before sunrise. When Venus is at its brightest, it becomes the
third-brightest object in the sky, only beaten by the Moon and the
Sun. This is caused by sunlight reflecting off its bright white carbon-
dioxide clouds, and has led to Venus being called the Evening Star
or Morning Star depending on when it appears. Venus can come
very close to Earth, plus its rather big, meaning that its a good target
for binoculars, through which you can easily see its larger phases.
MARS
Diameter: 6,800km Moons: 2 Distance from Sun: 228 million km
The Red Planet is the most visited extraterrestrial destination in the Solar System.
Dozens of missions have ventured there, and they have explored the Martian
landscape in incredible detail. Smaller than Earth but with the same land area,
Mars is reminiscent of a cold rocky desert, littered by canyons and volcanoes. The
planet has polar caps and a thin atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide. Although
dry today, Marss mineral salts and rock formations suggest that it was wet in the
past, and could possibly have harboured life.
Marss differs from Mercury and Venus in that its position in the Solar System
on the other side of Earth means it can be up from sunset until sunrise. A small
telescope can reveal lighter, pale-reddish areas, the bright white of the ice caps, and
darker patches, which it used to be thought were Martian cities.
THE GAS AND ICE
GIANTS
URANUS Diameter: 51,000km Moons: 27 Distance from Sun: 2.87 billion km
The first planet to be discovered with a telescope, found by
William Herschel in 1781. Its blue-green hue comes from the
abundance of methane ices in its hydrogen and helium
atmosphere, which also contains water and ammonia ices. Like
Venus, Uranus spins from east to west, but its axis of rotation is
tilted almost 90 from the plane of its orbit, suggesting that it
might have been knocked over by a collision. Five rings were
discovered in 1977; in 1986 the Voyager spacecraft identified a
further six, and two more were found by the Hubble Space
Telescope in 2005, bringing the total to 13.
Visually, Uranus doesnt have much going for it, whether you
use your eyes, a pair of binoculars or a telescope. By simply
turning your head upwards, you can just about see this gaseous
world as a very faint star at the limits of visibility (around mag. +5.6). You wont see much from anywhere
with light pollution, however the sky has to be very black indeed. The view does improve a little through a
telescope, showing a greenish speck.
INSTITUTE X 2, NASA/JPL, NASA/ESA/AND E KARKOSCHKA (UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA)
MARK GARLICK/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY, NASA/JPL/STSCI, NASA/JPL/SPACE SCIENCE
NEPTUNE Diameter: 49,500km Moons: 13 Distance from Sun: 4.5 billion km

Neptunes composition is similar to that of Uranus, being mainly
hydrogen and helium with methane-ices, water-ices and ammonia-
ices mixed in. But unlike featureless Uranus, Neptune is wracked by
stormy weather, with giant tempests boiling among the clouds. Its
winds are the fastest in the Solar System, reaching an incredible
600m/s. Neptune has six known rings. They appear to have bright
clumps within them, which may be short-lived collections of debris.
At around mag. +8.0 you need at least binoculars to see
Neptune, and there isnt much else to say. Even when looked at
through a telescope it looks like a star with a hint of blue, but it
is not as spectacular as its larger, closer compatriots. If you have a
very large scope you can also catch a glimpse of Neptunes largest
moon, Triton, which is mag. +13.5.
SATURN JUPITER
Diameter: 120,500km Moons: 62 Diameter: 143,000km Moons: 67
Distance from Sun: 1.43 billion km Distance from Sun: 778 million km
Saturn is known for its spectacular rings, made from The largest planet in the Solar System, Jupiter
millions of chunks of water-ice spread out into a thin has more mass than all of the other planets put
disc only a few tens of metres thick but stretching together and is second only to the Sun in terms
100,000km from the planets surface. The rings of gravitational power. In 1994 it enticed comet
form bands, some broad, some narrow. Scores of Shoemaker-Levy 9 to fragment and crash into its
moons orbit within the rings, some carving out wide swirling clouds; other likely comet crashes were
gaps. As with Jupiter, a handful of them are visible recorded in 2009 and 2010. Jupiter is mostly gas,
to amateur observers. its composition of hydrogen and helium similar to
Saturns brightness varies due to the way the rings that of the Sun.
are tilted and how much sunlight they reflect. The With a good pair of binoculars the first things
planet is not so bright when the rings are edge-on youll notice are its four most famous moons:
to us, but its brightness increases over 7.5 years as Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto, spied by
the rings open up to observers on Earth. Then it Galileo Galilei in 1610. With a telescope
fades again over the same period. If youre youll see a slightly squashed sphere. This
wondering why this takes 7.5 years, its a quarter is due to its fast spinning day of just under
of the time Saturn takes to go around the Sun. 10 hours, which causes the equator to bulge
The best way of understanding Saturns tilting outwards and the poles to flatten. Jupiters
effect is to go out and look at the planet it really cloudy atmosphere will be revealed as dark
is one of the telescopic marvels of the Solar System. bands separated by white zones. The longer
It doesnt matter if you have a small scope: the sight you look, the more features appear, so keep
of a world surrounded by rings is amazing. The view an eye out for spots, wisps and kinks. The most
of this tiny ringed world hanging in a large, inky famous feature is, of course, the Great Red Spot,
black field of view is magical. Larger scopes will start a storm that changes shape, size and colour over
to show detail in the rings and on the planet. time, often appearing quite greyish.
THE MOONS
OF JUPITER
AND SATURN
The two huge gas giants are home to a staggering number of natural satellites
Jupiter is grandiose in all respects. Not

only is it the largest of the planets it
would take 1,321 Earths to fill the
JUPITERS FAMOUS
volume of Jupiter its also more than
likely that it keeps the largest entourage GALILEAN MOONS
of moons. There are 67 that we known
of, and though many of which are fairly
small and cant be observed from Earth, IO
the biggest four are easy to spot with just Diameter: 3,640km
a small pair of binoculars. The tremendous gravitational pull of Jupiter on this innermost
of the four Galilean moons, together with its closeness to the
These are Io, Europa, Ganymede and planet, means Io whizzes round Jupiter in just 1.75 Earth days.
Callisto: the Galilean moons, so named This fast orbital speed is easily seen in a small telescope: it
because they were spotted by Galileo in visibly shifts position in just a few hours.
the early 17th century.
A minimum size pair for spotting these
four moons would be 7x50s, which
magnify what your eyes see seven times
and have front lenses that are 50mm in EUROPA
Diameter: 3,140km
diameter. Your view will be much
The second Galilean moon out from Jupiter, Europa should
improved by resting the binoculars on theoretically be visible with the naked eye as it shines at mag.
a wall or fence, or even attaching them +5.3. But Jupiters overwhelming brightness means its difficult
to a tripod with an inexpensive bracket. to separate moon from planet. Europas brightness is due to
Through a 3- to 6-inch telescope the its smooth, icy surface, with perhaps an ocean underneath.
moons will appear brighter and fill more
of the field of view. Dont worry if you
dont see all four: as the moons travel
around the planet they may be behind or GANYMEDE
in front of Jupiter when youre looking. Diameter: 5,260km
Its by using a larger scope with a front The third major moon out from the planet is not only Jupiters
lens over 6 inches that you start to see biggest, its also the largest moon in the entire Solar System
detail on the planet itself, and this but only by a whisker. This is a world with a cold ice surface,
a large warm ice (possibly water) mantle, a rocky interior
includes the occasional shadow cast and a liquid iron core.
by the Galilean moons.
NASA / JPL CALTECH X 9, PETE LAWRENCE X 2
Moon with a view

Fellow gas giant Saturn has 62 known
moons, but only seven are visible. Due CALLISTO
Diameter: 4,820km
to its sheer size, the easiest of Saturns
The last of the four giant Galilean satellites is Callisto. It is the
satellites to see is Titan. This moon third largest moon in the Solar System, after Titan, the biggest
has a diameter of 5,150km, which of Saturns moons. Callistos entire icy, ancient surface is
makes it bigger than the planet Mercury. covered with impact craters that date right back to the time
In the moon rankings, its the second of the early Solar System.
largest in the Solar System, only beaten
SATURNS BEST MOONS TO OBSERVE
TITAN RHEA IAPETUS DIONE TETHYS

Diameter: 5,152km Diameter: 1,528km Diameter: 1,469km Diameter: 1,123km Diameter: 1,060km
The largest of The second largest This is the third This moon orbits This moon orbits
Saturns moons has moon of Saturn, largest and most up to 1.5 ring about one ring
a 16-day orbit. At ninth largest in the distant of the main diameters from diameter away from
its farthest, youll Solar System, and moons of Saturn. Saturn over 2.7 the planet and takes
find it about five currently the 20th Its 79-day orbit, days. Its visual 1.9 days to do so. It
of Saturns ring catalogued in which is the most magnitude of +10.4 has a magnitude of
diameters from the distance out from inclined of the inner makes it visible on +10.3 and so can
planet, mag. +8.4 the planet. It makes satellites, takes it out dark nights with a be seen in a 3-inch
at its brightest, an orbit in 4.5 days, to 12 ring diameters 3-inch refractor. This refractor. Tethys has
which makes it reaching just under from the planet. The is the densest of the a great canyon that
visible in good two ring diameters visual magnitude moons, meaning it stretches three-
binoculars. Titan from Saturn. It is ranges from +10.1 may have a large quarters of the way
makes up over 96 mag. +9.7, making to +11.9, so Iapetus rocky core. Helene round the moon,
per cent of the Rhea an easy needs about a and Polydeuces, and two co-orbital
mass of everything target for a 3-inch 6-inch scope to two smaller moons, moons, Telesto
orbiting the planet. refractor telescope. see it at its darkest. share its orbit. and Calypso.
GANYMEDE
EUROPA MIMAS
DIONE TITAN
ENCELADUS
IO TETHYS
CALLISTO RHEA
Jupiters four Galilean moons can be seen in a telescope or binoculars Saturn, being farther away than Jupiter, needs more magnification
by Jupiters Ganymede. Its also the only Enceladus at mag. +11.8 and then correctly, that this was because the
moon with a substantial atmosphere. quirky Iapetus. moon has one very bright hemisphere
When youre gazing at it through your The unusual nature of this last moon and one very dark one, and is also
scope, youre not actually looking at quickly became apparent to its discoverer tidally locked to Saturn.
Titans surface but at its nitrogen-rich in 1671, the Italian astronomer Giovanni This means, like our Moon, it always
cloud tops. In terms of brightness, Titan Cassini. He first saw the moon on the shows the same face to its planet. It
can reach mag. +8.4, putting it well western side of Saturn but found it follows that we see a different part of
within the reach of binoculars, while missing on a later search, when it should Iapetus from our Earthly viewpoint
with a small telescope youll have no have been on the eastern side. when it is to the east or west of Saturn.
trouble seeing it. It wasnt until 34 years later, when As a result, Iapetus varies between
The remaining six moons are all telescopes had improved, that Cassini mag. +10.1 and mag. +11.9. However,
within the grasp of a 6-inch scope. In finally saw Iapetus to the east, because the faintness trophy goes to Mimas,
order of brightness, after Titan comes when its here its almost two magnitudes which at mag. +12.9, needs perfect
Rhea, which shines at mag. +9.7, Tethys fainter. This is why it had been impossible viewing conditions without any light
at mag. +10.3, Dione at mag. +10.4, to see it before. Cassini deduced, pollution to see comfortably.
Meteor showers are

named after the
constellation they
seem to come from
METEORS
JARGON BUSTER
METEOROID
A piece of rocky debris in space that
is smaller than an asteroid.
Bright streaks across the sky made by tiny pieces of METEOR
comets or asteroids, meteors are a spectacular sight A small piece of space debris, typically
the size of a grain of sand, that has
entered Earths atmosphere. Heating
You may know of meteors as shooting their peak. There is also the chance an causes it to glow, causing streaks to
stars, but the truth is there is nothing unpredicted dense swarm of meteoroids appear in the sky. Theyre popularly
stellar here. The dramatic, bright trails could lie along the path of debris in the known as shooting stars.
that slash across the sky comes from a wake of a showers parent comet; the
much more innocuous source: a dust dynamics of all showers are not fully METEORITE
A meteor that survives being burnt up
particle the size of a grain a sand understood and surprises can occur.
in Earths atmosphere and crashes into
colliding with Earths atmosphere, Yet it is important to bear in mind the ground. Such fragments are useful
causing it to glow. that most major showers will be active sources of information about the history
You can see several random, or over a period of at least a few days and of the Solar System.
sporadic, meteors per hour on any clear some for a few weeks so you should
night, but a more reliable approach is to not restrict your observing just to the RADIANT
The radiant is the point in the sky where
look for them during one of the annual dates of the predicted maxima. The
meteors (associated with a specific meteor
meteor showers. These occur when vagaries of cloud cover and moonlight shower) appear to come from. The
Earth passes through the debris trail mean that you should always be vigilant constellation where the radiant is located
of a long-gone comet a collection of during the week of the shower, spreading determines the name of the meteor
ISTOCK X 2, ILLYSTRATION BY PAUL WOOTON
debris just waiting to burn up in our your observing opportunities to bolster shower. So for example, the Orionids
planets atmosphere. chances of success. have their radiant in Orion.
Meteor showers have whats known as a
ZENITHAL HOURLY RATE
peak, the night when you can expect to Practical considerations A measure of meteor shower activity,
see the greatest number of meteors. The The first thing to consider when ZHR refers to the number of meteors
rates can vary quite substantially, but meteor hunting is where you are going you would expect to see per hour
prominent displays such as the Perseids to watch the shower from. If you happen under perfect conditions with the
can produce an average of one meteor to live in a light-polluted area you can showers radiant overhead.
a minute under clear, moonless skies at vastly improve your observing experience
MAKING METEORS
EARTHS ORBIT
By the time a comet PATH OF COMET
approaches Earth,
the Suns heat has
evaporated ice held
by the comet. Much
of the dust then
follows the comet
and, over time, can EARTH SUN
be spread out along
the entire cometary
orbit. When Earth
intercepts this
dusty path, lots
of particles collide
with the atmosphere
and we see a
meteor shower.
by travelling out of town to a more

remote location, but be mindful of
activity, when the sky is darkest and
Earths rotation faces into the direction
METEOR DIARY
your personal safety. As with any form of the planets motion in space, giving QUADRANTIDS
of observing its important to be additional swiftness to oncoming Peak: Around 3 January
comfortable, but meteor-watching vigils meteors. Dont look directly at the Max ZHR: 120 meteors per hour
in particular often require you to stay radiant, but concentrate your gaze high Activity window: Early January
still for long periods. in the direction of the darkest portion
ETA AQUARIIDS
Your best bet is to scour the sky from of the sky thats free from obscuring
Peak: Around 6 May
the comfort of a sunlounger or garden trees and buildings. If youre observing Max ZHR: 60 meteors per hour
recliner. Since youll be sitting for long in company, try to view different parts Activity window: Early May
periods its important to keep warm, so of the sky to each other so you catch as
PERSEIDS
Peak: Around 12 August
The best time to observe is shortly Max ZHR: 80 meteors per hour
Activity window: Mid July to mid August
after midnight on the date of peak ORIONIDS
Peak: Around 21 October
activity, when the sky is darkest Max ZHR: 26 meteors per hour
Activity window: Mid to late October
wear a hat to prevent heat loss from the many meteors as possible. On occasions
LEONIDS
head and by all means snuggle into a when the Moon is unavoidably in the Peak: Around 18 November
sleeping bag. In the summer months sky, try to ensure that its not in your Max ZHR: Usually 15 meteors per hour,
you may also need to consider insect field of vision or reflecting off nearby but can be higher
repellent. Bring along some food and walls or windows, as this will seriously Activity window: Mid to late November
a vacuum flask of your favourite hot degrade your night vision. As with any
GEMINIDS
beverage to drink at regular intervals other form of observing, your eyes need
Peak: Around 13 December
hydration is important, plus a little at least 20 minutes to reach peak Max ZHR: 110 meteors per hour
caffeine will certainly keep you alert. sensitivity in darkness. Activity window: Mid to late December
If you need to refer to star charts or
Parallel lines books to find the radiant, its best to use
Debris from the same source tends to a dim red light rather than a white one
travel through space in parallel paths, so that you preserve your dark
so the effect of perspective means that adaptation; if you use a smartphone
their tracks through the atmosphere app for this purpose, place a red
appear to converge on an area known cellophane filter over the screen.
as the radiant, where the meteors Theres always a risk that youll miss
appear to emanate from. Meteor the best fireball of the night while taking
showers are named based on the notes, so it can be better to keep your
constellation the radiant is in (and eyes on the sky and use a voice recorder.
sometimes, the closest star). Try to record the time, start and end
The best time to observe is shortly after points of the track and estimate the Meteor trails often have tapered ends this
midnight on the date of predicted peak brightness of prominent meteors. is one way you can tell it apart from a satellite
A spectacular comet ammonia, methane and methanol. These

visible to the naked
eye can be given the
highly volatile compounds are usually
title Great Comet like found as a gas or liquid on Earth, but the
C/2006 P1 McNaught frigid depths of space have frozen them to
ice as hard as rock.
These snowballs travel in huge
elliptical orbits, briefly visiting the
inner Solar System at one end before
travelling billions of kilometres to the
outer regions. Some, such as Halleys
Comet, have an orbit that only takes a
few years or decades and so are called
short-period comets. Others, called
long-period comets, travel much further
into deep space, taking thousands of
years to complete an orbit.
For most of these orbits, the nucleus
remains an inert lump of ice, but this
changes as the comet nears perihelion,
its closest approach to the Sun. When
close enough, the solar radiation heats
the surface, causing the volatile
components to boil. As the gas escapes
into deep space it lifts off dust, creating
a shroud that can stretch out over
50,000km around it the coma.
Tale of a tail
As the comet gets closer to the Sun, this
envelope begins to feel the solar influence
even more acutely, as its wind and
magnetic field sweep the dust and gas
out into a huge tail. This can extend for
millions of kilometres, spanning huge
swathes of the Solar System. Some of
the tails debris is left behind in its orbit
to form a meteoroid stream. Several of
these cross the Earths orbit, and when
we pass through them every year, we
see the debris burning up in the
atmosphere as a meteor shower.
COMETS
For most comets, these close
encounters with the Sun do little
more harm than melting another layer
off the nucleus. However, sometimes
comets get too close, and the stresses
caused by the intense heat and gravity
The icy wanderers of the Solar System, spectacular cause them to break apart, as happened
in December 2013 with comet C/2012
comets may become visible only once in a lifetime S1 ISON.
Sunlight reflecting off the coma and
tail causes these celestial visitors to
Wanderers of the Solar System, comets few kilometres wide. Though sometimes glow in the night, making them an
can be amongst the most spectacular of called a dirty snowball, the ice found ever-popular target for astronomers.
astronomical sights when they appear in on comets is far more exotic than that Unlike the annual meteor showers
our skies. These mysterious visitors never on Earth. their passing can create, comets are
fail to capture imaginations when they When the Rosetta spacecraft reached a much more transient phenomena
pass by, and after years of careful 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko it adhering to a timetable all of their
observations astronomers have coaxed performed the first in-situ analysis own. However, every year there are a
out the secrets hidden by their glow. of comets nucleus, finding not only handful of comets that can be seen
The heart of a comet is its nucleus, a water ice, but also carbon dioxide with the aid of a small telescope. Websites
core of ice laced with rock and dust, a and monoxide, as well as traces of such as International Comet Quarterly
WHERE DO THEY COME FROM? FAMOUS

After the planets
formed, the
SUN
COMETS
remaining material Dominating the night sky or the
coalesced into two
regions. The inner PLANETARY
landing site for a probe, these are
of these, between REGION among the best-known comets
4.5 7.4 billion km
out, is the Kuiper HALE-BOPP
Belt. Its thought KUIPER Closest approach:
short-period comets BELT 136 million km
come from here AU Period: 2,520-
after being knocked 2,533 years
out of orbit. Beyond 0 1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
105
Famed for: Naked eye
this, the Oort Cloud visible for a record 18
stretches to 3.2 OORT months in 1996/97,
lightyears from the CLOUD Hale Bopp captured
Sun. If a passing public interest the world
star kicks one of its LONG- over. It will return
bodies off course, PERIOD around the year 4385.
it creates a long- COMET
period comet. 67P/CHURYUMOV-
GERASIMENKO
Closest approach:
186 million km
Period: 6.4 years
(www.icq.eps.harvard.edu/cometobs. apart during perihelion, or give little Famed for: Target of the
html) and the British Astronomical more than a fizz of a tail. Rosetta mission, which
Associations Comet Section (www.ast. However, once in a decade or so there studied the comet from
cam.ac.uk/~jds) list all the comets that is a comet that passes close enough to orbit and sent the Philae
are currently active and visible with Earth and is bright enough to be seen lander to its surface,
where it found water
an amateur telescope, and where they with the naked eye. When one of these is
and organic compounds.
might be found. truly exceptional it may be bestowed the
Even if we know when a comet is likely moniker of Great Comet; an apparition GREAT DAYLIGHT
to appear and the path it will take, no so magnificent it is remembered for COMET
Closest approach:
one can guess what it will behave like centuries (or even millennia) to come.
19 million km
ISTOCK X 2, ILLUSTRATIONS BY PAUL WOOTTON, ESA/ROSETTA/NAVCAM, LOWELL OBSERVATORY, NASA, JAMES W. YOUNG (TMO/JPL/NASA)
once it approaches the inner Solar In the past comets were portents of Period: 57,300 years
System. A comet could pass so close to death and war, but now these capricious Famed for: Spotted in
the Sun that experts are sure it will be visitors are a highlight for anyone lucky January 1910, this comet
a spectacular view, only for it to break enough to see one as it passes by. quickly brightened until
it outshone even Venus.
Visible from both
hemispheres, its tail
was noticeably curved.
CHASING THE TAIL
HALLEYS COMET
CURVED Closest approach:
The most alluring DUST TAIL 88 million km
part of a comet is
TAILS LENGTHEN
AS COMET NEARS Period: 75.3 years
surely its huge tail, Famed for: The only
but its not always
THE SUN
known short-period
obvious is that there comet regularly visible
are two. The most to the naked eye from
apparent is the dust SUN Earth, this regular visitor
tail, swept out in has been observed
an arc by the solar as early as 240 BC.
wind. However, NAKED STRAIGHT
the magnetic NUCLEUS GAS TAIL IKEYA-SEKI
field captures the
Closest approach:
gas, forming a
450,000km
fainter second tail.
Period: 876.7 years
Sometimes the
Famed for: Its 1965
comets position
close pass of the sun
relative to Earth
made Ikeya-Seki one of
means the tails
the brightest comets in
appear to go in two TAIL POINTS AWAY 1,000 years. Its thought
different directions. FROM SUN to be a fragment of the
Great Comet of 1106.
THE ISS
AND OTHER
SATELLITES
The Moon isnt the only object orbiting the Earth you can take a look at
There are two types of satellite visible in ISSs trajectory takes it into Earths The science behind the flare is
the night sky natural ones like our Moon shadow, and as most sightings tend to be unremarkable in that each satellite in
and artificial ones that we have placed in the early evening the disappearance the constellation has three large flat,
up in orbit. Of all the artificial ones, the occurs when the ISS has reached the reflective antennas. When the Suns light
International Space Station, or ISS, is eastern half of the sky. If youre an early happens to hit an antenna at the right
probably the best known. Easy to predict, riser, Earths shadow will be to the west. angle, it will appear bright when seen
its constant, often bright passage across This causes the ISS to instantly switch from a fairly localised region on Earths
the heavens is a sight that instils wonder. on as it passes out of the shadow back surface. What is remarkable, however, is
Humankinds orbital outpost into full sunlight. the fact that there are ways to predict, with
typically appears as a dot, which gets down-to-the-second accuracy, when a
brighter as it passes across the sky Solar power flare can be seen from your location.
before fading again. Sometimes the ISS Its the interaction of sunlight with the And were not talking faint, indistinct
appears bright and then fades abruptly surface of a satellite that makes things flaring here: some Iridium flares can
from view. The fading occurs when the interesting. Spacecraft that have large increase the apparent brightness of the
reflective areas can flare in brightness,
sometimes quite significantly. The best
flares are caused by a group of satellites
known as the Iridium constellation:
constellation being the collective noun
for a group of satellites. When you see
one of these spacecraft brighten rapidly,
this is whats known as an Iridium flare.
NASA / JPL CALTECH, PETE LAWRENCE
Like Iridium flares,

the ISS can shine
more brightly
than Venus
MEDIUM EARTH ORBIT
ISS ORBIT
Iridium flares can become exceedingly

bright; as dazzling as mag. 8.0
satellites dot from that of a dim star to

something brighter than Venus.
The brightest flares tend to be around
mag. 8.0, brilliant enough to easily
LOW EARTH ORBIT
illuminate any thin clouds that may get
in the way. In theory, such a bright pass GPS
could even cast shadows not that SATELLITES
anyone ever looks behind them when a ORBIT
flare occurs! Not all Iridium flares will
reach this brightness, of course; the flare
may not be optimal and you may be
located away from the position on Earth
where the brightness of the flare peaks.
Other satellites can also show flare GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT HIGH EARTH ORBIT
activity and it soon becomes obvious,
especially to meteor imagers, that flaring
spacecraft occur all the time. A flaring There are three distinct orbits where a satellite can inserted into orbit around planet Earth. The
International Space Station is close to home in low Earth orbit, at an altitude of around 400km
satellite that reaches peak brightness and
PREDICTING A PASS is then rudely truncated by the camera

shutter closing will look very similar to
what youd expect to see from a bright
There are many different easy to identify. As an commercial, requiring you
meteor trail.
ways to predict satellite added bonus, if you dont to purchase a licence to
passes some more know the stars that well, use them, but there are Its possible to tell the difference by
reliable than others then this is a good way to plenty of freeware options looking carefully at the brightest end
have some fun while available too. of the trail. If the trail looks perfectly
HEAVENS ABOVE learning the night sky. smooth and is cut off squarely at the
One of the most popular ENSURING brightest end, then its either a rare
and respected methods is OTHER PREDICTION ACCURACY
meteor trail interrupted in its prime or
to use the website Heavens SITES AND APPS One problem with
Above (www.heavens- For the slightly more computer predictions is much more likely a flaring satellite
above.com). You can technically minded, there reliability. This could be trail that wasnt allowed to complete its
create a free account that are many excellent down to problems with the display before the camera shutter closed.
logs your location and programs available to program itself, or that you Iridium flares also tend to record as
generates visibility download such as havent set your location, white trails, while meteor trails often
predictions for many WXTrack (www.satsignal. date or time properly. And
exhibit a pink start changing to green
different satellites. Sky eu/software/wxtrack.htm), if satellite data isnt
charts accompany visible which is able to predict the updated regularly, this too
an effect caused by the excitation of
passes, and clicking on passage of many satellites may affect accuracy. If atoms in our atmosphere.
the date of the pass will directly from a Windows doubts start to creep in, There are over 1,000 operational
typically bring up an PC. Apps for other compare the predictions satellites orbiting Earth and an estimated
all-sky chart showing the operating systems, for an easy to identify 21,000 objects larger than 10cm. If you
passage of the satellite including smartphones are satellite, such as the ISS, widen the net and include objects down
among the stars. So long also available; many are with Heavens Above. If
as you have a basic listed in a satellite tracking they dont match, update
to 1cm in size, the count moves beyond
knowledge of the software index at http:// the softwares satellite half a million. In fact, on any clear,
constellations then the celestrak.com/software/ data, and your time and moonless night, it would be unusual
track, adjusted for your satellite/sat-trak.asp. Some location details, before not to see an artificial satellite passing
location, should be pretty of these programs are trying another program. through the constellations, appearing
as a moving dot among the stars.
NOCTILUCENT
CLOUDS
These eerie, glowing blue clouds can be seen in summer skies
From late May through to early August, The precise nature of these clouds is the NLC sheet itself, which is generally
there is an intriguing and unusual not yet fully understood, but they are located from 60 to 80 latitude in each
observing target that is only visible in thought to form when water vapour hemisphere. This explains why the bulk
summers twilit skies the eerie blue condenses onto minute atmospheric of NLC sightings are made from within
tendrils of noctilucent clouds. particles and freezes. The most likely the latitude band of 50 to 65, which
Noctilucent clouds, also known as sources of such particles would be meteor conveniently encompasses the UK and
night shining clouds and more commonly debris (meteors can vaporise at around Ireland. Nonetheless, NLCs can be, and
PEKKA PARVIAINEN/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY, THINKSTOCK X 4, ILLUSTRATION BY STEVE MARSH
referred to by the abbreviation NLCs, 100km, above the NLC layer) or volcanic are, observed from outside this area.
were only discovered in 1885, following activity. Studies indicate that NLCs need Rare, isolated sightings have been made
the 1883 Krakatoa eruption. The massive extremely cold temperatures, around from as far south as 40 latitude, both
explosion of this Indonesian volcano had 120C, to form. The mesosphere is at its from Europe and the US.
an impact all over the world, dropping coolest in summer, which explains NLCs
temperatures by 1.2C, generating seasonal behaviour. Pattern recognition
eye-catching sunsets, and leading to NLCs only become visible against Each year, NLCs become visible in a
an increased awareness of related a twilight sky when the Sun lies fairly predictable pattern. The earliest
atmospheric phenomena. between 6 and 16 below the horizon. sightings usually come near the end of
NLCs are located in the upper fringes Any less than 6 below the horizon May or early June, when cooling of the
of Earths atmosphere and are therefore and the background sky is too bright, mesosphere sets in. Early sightings are
a quite distinct and separate cloud swamping the fainter light of NLCs; on normally of weak, simple formations,
type from the familiar weather or the other hand, if the Sun is more than but as the season progresses displays
tropospheric clouds of the lower 16 below the horizon, then the NLC tend to be brighter, more complex,
atmosphere. They form in the sheet lies in the Earths shadow, endure for longer and occupy larger
mesosphere, just below the mesopause becoming invisible. areas of sky. Records show a clear
(the coldest part of the atmosphere), in a This Sun-Earth-Observer geometry peak in activity from around mid-
thin sheet at an average height of around imposes geographic restrictions on NLC June through to mid-July, by which
82km, close to the edge of space. visibility, as does the physical location of time the season starts to gradually tail
NLC STRUCTURES
WHY DO WE SEE NLCS?
UK observers can see NLCs due to a bit mesosphere, making them visible from
of fortunate geometry. When the Sun is Earth at latitudes of around 50 to 65.
between 6 and 16 below the horizon, Beyond this range, NLCs appear much TYPE I: VEIL
its light will hit any NLCs present in the less frequently. This type of NLCs appear as a patchy, fibrous
sheet with little or no obvious structure,
NLC VISIBLE DUE TO REFLECTED SUNLIGHT sometimes visible in the background of other
forms. It can look like a glowing fog or mist.
PATH OF
SUNLIGHT
OBSERVER
TROPOSPHERIC
CLOUDS IN
TYPE II: BANDS
SHADOW
These NLCs feature horizontal lines or
SUN AT 6 BELOW streaks that can be sharp (Type IIa) or
THE HORIZON
diffuse (Type IIb). The bands may be
parallel, or meet and cross.
off. By early August the season is all swamped by the brightening sky, perhaps
but over, though rare sightings have an hour or so before dawn.
been made later in that month. NLCs can be easily misidentified.
The key thing to remember is that
Wispy streaks weather clouds generally appear dark,
A typical display will commence about silhouetted against the twilight,
an hour or so after sunset, initially whereas NLCs will always appear
appearing as faint, wispy streaks, brighter than the background sky,
perhaps extending only a few often exhibiting a signature TYPE III: BILLOWS
degrees above the horizon. bluish tone. Nonetheless, A distinctive structure of rippled or wavy
bands, Type III NLCs are often compared
As the night unfolds and WHENS THE thin streaks of cirrus
to the sand patterns formed on a beach
the twilight sky BEST TIME TO cloud, especially if at low tide.
darkens, the NLCs LOOK FOR NLCS? illuminated by
become more obvious moonlight, can bear a
and may rise higher in Typically 90-120 minutes striking resemblance
the sky, often after sunset, low in to NLCs, and low
the northwest, or for a
developing more bands of horizon haze
similar period before
intricate structure and sunrise low in the can also create false
becoming noticeably northeast. impressions of Type II
brighter. As local midnight NLC bands. A good test to
nears, NLCs may fade somewhat perform on any suspected NLCs
and shrink in size as the solar is to examine the feature with binoculars.
illumination becomes less favourable. Tropospheric clouds tend to remain TYPE IV: WHIRLS
But after midnight, this pattern of diffuse and blurred when magnified, Looped, curved or twisted forms. Small
behaviour is reversed: NLCs get brighter while NLCs almost always reveal levels whirls can be classed as Type IVa, medium
and stronger again until they are of finer detail. size as IVb and large scale loops as IVc.
AURORAL
DISPLAYS
These dancing curtains of light are magnificent, but not always easy to see
Shimmering, flickering drapes, rays and magnetic poles. As the particles reach A general glow stretching across the sky
coronae the aurora is one of the most lower altitudes, usually between 80km from east to west is called an arc and
dynamic displays that the natural world, and 200km, they hit and excite the usually has a well-defined lower edge. If
let alone the night sky, can offer. It gives gases in Earths atmosphere, causing a the arc has an irregular lower edge, then
us, here on the rocky surface of planet distinctive and colourful glow. This is far it is known as a band.
Earth, a rare and fleeting glimpse of how above the height that passenger aircraft Another common shape witnessed in a
we are connected to the unseen forces at typically fly (around 10km), but the display are rays, which look like shafts of
play out in space. International Space Station and other light stretching upwards into the sky and
While some more energetic displays manned spacecraft have flown through are, in effect, a direct way of seeing the
have been visible as far south as the UK, the upper reaches of an energetic display, Earths magnetic field lines. These can
aurorae are more common if youre under giving rise to some stunning views. occur on their own or in a group. If an
the auroral oval. Centred on Earths The magnetic poles are about 11 away arc or band contains rays, then it is
magnetic poles, the ovals trace rings of from the geographical poles (the ones known as a rayed arc or rayed band. If a
dancing light that roughly follow the traditionally referred to as the North and
JACK FINCH/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY X 2, THINKSTOCK X 7
Arctic and Antarctic Circles, and the best South Poles). So you stand a much better
chances to view the aurora are from chance of seeing all this activity in far TOP TIPS FOR
countries within this region. In the Arctic northern or southern latitudes. AURORA WATCHING
Circle this phenomenon is known as the
aurora borealis, or Northern Lights; in See the light O Check space weather sites such
the Antarctic Circle it is the aurora To observe them, you dont need a as aurorawatch.lancs.ac.uk and
australis, or Southern Lights. telescope or even binoculars: the best spaceweather.com for aurora alerts.
Auroral displays are caused by charged view is with your own eyes as their wide OThe further north you are, the better
your chances of witnessing a display.
particles streaming out of the Sun and field of view is best suited to taking in the
OPosition yourself with a clear view
interacting with Earths magnetic field play of light across large parts of the sky. of the northern horizon, where displays
our planets protective shield which An auroral display can take many will appear.
channels them down towards the forms and can change very quickly.
band shows kinks and folds, these are

known as curtains or drapery. Patches
are just that an auroral glow that has
AURORAL STRUCTURES
no particular shape and can come and
go. Veils are a general glow covering
more of the sky, but with little structure.
In a very large and active display, the rays
may even appear to converge directly
above you, giving rise to an auroral
crown or corona.
Aurora observers also add descriptions
about how quickly a display changes. If
it just hangs there in the sky with little or
no movement, then its said to be quiet.
If it fades and brightens, a display can
be called pulsating. When the aurora ARCS CURTAINS
An auroral arc: a general glow across A curtain aurora: a band of light that
displays rapid but subtle changes, it is the sky with a well-defined lower edge shows kinks and folds along its length
said to be flickering, while dramatic and
quick-changing features especially in
the rays are flaming. Lastly, streaming
occurs along the length of a band when a
bright patch ripples along it.
Whether you see colour in an auroral
display depends on its brightness. Faint
displays will appear monochrome, with
differing shades of grey. However, most
commonly the aurora has a green colour
light given off by oxygen in our
atmosphere. Red can also be present,
especially in the upper rays, as this colour
comes from oxygen higher in our BANDS PATCHES
An auroral band: similar to an arc A patch aurora: these appear as a glow that
atmosphere, while blues and purples can but with an irregular lower edge has no particular shape
appear in very bright displays when
nitrogen becomes excited.
Brightness and contrast

Theres an internationally recognised
scale for measuring the brightness of
the aurora, called the International
Brightness Coefficient (IBC). This runs
from I to IV faint to bright. An IBC I
display is about the brightness of the
Milky Way, with minimal colour present.
IBC II looks similar to moonlit cirrus
cloud and may have a slight greenish
RAYS VEILS
colour. IBC III is similar to bright, Ray aurora: these present themselves as An auroral veil: a general glow covering
moonlit, low-altitude clouds with shafts of light stretching up into the sky the sky with little structure to it
obvious colour, while IBC IV is bright
enough to read by, and to cast shadows.
In the past, auroral displays were
difficult to predict, but now satellites
such as the Solar Dynamics Observatory
constantly monitor the Sun and the
solar wind it throws off to provide early
warning of its effects on Earth. There
are several websites with email alert
services that give early warning for
potential displays, and with these space
weather reports, were better prepared
than ever before for witnessing a display. RAYED BANDS & ARCS CORONAE
All that remains then is for the local Rayed bands and arcs: similar structure to A corona: rays that appear to converge
weather to play ball as well. bands or arcs, also containing rays at a point directly overhead
We cant get a camera

outside our own Galaxy
yet, but this is what we
think it looks like
THE MILKY WAY

We may only be able to see it from the inside, but our Galaxy shines at night
Our Galaxy, the Milky Way, is one of the whose light combines to form this stars, and is believed to be around 3.2
most magical sights of the night. Away wonderful feature. billion years old. From its bright, bulging
from light-polluted regions our Galaxy However, theres much more to our centre emanate several arms, which spiral
looks like a river of light. It becomes Galaxy than these stars, which are just outwards. A closer look reveals that these
clearly visible every year as autumn the visible part of it. The term Milky Way spiral arms come out of the ends of a bar
approaches, the brightest part of it is also used to describe our entire Galaxy, that runs through the central bulge.
SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY X 2, ISTOCK
adorning our skies. a huge island of stars of which our Sun is

The term Milky Way can refer to a member. If we were to look down at our Barred spiral
several different objects, as well as a Galaxy from afar, as shown in the image This means that the Milky Way is a
famous chocolate bar. Some use it to above, the view would look much like a member of the class of galaxies known
refer to the weaving band of light that spinning Catherine wheel firework. as barred spirals. The arms form whats
crosses the sky, created by the hundreds This particular firework is made up of known as the galactic disc, where the
of thousands of faint, distant stars somewhere between 200 and 400 billion majority of stars live, including the Sun.
WHAT TO SEE: DEEP SKY
And because of all the dust and gas that

floats there, the arms are also where new
OUR GALAXYS PLACE IN THE UNIVERSE
stars are being born. Beyond that, outside
the main disc, theres a halo containing The Milky Way isnt alone group, the other two being the Milky Way that have
in our part of the Universe. the Andromeda Galaxy broken off.
hundreds of huge, spherical groups of
Beyond the clusters of stars and the Triangulum Galaxy. The Local Group is itself
stars known as globular clusters. that form a halo around The rest are fairly small part of a larger structure, a
Needless to say, all of this is big. Very us, we have a number of dwarf-type galaxies, some number of nearby groups
big. Our Galaxy has a diameter of around neighbours. Together these of which are satellites of and clusters that make up
100,000 lightyears, while the spiral arms are part of whats called the big three. The most the Virgo Supercluster.
have a thickness of between 1,000 and the Local Group, a family famous satellite galaxies And that formation too,
2,000 lightyears. A lightyear is the of about 30 big and small of the Milky Way are stretching over hundreds of
galaxies sitting in an area the Large and Small millions of lightyears, is just
distance that light can travel in one year. of space around 10 million Magellanic Clouds. These one of many superclusters
Our star, the Sun, sits about 25,000 lightyears in diameter. can only be seen from the in the Universe, linked
lightyears from the centre, on the edge We are in one of the big southern hemisphere and by thread-like filaments
of what is known as the Orion-Cygnus three galaxies within the look like round pieces of of galaxies.
Arm. This is a minor spiral arm of the
Galaxy that sits between the major
Sagittarius-Carina Arm inside it and TRIANGULUM
the Perseus Arm on the outside. GALAXY
How do we know this? Well, as soon as MILKY WAY
telescopes were powerful enough to make SMALL
out the spirals of other galaxies, we began MAGELLANIC
CLOUD
piecing together the similarities between
those that were far off and our own. And
once astronomers were able to peer into
the skies with radio and infrared LARGE
MAGELLANIC
telescopes, they were able to see through
CLOUD
the dust and gas that stops observations ANDROMEDA
of visible light and saw the stars in the GALAXY
galactic arms beyond. We certainly dont
know everything yet, but advances in
technology in the years to come are likely
to reveal much more about our Galaxy.
HOW TO
SEE THE MILKY WAY FOR YOURSELF
From Earth we see the stars
of our Galaxy in a band all
around us because of our
position within the disc of the
Milky Way. However, theyre
not evenly spread around the
sky. If you look in the direction
of the constellations Orion and
Monoceros, you are basically
looking out of the main disc
into deep space. There are
fewer stars there and so the
Milky Way is less noticeable.
Look in the opposite direction,
towards Sagittarius and
Scorpius, and youre looking
directly into the heart of our
Galaxy. Here theres much
more dust, gas and stars. The
Milky Way is visible all year
round, but its higher in the
sky in April and September.
M20, the Trifid Nebula, is

an unusual combination
of an open star cluster
and three types of nebula
THE MESSIER
CATALOGUE
How a Frenchmans 18th-century list of objects to avoid
became the definitive catalogue for amateur astronomers
For budding and seasoned stargazers in objects for observers to hunt down with observations being undertaken by
the northern hemisphere, the Messier their telescopes: rather, it was a list of Messiers assistant Pierre Mchain.
Catalogue is the most famous observing objects to avoid. This is because Charles The catalogue stayed at this size for
list of astronomical deep-sky objects. Messier, the French astronomer who over 100 years. There were some
Within the 110-strong catalogue are created the catalogue, was a comet interesting developments in the 20th
examples of every known deep-sky hunter, and many comets appear as century, as astronomers and historians
object a good assortment of galaxies, faint, fuzzy blobs in the sky just as made seven additions to the list. These
open and globular star clusters, nebulae deep-sky objects do. So he assembled were not just arbitrary objects, but
and one supernova remnant: the famous these deep-sky objects into a list of red ones that Messier and Mchain made
Crab Nebula in Taurus, which is also herrings, in order to make sure they observing notes about shortly after
the first object in the catalogue. It bears could be discounted during his cometary the final version of the catalogue was
the designation Messier 1, commonly searches. He conducted these in his published. It was only in 1967 when
written as M1. observatory, a wood and glass structure M110, a faint dwarf elliptical galaxy in
Messiers catalogue has become so atop a tower in the medieval Htel de the constellation of Andromeda, made
ingrained into astronomical lore that Cluny in Paris. its way into the catalogue as the final
objects are commonly described by their officially recognised object.
Messier number. So M42 is often used in Growing number There are several reasons why Charles
place of, or in addition to, the name of the The Messier Catalogue first arrived on Messiers list of objects to avoid when
object, in this case the Orion Nebula. the scene in 1771 as a list of 45 objects. looking for comets has become so readily
The irony of this useful catalogue is Ten years later it had been expanded accepted as targets to seek out with a
that it was never intended to be a list of to 103, with some of the later telescope. One is that it isnt too long: 110
TOP NAKED-EYE MESSIER OBJECTS
M42 RA 05h 35m 17s

dec. 05 23 28 M45 RA 03h 45m 48s
dec. +24 22 00 M13 RA 16h 41m 42s
dec. +36 28 00 M31 RA 00h 42m 42s
dec. +41 16 00
The Orion Nebula is a vast cloud The Pleiades, also known as the The hundreds of thousands of The Andromeda Galaxy is
of dust and gas whats known Seven Sisters, is an open star stars that make up the Great without doubt the most distant
as an emission nebula, and is a cluster in the constellation of Globular Cluster in Hercules are object visible to the naked eye,
star-forming region. Its easy to Taurus. Depending on your just visible to the eye from dark being about 2.8 million lightyears
spot with just your eyes as a misty eyesight and how dark the sky is locations. Its one-third of the away. Find it in the constellation
patch below the three belt stars at your location, youll be able to way south of a line between the of Andromeda as a faint smudge
in the constellation of Orion. see between six and 12 stars. stars Eta and Zeta Herculis. in very dark, Moonless skies.
TOP SMALL-SCOPE MESSIER OBJECTS
HARALD STRAUSS/CCDGUIDE.COM, WOLFGANG HITZL/CCDGUIDE.COM, SEBASTIAN VOLTMER/CCDGUIDE.COM, ROCHUS HESS/CCDGUIDE.COM, FRITZ SUSSMANN/CCDGUIDE.COM,
M81 RA 09h 55m 33s
dec. +69 03 55 M51 RA 13h 30m 00s
dec. +47 16 00 M3 RA 13h 42m 12s
dec. +28 23 00 M57 RA 18h 53m 35s
dec. +33 01 45
Looking at Bodes Galaxy in the The Whirlpool Galaxy in the This globular cluster, also in Canes The Ring Nebula in the
MICHAEL KARRER/CCDGUIDE.COM, JOHANNES SCHEDLER/CCDGUIDE.COM, GNTER KERSCHHUBER/CCDGUIDE.COM, RETZL DIETER/CCDGUIDE.COM

constellation of Ursa Major with a constellation of Canes Venatici Venatici, is an easy target for a constellation of Lyra is a shapely
3- to 4-inch scope, youll see is a face-on spiral galaxy. Small small telescope though it can planetary nebula, and one of
it as the brighter of two fuzzy scopes reveal the basic shape and be tricky to locate. Its one of the the easiest of its kind to observe.
patches close to each other in the the smaller companion with which largest and brightest globulars in With a 3- to 4-inch scope its
night sky. The second patch is it is interacting. Larger instruments the sky; a small scope will reveal easily seen as a misty but quite
another galaxy, the fainter M82. reveal more structure. great detail and a compact core. defined oval patch.
objects makes it a nice, catalogue dont need massively (NGC), for example, lists nearly 8,000
manageable number. So powerful instruments to objects, followed by an extension
manageable, in fact, be seen: theyre within known as the Index Catalogue (IC)
that some amateurs reach of small amateur that adds more than 5,000 on top. Youll
like to undertake telescopes. Finally, also find that many objects appear in
Messier its a reasonably multiple catalogues: M42, the Orion
marathons, comprehensive list, Nebula, is also designated as NGC 1976.
where they encompassing However, the NGC and IC lists are little
endeavour almost all of the more than databases of deep-sky objects.
to observe all wondrous sights They have less appeal for amateur
110 objects in that novice astronomers because many of their
one night. stargazers would entries are too faint to see without a
Another wish to see, many of professional telescope.
reason is that them bright objects. There is, however, one other list thats
Messier used a Of course, the worth a mention: Patrick Moores own
variety of different Messier Catalogue is compilation, the Caldwell Catalogue.
sized scopes in his not the only list there This is, in effect, an extension to the
comet searches, are more than 110 objects Messier Catalogue. It includes many more
including a out in space after bright, deep-sky objects that are perfect
3.5-inch refractor. Charles Messier intended his all. The New for you to train your telescope on from
The objects in his catalogue to be a list of things to avoid General Catalogue your back garden.
DOUBLE STARS
The sight of two stars partnered together can be truly stunning, especially when they
have vibrant colours. But dont confuse your binaries with your optical doubles
After the invention of the telescope in the happen to lie in the same direction from whether the stars are gravitationally
early 17th century, the true nature of the us in space; these stars are not linked in bound to each other or not.
night sky became apparent for the first any way. One of them could be much If youre looking up at a binary star
time. What had been mere fuzzy blobs farther away from us than the other, system, its fascinating to know what
as seen by the unaided eye now had but stargazing-wise, we have no way could be happening with the stars
form, and suddenly a whole new world of knowing, because everything in the themselves. This is because sometimes
of nebulae, galaxies and star clusters night sky looks the same distance away. the stars in a binary system can interact
could be observed. especially when one of the stars is more
When those first telescopes were Interacting stars massive than the other. In this case, gas
trained on the stars, an interesting Then there are the double stars that are can be pulled off the smaller companion,
discovery was made: that not all the stars linked by gravity. If you see one of these which can lead to destructive stellar
we see as single points of light with our youre looking at a binary star. Its no explosions called novae.
eyes are, in fact, alone. Some were coincidence that the stars of a double Of course, you wont see any of this
revealed to be two stars or maybe even appear to be in the same place: they are going on when you look through a
more. Double stars and multiple star both the same distance from us, and they telescope, but double stars are still
systems were discovered. As the number orbit around each other. Its estimated by amazing targets to aim at. Some doubles
of double stars being found grew, it some scientists that perhaps half of the show startling colour differences you
became necessary to divide the category stars in our Galaxy may be binaries, may see, for example, a shimmering
up further, in order to clarify exactly although binaries account for only five yellow star next to a vivid blue one
what sort of double star it was. per cent of stars observed so far. while with other double stars, the two
To understand the first category, So how do you know which is which? will be more or less the same brightness,
optical doubles, imagine the true 3D Well, unless a magazine or star atlas tells yet sit startlingly close together. If you
nature of space with stars sprinkled all you, there is no way of telling whether can spot our top five favourite doubles,
over the place. From our viewpoint, one youre looking at an optical double or a which weve listed below, we have no
star may appear very close to another binary. Only with the careful study of the doubt that youll soon be hooked on
star, but this is only because the two stars movements in a double star can we gauge these jewels of the night sky.
FIVE EASY TO SPLIT STELLAR PAIRINGS

ROLF LHR/CCDGUIDE.COM, JOHANNES SCHEDLER/CCDGUIDE.COM, PETE LAWRENCE X 4, PAUL WHITFIELD
1. ALBIREO 2. ALMACH 3. THE DOUBLE 4. MIZAR

Constellation: Cygnus Constellation: Andromeda DOUBLE AND ALCOR
RA 19h 30m 43s, RA 02h 03m 54s, Constellation: Lyra Constellation: Ursa Major
dec. +27 57 34 dec. +42 19 47 RA 18h 44m 20s, RA 13h 23m 55s,
Albireo (Beta (`) Cygni) is a Almach (Gamma (a) dec. +39 40 12 dec. +54 55 31
lovely golden and blue double Andromedae) is the third To the naked eye, Epsilon () Zeta (c) and 80 Ursae Majoris
thats a binary star system. brightest star in its constellation Lyraes two yellow stars have are an optical double. Being
The golden component is and is made up of a mag. +2.3 a similar brightness of mag. able to see the two white stars,
mag. +3.1, while the blue yellow star with a mag. +5.1 +5.5. However, with a scope mags. +2.2 and +4.0, with the
member is mag. +5.1. Youll companion. To resolve them youll see that each part in fact naked eye was a traditional test
need a scope to see the pair. youll need to use a telescope. has its own binary companion. of how good your eyesight was.
Albireo is a beautiful
binary star with
striking gold and
blue components
TESTING YOUR SCOPE
You can use double stars out the closest

to test your telescopes double stars a
optics. How well you can telescope will
split the stars depends on theoretically
the quality of your optics, split, you just
as well as the size of your divide 4.6
telescopes aperture, or by the
front lens. diameter
If you have a good- of the
quality small telescope, telescopes
say four inches in front lens in
5. THETA TAURI diameter, you should be inches. Its
Constellation: Taurus able to see doubles as only a
RA 04h 28m 34s, close as 1.15 arcseconds theoretical
dec. +15 57 43 if seeing conditions are figure, though,
This orange and white optical perfect. Our top five because if the
double in the Hyades is visible doubles on the left atmosphere is fairly
to the naked eye, at mag.+3.8 should all be easily turbulent then you
and +3.4 respectively. The within your reach. wont be able to see
dimmer star is actually slightly To split double stars the components of
variable, changing from +3.35 closer than this, you need a really close double
to +3.42 over 1.82 hours. a larger telescope. To find star well.
Algol, the middle star

in the row of three just
below centre, is an
eclipsing binary with a
period of nearly three days
VARIABLE STARS
SCHLOTTMAN/ WWW.XANADUOBSERVATORY.COM, PETE LAWRENCE X 2, JOHN CHUMACK/
ECKHARD SLAWIK/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY, TIL CREDNER/WWW.ALLTHESKY.COM, KEITH
Not all stars shine steadily all of the time some appear to alter in
brightness regularly and you can observe this from Earth
At first glance, or even after a prolonged This is because of variable stars, stellar then look out for an intrinsic variable.
stare, it can seem like the starlit night wonders that change in brightness over The changes happen within the star itself.
changes very little. Apart from the slow time. Some do so in just a few hours, It may pulsate in and out, for example,
movement of the sky caused by Earths while others take several years. The time getting brighter and fainter as it goes.
rotation and the odd meteor, nothing it takes for a variable star to complete one One type of intrinsic is the long-period
much else appears to happen. cycle is known as its period. variable. These tend to be unstable older
SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY
However, if you know when and where stars fighting internal battles with gravity
to look, even the seemingly fixed stars Spice of life and pressure, resulting in them growing
can take on a life of their own. After a Variables come in many forms, the and shrinking over long periods of time.
little investigation, youll see that the main types being intrinsic and extrinsic They make good observing targets: some
night sky is, in fact, constantly changing. variables. If youre looking for action, can be seen with the naked eye when they
are at their brightest, yet they can then

dim so much only a pair of binoculars or
a telescope will reveal them.
FIVE FAMOUS
The action really starts to hot up with
another group of intrinsic stars called
VARIABLES
cataclysmic or explosive variables,
which pull gas off their close neighbours.
The pile-up of new gas leads to nuclear
1. DELTA CEPHEI
RA 22h 29m 10s,
explosions, called novae, which result dec. +58 24 54
in a dramatic increase in brightness. Type: Pulsating variable; its also the
The dying explosions of old stars, called prototype of all Cepheid variables
supernovae, are also part of this group. Range: Mag. +3.9
Add in the eruptive variables, which down to mag. +5.0
Period: 5 days 9 hours
include stars whose surfaces flare up from
Best time to see: Autumn
time to time, and its clear how active the Constellation: Cepheus
intrinsic type really is. Equipment: Naked eye
Outside influence
Meanwhile, extrinsic variables owe their 2. MIRA
changeable nature to an external element. RA 02h 19m 20s,
Take an eclipsing binary, for example dec. 02 58 39
Type: Long-period red giant; the
this is where the orbits of two close stars
first of its type discovered
are such that, from our perspective, one Range: Mag. +2.0 down
appears to move in front of the other to mag. +10.1
as they go around. The amount of light Period: 332 days
we see coming from the system changes Best time to see: Autumn
whenever one star eclipses the other. Constellation: Cetus
Equipment: Binoculars
Then there are rotating variables. These
stars spin so fast that their light output
is actually affected: if we could see them
they would have a squashed appearance.
3. RASALGETHI
RA 17h 14m 38s,
The variability of these stars is controlled
dec. +14 23 25
by a light-bending phenomenon called Type: Massive semi-regular
gravitational microlensing. old red supergiant
Watching out for the fluctuating light Range: Mag. +2.8 down
of variable stars is a perfect project for to mag. +4.0
amateur astronomers. With a relatively Period: About 3 months
Best time to see: Summer
inexpensive telescope, you can add
Constellation: Hercules
to the knowledge bank professional Equipment: Naked eye
astronomers may use to study how the
Universe works. There are so many
variable stars that they would never be 4. ALGOL
able to look at them all without your help. RA 03h 08m 10s
dec. +40 57 20
Type: Eclipsing binary
MEASURING STICKS Range: Mag. +1.6 down to
mag. +3.0
FOR THE UNIVERSE Period: 2 days 21 hours;
brightens over 10 hours
Cepheids are intrinsic variable stars that Best time to see: Autumn
are useful to astronomers because they Constellation: Perseus
have a very regular period of light Equipment: Naked eye
change. Some change just once day,
while others take a month or more to
complete their cycle. The period is linked 5. RS OPHIUCHI
precisely with the true brightness of the RA 17h 50m 13s,
star so a Cepheid with a five-day dec. 06 42 28
period near to us is the same true Type: Recurrent nova
brightness as a five-day Cepheid in a Range: Mag. +5.0 down to
distant galaxy. As we know exactly how mag. +12.5
light diminishes with distance, we can Period: Around 20 years
work out how much farther away the Best time to see: Summer
distant Cepheid is, using it to help Constellation: Ophiuchus
measure distances in space. Equipment: Telescope;
naked eye when bright
Not all clusters exist in

isolation; the Trapezium
Cluster is embedded in
the Orion Nebula
STAR
CLUSTERS
BERNHARD HUBL/CCDGUIDE.COM X7, ROBERT SCHULZ/CCDGUIDE.COM, S GERALD RHEMANN/CCDGUIDE.COM
MICHAEL BREITE/ STEFAN HEUTZ/ WOLFGANG RIES/CCDGUIDE.COM, CHRISTOPH KALTSEIS/CCDGUIDE.COM,
Groups of stars against the blackness of space, clusters make

great observational targets for the amateur astronomer
When you gaze up at the night sky, it apart until they begin to merge into the stars. Whereas open clusters are found
looks like a lot of stars are on their own. general starry background. and made within the plane of our
But a solitary-looking star may be a There are many fine examples of newer Galaxy, globular clusters form a halo
member of a vast group thats travelling and older clusters out there, perfect for around it and their creation is much
through space as a unit. If we wind the looking at with binoculars. As a rule of less well understood.
clock back millions of years, we may thumb, you can pretty much assume that In terms of observing, this all means
find these stars forming in the same the younger the open cluster, the more that the majority of open clusters are
vast cloud of dust and gas. compact it appears, since the stars havent found in or close to that misty river of
Known as open clusters, these families had much time to drift apart. stars stretching across the sky, the Milky
of anywhere from a few dozen to a few There is another variety of star cluster Way, while globular clusters are seen all
thousand stars are created in the dusty out there: the globular cluster. These over the sky. When looking at them with
spiral arms of our Galaxy. They travel are much bigger than the open sort, the naked eye youll see only fuzzy
together through space, but gentle tidal consisting of hundreds of thousands patches, but a pair of binoculars will
forces eventually cause the stars to move or millions of generally reddish, older reveal some truly spectacular gems.
OUTSTANDING OPEN CLUSTERS
M45 NGC 869 AND NGC 884

Constellation: Taurus Constellation: Perseus
RA 03h 45m 48s, dec. +24 22 00 RA 02h 19m 00s, dec. +57 09 00
The Pleiades, or Seven Sisters, is one of the most splendid This is the Sword Handle, a wondrous double cluster with two
clusters in the night sky. With the naked eye, six stars of the star clusters sitting side by side. They are both 0.5 in diameter
cluster are easy to see, but counting up to 10 is possible. The and are easily visible to the unaided eye. Try sweeping the
cluster actually contains many hundreds of stars, and a decent area with binoculars the hundreds of stars, set against the
pair of binoculars will be able to reveal many of them. backdrop of the Milky Way, make for a fine sight.
M7 M35 M44
Constellation: Constellation: Constellation:
Scorpius Gemini Cancer
RA 17h 53m 54s, RA 06h 08m 54s, RA 08h 40m 06s,
dec. 34 49 00 dec. +24 20 00 dec. +19 59 00
Also known as the Ptolemy Cluster, this This cluster contains upwards of 200 stars Known as the Beehive Cluster, M44 contains
appears to be twice the size of the full and can just be seen with the unaided eye hundreds of stars and can be seen as a
Moon. To the eye, the 80 stars of the cluster on good clear nights. Binoculars bring out misty patch with the naked eye. Binoculars
appear as a bright clump in the Milky Way, the brightest 20 or so stars, while the rest are the best way to see M44: through them
but through binoculars the stars are resolved. form a diffuse oval wash behind. youll see a dozen or so of its brightest stars.
GREAT GLOBULARS
M5 M22
Constellation: Constellation:
Serpens Sagittarius
RA 15h 18m 36s, RA 18h 36m 24s,
dec. +02 05 00 dec. 23 54 00
This is thought to be one of the oldest of all One of the brightest globular clusters, M22
globular clusters. It is easily found in is easily visible with the unaided eye, and
binoculars and has a slightly oval-shaped a great sight through binoculars. Its larger
appearance. What youll see is a fuzzy than M13, which is impressive, but its place
blob, hinting at the vast number of stars in the Milky Ways river of stars makes this
it contains. a real jewel in the crown.
M3 M15
M13 Constellation: Constellation:
Constellation: Hercules Canes Venatici Pegasus
RA 16h 41m 42s, dec. +36 28 00 RA 13h 42m 12s, RA 21h 30m 00s,
Known as the Great Globular Cluster, dec. +28 23 00 dec. +12 10 00
this is the best of its kind in the northern This is another stunning globular cluster. It Looking like a slightly more compact M13,
hemisphere. From a dark site, M13 can just be seen with the unaided eye, but this densely packed object is an ideal
can just be seen with the unaided eye, binoculars will reveal its bright, round shape target for binoculars. It appears as a
but its bright, round form is a stunning that holds around 500,000 stars. 274 of round smudge with quite a compact
sight through a pair of binoculars. these are known to be variable, the largest central region, giving this distant star
number in any known globular cluster. cluster a real sense of depth.
NGC 3372, the

southern skys
Carina Nebula,
is four times
larger than M42
NEBULAE
Whether they glow on their own or reflect the light of nearby
stars, these clouds of gas and dust are popular targets
Nebulae are clouds of gas and dust that bright nebula or field of stars. We
are scattered throughout the Milky Way, effectively see a silhouette of the cloud, STELLAR NURSERIES
CCDGUIDE.COM, KONSTANTIN VON_POSCHINGER/CCDGUIDE.COM, FRANZ KLAUSER/CCDGUIDE.COM, PAUL WOOTTON
mainly in the galactic disc, and its here but no detail in it.
that stars are born. The word is Latin for You might think that planetary Nebulae are where stars are created.
DANIEL VERSCHATSE/CCDGUIDE.COM, BERNHARD HUBL/CCDGUIDE.COM, ISTOCK X 3, JOHANNES SCHEDLER/
little mists long ago, we considered all nebulae, such as the Ring Nebula in One idea of how it all starts is that a
shockwave from a nearby supernova
deep-sky objects to be nebulae, galaxies Lyra, have something to do with planets,
explosion compresses the cloud. Once
included, because they were faint fuzzy but youd be wrong. They get their the density of the gas passes a critical
patches in the otherwise black night. name because, through a telescope, point, gravity takes over.
These days, not only can we differentiate many have the appearance of a faint, Gravity causes clumps
between nebulae and galaxies, but we small, fuzzy disc and can look a lot like of the nebula to
know that several types of nebula exist. a planet. These nebulae are formed pull together.
The most famous nebula of them all, during the death of a star of similar The pressure
at the centre
M42 in Orion, is whats known as an mass to the Sun. As it grows unstable, of the clumps
emission nebula. Nebulae of this type the star puffs off its gaseous atmosphere builds and the
have a glow of their own, a result of stars to form clouds around it. Stars larger temperature rises
within or nearby ionising the gas cloud. than the Sun end their days explosively dramatically. If
On the other hand reflection nebulae, like in a supernova, leaving a spectacular there is enough
the one around the Pleiades star cluster in remnant in their wake. gas to fuel the
process, the region
Taurus, are only visible because there are Astro images will reveal that many
can become a protostar.
some stars nearby that light up the gas nebulae have vivid colours typically If the temperature in the clump reaches
and dust, just as the Sun lights up a cloud red in emission nebulae from ionised 10 million degrees Celsius, the nuclear
in an otherwise blue sky. hydrogen atoms and hues of blue stars in furnace that powers stars ignites. Over
Dark nebulae, such as the Horsehead reflection nebulae but the view through tens of millions of years it settles into
Nebula, dont glow at all, as they are so binoculars or a telescope will be quite normal life and joins whats called the
main sequence, like our own Sun.
dense they absorb light. They are only different. Visually, nebulae appear in
visible because they are in front of a shades of grey.
AMAZING NEBULAE
THE ORION NEBULA, M42
Constellation: Orion
RA 05h 35m 17s, dec. 05 23 28
M42 is the brightest nebula in the night sky and the only one
that can be seen with the naked eye. With a casual glance
below the three belt stars of Orion in a dark, light-pollution
free sky, youll see this emission nebula as a small misty smudge.
A pair of binoculars will begin to reveal its curving shape. With
a small telescope, you will start to see some structure. In the
heart of the Orion Nebula are four stars. These are part of the
Trapezium open cluster, named because of the shape the four
stars form. Its the radiation from these stars that is energising
the entire nebula and causing it to glow.
THE CRAB THE LAGOON THE NORTH AMERICA

NEBULA, M1 NEBULA, M8 NEBULA, NGC 7000
Constellation: Taurus Constellation: Sagittarius Constellation: Cygnus
RA 05h 34m 32s, dec. +22 00 52 RA 18h 03m 37s, dec. 24 23 12 RA 20h 59m 17s, dec. +44 31 44
M1 is what remains of a cataclysmic stellar This easily noticeable emission nebula It takes a bit of practice to see emission
explosion witnessed from Earth in 1054. can be seen as a brighter patch with the nebula NGC 7000, also known as the
It can be spotted with a small telescope, beginnings of a core in 10x50 binoculars, North America Nebula, as its such a large
but its best seen through a really large even sitting where it does within the object. Its close to the bright star Deneb in
aperture instrument only then does its constellation of Sagittarius a busy and Cygnus, and the surrounding area contains
texture start to emerge. star-rich area of the Milky Way. many targets for binoculars.
THE OMEGA THE DUMBBELL THE HORESHEAD

NEBULA, M17 NEBULA, M27 NEBULA, BARNARD 33
Constellation: Sagittarius Constellation: Vulpecula Constellation: Orion
RA 18h 20m 26s, dec. 16 10 36 RA 19h 59m 36s, dec. +22 43 16 RA 5h 40m 59s, dec. 02 27 30
This glowing emission nebula and star- This fascinating and relatively bright The Horsehead Nebula, to the south of
forming region sits among the star fields planetary nebula appears as a misty oval Orions Belt in the Orion Molecular Cloud
of Sagittarius. It has a curved shape that in small telescope, with the Milky Way Complex, is a dark nebula that appears
can be likened to the Greek capital letter providing a marvellous backdrop. The silhouetted against a brighter background
omega, 1, hence its name, though it is dumbbell shape only becomes apparent of nebulosity. You will need a large aperture
sometimes called the Swan Nebula. through large instruments. instrument and dark skies to make it out.
GALAXIES
These shining arks of stars come in all shapes and sizes,
many the result of cosmic collisions
Galaxies are concentrations of millions or

billions of stars, gravitationally bound
together along with gas clouds and
pockets of dust. There are probably over
100 billion of them in the Universe. Some
of the largest nearby galaxies appear in
the night sky as faint smudges of light, but
it was only in the early 20th century that
astronomer Edwin Hubble proved that
they actually exist well beyond the Milky
Way. Before then, they were thought to be
spiral-shaped nebulae on the outskirts of
our own Galaxy.
HORST ZIEGLER/CCDGUIDE.COM, DIETER BEER/PATRICK HOCHLEITNER/CCDGUIDE.COM, MICHAEL BREITE/STEFAN HEUTZ/WOLFGANG RIES/CCDGUIDE.COM, CHRISTOPH KALTSEIS/CCDGUIDE.COM,
Hubble also established that galaxies

vary in shape and size. Two-thirds have
distinctive spiral patterns, while the
rest range from neat ellipticals to
irregular blobs. They can be dwarves
containing millions of stars or giants
harbouring trillions. Astronomers are
still piecing together why this is the
case, but collisions and mergers seem
MANFRED WASSHUBER/CCDGUIDE.COM, JOHANNES SCHEDLER/CCDGUIDE.COM, BERNHARD HUBL/CCDGUIDE.COM, HARALD STRAUSS/CCDGUIDE.COM
to be important in determining how a

galaxy evolves. Central black holes also
seem to govern how gas is consumed
and when stars are formed within these
cosmic conurbations.
Hidden mass
Galaxies are much more massive than
they look. Around 90 per cent of their
mass is not in luminous stars and gas,
but in unseen dark matter. Its arranged Bodes Galaxy is the largest of 34 in the M81 Group; it is around 11.7 million lightyears away
in a spherical halo, which governs the
motions of the stars within. This invisible disc is full of young stars and gas, and and ellipticals. Many are similar to spiral
cocoon explains why the outskirts of tends to be blue; the bulge appears redder. galaxies, containing a relatively small disc
spiral galaxies spin faster than if they Discs form when a cloud of gas collapses and large bulge, but lacking the spiral
were influenced by the quantity of stars under its own gravity, spinning faster as arms. These may be faded spirals, in
and gas alone. Dark matter also governs it shrinks vertically. Spirals are common which star formation has ceased. Others
how galaxies clump together under across space, apart from in the centres of are likely to be the result of galaxy
gravity to form filaments and clusters. Yet galaxy clusters, where discs are easily collisions, which could have ripped off
dark matter remains an enigma, and destroyed by collisions. part of a larger disc, or shut down star
astronomers are still trying to discern Shaped like rugby balls, elliptical formation after a vigorous burst.
what it is. It must be exotic as it does not galaxies are much like the bulges of Irregular galaxies do not fall into
absorb or emit light. spirals, but lack any disc. They contain any of the other main classification
Spiral galaxies such as the Milky Way little gas, and few stars are being formed categories they have no distinctive
are named for the arcs of bright stars that within them. Old, red stars are the norm, shape. This may be because they have
corkscrew into their centres. The spiral is travelling on inclined elliptical orbits. been distorted in a collision or they may
a density wave embedded in a flattened Groups of elliptical galaxies are often have formed that way. Some dwarf
disc of stars and gas that is arranged found in the centres of galaxy clusters. galaxies condensed in a haphazard
around a central bulge. Bright stars form Lenticular galaxies are lens shaped, manner from gas clouds and havent
where gas clouds are compressed. The their classification falling between spirals settled into an ordered state.
GLIMPSING GALAXIES
THE ANDROMEDA GALAXY, M31
Constellation: Andromeda
RA 00h 42m 42s, dec. +41 16 00
The magnificent Andromeda Galaxy is the nearest large galaxy
to the Milky Way, and it is possible to see it with the naked eye.
Under dark, Moon-free skies, you should be able to find this spiral
galaxy as a faint misty patch a short distance from the band of
the Milky Way without optical aids. Using binoculars, youll find it
with little or no difficulty. It will be oval in appearance although
you wont be able to make out any of the individual stars within
it. Through a 6-inch telescope the galaxy appears as a larger,
elongated oval shape with a core that shows up as a slightly
brighter area.
THE WHIRLPOOL THE TRIANGULUM THE SOMBRERO

GALAXY, M51 GALAXY, M33 GALAXY, M104
Constellation: Canes Venatici Constellation: Triangulum Constellation: Virgo
RA 13h 30m 00s, dec. +47 16 00 RA 01h 33m 54s, dec. +30 39 00 RA 12h 40m 00s, dec. 11 37 23
The Whirlpool Galaxy is a magnificent M33 can just be seen with the naked eye Located just within Virgo, this spiral galaxy
face-on spiral located in Canes Venatici. It under pristine dark skies, but light pollution is easy to see in any scope. A 6-inch
can be found not far from mag. +1.9 Alkaid means binoculars at least. It sits between instrument shows an elongated glow, but its
(Eta (d) Ursae Majoris). Youll need a large mag. +2.2 Hamal (Alpha (_) Arietis) and defining characteristic is a dark dust lane
telescope to see its spiral arms clearly. mag. +2.1 Mirach (Beta (`) Andromedae). that cuts across the south of the central halo.
M81 AND M82 THE LEO TRIPLET THE PINWHEEL

Constellation: Ursa Major Constellation: Leo
RA 09h 55m 33s, dec. +69 03 55 RA 11h 18m 55s, dec. +13 05 32
GALAXY M101
Constellation: Ursa Major
These galaxies in Ursa Major, M81 or The Leo Triplet is comprised of the spiral
Bodes Galaxy (co-ordinates above)and galaxies M65 (co-ordinates above), M66 RA 14h 03m 12s, dec. +54 20 57
M82 the Cigar Galaxy, are close to each and NGC 3628, and lies about halfway This face-on spiral galaxy is comparable in
other in the sky, so were treating them as between mag. +3.3 Chertan (Theta (e) size to the Milky Way, and while it can be
one sight here. With a small telescope and Leonis) and mag. +6.6 Iota (f) Leonis. Larger spotted in binoculars its magnitude of +7.9
a low magnification eyepiece, youll be able telescopes will show them clearly. Another means youll need dark skies and a 6-inch
to see them in the same field of view. group, M95 and M96, is nearby. telescope to see its spiral arms.

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Back Garden Astronomy

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BACK GARDEN ASTRONOMY

temperature: the hotter it is, the bluer

A quick glance of the sky will

brightness. What this means is that a

THE FAINTEST STARS

O Visible in a light-polluted sky: mag. +3.0

NORTHERN SPRING EQUINOX

NORTHERN AUTUMN EQUINOX

EARTHS JOURNEY 15 DECEMBER, 7PM

ROUND THE SUN

Earths motion through space causes the stars to rise earlier

NORTH CELESTIAL POLE

by the power of an imaginary construct

The planets orbit in the

the Sun line up, we see an eclipse.

THE SHIFTING ECLIPTIC

Summer at 10pm: the Winter at 10pm: the angle

SPRING SUMMER AUTUMN WINTER

STAR NAMES AND

ITS ALL GREEK TO US

Nu Xi Omicron Pi Rho Sigma Tau Upsilon Phi Chi Psi Omega

STAR CHART KEY

not always) from a single constellation.

know which direction north is. You could

Name that star

SIGNPOSTS IN THE STARS

THE W OF CASSIOPEIA CASTOR AND POLLUX IN GEMINI

ADVANCED STAR HOPPING FROM ORIONS BELT

NAKED EYE Extend a the Winter Triangle

northwest for 22, where Sirius and Betelgeuse

farther on and you will BINOCULARS Start a TAURUS

cluster, commonly called towards Procyon, where

with Betelgeuse, is part of in your binoculars. _

REGULUS IN LEO CAPELLA IN AURIGA

1. NO EQUIPMENT NEEDED 2. WRAP UP

have a telescope. This is complete rubbish. sounds obvious,

3. FIND SOMETHING TO LIE ON

6. TAKE A RED TORCH

dark-adapted eyes are much less sensitive to red light

than they are to white. You can buy dedicated red-light

torches, or make a DIY one by taking a normal torch

and fixing a piece of red acetate over the front. A compass

charts but also in setting up your telescope mount.

8. TAKE YOUR TIME

The fact is that there is an awful lot to

get your head around, and no one has

LIMITING MAGNITUDE Alpheratz GREAT SQUARE

The weather is generally considered to your telescope is disturbed by whats

A sunset will have a jagged

appearance thanks to sunlight

HOW TO DEAL WITH

The light pollution is particularly

Scope pointing to the area of sky

STREETLIGHTS Heat rising

Astronomer shielded from

Two pages from an astronomers log

SEEING This is a measure of how steady PERSONAL THOUGHTS

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