Denton Et Al 1999

Interhemispheric Linkage of Paleoclimate during the Last Glaciation
Author(s): George H. Denton, Thomas V. Lowell, Calvin J. Heusser, Patricio I. Moreno, Bjrn G.
Andersen, Linda E. Heusser, Christian Schlchter and David R. Marchant
Source: Geografiska Annaler. Series A, Physical Geography, Vol. 81, No. 2, Glacial and
Vegetational History of the Southern Lake District of Chile (1999), pp. 107-153
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/521340
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INTERHEMISPHERIC LINKAGE OF PALEOCLIMATE
DURING THE LAST GLACIATION
BY
G.H. DENTON', C. J. HEUSSER2, T.V. LOWELL3, P.I. MORENO4, B.G. ANDERSEN5,
LINDA E. HEUSSER6, C. SCHLUCHTER7 and D.R. MARCHANT8
'Department of Geological Sciences and Institute for Quaternary Studies,
University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
2100 Clinton Road, Tuxedo, New York, USA
3Department of Geology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
4Institute for Quaternary Studies, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA
5Institute for Geology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
6Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Palisades, New York, USA
7Institute of Geology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
8Department of Geology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
Denton, G.H., Heusser, C1L, Lowell, T.V., Moreno, P.I., An- Arthur's Pass in the Southern Alps. Moreover, pollen records
dersen, B.G., Heusser, L.E., Schliichter, C. and Marchant, D.R., from the Waikato lowlands on North Island show that a major
1999: Interhemispheric linkage of paleoclimate during the last vegetation shift at close to 14,700 14C yr BP marked the beginning
glaciation. Geogr. Ann., 81 A (2): 107-153. of the last glacial/interglacial transition (Newnham et al. 1989).
The synchronous and nearly uniform lowering of snowlines in
ABSTRACT. Combined glacial geologic and palynologic data Southern Hemisphere middle-latitude mountains compared with
from the southern Lake District, Seno Reloncavf, and Isla Grande Northern Hemisphere values suggests global cooling of about the
de Chilo6 in middle latitudes (4035'-4225'S) of the Southern same magnitude in both hemispheres at the LGM. When com-
Hemisphere Andes suggest (1) that full-glacial or near-full-gla- pared with paleoclimate records from the North Atlantic region,
cial climate conditions persisted from about 29,400 to 14,550 14C the middle-latitude Southern Hemisphere terrestrial data imply
yr BP in late Llanquihue time, (2) that within this late Llanquihue interhemispheric symmetry of the structure and timing of the last
interval mean summer temperature was depressed 6- 8C com- glacial/interglacial transition. In both regions atmospheric warm-
pared to modem values during major glacier advances into the ing pulses are implicated near the beginning of Oldest Dryas time
outer moraine belt at 29,400,26,760,22,295-22,570, and 14,550- (-14,600 14C yr BP) and near the Oldest Dryas/Billing transition
14,805 14C yr BP, (3) that summer temperature depression was as (-12,700-13,000 14C yr BP). The second of these warming pulses
great during early Llanquihue as during late Llanquihue time, (4) was coincident with resumption of North Atlantic thermohaline
that climate deteriorated from warmer conditions during the early circulation similar to that of the modern mode, with strong for-
part to colder conditions during the later part of middle Llanqui- mation of Lower North Atlantic Deep Water in the Nordic Seas.
hue time, (5) that superimposed on long-term climate deteriora- In both regions, the maximum Bolling-age warmth was achieved
tion are Gramineae peaks on Isla Grande de Chilo6 that represent at 12,200-12,500 14C yr BP, and was followed by a reversal in cli-
cooling at 44,520-47,110 14C yr BP (T-11), 32,105-35,764 14C yr mate trend. In the North Atlantic region, and possibly in middle
BP (T-9), 24,895-26,019 14C yr BP (T-7), 21,430-22,774 14C yr BP latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere, this reversal culminated in
(T-5), and 13,040-15,200 14C yr BP (T-3), (6) that the initial phase a Younger-Dryas-age cold pulse.
of the glacial/interglacial transition of the last termination in- Although changes in ocean circulation can redistribute heat be-
volved at least two major steps, one beginning at 14,600 14C yr BP tween the hemispheres, they cannot alone account either for the
and another at 12,700-13,000 '4C yr BP, and (7) that a late-glacial synchronous planetary cooling of the LGM or for the synchronous
climate reversal of < 2-3 C set in close to 12,200 14C yr BP, after interhemispheric warming steps of the abrupt glacial-to-intergla-
an interval of near-interglacial warmth, and continued into cial transition. Instead, the dominant interhemispheric climate
Younger Dryas time. The late-glacial climate signal from the linkage must feature a global atmospheric signal. The most likely
southern Chilean Lake District ties into that from proglacial Lago source of this signal is a change in the greenhouse content of the
Mascardi in the nearby Argentine Andes, which shows rapid ice atmosphere. We speculate that the Oldest Dryas warming pulse
recession peaking at 12,400 14C yr BP, followed by a reversal of originated from an increase in atmospheric water-vapor produc-
trend that culminated in Younger-Dryas-age glacier readvance at tion by half-precession forcing in the tropics. The major thermo-
11,400-10,200 14C yr BP. haline switch near the Oldest Dryas/Bolling transition then could
Many full- and late-glacial climate shifts in the southern Lake have triggered another increase in tropical water-vapor produc-
District match those from New Zealand at nearly the same South- tion to near-interglacial values.
ern Hemisphere middle latitudes. At the last glacial maximum
(LGM), snowline lowering relative to present-day values was
nearly the same in the Southern Alps (875 m) and the Chilean An-
Introduction
des (1000 m). Particularly noteworthy are the new Younger-
Dryas-age exposure dates of the Lake Misery moraines in A fundamental problem of global climate dynam-
Geografiska Annaler * 81 A (1999) 2
107
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
ics is to identify mechanisms that drove late Qua- maximum (LGM), nor the global warming of the
ternary glacial cycles. Strong statistical linkages last glacial-interglacial transition. Does the expla-
imply that these cycles are ultimately related to the nation of these planetary changes lie instead in the
slow changes in the eccentricity of Earth's orbit atmospheric inventory of water vapor (Broecker
and in the tilt and orientation of its spin axis. But 1994, 1997a, b)? If so, then how are thermohaline
what physical mechanisms translate the seasonal- switches coupled to the production of atmospheric
ity changes caused by these astronomical factors water vapor, which occurs largely in the tropics? A
into global climate changes? And why is there a coupling between thermohaline switches and trop-
strong non-linear behavior of the late Quaternary ical ocean-atmosphere dynamics during some
climate system that produces a dominant 100-kyr late-glacial abrupt climate changes is suggested by
signal? To complicate matters, the geologic record the tight linkage of North Atlantic atmosphere and
shows numerous large and abrupt climate changes. sea-surface temperatures (thermohaline varia-
One of the most prominent of these occurred dur- tions) (Bond et al. 1993) with tropical Atlantic up-
ing the last termination, when global climate welling (tradewind strength) (Hughen et al. 1996,
switched from a glacial to an interglacial mode. 1998) and monsoonal activity in the Arabian Sea
Beyond that, however, isotope and methane (Schulz et al. 1998). Do the origins of abrupt
records in Greenland ice cores reveal widespread changes always lie within the thermohaline circu-
abrupt changes throughout the last glacial cycle lation of the ocean, or is it possible that some lie
(Johnsen et al. 1992). In addition, a pervasive mil- solely in the non-linear production of tropical at-
lennial-scale oscillation of the climate system is mospheric water vapor?
commonly recognized (Denton and Karlen 1973; Carefully dated paleoclimate records can reveal
Grimm et al. 1993; Bond et al. 1997). To explain critical characteristics of the climate system during
these observations, abrupt reorganizations of the abrupt changes. The chronology of such records
global ocean-atmosphere system have been sug- may reveal the anatomy of a system rich in climate
gested as fundamental to Earth's climate system feedbacks, thus clarifying mechanisms of inter-
(Broecker and Denton 1990; Imbrie et al. 1992, hemispheric coupling. Of particular importance
1993). Such reorganizations are thought to consti- are whether the dramatic rapid changes in the
tute jumps among stable modes of operation-shifts North Atlantic region are manifested globally,
that cause changes in the greenhouse gas content or whether their amplitude varies between the two po-
the albedo of the atmosphere. The challenge, then, lar hemispheres, whether there are leads and lags
is to understand how orbital forcing interacts with between the hemispheres, and finally, the phase re-
an ocean-atmosphere system that has a tendency to lations among components of the climate system.
undergo abrupt mode changes. To assess these interhemispheric linkages, we
The atmosphere and ocean somehow work to- carried out field investigations in middle latitudes
gether to change the hydrologic cycle of the planet of the Southern Hemisphere in both South America
during abrupt reorganizations of the climate sys- and New Zealand. Our prime field area was the
tem. Although the exact linkages remain elusive, a southern Lake District, Seno Reloncavi, and Isla
strong possibility is that the roots of at least some Grande de Chiloe in southern Chile between 40035'
abrupt changes lie within the thermohaline circu- and 4225'S (Fig. 1). Here the wide, north-south
lation of the ocean (Broecker and Denton 1990). trending Valle Central occurs between the Cordill-
Numerical modelling studies imply that several era de los Andes to the east and the Cordillera de
quasi-stable patterns of thermohaline circulation la Costa to the west. Within the northern part of the
can exist because the dense water that sinks to the field area, the valley floor is commonly less than
deep ocean is produced in several locations. Par- 200 m in elevation and features Lago Puyehue,
ticularly prominent are sources in the Southern Lago Rupanco, and Lago Llanquihue. At the LGM
Ocean near Antarctica and in the northern North these lakes were filled with piedmont ice lobes fed
Atlantic Ocean. By altering the transport of heat by an extensive icefield and mountain-glacier sys-
from low to high latitudes, as well as across the tem in the adjacent Andes. Today the southern part
equator, shifts among these patterns can affect re- of the valley within the field area is submerged be-
gional or even hemisphere-wide climate. Although low sea level in the marine basins of Seno Re-
changes in ocean circulation can redistribute heat loncavi, Golfo de Ancud, and northern Golfo Cor-
on the planet, they cannot by themselves produce covado. These marine basins also were occupied at
the overall planetary cooling of the last glacial the LGM by lobes of piedmont glaciers that ad-
108 Geografiska Annaler * 81 A (1999) - 2
INTERHEMISPHERIC LINKAGE OF PALEOCLIMATE DURING THE LAST GLACIATION
Ca,
Fig. 1. Index map of the field area in the southern Lake District of the Chilean Andes. Valle Central is a large north-south trending
depression filled with lakes and gulfs. The schematic map of the Llanquihue moraine system is derived from the four glacial geo-
morphological map plates in Andersen et al. (1999). The ice extent for the LGM shown in the inset is from Hollin and Schilling (1981).
The numbers refer to sites discussed in the text as follows: 1, Canal de la Puntilla site; 2, Puerto Octay site; 3, Frutillar Bajo site; 4, Puerto
Phillippi site; 5, Fundo Llanquihue site; 6, crossroad site; 7, railroad bridge site; 8, Calle Santa Rosa site; 9, Northwest Bluff site; 10,
Bella Vista Park site; 11, Bella Vista Bluff site; 12, Canal Tenglo site; 13, Punta Penas site; 14, western Puerto Montt site, 15, Huelmo
site; 16, Calbuco site; 17, Taiquem6 site; 18, Dalcahue site. These sites are described in Denton et al. (1999b), Heusser et al. (1999),
and Moreno et al. (1999). In addition, 19 is the Cuesta Moraga site in the Chilean Andes (Heusser 1990) and 20 is the Lago Mascardi
site near Mt. Tronador in the Argentine Andes (Ariztegui et al. 1997).
Geografiska Annaler 81 A (1999) 2
109
G.H. DENTON ETAL.
vanced westward from the Andes onto both the Northern Hemisphere that have produced most
mainland and Isla Grande de Chiloe. As a result, paleoclimate records of the last glacial/interglacial
Valle Central and Isla Grande de Chiloe both fea- transition. Second, the field area is within the zone
ture well-preserved moraine-and-outwash systems of dominant Southern Hemisphere westerlies and
of the Llanquihue (last) and older glaciations. thus ideally situated to monitor any northward shift
Overall, the spatial distribution of Llanquihue-age of these westerlies during the LGM. Moreover, the
moraines shows that the lowland piedmont lobes at field area is on the western flank of the Andes, and
the LGM reached farther westward with increasing hence here the westerlies have not been affected by
distance to the south, until they overrode southern topographic obstacles (such as the large ice sheets
Isla Grande de Chilo6 and passed into the open Pa- that are so important in the westerlies belt of the
cific Ocean. The map pattern and radiocarbon Northern Hemisphere). Third, the field area is far
chronology of these Llanquihue moraines are giv- removed from the North Atlantic basin, so com-
en in Andersen et al. (1999) and Denton et al. monly deemed the critical location on the planet for
triggering climate change. Also, unlike the North

(1999).
Andean glaciers east of the southern Lake Dis- Atlantic region, the area is distant from major
trict are now confined largely to the high volcanoes sources of deepwater formation that can greatly af-
that surmount the lower crystalline peaks. Howev- fect local ocean heat transport. Fourth, the field
er, east of Isla Grande de Chiloe small glaciers are area is at low elevations between central Isla
widespread on the lower crystalline Andean peaks Grande de Chiloe (4240'S) and the northern bor-
(frontispiece), and icefields mantle the higher vol- der of the Lake District (37S), where terminal mo-
canoes. Much of Valle Central and eastern Isla raine belts dating to the LGM are accessible for
Grande de Chiloe has been cleared of forest since study and radiocarbon dating. Fifth, the field area
European settlement. But the natural vegetation is is in the runout zone for numerous pyroclastic
Lowland Deciduous Evergreen Forest in the low- flows from Andean volcanoes. These pyroclastic
lands of the southern Lake District, and was Valdi- flows mantle the moraine belts and outwash plains.
vian Evergreen Forest in eastern Isla Grande de They also afford sediment for interdrift deposits, as
Chiloe. In the Lake District, this transition occurs well as for the infilling of lakes and mires.
at about 41S at intermediate and low elevations in To piece together an overall paleoclimate
the mountains. In the Andes east of the southern record, we combined glacial-geologic data with
Lake District, successively higher vegetation zones pollen analysis of sediment cores from mires on
are composed of North Patagonian Evergreen For- Llanquihue moraines and from interdrift organic
est, and Subantarctic Deciduous Beech Forest to deposits. Four glacial morphologic maps were con-
treeline at 1250 m. Above treeline are high-eleva- structed for the Llanquihue moraine belts between
tion Andean shrubs and herbs. To the west of the 4035' and 4225'S, covering the regions of Lago
southern Lake District, and in western Isla Grande Puyehue, Lago Rupanco, Lago Llanquihue, Seno
de Chiloe, the coastal range exhibits the following Reloncavi, Golfo de Ancud, and northern Golfo
vegetation belts: North Patagonian Evergreen For- Corcovado (Andersen et al. 1999). The chronology
est, Subantarctic Evergreen Forest, and Magellanic of the glacial deposits is based on more than 450
Moorland. As well as being defined by increasing new radiocarbon dates of samples from strati-
elevation in mountain ranges on both flanks of the graphic sections and from the base of mires on mo-
field area, these vegetation belts occur in distinc- raine belts (Denton et al. 1999). The reconstruction
tive patterns southward through the Chilean chan- of the paleovegetation is based on pollen analysis
of numerous cores from surface mires and of sev-

nels to Cape Horn. Descriptions of the vegetation
belts, their climate regimes in and near the field ar- eral organic interdrift horizons (Heusser et al.
ea, and their occurrence farther south in Chile at 1999; Moreno et al. 1999), with extensive addition-
lower elevations appear in Heusser et al. (1999) al radiocarbon control. The cores were obtained
and Moreno et al. (1999). with a Wright square-rod piston corer. Multiple
We chose the area of the southern Chilean Lake overlapping cores were collected within 1 m of
District, Seno Reloncavi, and Isla Grande de Chi- each other at many sites to avoid problems associ-
loe for detailed study for five reasons. First, the area ated with core breaks; these closely spaced cores
lies in the middle latitudes of the Southern Hemi- were easily correlated by magnetic susceptibility.
sphere, where the orbital seasonality signal is near- Master cores at Fundo Llanquihue (Heusser et al.
ly out of phase with that of similar latitudes of the 1999) and Canal de la Puntilla (Moreno et al. 1999)
110 Geografiska Annaler 81 A (1999) 2
a. C.
b.
Southern Lake District, Chile Lago Mascardi, Argentina

Southern Lake District, Chile
(40o30'- 4225'S; 72o25'- 73045'W) (41017'S; 7135'W)

(40030'- 42025'S; 7225'- 7345'W)
Mean Summer Temperature

Median Grain Size (pm)
8C 10C 12C 14C 160C 345678
III
-.
.
0
i
<----
<-
II
0
-'s
.o
~
- _Ct
(r
L.
<-Glacier advance-
1-
III
Drald bev R. D. Klv Jr. t1997
Fig. 2. Paleoclimate records for the southern Lake District of Chile and for Lago Mascardi in the adjacent Argentine Andes. Panels (a)
and (b) show a schematic representation of paleoclimate relative to the approximate climate limits of present-day vegetation belts whose
major constituents can be recognized in radiocarbon-dated pollen records. The reconstruction for middle Llanquihue time is largely from
Taiquem6 (Heusser et al. 1999), and hence the labels represent Taiquem6 pollen zones. The detailed fluctuations in middle Llanquihue
time come from the percentage of grass pollen (Heusser et al. 1999). We do not know the terminal position of piedmont ice margins
through this portion of Llanquihue time. The reconstruction for late Llanquihue time between 30,000 and 14,550 4C yr BP shows peaks
of glacier expansion into the outer Llanquihue moraine belts (Denton et al. 1999b). These peaks are placed on the diagram by assuming
that the glacier maxima correspond with the most extreme vegetational environment. Such an assumption is generally consistent with
the similar estimates for the lowering of snowline and treeline at the times of the most severe climate deterioration during the LGM
(Porter 1981; Heusser et al. 1999; Moreno et al. 1999). A possible exception, and hence a potential weakness in panels (a) and (b), is
that the glacial record shows a maximum close to 29,400 14C yr BP, whereas the pollen records from Taiquem6 and Dalcahue do not
show a fully developed Subantarctic Parkland until several thousand years later (Heusser et al. 1999). The detailed pollen diagrams from
the Fundo Llanquihue and Canal de la Puntilla sites both show continued severe conditions during much of the LGM, as depicted by
the dashed line between glacier maxima. The portion of the late Llanquihue record between 14,600 and 10,000 14C yr BP is from pollen
records at Fundo Llanquihue (Heusser et al. 1999), Canal de la Puntilla (Moreno et al. 1999), Huelmo (Moreno 1998), and Taiquemo6
(Heusser et al. 1999). Two major warming steps terminated the LGM. We further subdivide the first step into an early warming pulse
at 14,600 14C yr BP (rise of Nothofagus at Canal de la Puntilla and Huelmo) and a later warming pulse at 14,000 14C yr BP (invasion of
Subantarctic Parkland by thermophilic trees at many sites). The marked warming to near-Holocene values centered at 12,200-12,500
14C yr BP, followed by a late-glacial climate reversal, is shown at all pollen sites. Because of fire disturbance at many sites the record
for the end of this reversal is shown by a dashed line, representing the situation at Taiquemo6. However, a Younger Dryas signal is shown
in the sediment record from Lago Mascardi, a proglacial lake near Mt. Tronador in the Argentine Andes (Ariztegui et al. 1997) only
15 km east of our key sites of Fundo Llanquihue and Canal de la Puntilla (Fig. 1). The Lago Mascardi sediment record can be locked
into the pollen records from Fundo Llanquihue and Canal de la Puntilla, because all show a distinctive warm peak at 12,200-12,500
4C yr BP, followed by a reversal in climate trend. The subsequent record from Lago Mascardi suggests a Younger-Dryas-age readvance
of the Tronador ice cap (Ariztegui et al. 1997). This is similar to the situation on Isla Grande de Chilo6, where the Taiquem6 pollen
record escaped the influence of fire and shows episodic cooling between 11,360 and 10,355 14C yr BP (Heusser et al. 1999).
were analysed for pollen at intervals of 1 cm or less, ahue sites were also analysed at intervals of 1 cm
and the chronology of each was controlled with or less; organic horizons in the other sections were
more than 25 radiocarbon dates. Subsidiary cores less closely controlled (Heusser et al. 1999).
were analysed at more widely spaced intervals and
the chronology controlled with fewer radiocarbon
Chilean Andes paleoclimate record
dates (Heusser et al. 1999). The organic layers re-
vealed in exposures at the Canal Tenglo and Dalc- Figure 2 shows a schematic representation of the
Geografiska Annaler 81 A (1999) - 2
111
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
paleoclimate changes inferred from moraine chro- An important assumption of our conceptual
nologies and pollen records from the area of the framework is that the low-sloping former piedmont
southern Chilean Lake District, Seno Reloncavi, glaciers of the southern Lake District, Seno Re-
and Isla Grande de Chiloe. The results are displayed loncavi, Golfo de Ancud, and Golfo Corcovado
in relation to paleotemperature estimates from pol- were reliable indicators of climate changes. In oth-
len diagrams, interpreted in terms of fluctuations of er words, we assume that the behavior of such lobes
broad vegetation belts through time (Heusser et al. was dominated by changes in surface conditions
1999; Moreno et al. 1999). Climate parameters for imposed by climate (large variations of ablation
each broad modern vegetation belt in southern and accumulation zones on such low-sloping sur-
Chile are reviewed in Heusser et al. (1999). The ra- faces), as opposed to changes in basal conditions
diocarbon-dated outer moraine belts of Llanquihue (from basal hydrology and deforming beds).
age are represented in this diagram so that the gla- A contrary view holds that such low-sloping gla-
cier maxima correspond to the most extreme vege- cier lobes are inherently unstable where they rest
tational environment, an assumption consistent not on deforming sediment. This concept arose from
only with the chronologies of the pollen sequences the behavior of ice streams that drain the interior
and the moraine belts, but also with the similar es- ice reservoir of the marine-based West Antarctic
timates for the lowering of snowline and treeline at Ice Sheet into the Ross Ice Shelf (Alley and Whil-
the times of the most severe climate deterioration lans 1991a; MacAyeal 1993). There, of course, the
during the LGM (Porter 1981; Hubbard 1997; ice surface does not have an ablation zone, the ice
Heusser et al. 1999; Moreno etal. 1999). Finally, the streams have low profiles, and at least Ice Stream
diagram indicates the rough boundaries for early, B rests on till. It has been postulated that most of
middle, and late Llanquihue time, based largely on the fast flow of Ice Stream B results from deforma-
usage developed in North America (Dreimanis and tion of this basal till layer (Alley et al. 1987; Alley
Goldthwait 1973). Marine isotope stage (MIS) 4 and Whillans 1991b). These ice streams undergo
corresponds roughly to early Llanquihue time, MIS episodic flow. For example, Ice Stream C is stag-
3 to middle Llanquihue time, MIS 2 to late Llanqui- nant today but apparently was fast-flowing about
hue time, and MIS 1 to the Holocene. 200 years ago (Alley and Whillans 1991 a). Gener-
A potential problem with our reconstruction is ations of ice streams seem to replace each other,
that the Subantarctic Parkland that occurred at all and it may be that the West Antarctic Ice Sheet is
the pollen sites at the LGM does not have an un- still collapsing slowly as these ice streams migrate
ambiguous modern analog. This parkland was headward into the interior ice reservoir. An exten-
closest in character to the Magellanic Moorland, as sion of this concept is that sectors of the Laurentide
the two communities share many taxa. We think Ice Sheet resting on sedimentary bedrock, particu-
that the difference between the two communities larly along the low-sloping lobate southern margin,
results from the thick and extensive alluvial fill, exhibited similar unstable behavior thought to be
capped by outwash plains, of Valle Central and of associated with deforming subglacial beds. In fact,
eastern Isla Grande de Chiloe. A similar geologic Clark (1994) suggested that inherent instabilities
setting does not exist in the present-day Magellanic where the Laurentide Ice Sheet overrode deform-
Moorland of the outer, cold and wet, rocky coast of ing sediment led to irregular marginal fluctuations
southernmost Chile. The result is that in glacial which, through their impact on thermohaline cir-
times grasses and composites became widespread culation, caused the abrupt climate oscillations
within the Subantarctic Parkland, where condi- seen in paleoclimate records from the North Atlan-
tions were suitable for their growth and reproduc- tic region. MacAyeal (1993) postulated that cyclic
tion on well-drained outwash plains; at the same behavior of the interior Laurentide Ice Sheet from
time, elements of Magellanic Moorland flora made alternating thawed and frozen basal conditions
up the lowland vegetation in boggy areas within the caused surges of carbonate-bearing ice through
poorly drained moraine belt. In other words, the Hudson Strait, resulting in deposition of detrital,
present-day Magellanic Moorland does not serve carbonate layers in the North Atlantic Ocean dur-
as a strict modem analog for the ice-age Subant- ing Heinrich events. The key point is that, by this
arctic Parkland because of geologic differences, concept, the rapid marginal oscillations of the Lau-
and yet the two are thought to represent the same rentide Ice Sheet are not thought to have originated
climate regime because they have so many charac- in climate. It should also be pointed out that other
teristic plant taxa in common. mechanisms have previously been proposed for
some advances of individual lobes of the southern Subantarctic Parkland environment at the LGM.
Laurentide Ice Sheet (Prest 1970; Wright 1973; The paucity of trees suggests that these low-lying
Clayton et al. 1985). sites were all then near treeline. The implication is
Clayton et al. (1989) countered that nearly intact that treeline lowered about 1000 m or more at the
stratigraphic sequences of coherent glacial units, LGM from its present-day limit at close to 1250 m
including some with delicate sedimentary struc- in the adjacent Andes. Thus the temperature de-
tures, is strong evidence against pervasive defor- pression affected not only higher elevations near
mation of the bed beneath former Laurentide ice 2000 m (snowline), but also the low-elevation floor
lobes in the Great Lakes region. Instead, they sug- of Valle Central within a few hundred meters of
gested that these lobes are low sloping because present-day sea level (treeline).
they are supported by high basal pore-water pres- A second major point derived from Fig. 2 is that
sure within the underlying sediments, with rapid the depression of summer temperature was as
flow from sliding at the ice-sediment contact. In great during early Llanquihue as during late Llan-
this way the basal sliding is akin to a thrust fault fa- quihue time. This conclusion comes from the mo-
cilitated by high water pressure. Because basal till raine morphology and pollen stratigraphy at the
can be dragged beneath the ice, deformation within Taiquemo site in Isla Grande de Chiloe. The gla-
the till is a consequence of, not the cause of, rapid cial morphologic map near the Taiquem6 site (fig.
ice flow. In fact, it now turns out that this argument 5 in Andersen et al. 1999) depicts a complex
may also apply to the low-sloping flank of the West north-south trending Llanquihue-age moraine
Antarctic Ice Sheet in the Ross Embayment sector, belt, which is little-weathered in sharp contrast to
where Kamb and Engelhardt (1998) reported that the older distal moraine belt. The age of a read-
the flow mechanism beneath fast-moving Ice vance into this moraine belt at the Dalcahue site
Stream B is largely basal sliding at the ice-till con- (18 in Fig. 1) comes from a mean radiocarbon date
tact, rather than deformation within the underlying of 14,805 14C yr BP for 34 samples from a paleo-
till layer. landsurface buried by a coarsening-upward gla-
In view of this situation, we mapped and radio- ciofluvial sequence that culminates in basal lodg-
carbon dated the moraine belts of six former An- ment till with large (up to 1 m diameter) striated
dean piedmont glaciers through nearly 2 of lati- granite boulders of Andean provenance (Denton et
tude to ensure that the glacier fluctuations were al. 1999). The paleolandsurface is at the top of a
widespread and hence related to regional climate, layer of organic volcanic fine sand and silt with an
rather than restricted to the local dynamics of one extensive series of radiocarbon dates that extends
lobe (Andersen et al. 1999; Denton et al. 1999). In back in sequence to 30,070 14C yr BP (A-7685)
like manner, we analysed pollen cores over a sim- (Heusser et al. 1999; Denton et al. 1999). Hence at
ilar range of latitude to ensure that the recorded Dalcahue, and by extension at all localities in the
vegetation changes were representative of the re- Llanquihue moraine belt at and west of Dalcahue,
gion rather than a single site (Heusser et al. 1999; the advance at 14,805 '4C yr BP was the most ex-
Moreno et al. 1999). These two data sets reinforce tensive of late Llanquihue time. An organic clast
our assumption that the major glacier fluctuations dated to 14,820+450 (QL-4532), as well as older
were a response to climate change. Moreover, we organic clasts dating to 19,840+180 '4C yr BP
were not able to find a layer of pervasively de- (UGA-6979) and 21,080+220 '4C yr BP (UGA-
formed sediment within the Lago Llanquihue or 6972), are reworked into ice-contact gravels near
Seno Reloncavi basins (Turbek and Lowell 1999). the upper lip of a prominent ice-contact slope 1.5
The first important point to draw from Fig. 2 is km north of the Dalcahue site (Denton et al. 1999).
that the full-glacial summer temperature recon- This moraine can be traced northward and shown
structed from paleovegetation was depressed 6- to lie 4 km east of the Taiquem6 pollen site (An-
8C compared to modem values at this latitude of dersen et al. 1999). The Taiquem6 mire, in turn, is
the Chilean Andes, an estimate consistent with located within a topographic depression on the
snowline depression of about 1000 m from its outermost Llanquihue moraine ridge in eastern
present position of 1900-2100 m in the Volcain Cal- Isla Grande de Chiloe. Thus, in the region of the
buco and Lago Todos los Santos sector of the An- Taiquem6 and Dalcahue sites, all but the outer-
des (Porter 1981; Hubbard 1997). Pollen sites most ridges in this moraine belt are late-Llanqui-
within 200 m elevation of present-day sea level hue in age and date from close to 14,805 '4C yr BP
along nearly 2 of latitude uniformly show an open (Denton et al. 1999).
113
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
The pollen record of the Taiquem6 mire comes pertinent evidence (fig. 20 in Heusser et al. 1999).
from a core 6.55 m long that penetrates to the gla- Throughout much of middle Llanquihue time, from
cial sediments of the outermost Llanquihue mo- > 49,892 14C yr BP (AA-14770) until about 26,019
raine (fig. 20 in Heusser et al. 1999). The chronol- 14C yr BP (AA-14758), the Taiquem6 mire in east-
ogy of the Taiquem6 pollen record is controlled by ern Isla Grande de Chiloe recorded elements of
30 radiocarbon dates. The lower 55 cm of the core Subantarctic Evergreen Forest, except during the
dates to > 49,892 '4C yr BP (AA-14770). The level times of the Gramineae peaks described below.
at 525 cm is dated to 47,110289314C yr BP (AA- During zones T-12 and T-14, prior to 47,110 14C yr
14767), which is most likely a minimum age. The BP, Nothofagus occurs in association with arboreal
point here is that a substantial portion of the lower elements such as Podocarpus nubigena, Pilgero-
part of Taiquem6 core is close to or beyond the lim- dendron-type, and Pseudopanax laetevirens, along
it of radiocarbon dating. with low frequencies of Gramineae, Myrtaceae,
The pollen record for the Taiquem6 core, given Maytenus, and Drimys winteri. This assemblage
in fig. 20 of Heusser et al. (1999), shows that a implies the presence of Subantarctic Evergreen
closed-canopy North Patagonian Evergreen Forest Forest in the early phases of middle Llanquihue
had come into existence by about 13,000 '4C yr BP time. Later in middle Llanquihue time, a dimin-
during the last glacial/interglacial transition, with ished Subantarctic Evergreen Forest persisted until
the peak of late-glacial forest development at between 44,520 and 35,764 '4C yr BP; but Subant-
12,200 14C yr BP. This forest featured a suite of arctic Parkland expanded thereafter, with the last
thermophilic trees, including Lomatia, Myrtaceae, remnants of evergreen forest disappearing during
and Maytenus, Gramineae, and even the cold-tol- zone T-8 between 32,105 14C yr BP and 26,019 14C
erant elements of the North Patagonian Evergreen yr BP. Subantarctic Parkland then dominated until
Forest, are at very low levels. Such interglacial con- about 13,000 '4C yr BP.At the nearby Dalcahue site,
ditions are not again encountered deeper in the remnants of Subantarctic Evergreen Forest lasted
Taiquem6 core. There is no evidence from the pol- until 25,176 14C yr BP, then to be replaced by Sub-
len record, the lithology, or the radiocarbon chro- antarctic Parkland (Heusser et al. 1999).
nology for hiatuses in the Taiquem6 core. There- A striking feature of the Taiquem6 pollen record
fore, we infer that the outer Llanquihue-age mo- is the succession of Gramineae peaks through mid-
raine at Taiquem6 is younger than the penultimate dle and late Llanquihue time (Table 1) (figs 20 and
interglaciation. Given these age constraints, we 29 in Heusser et al. 1999). The Gramineae peaks
consider it highly likely that this outer moraine was during pollen zones T-9, T- 1, and T- 13 were each
deposited during early Llanquihue time (probably accompanied by declines in Podocarpus nubigena
at the MIS 4 maximum), as indicated in Fig. 2. We and Pilgerodendron type. The vegetation during
do not have direct information on the age of the out- each of these zones is interpreted as being charac-
er Llanquihue-age moraine belt from Taiquem6 teristic of phases of Subantarctic Parkland environ-
northward to the middle reaches of the Llanquihue- ment superimposed on the general deterioration of
age moraines west of Seno Reloncavi. But the ra- Subantarctic Evergreen Forest. The durations of
diocarbon chronology given in Denton et al. the youngest two of these middle Llanquihue grass
(1999) shows that the outer moraine belt fringing pollen events are 44,520-47,110 14C yr BP for zone
northern Seno Reloncavi, Lago Llanquihue, and T-11 and 32,105-35,764 '4C yr BP for zone T-9.
Lago Rupanco is late Llanquihue in age. However, Grass pollen events also occurred during late Llan-
middle or early Llanquihue advances into subsidi- quihue time at 24,895-26,019 '4C yr BP for zone T-
ary moraine belts west of Lago Llanquihue are sug- 7, 21,430-22,774 14C yr BP for zone T-5, and
gested by virtually unweathered till or outwash be- 13,040-15,200 '4C yr BP for zone T-3 (Heusser et
neath radiocarbon-dated interdrift organic silt-and- al. 1999).
sand deposits in exposures at Puerto Octay, at Fru- In the southern Lake District, the pollen records
tillar Bajo, and west of Puerto Varas (Denton et al. for middle Llanquihue time extend back only to
1999). 36,960-39,340 '4C yr BP at the Frutillar Bajo and
A third major point illustrated in Fig. 2 is that the Puerto Octay sites, and intermittently to 39,660 14C
climate deteriorated from warmer conditions dur- yr BP at the Canal Tenglo site (Heusser et al. 1999).
ing the early part to colder conditions during the lat- These records come not from a continuous core as
er part of middle Llanquihue time (MIS 3). The pol- at Taiquem6, but from interdrift organic silt-and-
len record from Taiquemo again affords most of the fine-sand deposits. They cover, then, only the later
Table 1. Comparison of the chronology of Heinrich events in the North Atlantic Ocean (40-60N), Gramineae maxima at Taiquemo,
Isla Grande de Chilo6 (4210'S), and glacier maxima in the southern Lake District-Isla Grande de Chilo6 on the western border of
the Chilean Andes (4035'-4225'S). All ages are in 14C yr BP.
Heinrich events Gramineae events Glacier maxima
North Atlantic Ocean Isla Grande de Chiloe Chilean Andes
(Elliot et al. 1998) (Heusser et al. 1999) (Denton et al. 1999b)
H-1 13,200-15,000 T-3 13,040-15,200 14,550-14,805
H-2 20,200-22,200 T-5 21,430-22,774 22,295-22,570
21,000 (?)
H-3 26,000-27,700 T-7 24,895-26,019 26,760
H-4 34,200-35,200 T-9 32,105-35,764 -
(32,200-35,200)
H-5 44,220 T-11 44,520-47,110
1. The table shows the durations (rather than just the peaks) of Heinrich lithic events. The duration of Heinrich events 1, 2, 3, and 4
are taken from the average radiocarbon ages of the base and top of the lithic layers in several cores over 20 of latitude in the North
Atlantic Ocean, as plotted in fig. 5 of Elliot et al. (1998). An alternate chronology for the duration of H-4 (given in parentheses) is
from the combined lithic and 18 O0 signal in fig. 9 of Elliot et al. (1998). Previous age estimates for the H-4 event are about 35,100
14C yr. BP (Cortijo et al. 1997) and about 35,500 14C yr. BP (Bond et al. 1993). The radiocarbon age estimate for H-5 is from Elliot
et al. (1998). Radiocarbon dates from North Atlantic marine-sediment cores are corrected by 400 years for the surface-water marine
reservoir effect.
2. The Gramineae events show the duration, not just the peaks, of pulses of enhanced grass pollen in the Taiquemo vegetation record,
Isla Grande de Chiloe.
3. The table shows only the peaks of Chilean glacier advances, not the durations of the expansion events.
4. The date of 21,000 14C yr. BP (?) listed under Glacier Maxima in the Chilean Andes refers to the alternate chronology of Denton et
al. (1999).
phase of the much longer middle Llanquihue (T-13, T-11, and T-9 in fig. 20 of Heusser et al.
record farther south at Taiquem6, when Subantarc- 1999), and reversion toward Subantarctic Ever-
tic Evergreen Forest was giving way to Subantarc- green Forest characterized the interstadials (T-14,
tic Parkland. The three records from stratigraphic T-12, T-10, and T-8 in fig. 20 of Heusser et al.
sections in the southern Lake District show the 1999). Subantarctic Evergreen Forest diminished
continued presence of Subantarctic Parkland dur- in dominance during successive interstadials. This
ing the later phase of middle Llanquihue time, be- fluctuating deterioration of climate does not leave
ginning at least by 36,960-39,340 '4C yr BP. These a sharp delineation between middle and late Llan-
data indicate that during the later part of middle quihue time. Rather, the impression from the in-
Llanquihue time, there was a transition zone in crease in frequency of Gramineae in the Taiquem6
eastern Isla Grande de Chiloe between Subantarc- pollen record is that the climate deterioration con-
tic Evergreen Forest and Subantarctic Parkland, tinued toward a culmination of cold conditions
while Subantarctic Parkland dominated the south- about 21,900 14C yr BP in late Llanquihue time.
ern Lake District. The extent of Andean piedmont ice lobes during
The trend evident from the vegetation record at middle Llanquihue time is not well constrained.
Taiquem6 is of increasingly cold climate beginning The Lago Llanquihue piedmont lobe did not ad-
after pollen zone T-12 (fig. 20 of Heusser et al. vance into the outer moraine belt at the Puerto Oc-
1999) and continuing into the beginning of late tay site between 29,363 and prior to 39,340 14C yr
Llanquihue time. That overall cold and wet climate BP or at the Frutillar Bajo site between 26,760 and
persisted throughout middle Llanquihue time is in- prior to 36,960 14C yr BP. Nor is there evidence for
dicated by the low percentages of the thermophilic nearby Andean ice at the Canal Tenglo section
arboreal species of the North Patagonian Ever- alongside Seno Reloncavi between 29,385 and pri-
green Forest, even during early phases of middle or to 39,660 14C yr BP (Denton et al. 1999). These
Llanquihue time, and by the continued presence of three sites are all at or near the ice-contact slopes
Lepidothamnus fonkii, Astelia pumila, and Dona- that rise above Lago Llanquihue or Seno Reloncavi
tiafascicularis. Superimposed on this overall cool- at the proximal margin of the outer Llanquihue mo-
ing trend are stadial-interstadial fluctuations. Sub- raine belt. The first definitive evidence that middle
antarctic Parkland conditions marked the stadials Llanquihue climate had deteriorated enough to
115
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
send Andean piedmont glaciers into the outer Llan- quihue site), 14,882 14C yr BP (Northwest Bluff
quihue-age moraine belt is outwash deposited site), 14,540 14C yr BP (Bella Vista Bluff site),
about 29,400 '4C yr BP at the Puerto Octay and Ca- 14,550-14,613 14C yr BP (railroad bridge site), and
nal Tenglo sites. 14,820 14C yr BP (Calle Santa Rosa site) (Denton et
A fourth major point shown in Fig. 2 is that cli- al. 1999). Near Seno Reloncavf it is dated to 15,220
mate fluctuated within a narrow range close to full- 14C yr BP at Isla Maillen, 14,879 14C yr BP at Punta
glacial conditions from about 29,400 to about Penas, and shortly after 15,040 14C yr BP at the top
14,550 '4C yr BP. Throughout this long interval of the ice-contact slope beside Canal Tenglo. For
Subantarctic Parkland environments persisted in the Golfo de Ancud lobe, this youngest readvance
the southern Lake District (Heusser et al. 1999; is dated to shortly after 14,900 14C yr BP at the Cal-
Moreno et al. 1999). Andean piedmont glacier buco site. For the northern part of the Golfo Cor-
lobes repeatedly advanced into the outer Llanqui- covado lobe, numerous radiocarbon dates from the
hue moraine belt during this long interval. As men- Dalcahue site place this readvance at close to
tioned above, during these peaks of the LGM, we 14,805 14C yr BP. Therefore, we conclude that these
estimate a mean summer temperature about 6-8C four piedmont glacier lobes fluctuated in near syn-
lower than at present. The only discrepancy be- chrony (within the limits of radiocarbon dating)
tween the pollen and glacial records is near the be- during the youngest major pulse of the LGM. Note
ginning of the LGM. The glacial record implies that because of numerous new radiocarbon dates
that the earliest major advance occurred close to reported in Denton et al. (1999), the date for the
29,400 14C yr BP. However, the pollen records from thin upper peat bed at the railroad bridge site is old-
Isla Grande de Chiloe suggest that full-glacial con- er than reported in Lowell et al. (1995). Further-
ditions may not have been achieved until about more, the ages of the lower, thick organic bed and
26,000 '4C yr BP. The last remnants of Subantarctic underlying organic silt are also older than reported
Evergreen Forest disappeared at Taiquemo be- previously in Mercer (1976) and Hoganson and
tween 32,105 14C yr BP and 26,019 14C yr BP, and Ashworth (1992).
at Dalcahue about 25,176 14C yr BP (Heusser et al. Two older advances into the outer Llanquihue
1999). moraine system during the LGM occurred at about
The anatomy of the youngest piedmont glacier 29,400 14C yr BP and at 26,760 14C yr BP (Denton
advances is depicted in Fig. 2 and in Table 1 from et al. 1999) (Fig. 2 and Table 1). The first of these
details in Denton et al. (1999). The first of these is older advances is recorded for only two piedmont
dated to 22,460 14C yr BP for the Lago Rupanco lobes (Llanquihue and Seno Reloncavf), and the
lobe; between 20,890 14C yr BP and 23,020 14C yr second for only one lobe (Llanquihue). Neverthe-
BP for the Lago Llanquihue lobe; 22,570 14C yr BP less, we consider it likely that both advances are re-
for the Seno Reloncavi lobe; and 22,295 14C yr BP gional, given the nearly simultaneous behavior of
for the northern part of the Golfo Corcovado lobe. several lobes during the youngest two maxima of
Basal dates from mires on the moraine belts near the LGM.
Lago Llanquihue and Seno Reloncavi indicate re- A fifth major point in Fig. 2 involves the struc-
cession after the culmination of this advance (Den- ture of the climate changes that, taken together,
ton et al. 1999). Note that new radiocarbon dates constitute the last glacial-interglacial transition.
reported in Denton etal. (1999) have caused the ad- An examination of this structure requires a detailed
vance of most lobes to be placed at 22,295-22,570 chronology of the youngest glacial maximum. As
14C yr BP, rather than at the somewhat younger ages described above, the advance to this maximum cul-
reported in Lowell et al. (1995). See Denton et al. minated at 14,550-14,805 '4C yr BP for piedmont
(1999) for the current inventory of radiocarbon glacier lobes in the field area. For the northern part
dates associated with this advance, as well as alter- of the field area, this youngest advance of the LGM
native interpretations of available dates. There may terminated behind the outermost late Llanquihue
also have been advances to the edge of the kame moraine belt. However, in the southern portion of
terraces alongside the western shore of Lago Llan- the field area, this final advance was the maximum
quihue shortly before 17,800 '4C yr BP and again of late Llanquihue time. We interpret the lack of
shortly before 15,730 14C yr BP. younger radiocarbon dates associated with sedi-
The youngest readvance of the LGM is radio- ments deposited at this maximum to mean that ice
carbon dated near Lago Llanquihue to 14,650 14C recession was underway immediately.
yr BP (Puerto Phillippi site), 14,869 14C yr BP (Llan- Pollen analyses of three organic beds deposited
116 Geografiska Annaler * 81 A (1999) 2
just before the culmination of this youngest ad- only to that time. In addition, wood from the upper
vance at the Llanquihue, Bella Vista Bluff, and few centimeters of the capping organic layer yield-
Punta Penas sites all show cold, wet Subantarctic ed a mean age of 14,613 '4C yr BP (Denton et al.
Parkland conditions (Heusser et al. 1999). For ex- 1999). In view of the fact that the capping organic
ample, the pollen analysis of the organic silt bed at bed is developed into the top of the silt unit, it is not
the Bella Vista Bluff site in Puerto Varas, which clear whether the two beetle samples from the or-
covers the interval from 14,540 to 15,640 '4C yr BP, ganic bed refer to 14,613 '4C yr BP or to 17,350-
indicates continuous cold Subantarctic Parkland 17,880 '4C yr BP. With this revised chronology, the
conditions right up until 14,540 14C yr BP, when or- fossil-beetle data are invaluable in showing cold,
ganic accumulation ceased as a result of the lake- wet environmental conditions near Lago Llanqui-
level rise that heralded readvance of the Lago Llan- hue at 16,000-18,170 14C yr BP (Canal de Chan-
quihue piedmont lobe. This is consistent with other chan site near Puerto Octay), 17,350-17,880 14C yr
detailed pollen evidence for cold moorland habi- BP (railroad bridge site in Puerto Varas), and 15,715
tats in the southern Chilean Lake District through- 14C yr BP (Bella Vista Park site in Puerto Varas); all
out the latter part of the LGM from the Canal de la of these times occur within the long interval of the
Puntilla (Moreno 1997; Moreno et al. 1999) and LGM.
Fundo Llanquihue (Heusser et al. 1999) sites. The We earlier presented evidence for significant
open environment and increased precipitation im- amelioration of climate at the end of the last glaci-
plied by the moorland pollen taxa suggest a north- ation. That evidence was the invasion of the low-
ward shift of the westerlies storm tracks (Moreno lands of the southern Chilean Lake District by ther-
et al. 1999). mophilic arboreal elements of the North Patagoni-
These paleoenvironmental inferences from pol- an Evergreen Forest. This arboreal diversification
len analysis are consistent with earlier conclusions began with the spread of Myrtaceae, Nothofagus
drawn from fossil beetle data (Hoganson and Ash- cf. dombeyi, Lomatia, Maytenus and other relative-
worth 1992; Ashworth and Hoganson 1993). One ly thermophilic arboreal taxa, which became prom-
of the key fossil-beetle sites is an organic silt layer inent by 13,900 14C yr BP at the Canal de la Puntilla
dated to 15,715 440 14C yr BP (GX-5275) within site, by 13,500 14C yr BP at the Fundo Llanquihue
the kame terrace at the Bella Vista Park site (Hog- site, and by 13,700 '4C yr BP at the Alerce site
anson and Ashworth 1992), situated about 175 m (Lowell et al. 1995). To determine more closely the
north of the Bella Vista Bluff site. The age and beginning of the glacial/interglacial transition, we
stratigraphic position indicate that this organic bed subsequently investigated in detail several cores in
at the park site corresponds with the organic silt a transect at the Canal de la Puntilla site (Moreno
bed at the bluff site. Another key sample locality is et al. 1999) and a single core with a high sedimen-
the Puerto Varas railroad bridge site, where a silt tation rate at the Huelmo site (Moreno 1998). In
and sand unit is capped by a 26-cm-thick layer of both cases the chronology was established with nu-
organic silt, peat, and wood (see Denton et al. merous new AMS radiocarbon dates. This detailed
1999). Mercer (1976) reported a date of 16,270 examination shows that the first indication of
360 14C yr BP (RL-1 13) of wood from near the base warming was a rapid rise of Nothofagus at 14,600
of the silt and sand unit. Hoganson and Ashworth 14C yr BP at both sites. Warming continued with the
(1992) gave an age of 14,060450 14C yr BP (GX- invasion of thermophilic tree species of the North
5507) for the capping organic layer. Ten samples of Patagonian Evergreen Forest about 14,100 '4C yr
fossil beetles come from regular intervals within BP at Canal de la Puntilla and 14,200 '4C yr BP at
the silt and sand unit, and two samples from within Huelmo. These vegetation changes are taken to be
the capping organic layer (Hoganson and Ash- regional because they are recorded nearly simulta-
worth 1992). The implication based on these two neously at two widely separated sites. The chronol-
dates is that the beetle samples come from regular ogies show that both vegetational changes are rapid
intervals between 16,270 14C yr BP and 14,060 14C at each site.
yr BP, the critical last several thousand years of the Thanks to these detailed and well-dated stratig-
LGM (Hoganson and Ashworth 1992, table 1 and raphies, we can place age brackets on the climate
fig. 4). However, our new dates show that the entire change that marked the end of glacial conditions in
silt and sand unit was deposited at 17,350-17,880 the southern Chilean Lake District. The pollen
14C yr BP (Denton et al. 1999), and hence that the record from the Bella Vista Bluff section in the ter-
ten beetle samples from the silt and sand unit refer race at Puerto Varas shows cold conditions until the
117
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
culmination of the last glacial advance of the LGM significant presence of Podocarpus and Pilgero-
at 14,550-14,805 14C yr BP (Heusser et al. 1999). dendron-type during episodic cooling between
The first indication of subsequent climate amelio- 11,360 and 10,355 14C yr BP (Heusser et al. 1999).
ration is the rise of Nothofagus at 14,600 14C yr BP We mentioned above that the overall deteriora-
at Canal de la Puntilla and at Huelmo (Moreno tion of climate at the coldest times of the LGM was
1998; Moreno etal. 1999), followed by invasion of about 6-8C in mean summer temperature relative
thermophilic species at about 14,000 14C yr BP at to the present-day value (Heusser et al. 1999;
many sites in the Lake District (Heusser et al. Moreno et al. 1999). About 3C of this difference
1999). Note that because of extensive new radio- was recovered in the first warming pulses between
carbon dating described in Denton et al. (1999), 14,600 '4Cyr BPand 12,700-13,000 14CyrBP.An-
this age for the beginning of the last termination is

other 3C was recovered between 12,700-13,000
slightly earlier than we reported in Lowell et al. 14C yr BP and 12,200-12,500 '4C yr BP. Our data
(1995).
suggest that warming at the beginning of these in-
The pollen records from throughout the south- tervals was rapid. Finally, we infer that the late-gla-
ern Chilean Lake District and on Isla Grande de

cial climate reversal after 12,000-12,200 '4C yr BP
Chiloe register a consistent late-glacial pattern of involved a relatively small decline in temperature
vegetational development (Heusser et al. 1996, (probably < 2-3C, Heusser et al. 1999), compared
1999; Moreno 1997, 1998; Moreno et al. 1999). to the high values achieved at 12,200-12,500 14C
The inferences drawn from the detailed pollen yr BP.
records from the Fundo Llanquihue and Canal de
la Puntilla sites are supported by a network of cores
New Zealand paleoclimate record

analysed with less temporal resolution. The inter-
val between 14,000 and 13,000 14C yr BP is a tran- To test the Chilean paleoclimate record as a baro-
sition zone in which thermophilic arboreal ele- meter of change in the zone of Southern Hemi-
ments of the North Patagonian Evergreen Forest sphere westerlies, rather than simply as a piece of
invaded the lowlands, but in such relatively low a complex matrix of varying regional climate
numbers that grasslands and elements of Magel- changes, we examined the available records and we
lanic Moorland remained. The persistence of obtained additional radiocarbon dates from New
moorland taxa suggests that the westerlies storm Zealand at the same Southern Hemisphere middle
belt remained in the inferred northern glacial posi- latitudes but on the opposite side of the Pacific
tion. A closed-canopy North Patagonian Evergreen Ocean. Although this test is preliminary, we con-
Forest was then established at 12,700-13,000 14C clude that major climate shifts in New Zealand are
yr BP. The rapidity and magnitude of this event at similar to those in the Chilean Andes. The basis for
12,700-13,000 14C yr BP are particularly well this conclusion follows.
shown in the influx diagram from Canal de la Pun- Grassland and shrubland were dominant during
tilla (Moreno et al. 1999), but are also evident in the LGM in most of New Zealand south of about
other diagrams. One explanation for the disappear- 37S (the latitude of Auckland in northern North
ance of moorland taxa is the postulated southward Island) (McGlone 1995), with continuous forest
shift of the westerlies storm track. The evergreen persisting only in the extreme north (Fig. 3). Only
forest reached its fullest development about small patches of Nothofagus, Libocedrus, and po-
12,000-12,200 '4C yr BP, and may at that time have docarp trees remained in South Island. Forest
contained some elements of the Valdivian Ever- stands may have persisted in hilly areas of North Is-
green Forest.After 12,000 '4C yr BP, opening of the land south of 37S, but grassland and shrubland
forest and the appearance of cold-tolerant elements dominated the lower, rolling terrain. Such exten-
of the North Patagonian Evergreen Forest (Podo- sive deforestation probably reflects severe frosts
carpus nubigena, Pseudopanax laetevirens) sug- from outbreaks of cold subantarctic air masses over
gest climate cooling that continued until at least most of New Zealand during the LGM (McGlone
10,500 14C yr BP, when the Fundo Llanquihue and 1988). The oceanic reconstruction from Deep Sea
many other vegetational records are disturbed by Drilling Project (DSDP) Site 594 on the south flank
the influence of fire. However, farther south on Isla of Chatham Rise 300 km east of South Island is
Grande de Chiloe, the Taiquem6 record escaped consistent with severe terrestrial conditions, be-
the influence of fire, and here North Patagonian Ev- cause it shows cold subantarctic water close to
ergreen Forest communities opened to allow the South Island during the LGM (Nelson et al. 1993).
118
Geografiska Annaler - 81 A (1999) 2
168 170 172 174 176 178
IIIIII
Explanation
[-j Ice today
I Ice at last glacial maximum
.r |Alpine vegetation
t Grassland - shrubland
I! Tall, lowland - montane
lowlands
coniferous broadleaf forest
+ |Scattered forest areas

Fig. 3. The extent of mountain gla-
ciers in the Southern Alps is from
| t|7 Present-day coastline
Hollin and Schilling (1981) and the
Coastline at last glacial maximum

distribution of vegetation is from
McGlone et al. (1993), both during
I Radiocarbon or exposure
the LGM at approximately 18,000 sample site
14C yr BP. Also listed are the key
Pollen site e
stratigraphic sites mentioned in the
text. The radiocarbon dates associat-
ed with these sites and not listed in
the text or in Denton and Hendy
(1994) are as follows. At the Kama-
ka site, an organic-rich bed is over-
lain by laminated lacustrine deposits
and then by coarse outwash. The
Raupo
laminated deposits reflect glacier ex-

Kamaka
pansion. They have yielded the fol-

Kumara--"
lowing succession of AMS radiocar-
Abut Head
River
bon dates of small enclosed wood
Omoeroa Bluff ~--
and plant fragments, from bottom to
top: 22,420230 14C yr BP (AA-
22271), 22,460240 14C yr BP (AA-
22275), 22,360190 14C yr BP
-Pukaki
(ETH-16387),22,620+200 '4CyrBP
(ETH-16388),22,160310 4C yrBP
(AA-22275), 22,490330 14C yr BP
o DSDP Site 594
(AA-22279), 22,100+790 14C yr BP
(AA-22282), 22,570200 14C yr BP
(AA-22283), 22,860+200 14C yr BP 9
(AA-22285), 22,730200 14C yr BP
Scale
(AA-22286), 22,680+220 14C yr BP
0 100 200 300
(AA-22290), 22,650+240 14C yr BP
km
(AA-22291), 21,990220 14C yr BP
(ETH-16390), and 22,380+190 14C
.. 192 4s 17n- 172 174 176 178

yr BP (ETH-16391.
Drafted by Richard D. Kelly Jr., Augusta, Maine, 1997.
In any case, the harsh terrestrial climate during the deposition of the Tekapo (Kumara-33) moraines
LGM promoted instability of the deforested land- (Porter 1975). Radiocarbon dates from several
scape, with widespread mechanical weathering, sites indicate multiple advances into late Otiran
slope erosion, and loess deposition; extensive allu- moraine belts that are taken to be the equivalents of
vial plains developed between the Southern Alps the outer of the two late Otiran moraine belts near
and the east coast of South Island. Lake Pukaki (Suggate 1978). An organic bed over-
Figure 4 displays the glacier advances in the lain by till occurs within the outer Otiran moraine
belt at Mt Hercules on the western flank of the

Southern Alps that occurred within this LGM en-
vironment. During the maximum of the late Otiran Southern Alps. Three small wood samples from
glaciation (LGM), equilibrium-line altitudes near within this bed yielded new ages of 23,870 330
Lake Pukaki were depressed 875 50 m below 14C yr BP (A-6188), 23,560 370 14C yr BP (A-
present-day values during deposition of the Mt 6591), and 23,510 350 '4C yr BP (A-6592). The
John (Kumara-22) moraines and 750 + 50 m during glacial advance represented by the overlying till

119
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
Fig. 4. Paleoclimate records for New Zealand. The left panel shows the radiocarbon-dated glacial deposits indicative of ice advances
into the outer Otiran moraine belts of the LGM. These are plotted with regard to the associated drop in equilibrium line altitude associated
with correlative moraine belts near Lake Pukaki (Porter 1975). The existence and chronology of the Younger-Dryas-age glacier read-
vance is from Denton and Hendy (1994), Lowell et al. (1995), and Ivy-Ochs et al. (1999). The right three panels show the record for
core DSDP Site 594 (Nelson et al. 1993, Heusser and van der Geer 1994). The marine pollen reflects changing vegetation in New Zea-
land. The CaCO3 record is a reflection of the amount of silt input from New Zealand. The benthonic 6180 signal is largely a reflection
of Northern Hemisphere ice-sheet volume. On the right is shown the numbers of marine isotope stages from Nelson et al. (1993).
likely occurred shortly after this time. Farther north (ETH-11104), 17,900140 14C yr BP (ETH-
in the Grey River Valley, a stratigraphic section at 13399), 18,160140 14C yr BP (ETH-13400), and
Kamaka registers an advance of the northern of the 18,360 + 140 14C yr BP (ETH-13402). Two other ra-
two major piedmont lobes of the Taramaku Glacier diocarbon samples previously collected within the
system at the LGM. Here an organic silt bed lies be- organic silt bed yielded ages of 18,450 300 14C yr
neath laminated glacial lacustrine sediments and BP (NZ-4408) and 17,250+250 14C yr BP (NZ-
outwash that herald advance of this lobe to the out- 4407) (Moar 1980).
er moraine system (Suggate 1965). New AMS ra- The terrace at Raupo (Kumara-22 terrace of Sug-
diocarbon dates of 14 small wood pieces from the gate and Moar 1970) in the Grey Valley northeast
lacustrine sediments yielded a mean value of of Kamaka reveals an interstadial organic silt bed
22,400 14C yr BP, consistent with an earlier date of with an aggregate thickness of 60 cm that separates
22,300+350 14C yr BP (NZ-116) from the organic two outwash units. Previous radiocarbon ages of
silt bed (Suggate 1965). samples from within this bed are 18,600+290 14C
A prominent maximum of the western of the two yr BP (NZ-891) and 18,750+180 14C yr BP (NZ-
piedmont lobes of the former Taramaku Glacier 737) (Suggate and Moar 1970). Additional radio-
system occurred near Kumara at close to 17,700 carbon samples that we collected yielded ages of
14C yr BP. This maximum was the greatest of late 19,740 150 14C yr BP (A-6550) for the base of the
Otiran time for this lobe. The age comes from five organic silt bed, 18,940+170 14C yr BP (A-6551)
new AMS radiocarbon dates of small samples of for the middle, and 18,780 140 14C yrBP (A-6552)
grass, wood, bark, and beetles from near the top of for the top. Renewed outwash deposition in the
an organic silt bed that underlies till with a non-ero- Grey Valley after 18,780 '4C yr BP probably repre-
sive conformable contact. These dates are 17,380+ sents glacier advance into the outermost late Otiran
130 14Cyr BP(ETH-13398),17,720120 '4C yrBP moraine system. Also, glacier ice must have ex-
120 Geografiska Annaler - 81 A (1999) 2
tended into this moraine system when outwash was gest that the moraine is Younger Dryas in age (Ivy-
deposited below the organic silt bed. Ochs et al. 1999). This moraine represents snow-
Near Abut Head on the Tasman seacoast, an ad- line lowering of about 260-360 m relative to the
vance into the outer moraine belt resulted in the Little Ice Age value (Ivy-Ochs et al. 1999).
deposition of a large moraine on a thin organic bed Figure 4 also depicts the pollen, carbonate, and
6180 records from marine sediment cores from

now exposed in a sea cliff. Radiocarbon samples
from the undisturbed uppermost part of this bed DSDP Site 594 on the south flank of Chatham Rise
give the following new ages for this advance: 300 km east of South Island (Nelson et al. 1993;
16,615+95 14C yrsBP(A-9063), 16,575 +8 14CyrBP Heusser and van der Geer 1994). These records are
(A-9064), 16,920100 14C yr BP (A-9065), and linked to the changing paleoenvironment of South
16,525 90 14C yr BP (A-9066). Island, because DSDP Site 594 is situated offshore
The advance to the widespread Kumara-33 mo- and downwind from the Southern Alps, from allu-
raines (or their equivalents), nested just behind the vial fans of the Canterbury Plains, and from major
rivers that drain the Southern Alps. The pollen

outer Otiran moraine belt, is dated only at Omoeroa
Bluff, cut into a moraine ridge on the Tasman Sea record shows the changing percentages of trees and
coast near Franz Josef Glacier. Here two radiocar- shrubs as reflected in pollen carried offshore by the
prevailing westerly winds and by rivers draining

bon samples of a thin peat bed buried by drift of this
youngest advance yielded results of 13,950140 the east coast of South Island. The carbonate record
4C yr BP (NZ-479) (Wardle 1978) and 15,300 is taken to represent increases in silt input (and a
120 14C yr BP (Suggate 1990). Behind these mo- corresponding dilution of CaCO3) during cold in-
raines (or their equivalents) in most valleys lie ba- tervals from terrestrial erosion and outwash aggra-
sins, now or formerly filled with lake or sea water, dation, with the resulting generation of loess and
which reflect rapid collapse of ice tongues. Ice offshore sediment transport. The pollen and car-
cleared these basins prior to 13,500 14C yr BP in the bonate records are closely correlated with each oth-
Tasman Valley near Lake Pukaki and 13,400 14C yr er, presumably because the extent of forest cover
BP in the Paringa River valley (Suggate 1968). went hand in hand with landscape stability and
From this preliminary chronology, Suggate (1965) hence sediment production on South Island. Both
and Suggate and Moar (1970) estimated that rapid of these terrestrial indicators seem to correspond
ice recession close to 14,000 14C yr BP marked the with the benthonic 6180 record. In turn, the ben-
end of the LGM. As discussed below, however, pal- thonic 6180 record is determined by changes in
ynological data from the Waikato lowlands in both temperature and ice volume, with the latter be-
North Island place the first decisive warming of the ing dominant. Because the Antarctic Ice Sheet
last glacial/interglacial transition a bit earlier, at showed only modest volume change through the
shortly after 14,700 14C yr BP, based on the radio- last glacial cycle, the benthonic 6180 signal largely
carbon ages of numerous distinctive volcanic te- follows Northern Hemisphere ice-volume changes.
phras registered in pollen records (Newnham et al. The beginning of reforestation at the end of the
1989). LGM is documented in North Island in the Waikato
Late-glacial readvances are recorded in many lowlands. Grass and shrubs dominated these low-
valleys of the Southern Alps. Readvance of Franz lands at the LGM (McGlone et al. 1993). Reforest-
Josef Glacier toward the Waiho Loop moraine oc- ation of the Waikato lowlands by a podocarp-hard-
curred at 11,050 14 14C yr BP (Denton and Hendy wood community was rapid after deposition of the
1994, 1995). A late-glacial moraine remnant in up- Rerewhakaaitu tephra at 14,700 14C yr BP (Newn-
per Cropp River Valley was dated to 10,250 14C yr ham et al. 1989). Podocarp-hardwood forest had
BP by Basher and McSaveney (1989). We have ob- spread across much of North Island by about
tained an error-weighted mean age of 10,055+29 14,000 14C yr BP, followed by progressive reforest-
14C yr BP for five additional wood samples from this ation of the rest of New Zealand (McGlone et al.
remnant (Lowell et al. 1995). Because Mabin 1993). It is important to note that the vegetation just
prior to 14,700 14C yr BP was essentially the same

(1995) cautioned against accepting the concept of
a regional Younger-Dryas-age readvance on this as that earlier in the LGM at 18,000 14C yr BP de-
limited evidence, exposure dates were obtained on picted in Fig. 3 (McGlone etal. 1993). The massive
boulders from a prominent late-glacial moraine in changes in the forest cover of North Island at the
Arthur's Pass at the head of a tributary of the former end of the LGM, shortly after 14,700 14C yr BP,
Taramaku Glacier system. The dating results sug- were synchronous with the rapid rise of Nothofa-

121
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
gus, followed by the invasion of thermophilic trees 100,000-yr ice-volume cycle, depicted in Fig. 5,
into the Chilean Lake District, at the end of the features a prolonged growth phase terminated by a
LGM. much shorter collapse phase. The existence of such
Landscape stabilization accompanied reforesta- a prolonged growth phase implies to us that the ice-
tion in central North Island, as documented by the sheet system (and probably the entire climate sys-
relative preservation of highly erodible tephras. tem) became largely detached from pervasive or-
The landscape was unstable throughout the LGM bital forcing early in the glacial cycle (except for
at elevations above 300 m (Leamy et al. 1973; Mc- the long-term oscillations superimposed on the
Glone et al. 1984; Kennedy 1988). The Rerewha- prolonged growth phase) (see also Imbrie et al.
kaaitu tephra, dated to 14,700 14C yr BP (Froggatt 1993). Also superimposed on the long buildup
and Lowe 1990), is the earliest to be preserved on phase, at least in the North Atlantic region, are
highly eroded LGM landscapes above 300 m. By shorter asymmetric oscillations known as Bond cy-
13,080 14C yr BP (Rotorua Tephra; Froggatt and cles (Bond et al. 1993; Broecker 1994; Rasmussen
Lowe 1990), extensive areas above 500 m were sta- et al. 1997). Each such cycle represents a period of
ble. By 11,850 14C yr BP (Waiohau Tephra; Frog- climate cooling that ended with a massive Heinrich
gatt and Lowe 1990), landscapes were stable up to discharge of icebergs (Table 1), in turn followed by
900 m elevation (McGlone 1995). abrupt increase of North Atlantic sea-surface tem-
peratures. Each of these abrupt North Atlantic
warmings failed to terminate the long growth phase
Middle-latitude Southern Hemisphere data in

of the 100,000-yr cycle. Instead, climate reverted
a global context
to cold conditions and ice-sheet buildup continued
In order to place the middle-latitude Southern until the decisive Heinrich 1 ice collapse (Table 1),
Hemisphere data from Chile and New Zealand into which was coincident with the beginning of the ir-
a global perspective, we first present background reversible decline in ice-sheet volume registered in
about the asymmetric shape of the 100,000-yr gla- TR163-31B (Fig. 5).
cial cycles of late Quaternary time, as our data bear A striking feature of the late Quaternary marine
on the mechanisms that terminated the last such cy- 6180 record is that the terminations of glacial
cle. We also review critical elements of the classic 100,000-yr cycles had similar magnitudes during
North Atlantic/European paleoclimate record be- times of both high-amplitude and low-amplitude
cause it is so important for our interhemispheric insolation changes. For example, increases both in
comparison. We then go on to address the main im- northern summer insolation and in tropical equi-
plications of our data in the context of this back- nox insolation were considerably smaller during
ground. We conclude by posing a series of ques- the last termination than during the penultimate
tions raised by these implications, and suggest an termination, and yet both terminations had the
initiative to answer these questions. same amplitude. Because of the effect of long ec-
centricity cycles on the amplitude of precession,
the same situation occurred about 400,000 years
Background
ago during Termination V between MIS 12 and 11.
Late Quaternary 100,000-yr glacial cycles. Ex- This is consistent with the postulate that termina-
plaining the asymmetric 100,000-yr glacial cycles tions represent ocean-atmosphere reorganizations
of late Quaternary time is one of the most difficult between preferred glacial and interglacial modes
challenges of paleoclimate research (Imbrie et al. of the climate system (Broecker and Denton 1990).
1993). The transition toward these 100,000-yr cy- And yet terminations recur at approximately the
cles began about 950,000 years ago, but took more 100,000-yr intervals set by eccentricity (which
than 300,000 years to complete (Imbrie et al. controls the amplitude of precession). The impli-
1993). By 600,000-650,000 years ago a clear cation is that during terminations the increased ef-
asymmetric 100,000-yr cycle had emerged. The fect of insolation somehow triggers a fundamental
subsequent glacial extremes of MIS 16, 12, 10, 6, reorganization of a non-linear system but does not
and 2 reflect the storage of excess ice in huge control the magnitude of the reorganization.
Northern Hemisphere ice sheets just prior to termi- Asymmetric 100,000-yr climate cycles of late
nations that abruptly ended the buildup phases of Quaternary time vary in length. In fact, the time in-
these asymmetric cycles (Raymo 1997). tervals between terminations range from 84,000 to
The overall asymmetric shape of the last 120,000 years (Raymo 1997). Moreover, termina-
122 Geografiska Annaler . 81 A (1999) 2
Core TR163-31B (337'S; 83058'W) V-19-30 (3023'S; 8221 'W)
Sea Level (m below present)

610 (%o)
6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 150 100 50 0
V r T ? T l I t t I 1- t t I t t t t , I I f . o0
*o
. 00 * **
.C^S %-12,860t250
oi 14,340t220 B 14,020:1180 -
o ** to
*.* . *^S < 15,080:200
c-
*- 16,120t260
o * 6 o < 17,200220 9
**
0
o
* ** *- 19,580+300
CI
* ~ - 20,960370 <- 21,480280
"I
.--20,890O360 -21,450t250
* */
0
o.
% ----23,930O320
25,690460
N4
* P. wuellerstorfi a - ----28,690600
* Uvigerina % a
Orfd by R. D. Kety Jr. 917
Fig . 5. The right panel, adapted from Shackleton (1987), shows a sea-level estimate based on the 5 'O records of V 19-30 in the equatorial
eastern Pacific Ocean (323'S, 8321'W) and RC-17-177 in the equatorial western Pacific Ocean (145'N, 15927'E). To construct this
curve, a correction for changing deep-water temperatures was made by calculating the isotopic difference between V- 19-30 (benthonic)
and RC 17-77 (planktonic). This difference was then subtracted from the benthonic V- 19-30 record. The results were scaled to the New
Guinea sea-level data to yield an estimate from isotopic data of the global sea-level record. Even though it is certainly not a perfect
representation of sea level, the resulting curve nevertheless highlights the long, gradual decline of sea level (increase of continental ice
volume), followed by an abrupt termination, that marked the latest 100,000-yr glacial cycle. The left panel shows the timing of the last
termination in detail. The figure displays the isotope data set from equatorial eastern Pacific core TR163-31B (337'S, 8358'W) from
Shackleton et al. (1988), with original isotope data points kindly provided by NJ. Shackleton. The radiocarbon dates have a marine
reservoir correction of 580 14C years. The results from two species of benthonic foraminifers are plotted. They are taken to be a rea-
sonable reflection of changes in continental ice volume. They show that the fundamental change between rising and declining isotope
values, which marks the beginning of the last termination, occurred close to 14,500 14C yr BP (not adjusted for unknown mixing time
of the ocean at that date).
tions that lead to full deglacial conditions similar to the subdivision of late-glacial time. The Boiling
those of the present day seem to occur only after ac- chron was placed at 12,000-13,000 14C yr BP, the
cumulation of considerable excess ice in huge Older Dryas chron at 11,800-12,000 14C yr BP, the
Northern Hemisphere ice sheets (Raymo 1997). In Aller6d chron at 11,000-11,800 14C yr BP, and the
other words, the major prerequisite for a sharp, Younger Dryas chron at 10,000-11,000 14C yr. BP.
complete termination seems not to be excessive or- One of our major points given below is that the cli-
bital forcing, but rather excessive ice volume. mate trigger for the last termination occurred dur-
ing the millennia before the B6iling chron. There-
North Atlantic/European late-glacial climate. fore, for the purposes of this paper, we use the term
Mangerud et al. (1974) defined a set of chrons for Oldest Dryas chron to encompass the interval be-
Geografiska Annaler . 81 A (1999) - 2
123
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
b. c.
a.
Southern Alps, New Zealand Chile Eastern North Atlantic Ocean
(42- 4430'S; 169- 172W) Southern Lake District SU81-18
Mountain Glaciers (3746'N; 1011'W)

(40030'- 4225'S; 72o25'- 73045'W)
ELA Depression (m) Mean Summer Temperature

6180 (%o)
1000 500 0 8C 10C 12C 14C 16C 210
,.,,,I....I IIIiI
-C
Preboreal 1- 2
02
___0
,--- Z" '- uYounger Dryas
=z-:
.-11,e1 n 1i23,3e1701 Older Dry
_S. - -12-W B11ling-
__a
CL
32,73313--- 1^t3.t Oldest Dryas
. 13,40t10.
- i ,n i
O,
,-,
T Z:.
on
i ..i..
0l
< -- . I . . . i
0- tN
,)
Drafted by R. D. Kelly Jr. 1997
e.
d. f.
Switzerland
Mountain Glaciers Gerzensee
(46- 48N; 06- 10E) (4650'N; 0733'E)
ELA Depression (m) 8180 (%o)
1000 500 0 -10 -8 -6
Q.
_Prboreal
X- Younger Dry_
I Aller8d --
tW - Older Dryas '
_r c --B1111ng -- - - . - - -....
U'- Oldest
~u_ - Dryas
" (U . . . . I . I I ,
<-Glacier advance-
Fig. 6. Comparison of terrestrial records from middle latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere with paleoclimate records from the North
Atlantic region. Panels (a) and (b) are from Figs 2 and 4. Panel (c) is adapted from Bard etal. (1987). It shows the oxygen-isotope values
and AMS radiocarbon ages for the planktonic species Globigerina bulloides in core SU8 1-18 in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean off
Portugal. The AMS radiocarbon dates have a standard marine reservoir correction of 400 14C years. The curve reflects a combination
of ice volume and temperature changes. It shows the same structure of paleoclimate signals as the records from middle latitudes of the
Southern Hemisphere in panels (a), (b), and (d). Particularly important is that the last termination, defined on the basis of the isotope
record, begins at 14,500 14C yr BP (Bard et al. 1987). This is the same result found in the detailed isotope record from core TR163-3 1B
in Fig. 7 from Shackleton et al. (1988). It correlates with the initial abrupt warming in the southern Chilean Lake District (panel (b))
and in New Zealand (Newnham et al. 1989). Panel (d) is from Ariztegui et al. (1997) and represents a curve of glacier activity in the
Argentine Andes that has similarities with the Greenland stable isotope record in panel (e) from Johnsen et al. (1992). Panel (f) shows
the Gerzensee lacustrine 6180 record from the forelands of the Swiss Alps (Eicher and Siegenthaler 1976), which likewise exhibits a
correspondence with the Greenland record. Also shown in panel (/) are the approximate equilibrium-line elevations on mountain glaciers
during the Zurich Stade just before massive recession began about 14,600 14C yr BP (Schliichter 1988; Ivy-Ochs et al. 1996), for the
time of maximum Bolling warmth (Maisch 1982), and for Egesen time (Maisch 1995; Ivy-Ochs et al. 1996). The European chronozones
shown on panels (c) and (f) are from Mangerud et al. (1974) as modified in the text. An important point here is that the Swiss Alps ex-
perienced massive deglaciation during Oldest Dryas time correlative with deglaciation in the southern Chilean Lake District (panel (b)).
124
tween 13,000 and 15,000 14C yr BP, much in the 3000 years later because of migrational lags. It is
sense of Welten (1982). This means that we place interesting to note that the 6180 record shows late-
the boundary of the Upper Pleniglacial and the Late glacial climatic deterioration beginning in latest
Glacial subages of Hammen et al. (1967) at 15,000 Boiling time and culminating in a Younger Dryas
14C yr BP, not at 13,000 14C yr BP. The Late Glacial reversal. The vegetation record shows only a small
subage would then include the Oldest Dryas, B6ll- increase in non-arboreal pollen in Younger Dryas
ing, Older Dryas, Aller6d, and Younger Dryas time, reflecting some openings in the forest cover.
chrons. However, when we discuss the climate sig- The alpine moraine record shows widespread
nature of central Europe, we use the system of pol- Egesen moraines of Younger Dryas age (Ivy-Ochs
len zonation of Firbas (1949, 1954), which Lotter et al. 1999). In sharp contrast to the situation in
et al. (1992) considered as strict biozones. Great Britain,Younger Dryas cooling is not reflect-
The basic shape for the North Atlantic/European ed in the insect record at Lobsigensee.
late-glacial climate signal is manifested in British The decisive warming that occurred throughout
Isles beetle remains (Atkinson et al. 1987), along the North Atlantic region near the Oldest Dryas/
with 6180 switches in both Greenland ice and Swiss Boiling transition was abrupt. The 6180 transition
lacustrine marl (Dansgaard et al. 1984) (Fig. 6). occurred within a century or less in Greenland ice
This shape consists of an abrupt change near or cores (Oeschger et al. 1985) and in Swiss sedi-
shortly after the Oldest Dryas/B611ing transition ment cores (Siegenthaler et al. 1984). In the
from cold conditions to an interval 200 years in British Isles a cold and continental climate ended
length that was close to interglacial warmth. This suddenly, with a 10C rise of mean annual tem-
warm interval was followed by progressive cooling, perature in an interval of 300 to 800 years. By
with oscillations, through late Boiling, Older Dryas, 12,500 14C yr BP British climate was as warm as
and Allerod time, culminating in the Younger Dryas that of today (Atkinson et al. 1987). At Ballybe-
cold episode (Oeschger 1991). There is remarkable tagh in Ireland, re-establishment of vegetation be-
coherence to this regional climate signal, such that gan about 12,600 14C yr BP; the warmest interval
even the superimposed short-lived Gerzensee, Old- of B611ing-Older Dryas-Aller6d time was at
er Dryas, and early Preboreal 6180 oscillations can 11,900-12,400 14C yr BP and was followed by cli-
be traced easily across this portion of the globe. The mate deterioration leading to the Younger Dryas
only major discrepancy is that, whereas the 6180 reversal (Cwynar and Watts 1989). In central Eu-
and beetle records show an early B611ing-warm peak rope north of the Alps, a treeless steppe-tundra
followed by a cooling trend, most pollen-records ex- with some dwarf birch yielded swiftly to reforest-
hibit continuous vegetation development from ation near the biozone Ia/Ib (Oldest Dryas/
herbs and shrubs to a succession of forest trees. The B6lling) boundary (Lotter et al. 1992). This
only widespread reversal in the pollen record took change is shown by an abrupt rise in the arboreal/
place in the Younger Dryas and to a much less de- non-arboreal ratio in numerous pollen profiles; it
gree in the Older Dryas (Watts 1980). was followed by the spread of trees across Europe
The discrepancy between the magnitude of early during biozones lb, Ic, and II (B6iling, Older
Bolling warmth in Europe implied by vegetation as Dryas, Aller6d). For example, vegetation in the
opposed to isotope and insect records may be more Swiss and adjacent French Alps changed marked-
apparent than real. An example comes from Lob- ly in parallel with b180 shifts in precipitation near
sigensee on the Swiss Plateau (Ammann and Lotter the biozone Ia/Ib (Oldest Dryas/B61iing) bounda-
1989; Ammann 1989a, b; Elias and Wilkinson ry (Eicher and Siegenthaler 1976; Eicher et al.
1983, 1985). The Oldest Dryas part of the Lob- 1981). Here an increase in juniper coincides with
sigensee records features a boreal and boreal-mon- the initial 6180 rise. At some sites reforestation by
tane insect assemblage, along with Betula nana. birch began during this early juniper phase, but at
During the early B611ing warming, the boreal in- most sites it occurred shortly after the juniper rise.
sect assemblage is replaced by a plant-independent This birch reforestation is by far the most dramatic
temperate assemblage that reflects a mean July late-glacial event recorded in pollen diagrams on
temperature close to interglacial values, just as in the northern margin of the Alps. Subsequently, a
Great Britain. A shift in water plants supports such rise of pine marks the beginning of biozone II
marked warming. The early Bolling climate was (Aller6d); open pine forest with some birch and
warm enough to support broad-leafed deciduous juniper characterizes biozone III (Younger
trees such as oak or hazel, which do not appear until Dryas); and finally a transition from open to

125
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
closed pine forest marks the biozone III/IV Keigwin 1992a). The fact that this is the earliest
(Younger Dryas/Preboreal) boundary (Lotter such dramatic warming over Europe is consistent
1991; Lotter et al. 1992). with the notion that LNADW, as it now forms, was
A similar situation prevailed in the Pyrenees ad- cut off during the LGM and Oldest Dryas time.
jacent to the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Thus the flooding of warm and salty surface water
Sea (Jalut et al. 1992). Here the Oldest Dryas/ into the Nordic Seas and the consequent initiation
Bolling boundary is marked by a rapid increase in of the Nordic Heat Pump of Imbrie et al. (1992),
birch, a beginning of pine expansion and, at some with its extensive import of ocean heat (Lehman
localities, the spread of juniper. Again the rapid rise and Keigwin 1992b), was probably the most im-
of arboreal pollen, which represents the most pro- portant event in the switch to an interglacial climate
nounced change in the vegetation records, signals mode.
the real change from an open glacial landscape to A less dramatic earlier warming pulse occurred
an extensive woodland. Subsequently, a rise in pine in Europe within Oldest Dryas time. The primary
characterizes the Allerod biozone, whereas the evidence comes from using records of the promi-
subsequent Younger Dryas biozone is notable for nent late-glacial climate signal that swept across
expansion of Artemesia and juniper, with concur- Europe near the Oldest Dryas/B611ing transition to
rent decline of birch and pine. unravel the deglacial chronology of the European
The circulation regime of the surface and deep Alps. This prominent Oldest Dryas/B611ing signal
waters of the North Atlantic Ocean also changed is coherent from Greenland to Switzerland. The
fundamentally near the Oldest Dryas/Bolling tran- southeastern end of this transect is anchored by the
sition. The polar front retreated rapidly (Ruddiman paleoclimate record at Gerzensee in Switzerland
and McIntyre 1981; Bard et al. 1987); the plank- that shows the characteristic 6180 and vegetation
tonic foraminifers in core Troll 3.1 show that warm shifts at the biozone Ia/Ib (Oldest Dryas/B611ing)
surface water leaked into the Norwegian Sea about boundary (Eicher and Siegenthaler 1976) (Fig. 6).
13,400 14C yr BP and reached near-modern values For us, the important point is that not only Gerzen-
by about 13,100 14C yr BP, signaling a major see but numerous other lakes and bogs with similar
change in surface circulation (Lehman and Keig- evidence for the Oldest Dryas/B61iing warming
win 1992a). event are located well within the boundaries of the
The circulation regime of the deep ocean expanded glacier system of the European Alps at
showed renewed strong thermohaline production the LGM, a situation previously pointed out by
of North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW), including Schltichter (1988). It is particularly pertinent that
Lower North Atlantic Deep Water (LNADW) many such sites occur in major valleys and passes.
formed by convection in the Nordic Seas. Carbon- At each site, the Oldest Dryas/Bolling transition is
isotope measurements of foraminifers from high- located above the base of the core, and hence oc-
sedimentation core RC11-83 from Cape Rise off curred subsequent to deglaciation. The major point
South Africa show that the first significant contri- is that extensive deglaciation of the European Alps
bution of NADW flow to the Southern Ocean oc- had already occurred before the Oldest Dryas/
curred between 12,700 and 13,100 14C yr BP Bolling warming that is so prominent in paleocli-
(Charles and Fairbanks 1992). Because it is closely mate records across the North Atlantic Ocean and
tied to surface conditions in the Nordic Seas, rapid Europe. In fact, the areal distribution of the core
turnover of LNADW most likely began with the sites in Switzerland indicates that, by the time of
warm surface water incursion documented in the this Oldest Dryas/B61iing transition, mountain gla-
Troll 3.1 core (Lehman and Keigwin 1992a). This ciers were already confined to upper reaches of
is consistent with Cd/Ca and 613C ratios from core deep alpine valleys or to inter-valley mountain
EN-1200-GGCI near Bermuda Rise in the path of massifs. The radiocarbon age of the Oldest Dryas/
deep-water flow (Keigwin et al. 1991). Bolling transition can only be placed roughly at
The rapid increase in northward heat flux caused 12,700-13,000 14C yr BP, because of an atmospher-
by this fundamental change in surface and deep cir- ic 14C plateau of several hundred years duration
culation must have contributed to the dramatic (Zbinden et al. 1989). If it is assumed that this tran-
warming in Europe near the Oldest Dryas/B611ing sition was simultaneous within the Swiss and Aus-
transition through the demonstrated linkage be- trian Alps, as it seems to have been across Europe,
tween North Atlantic sea-surface temperature and then this means that considerable mountain degla-
European climate (Rind et al. 1986; Lehman and ciation antedated 12,700-13,000 14C yr BP.
We interpret this early deglaciation of the Alps lowering during the Zurich Stadial was slightly
as evidence for an Oldest Dryas rise in mountain less. By the end of the widespread Oldest Dryas de-
snowlines in southern Europe within the Oldest glaciation, the remaining alpine ice was confined to
Dryas chron. We attribute this snowline rise to cli- the upper reaches of the deep valleys and to the in-
mate warming. A contrary suggestion has been ter-valley massifs. Glacier termini most probably
made for mountain glaciers of the French Vosges, stood near the Gschnitz or Clavadel moraines, as
near the site of the Grande Pile bog (Seret et al. shown by the position of these moraines relative to
1990, 1992). It is inferred from indirect evidence radiocarbon-dated pollen cores. The Clavadel mo-
that these glaciers were likely to have achieved raines register a snowline lowering of about 430 m
their maximum in middle Pleniglacial time when relative to the AD 1850 position, and the Gschnitz
slightly warmer climate was presumably accompa- about 670 m (Furrer et al. 1987). Hence the snow-
nied by increased snowfall; glaciers were suppos- line rise during Oldest Dryas time was at least 330
edly contracted during cold late Pleniglacial con- m and perhaps as much as 670 m. This amounts to
ditions because they were starved of precipitation. about one-third (and perhaps more) of the full gla-
That such a scenario could not apply to the Austrian cial-interglacial snowline rise.
and Swiss Alps is demonstrated by stratigraphic By comparison with pollen records on the north
sections near Innsbruck and Ztirich, respectively flank of the Alps at Gerzensee and Faulenseemoos
(Patzelt and Resch 1986; Schltichter et al. 1987). (Eicher and Siegenthaler 1976), Tourbiere de Chi-
At both sites till representing glacier advance to the rens (Eicher et al. 1981), Rotsee (Lotter 1991), and
maximum position of the last glaciation is brack- Soppensee (Lotter et al. 1992), the climate amel-
eted by radiocarbon ages of about 29,000 and ioration that caused the snowline rise during Oldest
14,000 14C yr BP; therefore the maximum extent of Dryas time was not sufficient to allow reforestation
glaciers coincided with late Pleniglacial cold and north of the Alps. Instead, relatively severe condi-
dry conditions, not with the more humid conditions tions persisted, and as a result the vegetation re-
of middle Pleniglacial time. Supporting this con- mained open. In the French and Swiss Alps this
tention is the lack of radiocarbon evidence in the open Oldest Dryas landscape was dominated by a
Swiss and Austrian Alps for ice recession during grass assemblage and some shrubs, along with al-
late Pleniglacial time. pine and steppe herbs. However, all of the above-
What was the timing of the Oldest Dryas degla- mentioned sites lie within the limits of expanded
ciation of the Swiss and Austrian Alps, and what alpine ice at the LGM. Therefore, we must look to
was its duration? The initiation of this recession is other sites outside the last glacial limits for evi-
defined at Lake Zurich. Here deglaciation from the dence of initiation of the Oldest Dryas environ-
Zurich Stadial moraines, which are situated only ment. In the Pyrenees for example, palynologic
20 km behind the maximum ice-margin position of data indicate two phases of vegetation develop-
the LGM (Schltichter et al. 1987; Schliichter and ment prior to the Oldest Dryas/B61iing transition
Rothlisberger 1995), occurred close to 14,600 14C (Jalut et al. 1992). The first phase reflected cold,
yr BP (Lister 1988). Applying to a core from Lake open steppe and semi-desert conditions that per-
Zuirich, this date comes from a twig in non-dis- sisted through the LGM until about 15,000 14C yr
turbed deposits immediately above ice-rafted and BP. The second phase began about 15,000 14C yr BP
tectonized sediments deposited as glacial ice with a large increase in pollen concentration, a
cleared the lake. Hence, we place the beginning of spread of juniper, and perhaps an initial establish-
snowline rise and climate amelioration at shortly ment of birch and pine in some places. This second
before 14,600 14C yr BP. Widespread deglaciation phase was succeeded by the typical rise of birch at
deep into the mountains driven by this snowline the Oldest Dryas/Bolling transition. Hence, in the
rise was complete before the onset of warming near Pyrenees the Oldest Dryas climate warming epi-
the Oldest Dryas/B6lling transition. sode began about 15,000 14C yr BP. In southern
From the amount of mountain snowline rise, we France at both Les Echets and Le Bouchet, the veg-
can estimate the fraction of the total full glacial- etation record indicates that the arid, cold late
interglacial change encompassed in this Oldest Pleniglacial ended about 15,000 14C yr BP with the
Dryas warming of the European Alps. Full-glacial rise of Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, and Caryo-
mountain snowline depression relative to the AD phyllaceae accompanied by the spread of steppe,
1850 position (Maisch 1992) was about 1100 m which marks the first warming. These botanical
(Furrer 1991 and references therein). Snowline events signal the late Pleniglacial/Oldest Dryas
127
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
transition. Within the sparse available radiocarbon (Sarnthein et al. 1992). This first pronounced 6b80
control, then, this transition is equivalent to the be- decrease in the Norwegian Sea is taken to represent
ginning of ice recession from Lake Zurich. Farther a great iceberg outburst caused by collapse of ma-
north in the Netherlands, a sharp rise in Artemisia rine-based ice sheets from the Norwegian and Bar-
about 14,000 14C yr BP during the Oldest Dryas was ents continental shelves (Jones 1991; Sarnthein et
followed by the immigration of large birch trees in al. 1992; Landvik et al. 1998). Likewise, a pro-
the Blling (Hammen and Vogel 1966). nounced 6180 depletion is recorded at 13,100-
Recession of the Scandinavian-Barents Sea ice- 14,300 14C yr BP just northwest of the Faeroe Is-
sheet complex suggests that Oldest Dryas snow- lands during the Heinrich 1 event (Rasmussen et al.
line rise and associated climatic amelioration was 1997); the magnitude of this spike implies signifi-
not restricted to the Alps but was widespread cant iceberg contribution from the Faeroe and
throughout Europe (Andersen 1981). By the time Shetland Islands, Scotland, and Scandinavia. This
of the Oldest Dryas/B611ing transition, the south- is consistent with the conclusion of Fronval et al.
ern margin of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet stood at (1996) from marine-sediment cores off the western
the Luga (dated between 12,650 and 13,200 14C yr margin of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet. A near-basal
BP)-North Lithuanian-Wolin-Halland ice-mar- radiocarbon date from the Troll 3.1 core is also
ginal position, and thus had retreated about 250 km consistent with this premise, because it suggests
from its maximum LGM position (Andersen 1981; ice recession from the outer Norwegian continental
Lundquist and Saarnisto 1995). Almost 175 km of shelf at 14,700-15,000 14C yr BP (Lehman et al.
this recession was from the Vepsovo/Pomeranian 1991). These early conclusions are supported by
and Krestay/Kalinin ice-marginal positions, which new radiocarbon dates from marine sediment cores
have estimated ages of 15,000 14C yr BP and 14,500 that show recession of grounded portions of ice
14C yr BP, respectively (Andersen 1981). This re- sheets from the Barents and the Norwegian conti-
cession took place during the Rauniss interstade of nental shelves at 14,500-14,800 14C yr BP (Bischof
still-severe climate, radiocarbon-dated between 1994; Haflidason et al. 1995; Svendsen et al.
13,250 14C yr BP and 14,300 14C yr BP (Serebrjan- 1996). This recession of marine margins corre-
nyj et al. 1970; Raukas 1976; Velichko and Faus- sponds with retreat of terrestrial Scandinavian ice
tova 1986). Hence European alpine glaciers and during the Rauniss interstade, as well as with Old-
the Scandinavian Ice Sheet both showed consider- est Dryas recession of mountain glaciers in the
able recession in the 1600 14C-yr interval preced- Swiss Alps. Taken together, these data imply that
ing the Oldest Dryas/B61iing warming. In the case the Oldest Dryas amelioration affected the Euro-
of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet, this recession ended pean land mass over a wide latitude range and
with readvance to the Luga moraine; in the case of marked the onset of the last termination.
the alpine system, the recession ended with ice It should be noted that the Oldest Dryas climate
margins close to the Gschnitz or Clavadel mo- amelioration in Europe was not nearly as dramatic
raines in the inner Alps. The Oldest Dryas climate as the subsequent warming near the Oldest Dryas/
amelioration devastated the glacier system of the Bolling transition. Paleoclimate records from the
European Alps because of its susceptibility to a Rauniss interstade of Oldest Dryas age in northern
moderate snowline rise, while the massive Scandi- Europe and from correlative Oldest Dryas pollen-
navian Ice Sheet lost marginal ice but still re- bearing sediments in France and Switzerland indi-
mained largely intact. cate that the climate still remained severe enough
The marine-based, western margin of the coa- to preclude reforestation north of the Alps. Even at
lesced Barents Sea and Scandinavian Ice Sheets the end of Oldest Dryas time, Europe was still
also showed Oldest Dryas recession. One piece of marked by a cold tundra and steppe environment,
evidence comes from a low-b180 spike in cores reflecting cold North Atlantic sea-surface temper-
from off the continental margin (Jones 1991; atures. This is consistent with the fact that NADW
Weinelt et al. 1991). The first age estimate of this of the current mode, with a strong LNADW com-
spike was 14,500 14C yr BP from low-sedimenta- ponent produced in the Nordic Seas from the in-
tion-rate core PS-21295 in the Fram Strait off the flow of warm, salty water, was not evident in Oldest
Barents Sea continental shelf (Jones and Keigwin Dryas time (Sarnthein et al. 1992). In contrast, the
1988). But younger ages for this spike of 13,600- dramatic warming near the Oldest Dryas/B611ing
14,000 14C yr BP come from cores with higher sed- transition was tied to a major thermohaline switch,
imentation rates farther south in the Norwegian Sea with the initiation of strong LNADW production
128 Geografiska Annaler 81 A (1999) - 2
Fig. 7. Southern Chilean Lake District paleoclimate record (from Fig. 2) transferred to a calendar-year time scale and compared with
Greenland and Antarctic ice-core stable isotope records. The ice-core records are from Sowers and Bender (1995) and Steig et al. (1998).
The ice cores are placed in a common calendar-year time scale by linking the Antarctic 6 80 record of ice to the Greenland chronology
by matching the signatures of trapped gasses in the ice cores (after correcting for the difference in ice and gas ages).
and greatly increased poleward heat flux in the ean Andes (1000 m) as in many mountain areas
North Atlantic Ocean (Lehman and Keigwin in the Northern Hemisphere. Moreover, the tim-
1992a, b; Sarnthein et al. 1994). ing of the LGM was similar in both polar hem-
ispheres (with the possible exception of Antarc-
tica). The implication is of planetary cooling at
Global implications of Chilean Andes and New
the LGM that was about equivalent in both polar
Zealand data
hemispheres.
Figure 5 shows a detailed 6180 record of benthonic * The last glacial-interglacial transition began
foraminifers from core TR163-31B from the east- abruptly in both hemispheres (at least outside of
ern equatorial Pacific Ocean, taken to be represent- Antarctica) with a warming pulse at close to
ative largely of Northern Hemisphere ice volume. 14,600 14C yr BP (17,300 cal. yr BP) within Old-
Fig. 6 compares the paleoclimate records from the est Dryas time. In Chile the last glacier expan-
Chilean Andes and Southern Alps of New Zealand sion of the LGM culminated at 14,550-14,805
with those from the North Atlantic region. Fig. 7 14C yr BP, and was followed by massive reces-
displays the Southern Hemisphere middle-latitude sion. Note that, because of new radiocarbon
paleoclimate records compared with the Antarctic dates given in Denton et al. (1999b), this age is
and Greenland stable isotope signals in the Taylor slightly older than reported in Lowell et al.
Dome, Byrd, and GISP2 ice cores. The following (1995). Nothofagus increased significantly at
implications are derived from these figures and the Canal de la Puntilla and Huelmo sites
from the text. (Moreno 1998; Moreno et al. 1999) about
14,600 14C yr BP. At a number of sites in Valle
Relative to present-day values, snowline and/or Central over nearly 2 of latitude, pollen dia-
treeline depression at the LGM was about the grams show at about 14,000 14C yr BP the first
same in the Southern Alps (875 m) and the Chil- strong influx of thermophilic elements of the
Geografiska Annaler . 81 A (1999) 2
129
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
North Patagonian Evergreen Forest since before dicative of wet moorland environments disap-
49,892 14C yr BP (Heusser et al. 1999). In the peared, possibly from a southward shift of the
Southern Alps of New Zealand, significant gla- westerlies storm belt (Moreno et al. 1999). In
cier recession had occurred prior to 13,500 14C the North Atlantic region this second step is
yr BP after an advance to near-maximum posi- marked by the abrupt warming near the Oldest
tions between 14,000 and 15,000 14C yr BP. In Dryas/B611ing transition shown by isotope,
northern New Zealand reforestation of the methane, and dust records in the Greenland ice
Waikato lowlands began shortly after 14,700 cores, as well as by isotope and vegetation
14C yr BP (Newnham et al. 1989) and much of records in Swiss lacustrine sediments. The mod-
the open glacial landscape of North Island was em mode of North Atlantic thermohaline circu-
rapidly reforested by podocarp and hardwood lation resumed, with strong production of
trees by 14,000 14C-yr BP. The 6180 curve of ben- LNADW and pronounced warming in the Nor-
thonic foraminifers from core TR163-3 lB in the dic Seas from the inflow of warm, salty water.
eastern tropical Pacific Ocean shows that a The insect records from Great Britain and the
steady increase in benthonic 6180 gave way to a Swiss Plateau show that this warming near the
unilateral decrease about 14,500 14C yr BP (this Oldest Dryas/B11ling transition culminated in
6180 shift is not adjusted for unknown mixing temperatures nearly as high as those of today
time of the ocean at that date) (Fig. 5). We take (Atkinson et al. 1987; Amman 1989a). At the
this change to mark the beginning of the termi- height of B611ing warming, snowline on Swiss
nation of glaciation in the Northern Hemi- alpine glaciers probably rose to the position it
sphere, because it implies a fundamental change occupied during the AD 1850 highstand of the
from volume increase to volume decline of Little Ice Age (Maisch 1982).
Northern Hemisphere ice sheets. In core SU81- A Younger-Dryas-age climate reversal character-
18 in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean off Por- ized the North Atlantic and perhaps the middle-
tugal, the termination also began at about 14,500 latitude Southern Hemisphere paleoclimate
14C yr BP as defined by the planktonic 6180 records. The Greenland ice-core 6180 signal in
record (Fig. 6). As detailed above, the southern Figs 6 and 7 shows the typical form of the North
margin of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet retreated Atlantic climatic deterioration, which began after
significantly during Oldest Dryas time and the peak B6iling warmth and culminated in the
grounded portions of ice sheets receded from Younger Dryas cold reversal. In the Chilean An-
both the Barents and the Norwegian continental des, pollen diagrams show climate reversal (ex-
shelves between 14,500 and 14,800 14C yr BP. pansion of Podocarpus nubigena followed later
Also as mentioned above, the alpine glacier sys- by decline of mesic North Patagonian taxa) be-
tem in the Swiss Alps contracted from the fore- ginning at 12,000-12,200 14C yr BP after peak
lands to the inner valleys between 14,600 14C yr late-glacial warmth (Heusser et al. 1999; Moreno
BP and 12,700-13,000 14C yr BP. In addition, by et al. 1999). Unfortunately, fire disturbance of the
the end of Oldest Dryas time, the southern mar- vegetation is indicated at many sites during
gin of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in North America Younger Dryas time, complicating paleoclimate
had already retreated to the position of the Port interpretation. However, the Taiquemo pollen
Huron moraine system (Mayewski et al. 1981) record escaped the influence of fire and shows
and the southern Cordilleran Ice Sheet had al- episodic cooling between 11,360 and 10,355 14C
ready undergone considerable recession (Booth yr BP (Heusser et al. 1999). In this regard, the sedi-
1987). ment record from proglacial Lago Mascardi in
Another major step of the last glacial/intergla- Argentina, located near Mt. Tronador only 115
cial transition was a decisive warming pulse at km east of our key pollen sites at Canal de la Pun-
12,700-13,000 14C yr BP. In the Chilean Andes tilla and Fundo Llanquihue, shows evidence not
this step is marked by the rapid spread of a only of rapid ice recession beginning at 13,000
closed-canopy North Patagonian Evergreen 14C yr BP and peaking at 12,400 14C yr BP, but also
Forest throughout the lowlands of the Chilean of a subsequent reversal of trend that culminated
Lake District and Isle Grande de Chiloe. Devel- in a Younger-Dryas-age glacier readvance be-
opment of this forest culminated at 12,000- tween 11,400 14C yr BP and 10,200 14C yr BP
12,200 14C yr BP, when climate conditions were (Ariztegui et al. 1997) (Figs 2,6). In the Southern
close to full interglacial values. Plant species in- Alps of New Zealand, an advance of Franz Josef
Glacier occurred at the beginning of Younger long H-1 event in the North Atlantic Ocean (Ta-
Dryas time at 11,050 14C yr BP (Denton and ble 1). It is notable that much of the H-1 lithic
Hendy 1994) (the beginning of Younger Dryas event correlates with glacier recession in the
time in the North Atlantic region is most accurate- Andes. This relationship is reinforced by de-
ly dated to 11,030 14C yr BP in Switzerland; Haj- tailed pollen records showing that a marked rise
das et al. 1995). AnotherYounger-Dryas-age gla- of Nothofagus and then the invasion of ther-
cier advance is dated to 10,100 14C yr BP in the up- mophilous tree species into the Chilean Lake
per Cropp River Valley (Basher and McSaveney District (Moreno et al. 1999; Heusser et al.
1989; Lowell et al. 1995). Exposure dates indi- 1999) was also coeval with much of the H- 1 lith-
cate that the prominent Lake Misery moraine ic event in the North Atlantic Ocean. Moreover,
complex in Arthur's Pass is Younger Dryas in age recession of terrestrial Scandinavian ice and
(Ivy-Ochs et al. 1999). These latter moraines rep- mountain glaciers in the European Alps was co-
resent snowline lowering of about 260-360 m be- incident with the younger part of the H-1 lithic
low the Little Ice Age position, compared with a layer. The implication is that the H- 1 lithic event
similar value of 200-300 m for the Egesen mo- encompasses not only ice-sheet expansion onto
raines of Younger Dryas age in the Swiss Alps North Atlantic continental shelves during global
(Kerschner 1978, 1985; Maisch 1982, 1987). cooling, but also the subsequent unstable col-
Thus there is mounting evidence for Younger- lapse of marine-based ice. That this advance-
Dryas-age readvance of Southern Alps glaciers in collapse sequence may be characteristic of
New Zealand, although caution in accepting such Heinrich events is suggested by the age of the
a conclusion is urged by Mabin (1995), McGlone major Chilean glacier advance of 22,295-
(1995), and Singer et al. (1998). 22,570 14C yr BP near the beginning of the H-2
The Chilean Andes glacial geologic record fea- lithic event.
tures pronounced maxima during the LGM at The New Zealand Southern Alps record features
29,400 14C yr BP, 26,700 14C yr BP, 22,295- the last two of the major glacier maxima in the
22,570 14C yr BP, and 14,550-14,805 14C yr BP Chilean Andes. In addition, New Zealand gla-
(Fig. 2 and Table 1). The vegetation record from ciers show maxima at 17,500 14C yr BP and
Taiquem6 shows a series of striking maxima of 16,200 14C yr BP. Maxima may also have been
grass pollen during middle and late Llanquihue achieved just before and just after deposition of
time. The duration of these Gramineae events the Raupo interstadial bed, now dated between
are listed in Table 1 (Heusser et al. 1999) as 19,740 and 18,780 14C yr BP, as well as during
44,520-47,110 14C yr BP for T-11; 32,105- Younger Dryas time.
35,764 14C yr BP for T-9; 24,895-26,019 14C yr
BP forT-7; 21,430-22,774 14C yr BP for T-5; and A potential weakness of our trans-Pacific compar-
13,040-15,200 14C yr BP for T-3. Also shown in ison is that some of the glacier fluctuations are not
Table 1 are the durations (not the peaks) of the yet recorded in both data sets. One could therefore
Heinrich lithic events over 20 of latitude in the argue that the climate signals do not match during
North Atlantic Ocean (Elliot et al. 1998). Hein- these parts of the record. But we think it more likely
rich events H- 1, H-2, H-3, H-4, and H-5 show a that these differences merely reflect the fact that
reasonably close match to Gramineae events in glacial moraine sequences are inherently incom-
Chile. With the exception of the situation at plete.
29,400 14C yr BP, the Chilean glacier maxima
fall within or close to the Heinrich-Gramineae
Questions
events. This reinforces our earlier conclusion
that there is a broad correspondence between What caused the atmospheric cooling at the LGM
North Atlantic Heinrich events and Chilean An- evident in the snowline and/or treeline records
des glacier maxima (Lowell et al. 1995). from the Chilean Andes and Southern Alps? We ar-
However, the far greater chronologic and gue that this cooling is approximately synchronous
stratigraphic detail now available (Denton et al. and of the same magnitude in both hemispheres,
1999; Moreno et al. 1999; Heusser et al. 1999) thus pointing to the primary role of overall atmos-
shows an important new insight. The last glacier pheric cooling (from greenhouse gas content or re-
maximum (14,550-14,805 14C yr BP) in the flectivity) rather than simply redistribution of heat
Chilean Andes occurs at the beginning of the on the planet from changes in ocean circulation.

131
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
What caused the atmospheric warming evident in (see also Broecker and Denton 1990). A major
the first two major steps (Oldest Dryas and Oldest North Atlantic thermohaline switch is also an un-
Dryas/Billing) of the last termination? These two likely trigger, as the Heinrich 1 ice-rafting event of
steps, registered in both hemispheres, abruptly ter- Oldest Dryas age actually suppressed overturning
minated the LGM, together bringing the atmos- in the North Atlantic Ocean to its lowest level
phere from full-glacial to nearly full-interglacial (Sarnthein et al. 1994). Likewise, our data suggest
temperature in about 1600 14C yr. The synchrony that any southward shift of the Southern Hemi-
and magnitude of these two steps in the two hemisphere westerlies that might implicate important
spheres, at least outside of Antarctica, implicates sea-ice changes in the Southern Ocean was delayed
greenhouse gas as the direct cause of atmospheric until near the Oldest Dryas/ B611ing transition
warming rather than simply switches in ocean heat (Moreno et al. 1999).
transfer. The Byrd ice-core record in Antarctica, The effect of rising summer insolation in the
calibrated with the Greenland ice-core chronology Northern Hemisphere is commonly cited as a trig-
by trapped gas, shows only a minor change in at- ger for the ocean-atmosphere reorganization of the
mospheric CO2 during these steps (Neftel et al. last termination (Imbrie et al. 1992, 1993). For ex-
1988; Staffelbach et al. 1991; Sowers and Bender ample, Broecker and Denton (1990) pointed out
1995; Blunier et al. 1997). If the new ice-core chro- that terminations commonly occur during rises to-
nologies are correct, the implication is that jumps ward maxima in seasonality at middle and high lat-
in atmospheric CO2 were not responsible for the itudes in the Northern Hemisphere. But our data
abrupt warming steps that terminated the last ice imply that any such Northern Hemisphere effect
age simultaneously in both hemispheres. This was translated to middle latitudes of the Southern
leaves changes in the inventory of atmospheric wa- Hemisphere by an atmospheric process. In the ab-
ter vapor as the most likely factor to have caused sence of major changes in Northern Hemisphere
the two major atmospheric warming steps during ice sheets or of major switches in North Atlantic
the last termination. It follows that a decreased in- thermohaline circulation, it is difficult to identify a
ventory of atmospheric water vapor was the most high-latitude mechanism that was triggered by ris-
important cause of LGM planetary cooling ing summer insolation during Oldest Dryas time.
(Broecker 1994). This difficulty is compounded by the fact that dur-
An alternate explanation is that Northern Hem- ing Oldest Dryas time the Greenland ice-core 680
isphere ice sheets responded to seasonality forcing record is dissimilar to paleoclimate records else-
and, in turn, drove the last termination through where in the Northern Hemisphere and in Chile,
their global thermal impact. The radiocarbon chro- probably because of a regional climate signal in-
nology of the two important initial steps of the ter- duced by the Heinrich 1 iceberg influx into the
mination makes this explanation highly unlikely. North Atlantic Ocean. This suggests to us that in-
These two steps, which encompassed 1600 14C yr, creased water-vapor production in the tropics is the
culminated in B6iling time with atmospheric tem- most likely source of the initial Oldest Dryas step
peratures approaching interglacial values from of the last termination, perhaps from forcing by
Greenland to the Swiss Plateau, as well as in the half-precession insolation, whose amplitude is
Chilean Andes. Reference to Fig. 5 shows that ice controlled by eccentricity (McIntyre and Molfino
volume was then still near the maximum value of 1996; Berger and Loutre 1997).
the LGM. From this phasing of events it thus seems
most probable that, rather than causing this crucial What caused the changes in water-vapor produc-
warming step of the termination, the ice sheets re- tion inferred to have produced decisive warming
sponded to it by a greatly increased ablation rate near the Oldest Dryas/Billing transition? A key
registered in the sea-level record as meltwater point is that near-interglacial warmth was achieved
pulse IA (Fairbanks 1989). in early Blling time in both hemispheres (from
Greenland to the Swiss Plateau in the North Atlan-
What caused the changes in water-vapor produc- tic region, as well as in the Chilean Andes). It is
tion implied by paleoclimate data during the initial very unlikely that this event was driven by the di-
Oldest Dryas step of the termination? It is unlikely rect thermal impact of the Northern Hemisphere
that the thermal impact of a decrease in ice-sheet ice sheets, because reference to Fig. 5 shows that
albedo or elevation is implicated, because glacier they were then still close to their maximum LGM
retreat started simultaneously in both hemispheres volume. Instead the chronologies reviewed here af-
132
ford strong circumstantial evidence that this deci- tus and low concentrations of foraminifers. They
sive warming was caused by an abrupt switch of become thinner from west to east across the Atlan-
thermohaline circulation to the modern mode of tic Ocean, and commonly are rich in detrital car-
operation, with renewed downwelling in the Nor- bonate. These characteristics point to a source in
dic Seas. Because near-interglacial warmth was eastern Canada or western Greenland, with Hud-
also achieved in middle latitudes of the Southern son Strait a prime candidate, for most of the debris
Hemisphere, the decisive switch of thermohaline in the main iceberg track. Ice-rafted grains from the
circulation must also have triggered increased pro- penultimate Heinrich layer deposited about 20,500
duction of atmospheric water vapor to near-inter- 14C yr BP show a lead isotopic composition also
glacial values. As well as having a strong influence consistent with derivation of ice-rafted debris from
on high-latitude Northern Hemisphere climate eastern Canada (Gwiazda et al. 1996). Revel et al.
(Lehman and Keigwin 1992b), renewed NADW (1996) argued that Scandinavian, British, and Ice-
production may also have caused reduction of landic ice caps contributed to the flux along the
Southern Ocean sea-ice extent and the southward eastern part of the main iceberg track, as well as to
shift of the westerlies by the standard explanation the north of the main track. They thus suggested
for coupling the hemispheres by thermohaline cir- that all ice caps surrounding the North Atlantic, not
culation (Weyl 1968). Such speculation is consist- just the Laurentide Ice Sheet, experienced major
ent with the Taylor Dome but not with the Byrd and discharge of icebergs at the time of Heinrich
Vostok ice-core records from Antarctica near the events. This is consistent with the conclusions
Oldest Dryas/B611ing transition, as discussed in the drawn from the 6180 record of a core taken north-
next section. west of the Faeroe Islands (Rasmussen etal. 1997).
From two important cores at the eastern end of the
What caused the resumption of vigorous North At- maximum iceberg track, Bond and Lotti (1995)
lantic thermohaline circulation with a strong likewise found evidence of synchronous discharg-
LNADW component near the Oldest Dryas/B6lling es of icebergs from several ice sheets during Hein-
transition? The radiocarbon chronologies given rich events. From a high-resolution marine-sedi-
here are consistent with the idea that the initial Old- ment record from the Irminger Basin, which regis-
est Dryas warming step triggered this decisive ters ice-rafted debris from the Greenland and Nor-
event of the last termination. But how? The fact that wegian Seas, Elliot et al. (1998) concluded that
the termination began when ice sheets achieved lithic layers corresponding to Heinrich events were
their maximum volume as recorded by the 6180 deposited by enhanced calving from Nordic ice
signal in benthonic foraminifers (Fig. 5) (Shackle- caps, as well as the Laurentide Ice Sheet, over 20
ton et al. 1988) suggests that the existence of large of latitude in the North Atlantic Ocean.
ice sheets was a necessary condition for the initia- A comparison of Greenland and North Atlantic
tion of the last termination. The Heinrich 1 event is paleoclimate records reveals that Heinrich events
also implicated during the most recent termination, occurred at or near the culmination of Bond cool-
because it occurs right at the time of the break in the ing hemicycles superimposed on the overall build-
fundamental benthonic 8180 trends in core T163- up phase of the last 100,000-yr cycle (Bond et al.
31B in Fig. 5. To explore this last implication, we 1993; Rasmussen et al. 1997). Following each
turn to a discussion of Heinrich events in the North Heinrich event, the sea-surface temperatures
Atlantic Ocean. warmed as the North Atlantic Ocean made a short
Massive, short-lived discharges of icebergs into but failed excursion toward the interglacial mode
the North Atlantic Ocean occurred each 7000- of circulation. The situation is even more complex,
10,000 years during the gradual buildup phase of because millennial-scale Dansgaard-Oeschger os-
the last 100,000-yr cycle (Heinrich 1988). These cillations are superimposed on each cooling hemi-
outbursts left prominent Heinrich layers of ice- cycle (Bond et al. 1993).
rafted debris with sharp lower boundaries deposit- The cause of the huge discharges of icebergs
ed rapidly on the sea floor along the southern mar- during Heinrich events is not clear. Thus such a dis-
gin of the glacial-age North Atlantic Ocean charge could be a trigger for climate change, a re-
(Broecker et al. 1992; Bond et al. 1992, 1993; sponse to climate forcing, or both (Broecker et al.
Bond and Lotti 1995; Manighetti and McCave 1993; Broecker 1994, 1995a, b). There are at least
1995; Manighetti et al. 1995). Heinrich deposits three possible explanations for these massive ice-
are marked by high percentages of ice-rafted detri- berg discharges into the North Atlantic Ocean. One
133
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
is from internally triggered surges of the Lauren- evidence for ice flow eastward through Hudson
tide Ice Sheet (Broecker et al. 1992; MacAyeal Strait (Miller et al. 1993).
1993). This surge mechanism has the advantage of By the scenario of unstable marine collapse,
explaining rapid deposition of Heinrich layers. each cooling Bond hemicycle superimposed on the
One apparent disadvantage is that clear geologic long buildup phase of the 100,000-yr cycle in-
evidence of down-trough flow of an ice stream volved expansion of marine-based ice onto conti-
draining the heart of the Laurentide Ice Sheet has nental shelves to reach a maximum at the begin-
not been found in Hudson Strait (Miller et al. ning of a Heinrich event. Each cooling hemicycle
1993). Another disadvantage is that several ice then ended with collapse of destabilized ice from
sheets, not just Laurentide ice, apparently had an these shelves during a Heinrich event. Although
increased iceberg flux at the time of Heinrich dis- marine ice-sheet collapses could be triggered inter-
charge events (Bond and Lotti 1995; Fronval et al. nally, it is unlikely that all ice caps would then col-
1996; Revel etal. 1996; Rasmussen etal. 1997; El- lapse simultaneously. Rather, as pointed out by
liot et al. 1998). Revel et al. (1996), the fact that not only the Lau-
A second potential origin for the Heinrich ice- rentide Ice Sheet, but also the Greenland Ice Sheet,
bergs is simply increased calving from expanded the Icelandic ice cap, the Scandinavian Ice Sheet,
ice sheets on North Atlantic continental shelves and the Irish-Scottish ice cap, were all sources of
during maxima of Bond cycles. The main disad- enhanced calving during the time of Heinrich
vantage of this mechanism is that it cannot easily events points to common external forcing. A warm-
account for the catastrophic outbursts of icebergs ing pulse and/or sea-level rise could initiate a near
implied by the sharp lower boundaries of the Hein- simultaneous collapse of extensive marine-based
rich ice-rafted debris that buried organic horizons sectors of ice sheets on North Atlantic continental
on the ocean floor within a few hundred years and shelves, thus explaining iceberg outbursts from all
accumulated so rapidly that it is only little dis- ice caps during the time of Heinrich events.
turbed by bioturbation (Manighetti and McCave We prefer the third option because it is consistent
1995; Manighetti et al. 1995). with several aspects of our Chilean paleoclimate
A third potential source for a massive iceberg record. The chronologic data in Table 1 suggest that
outburst is from collapse of unstable grounded the last five Heinrich lithic events correspond with
marine ice on North Atlantic continental shelves, Chilean grass maxima. The implication is that the
with associated ice-sheet downdraw by accelerat- Bond hemicycles represent global cooling that not
ed discharge of feeder ice streams. For example, only drives large ice sheets onto North Atlantic
Fronval et al. (1996) recently argued that those continental shelves, where they are potentially un-
portions of ice sheets grounded on extensive shelf stable, but also causes Chilean mountain-glacier
areas would be unstable, subject to collapse by advance. The last mountain-glacier maximum in
marine downdraw. This suggestion is very similar Chile occurs just at the beginning of the H-1 lithic
to the mechanism previously proposed by Ruddi- event. The ensuing collapse of mountain glaciers,
man and McIntyre (1981) to explain in many along with the invasion of the southern Chilean
North Atlantic marine sediment cores an interval Lake District by Nothofagus and thermophilic tree
nearly barren of planktonic foraminifers. This in- species, is coeval with deposition of much of the H-
terval, now known to be equivalent to the Heinrich 1 lithic layer. This situation suggests that major re-
1 event, was interpreted to result from the most cession of Chilean mountain glaciers was coeval
massive influx of icebergs and meltwater to the with the unstable collapse of grounded ice from
North Atlantic Ocean during the entire 10,000-yr North Atlantic continental shelves that produced
deglaciation. From a consideration of the mechan- most of the icebergs responsible for the H-1 lithic
ics of the last deglaciation by Denton and Hughes layer. The pollen record shows that climate warm-
(1981), this massive early iceberg influx was at- ing was the trigger for the Chilean glacier collapse.
tributed to the collapse of unstable marine-based Retreat of terrestrial Scandinavian ice and of Euro-
ice sheets on continental shelves, with interior pean alpine glaciers suggests that warming may
downdraw of feeder ice streams (Ruddiman and also have triggered the marine ice-sheet collapse
McIntyre 1981). An important focus of marine from North Atlantic continental shelves.
downdraw was Hudson Strait (Denton and Hughes We also prefer the third option because it fea-
1981), a potential source of detrital carbonate. tures an external trigger of marine collapse mech-
However, a difficulty again involves the lack of anisms that would act nearly simultaneously on all
INTERHEMISPHERIC LINKAGE OF PALEOCI MATE DURING THE ILAST GILACIATION
expanded marine margins. It has long been sug- sea-surface temperatures in SU81-18 reconstruct-
gested that marine-based sectors of large ice sheets ed from micropaleontological transfer functions
could be susceptible to very rapid grounding-line show a significant drop in Oldest Dryas time.
recession from hydrostatic instability triggered by Again, this is consistent with decisive cooling of
sea-level rise or climate warming (Weertman 1957, the North Atlantic Ocean from the flood of Hein-
1961, 1974; Denton and Hughes 1981; Denton et rich 1 icebergs and the consequent collapse or near-
al. 1986; Hughes 1987). A potential climate trigger collapse of the glacial mode of thermohaline over-
for the youngest Heinrich collapse is documented turn (Sarnthein et al. 1994). Yet another reason for
in the Oldest Dryas paleoclimate record in both preferring the third option is that deglaciation of
hemispheres. As just mentioned, the terrestrial marine-based sectors of both the Scandinavian
margin of the Scandinavian Ice Sheet, as well as the (Lehman et al. 1991; Haflidason et al. 1995) and
glacier system of the European Alps, receded ex- Barents Sea (Bischof 1994; Svendsen et al. 1996)
tensively during Oldest Dryas time, coincident Ice Sheets coincided with the Heinrich 1 ice-raft-
with the youngest Heinrich collapse. As also just ing event in the North Atlantic Ocean. In core V-23-
mentioned, our South American data show that 81 in the North Atlantic, Heinrich ice rafting began
Oldest Dryas climate warming coincided with about 14,800 14C yr BP, culminated at close to
much of the youngest Heinrich lithic layer. This 14,100-14,300 14C yr BP, and was in rapid decline
warming in southern South America is the most ex- after 13,700 14C yr BP (Bond and Lotti 1995). All
tensive since sometime prior to MIS 4 (Heusser et this is consistent with the initial reduction of North-
al. 1999). It is mirrored by similar warming in New ern Hemisphere ice volume as deduced from the
Zealand (Newnham et al. 1989). Thus the Oldest benthonic 6180 record in eastern Pacific core
Dryas climate warming that caused recession of TR163-31B (Fig. 5) (Shackleton et al. 1988).
terrestrial glaciers in both hemispheres could also The consequence of selecting this third option is
have triggered unstable collapse of marine ice- that the magnitude of each Heinrich collapse could
sheet sectors on North Atlantic continental shelves. well be linked to a combination of ice-sheet size
Such a collapse would have kept the North Atlantic and of the intensity of the warming trigger. The fi-
cold, both from the influx of icebergs and from the nal Heinrich collapse that peaked at 14,100 14C yr
consequent suppression of thermohaline down- BP could then be the largest, because by this time
welling and hence northward ocean heat transport. the ice sheets had reached their maximum volume
This could explain a very curious aspect of the of the last 100,000-yr cycle (Fig. 5).
Greenland ice-core 18sO record, namely the strik- The key to the last termination is that ice sheets
ing absence of any abrupt warming signal until had to grow sufficiently large to produce a Heinrich
near the Oldest Dryas/Boiling transition. In this collapse massive enough to cripple the glacial
way, persistence of cold conditions in Greenland mode of the Atlantic salinity conveyor. The con-
during Oldest Dryas time could reflect a massive veyor circulation then reorganized into its intergla-
influx of icebergs into the North Atlantic Ocean. In cial mode of operation. The probable reason for
contrast to the stable isotope record, the first rise of this reorganization is that the massive collapse dur-
methane in the Greenland ice cores, probably in- ing the time of the Heinrich 1 event flushed out so
dicative of climate change in the tropics, occurred much marine-based ice peripheral to the North At-
about 17,000 cal. yr BP (Chappellaz et al. 1993) and lantic Ocean that, at the end of the collapse, the ice-
hence was correlative with the initial Oldest Dryas berg flux dropped dramatically. Through the long
warming pulse recognized in the southern Chilean buildup phase, the ice-sheet behavior during Bond
Lake District, New Zealand, and Europe. cycles could be an important regulator of North At-
The differences in two kinds of paleoclimate lantic near-surface salinity. The steady background
signals from core SU81-18 from the eastern North iceberg influx during buildup could keep North At-
Atlantic Ocean off Portugal support the interpreta- lantic salinity low. A Heinrich collapse could pro-
tion that regional cooling from the Heinrich 1 ice duce the lowest salinity at the peak of each cycle.
collapse dominated the Greenland isotope record North Atlantic salinity could then jump after each
in Oldest Dryas time. The 5180 signal of the plank- Heinrich collapse, thus triggering thermohaline
tonic species Globigerina bulloides in SU81-18 switches and a rise of North Atlantic sea-surface
shows a marked depletion beginning at 14,500 14C temperatures. The largest salinity jump would fol-
yr BP (Fig. 6) (Bard et al. 1987), compatible with low the massive Heinrich 1 event, because it
the timing of the Heinrich 1 ice collapse. And yet flushed out the most ice. At the same time the sum-
135
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
mer radiation field from orbital forcing was ap- paleoceanographic reconstruction of the Norwe-
proaching an interglacial value, which might favor gian and Greenland Seas (Kellogg 1980).
evaporation, and hence net export of water vapor, Deep-water temperatures of MIS 5e were simi-
from the northern North Atlantic Ocean. Perhaps lar to those of the Holocene (Labeyrie et al. 1987).
these two factors together trip the North Atlantic Deep-water temperature in the Pacific (Chappell
into its interglacial circulation mode, with a strong and Shackleton 1986; Labeyrie et al. 1987) and
LNADW component. southern Indian (Labeyrie et al. 1987) Oceans
By this scenario, the resumption of the intergla- dropped to glacial values about 115,000 years ago
cial mode of North Atlantic thermohaline circula- during the MIS 5e/5d transition. Deep Atlantic wa-
tion occurs because of, not in spite of, the growth ters reached glacial values in two major steps, one
of huge ice sheets peripheral to the North Atlantic at about 115,000 years ago and the other at about
Ocean. The unstable behavior of marine shelf por- 75,000 years ago during the MIS 5/4 transition (La-
tions of these ice sheets is the key ingredient. The beyrie et al. 1987). After these cooling steps, the
reason that ice sheets have to grow to such huge di- deep ocean waters remained at glacial tempera-
mensions is to produce an unstable collapse large tures throughout MIS 3 and MIS 2 (Chappell and
enough to deplete the grounded marine ice reser- Shackleton 1986; Labeyrie et al. 1987).
voir and its feeder ice streams. Once the resulting The paleoenvironment of northern Europe
massive iceberg influx ceases, the North Atlantic (Beaulieu and Reille 1984, 1989, 1990, 1992; Be-
becomes largely free of icebergs for the first time hre 1989; Guiot 1990; Seret et al. 1992) suggests
since early in the long buildup phase of the that these cooling steps of deep-water temperature
100,000-yr asymmetric cycle. North Atlantic salin- could well reflect the progressive shutdown of
ity can then rapidly increase and trigger renewed warm LNADW early in the last glacial cycle. At the
vigorous downwelling in the Nordic Seas. This ex- close of the Eemian, a cooling episode that left an
plains the curious observation that terminations oc- environment marked only by shrub tundra in north-
cur just when ice sheets achieve their largest vol- ern Europe during the Herning stadial (Behre
ume. It also is consistent with the observation that 1989) implies sharp curtailment of warm LNADW
a prerequisite for a sharp, complete termination formation as the primary cause of the deep-water
seems to be excessive ice volume in huge Northern temperature decline about 115,000 years ago. Dur-
Hemisphere ice sheets (Raymo 1997). ing the subsequent Br6rup (MIS 5c) and Odderade
(MIS 5a) European interstades, each lasting as
What caused the asymmetric 100,000-yr glacial much as 10,000 years, northern Europe was refor-
cycles of late Quaternary time? Terminations are a ested, with coniferous forests in the north giving
dominant feature of these cycles. From radiocar- way to deciduous forests in the south (Behre 1989).
bon-dated paleoclimate sequences, we argued The inferred north-to-south climate gradient was
above that renewal of the modern mode of NADW distinctly steeper than that of the Eemian (Behre
formation, with a strong LNADW component, was 1989). During MIS 5a the Norwegian and Green-
the key event of the last termination. From this we land Seas were seasonally ice covered, with the for-
assume that the current mode of thermohaline cir- mation of LNADW in smaller amounts than today
culation is the essential feature of late Quaternary (Kellogg 1980), in accord with the Odderade pale-
interglaciations. We now discuss the implications ovegetation reconstruction.
of this assumption. The onset of cold Pleniglacial conditions in
The modern mode of thermohaline overturn in northern Europe immediately after the Odderade
the northern North Atlantic Ocean switched on interstade (Behre 1989) is consistent with the shut-
abruptly near the Oldest Dryas/B61iing transition. down of warm LNADW as the cause of the second
This event was accompanied by rapid reforestation major cooling step in North Atlantic deep water at
of Europe, including the northward spread of ther- the MIS 5/4 transition about 75,000 years ago.
mophilic trees, presumably because of the demon- Warming sufficient to cause reforestation in north-
strated link between North Atlantic heat import and ern Europe did not occur during the cold Plenigla-
European climate. Even more-extensive forest cial climate conditions of MIS 3 and MIS 2, even
cover occurred in northern Europe during Eemian at the peaks of Greenland ice-core interstades 8
(MIS 5e) time (Behre 1989), consistent with vig- (Denekamp in Europe), 12 (Hengelo in Europe),
orous formation of LNADW from the inflow of 14 (Glinde in Europe), and 16 (Oerel in Europe)
warm, salty surface water. This is in accord with a (Kolstrup and Wijmstra 1977; Behre 1989; Guiot
136
1990; Pons et al. 1992; Schulz et al. 1998). Rather, massive not only to cripple the glacial mode of
these interstades were marked only by reversion North Atlantic thermohaline circulation, but also to
from tundra to open, treeless shrub tundra (Behre flush out grounded continental-shelf ice and feeder
1989). There probably was some thermohaline ice streams adjacent to it. As a result, the influx of
downwelling near the Faeroe Islands in these inter- icebergs into the North Atlantic declined greatly
stades (Rasmussen et al. 1997), but the lack of re- once the collapse was over. In the absence of an ice-
forestation in northern Europe suggests that it must berg influx and of conveyor circulation, the salinity
have been very weak. Continuous cold, treeless of the northern North Atlantic Ocean increased
conditions in Europe during MIS 3 and MIS 2 are rapidly, probably from net export of water vapor,
consistent with a lack of LNADW formation from until a vigorous interglacial mode of LNADW for-
warm, salty water and, consequently, with contin- mation was initiated.
uous cold deep-water temperatures. These consid- By this scenario, the length of an individual
erations suggest that the modem mode of North At- 100,000-yr cycle is set by two main factors that
lantic thermohaline circulation switched off in two work in combination to produce the massive ma-
steps early in the last glacial cycle when ice sheets rine ice-sheet collapse that resets the North Atlan-
were still small. It did not switch back on again un- tic salinity conveyor. The first factor is the length of
til near the Oldest Dryas/B61iing transition, when time required to accumulate the excess ice volume
ice sheets were near their maximum LGM volume. necessary for a large collapse. The second is the
The result is that early in the last glacial cycle the timing of the warming trigger for this collapse, pre-
climate system became largely detached from or- sumably set by the effect of eccentricity on the am-
bital forcing except for oscillations superimposed plitude of precession and half-precession insola-
on the long buildup to the LGM (see also Imbrie et tion. The timing of the warming trigger, and hence
al. 1993) (Fig. 5). of the collapse, need not be unique. For example,
The formation of LNADW could have been if the Heinrich 1 collapse had been too small to re-
switched off early in the last cycle by orbital forc- set the salinity conveyor, then a later collapse could
ing of ice-sheet growth and the consequent iceberg have triggered the termination at about 12,000
influx into the critical areas of downwelling in the years ago (Northern Hemisphere summer insola-
Nordic Seas. But subsequent orbital forcing in the tion maximum). In this way terminations can occur
opposite sense was not sufficient to switch it back at any of several times within intervals of high ec-
on. Instead, an extraordinary mechanism must centricity. Thus the role of orbital forcing of termi-
have operated in the climate system in order for the nations is to cause the climate warming that trig-
North Atlantic salinity conveyor to switch abruptly gers a massive ice-sheet collapse and then, from
into a vigorous interglacial mode of operation at high summer insolation, to impose a precipitation/
what seems to be a very unlikely time, namely, just evaporation ratio that promotes this interglacial
when Northern Hemisphere ice sheets were close circulation mode by the net export of water vapor
to their maximum LGM volume. We argue above from the northern North Atlantic Ocean. This is
that, rather than precluding a circulation switch to compatible with the argument given earlier that,
an interglacial mode, the growth of these ice sheets during terminations, insolation forcing simply acts
to their maximum volume was actually a prerequi- as a trigger for the fundamental reorganization of
site for the decisive ocean-atmosphere reorganiza- a non-linear system, but does not control the am-
tion near the Oldest Dryas/B611ing transition, be- plitude of the resulting reorganization.
cause it set up the necessary conditions for the huge From the paleoclimate record, we argue above
Heinrich 1 ice-sheet collapse into the North Atlan- that the critical step of the last glacial/interglacial
tic Ocean, which we think is the key precursor transition was the resumption of the modern mode
event. of NADW formation, with a vigorous LNADW
The marine-based portions of ice sheets ground- component. We also argue that it took the entire
ed on North Atlantic continental shelves exhibited buildup phase of each asymmetric glacial cycle to
unstable collapse behavior at the culmination of produce ice sheets large enough to reset the modern
each of the shorter Bond cycles superimposed on mode of global thermohaline circulation through a
the long growth phase of the last asymmetric massive Heinrich marine-ice-sheet collapse. The
100,000-yr cycle. This long and fluctuating growth notion that it is so difficult to turn on the interglacial
phase ended abruptly when ice sheets became large mode of thermohaline circulation suggests that
enough to produce an unstable collapse sufficiently 100,000-yr glacial cycles emerged because the
137
G.H. DENTON ETAL.
modem interglacial mode of thermohaline circula- (11,030 14C yr BP; Hajdas et al. 1995) imply rapid
tion became easier to switch off and harder to transmittal of an atmospheric cooling signal at the
switch on than it was prior to the 100,000-yr re- beginning of Younger Dryas time. The nearly
gime. But what caused the development of such an equivalent amount of snowline lowering in the Eu-
asymmetric behavior of the interglacial mode of ropean Alps and the Southern Alps suggests that
thermohaline circulation? For a possible answer the Younger Dryas event represented a reversal of
we turn to the topography of the Greenland-Scot- about 35% toward full-glacial conditions (Ivy-
land submarine ridge across the North Atlantic Ochs et al. 1999). This suggestion must be consid-
Ocean. Wright and Miller (1996) postulated that ered tentative, however, until more Southern Hem-
the changes in the height of the Greenland-Scot- isphere data on Younger-Dryas-age climate events
land ridge (from varying activity of the Icelandic are available (for alternative view see Markgraf
mantle plume) regulated the Neogene flow of 1991,1993; Mabin 1995; McGlone 1995; Singer et
northward-flowing warm surface water into the al. 1998).
Nordic Seas and hence controlled NADW circula- A leading explanation for the basic shape of the
tion. Rise of this ridge from mantle-plume activity late-glacial climate signal is that the North Atlantic
is postulated to have brought mid-Pliocene Arctic salinity conveyor turned on at maximum strength
warmth to a close (Wright and Miller 1996). A fur- near the Oldest Dryas/B611ing transition and sub-
ther rise of this ridge between 950,000 and 600,000 sequently weakened by dilution of salt from melt-
years ago could have caused the asymmetric being of continental ice sheets caused by the peak
havior of North Atlantic thermohaline circulation Boiling warmth. The increasingly sluggish ther-
that we suggest was characteristic of late Quater- mohaline overturn culminated in Younger Dryas
nary time. This would have initiated asymmetric shutdown-or near shutdown-of LNADW produc-
100,000-yr climate cycles because of the necessity tion, probably triggered by an additional pulse of
for the buildup of large ice sheets to reset the inter- icebergs and/or meltwater (Broecker 1990, 1992;
glacial mode of thermohaline circulation by unsta- Broecker et al. 1990; Fanning and Weaver 1997).
ble collapse from continental shelves. New modeling studies of the stability of North
Atlantic thermohaline circulation show that cool-
What caused the climate cooling reversal that fol- ing and wind-stress feedbacks destabilize those
lowed peak Bolling warmth and culminated in the modes of circulation without deepwater formation
Younger Dryas cold pulse? Any explanation must (Schiller et al. 1997). In the modeling experiments
address the 1000 14C-yr length of the Younger deep-water formation resumes soon after meltwa-
Dryas cold pulse and its occurrence at very near the ter input ceases. The implication is that only a melt-
peak of maximum Northern Hemisphere summer water pulse lasting 1000 14C yr could have pro-
insolation. Also, it should clarify why sea level duced the North Atlantic Younger Dryas event.
continued to rise throughout this climate deterio- Two sources have been suggested. One is diversion
ration and even during the culminating Younger of North American glacial lakes from the Missis-
Dryas cold pulse (Fairbanks 1989; Bard et al. sippi drainage into the Gulf of St Lawrence drain-
1996). age (Rooth 1982; Broecker et al. 1988, 1989), or
If our paleoclimate reconstructions from Chile- the Baltic Ice Lake into the North Atlantic (Bj6rck
an pollen records are correct, then peak Bolling- et al. 1996). Potential problems are that freshening
age warmth was short-lived, and was followed by of the Champlain Sea apparently did not occur until
a climate reversal that persisted through much of about 500 14C yr after the beginning of the Younger
late-B61ling and Aller6d time in both hemispheres. Dryas (Rodrigues and Villas 1994) and that a dis-
Also, if our reconstructions from the Chilean An- tinct 6180 minimum has not been found off Nova
des and Southern Alps, along with the reconstruc- Scotia (Keigwin and Jones 1995). A second poten-
tion of Ariztegui et al. (1997) from the Argentine tial source of freshwater is an iceberg influx from
Andes, are correct, then a Younger-Dryas-age cold the Arctic due to the collapse of floating ice shelves
event at the end of this long deterioration may have and of ice sheets grounded on high-latitude conti-
marked both hemispheres. The radiocarbon dates nental shelves (Mercer 1969). The available uplift
of the Younger Dryas readvance of Franz Josef Gla- curves from Svalbard, Franz Josef Land, and the
cier in the Southern Alps of New Zealand (11,050 Queen Elizabeth Islands are at least permissive of
14C yr BP; Denton and Hendy 1995) and of the this hypothesis (Blake 1975, 1993; Forman et al.
Younger Dryas isotope shift in Switzerland 1996, 1997). The collapse of marine ice sheets
138 Geografiska Annaler * 81 A (1999) - 2
could easily encompass 1000 14C yr and could ex- Did fluctuations in the strength of NADW cause
plain continued sea-level rise during Younger out-of-phase climate variations in the Northern
Dryas time. and Southern Hemispheres during the last glacia-
In any case, our New Zealand data suggest a tion? Crowley (1992) suggested that changes in
South Pacific atmospheric signal right at the begin- oceanic heat transfer across the equator caused by
ning of Younger Dryas time. If a North Atlantic variations in the production of NADW would al-
thermohaline switch is the ultimate cause of the ternately favor net heat gain in one and then the oth-
Younger Dryas reversal, then the atmospheric ef- er hemisphere. This is because the amount of heat
fects of this switch must have been transmitted rap- transported to Antarctica by NADW would be
idly, both to the tropics (Roberts et al. 1993; Hugh- more than compensated for by the heat transferred
en et al. 1996; Clapperton et al. 1997) and to the across the equator by northward-flowing shallow
South Pacific region (Denton and Hendy 1994). currents in the Atlantic Ocean. During times of
The new trapped-gas chronologies of the Byrd ice- strong NADW production, the Southern Hemi-
core record in Antarctica suggest that changes of sphere would lose heat. The reverse situation
atmospheric CO2 content were not the origin of this would occur during times of weak production. The
atmospheric effect (Sowers and Bender 1995; Blu- middle-latitude paleoclimate records given here
nier et al. 1997). This again leaves a linkage be- suggest that this mechanism did not dominate at-
tween thermohaline circulation and the tropical mospheric climate oscillations during the last gla-
production of water vapor as the most likely source cial/interglacial transition. Middle-latitude Chile-
of this atmospheric signal. an climate warmed in Oldest Dryas time when the
production of NADW reached its lowest value, but
What is the role of millennial-scale oscillations in glaciers also receded in the Northern Hemisphere
producing abrupt climate changes? A pervasive at the same time. Moreover, middle-latitude Chil-
millennial-scale oscillation that persists through ean climate warmed almost to full-interglacial val-
major climate transitions has been recognized in ues coincident with a switch to the modern mode of
Holocene, late-glacial, and glacial records (Denton NADW formation near the Oldest Dryas/B611ing
and Karlen 1973; Karlen and Denton 1976; transition.
O'Brien etal. 1995; Bond etal. 1997). In fact, Bond
et al. (1997) suggested that millennial-scale oscil-
Southern Ocean sediment cores and Antarctic

lations are the pacemaker of rapid climate change.
ice cores
In this regard, the timing of abrupt initial warming
in the Chilean record may have been paced and am- Our radiocarbon chronology of pollen profiles and
plified by the millennial-scale oscillations superim- moraines shows that the estimates of 875 m for
posed on the LGM. For example, the last major mil- mountain snowline lowering in the Southern Alps
lennial-scale glacier pulse reached a maximum at of New Zealand (Porter 1975) and of about 1000 m
14,550-14,805 14C yr BP, just prior to the abrupt for snowline (Porter 1981) and treeline lowering
warming in Oldest Dryas time that triggered the last (Moreno et al. 1999; Heusser et al. 1999) in the
termination. Although not documented in Chile, a southern Chilean Lake District pertain to glacier
similar situation occurred later in the Northern maxima within the long, cold interval of the LGM.
Hemisphere, where the Port Huron (Great Lakes) These values of snowline lowering are very similar
and Luga (north-central Europe) ice-sheet read- to those in many mountain ranges elsewhere on
vances immediately preceded the abrupt Oldest Earth (Broecker and Denton 1990). Such uniform
Dryas/B611ing warming (e.g. Denton and Hughes lowering of mountain snowlines strongly suggests
1981). These relationships suggest that millennial- global cooling of the same magnitude in both hem-
scale pulses may be important in setting the timing ispheres during the LGM. From our middle-lati-
of abrupt warming steps. For example, the cold tude Southern Hemisphere data, we argue that the
pulse at 14,550-14,805 14C yr BP could have de- LGM was terminated by several abrupt climate
layed the onset of the last termination. Then the changes that are registered in both hemispheres.
subsequent warm phase of the millennial-scale Most important are those during the Oldest Dryas
pulse could have reinforced abrupt Oldest Dryas and near the Oldest Dryas/B611ing transition. To-
climate warming. Thus the timing and abruptness gether these changes brought the planet from full-
of the Oldest Dryas/B11ling warming could have glacial to near-interglacial temperatures in about
been affected by a millennial-scale oscillation. 1600 14C yr.
139
G.H. DENTON ETAL.
We argue that neither the global cooling of the transition (Sowers and Bender 1995; Blunier et al.
LGM, nor the abrupt global warming steps that ter- 1998). Also, late-glacial stable isotope oscillations
minated the last glaciation, can be explained sim- recorded in the Byrd and Vostok ice cores during
ply by redistribution of heat on the planet from Bolling/Aller6d and Younger Dryas times were out
ocean circulation changes. Rather, either the reflec- of phase with their Greenland counterparts (Fig. 7)
tivity of the planet or the greenhouse gas content of (Sowers and Bender 1995; Blunier et al. 1997,
the atmosphere had to change. Because of the basic 1998). These results are taken to be consistent with
similarities of the Chilean and New Zealand pale- Southern Ocean marine cores in showing a South-
oclimate records with the classic North Atlantic/ ern Hemisphere lead through important climate
European record, we stress changes in atmospheric transitions. This Antarctic lead seemingly pre-
greenhouse gas content (probably predominantly cludes any hypothesis that climate changes are a re-
the water vapor inventory, somehow linked to ther- sponse to Northern Hemisphere events (Blunier et
mohaline switches), as the major mechanism of in- al. 1998). The asynchronism strongly suggests,
terhemispheric climate linkage. During the deci- moreover, that the interhemispheric connection
sive ocean-atmosphere reorganization near the cannot be through the atmosphere. Rather, it favors
Oldest Dryas/B611ing transition, a switch in ther- models that call for overall ocean heat extraction
mohaline circulation must have been connected from the Southern Hemisphere during times of vig-
with a change in the production of water vapor. orous North Atlantic thermohaline circulation
During the precursor Oldest Dryas warming a (Crowley 1992; Stocker et al. 1992).
change in atmospheric water-vapor content was Because they suggest that any Antarctic asyn-
not obviously connected with a thermohaline cir- chrony is not hemisphere-wide, our paleoclimate
culation switch but was probably linked to preces- data from Chile and New Zealand are not in accord
sion effects in the tropics. with an ocean heat-transfer mechanism that applies
But there is a potential problem with our ap- to the entire hemisphere. Moreover, a heat-transfer
proach. Namely, it has been suggested for more mechanism by itself cannot explain the overall
than two decades that sea-surface temperature warming of both hemispheres during the last de-
change in the Southern Ocean leads ice-volume glaciation. One way around this dilemma is to pos-
change in the Northern Hemisphere into and out of tulate that the asynchrony is confined to regions
interglaciations (Hays et al. 1976; Hays 1978). south of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, thus
This inference comes from offsets in individual pointing to a mechanism that applies only to Ant-
marine sediment cores of the 6180 values of ben- arctica rather than to the Southern Hemisphere as
thonic and planktonic foraminifers and the sea-sur- a whole. In this regard, Broecker (1998) attributed
face temperature estimated from diatoms, fo- out-of-phase late-glacial climate oscillations be-
raminifers, and radiolaria (Howard and Prell 1984, tween Greenland and Antarctica to a bipolar see-
1992; Labeyrie etal. 1986,1996; Labracherie etal. saw behavior of thermohaline circulation. By this
1989; Pichon etal. 1992). For example, sea-surface mechanism, decreased (increased) downwelling of
temperature is taken to lead ice-volume change by NADW in the North Atlantic Ocean was replaced
several thousand years during the transition into by increased (decreased) downwelling in the
the current interglaciation. In the absence of ben- Southern Ocean. The resulting out-of-phase import
thonic 6180 change, the early Holocene peak in of ocean heat into the North Atlantic and Southern
Southern Ocean sea-surface temperatures is taken Oceans is what would have caused out-of-phase
to indicate a lead of Southern compared to the late-glacial climate signals in the Greenland and
Northern Hemisphere climate in the transition out Antarctic ice cores. Broecker (1998) and Broecker
of the current interglaciation (Hays 1978). and Henderson (1999) suggested an early trigger of
To complicate the situation, the stable isotope thermohaline overturn in the Southern Ocean from
record calibrated with new trapped-gas chronolo- local summer insolation during at least the last two
gies from the Byrd ice core in Antarctica does not terminations. A possible greater Antarctic lead dur-
show the abrupt changes during the last termina- ing the penultimate than during the last termination
tion so evident in the North Atlantic (Fig. 7). In- may reflect stronger early insolation forcing
stead, a gradual change in the stable-isotope signal (Broecker and Henderson 1999).
in the Byrd ice core began several thousand years But there are also complications with this ap-
before the first abrupt warming registered in proach. One is that almost all the important marine
Greenland ice cores at the Oldest Dryas/Bolling sediment cores showing a lead of Southern Ocean
140 Geografiska Annaler * 81 A (1999) 2
Fig. 8. Index map of the Southern
Ocean showing the location of ma-
jor oceanic boundaries, including
the Subtropical (STF), Subantarc-
tic (SAF), Polar (PF), and southern
Antarctic Circumpolar Current
(SACCF) Fronts. Deep-sea sedi-
ment cores MD88-770 (4601'S,
9628'E), RC11-83 (4136'S,
948'E), MD84-527 (4349'S,
51 19'E), and DSDP 594 (4532'S,
17457'E) as well as the Taylor
Dome (7747'S, 2400 m), Byrd
(8001S, 1530 m), and Vostok
(7828'S, 3488 m) ice cores, are
also shown, as well as many of the
pertinent Southern Ocean cores
discussed in the literature. Frontal
boundaries and terminology are af-
ter Orsi et al. (1995).
temperatures lie north of the Polar Front in Suban- records. This has led to yet a third explanation of
tarctic waters (Fig. 8). Hence these cores come Antarctic ice-core paleoclimate records. White and
from nearly the same Southern Hemisphere lati- Steig (1998) and Steig and White (1998) suggested
tudes as our terrestrial data, which we interpret as that the differences in ice-core records reflect het-
showing paleoclimate changes similar to those in erogeneity in the upwelling patterns of NADW in
the North Atlantic/European sector of the planet the Southern Ocean.
during the last glacial/interglacial transition. A sec-
ond is that the new Taylor Dome ice core (7747'S,
Antarctic Circumpolar Transect
2400 m) (Mayewski et al. 1996; Steig et al. 1998),
situated in Antarctica about halfway between the A resolution of the differing interpretations of
Byrd (800 I'S, 1530 m) and Vostok (7828'S, 3488 Southern Hemisphere paleoclimate records is not
m) ice cores (Fig. 8), shows a late-glacial paleocli- at hand. A major problem is the widespread lack of
mate record similar to that in Greenland and in the the extensive dating base necessary to place the de-
middle latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere. For tails of deglaciation on a hemispheric and inter-
example, unlike the Byrd or Vostok records, that hemispheric scale. We propose that the issue can be
from the Taylor Dome shows an abrupt warming clarified by obtaining detailed marine and terres-
near the Oldest Dryas/B611ing transition and a trial paleoclimate records along a proposed Ant-
Younger Dryas reversal (Mayewski et al. 1996; arctic Circumpolar Transect (ACT) between 42
White and Steig 1998; Lehman 1998; Steig et al. and 54S (Fig. 8). The essential feature of this
1998). transect along the outer margin of the Southern
Thus there are now two fundamentally different Ocean around Antarctica would be detailed AMS
paleoclimate signals from Antarctic ice cores, one radiocarbon chronologies. Thus the proposed
in phase and the other out of phase with North At- transect is designed to lie largely within or just
lantic and middle-latitude Southern Hemisphere north of Subantarctic waters (where foraminifers
141
G.H. DENTON ET AL.
are common for radiocarbon dating) and to pass 14C yr BP, whereas benthonic 6180 began to change
across mountainous areas of South America, New shortly before 12,150 14C yr BP. The reason for the
Zealand, Tasmania, and South Georgia (where large delay in response of benthonic b180 relative
wood and gyttja are common for radiocarbon dat- to the change in marine sediment core TR 163-31 B
ing). Comparison of the resulting vegetation, (Fig. 7) is not known. In any case, interglacial val-
mountain-glacier, benthonic 8'80, planktonic ues of sea-surface temperature were reached at
b180, and sea-surface-temperature records should MD88-770 by 12,150 14C yr BP.
clarify the issue of leads and lags of Southern Hem- Marine sediment core MD84-527 (4349'S,
isphere paleoclimate along the outer margin of the 51 19'E), calibrated by 15 AMS radiocarbon dates,
Southern Ocean relative to both high-latitude Ant- together with core MD84-551 (5500'S, 73 17'E),
arctica and the Northern Hemisphere. The results calibrated by three AMS dates, shows that the de-
should also clarify the issue of a bipolar seesaw of glacial 6180 decline in the Southern Ocean began
thermohaline circulation, as well as the amplitude after 16,510 and prior to 13,000 14C yr BP (Fig. 9)
of paleoclimate changes in different sectors of the (Bard etal. 1990). Between 13,000 and 12,000 14C
Southern Ocean. yr BP, the sea-surface temperatures reached inter-
The current situation along the marine portion of glacial values (Labracherie et al. 1989; Bard et al.
ACT is that three marine sediment cores have an 1990). There followed transitory oscillations, but
AMS radiocarbon chronology. Fig. 9 shows the none is recorded in all indicators and so it is not
dated isotope record for RC11-83 (4136'S, known if they are global or regional in origin (Bard
9481E) (Charles et al. 1996). This particular core etal. 1990).
does not show an obvious lead of planktonic over The potential value of ACT can be illustrated by
benthonic 6180 at the initiation of the last deglaci- examples from the few paleoclimate records now
ation, placed before 15,000 14C yr BP largely on the available in the pertinent latitudinal band of the
basis of a single date in this interval. The transitory Southern Hemisphere.
oscillation or plateau of planktonic 6180 during de-
glaciation is thought to be correlative with the Ant- * The Byrd and Vostok stable isotope records
arctic Cold Reversal (Billing in age, Blunier et al. from Antarctica are not proxies for hemisphere-
1997) in the Vostok ice-core record (Charles et al. wide paleotemperature changes during the last
1996). Such a correspondence could be expected glacial-interglacial transition, because they dif-
because the subantarctic waters near RC11-83 are fer significantly from the Taylor Dome, New
the ultimate source of most precipitation in the re- Zealand, and southern Chilean Lake District
gion of Vostok (Koster et al. 1992). However, the paleoclimate signals.
6180 minimum at about 12,360 14C yr BP in RC11- * Although Antarctic warming inferred from the
83 is coincident with the full development of a stable isotope record at the Byrd ice core seems
closed-canopy North Patagonian Evergreen Forest to have preceded the first abrupt warming in
at 12,200 14C yr BP in the southern Lake District of Greenland ice-core records (near the Oldest
Chile. Also the subsequent isotope signal is com- Dryas/B61ling transition), it does not necessari-
patible with the reversal in climate trend evident in ly follow that Southern Hemisphere climate as a
pollen records in the southern Lake District whole led Northern Hemisphere climate into the
(Heusser et al. 1999; Moreno et al. 1999). Thus it last glacial/interglacial transition. This is be-
is difficult to understand how the late-glacial cause the Chilean and New Zealand paleocli-
planktonic 5180 signal from RC 11 -83 is taken to be mate records both show abrupt warming at
correlative with the Vostok record and to show a about 14,600 14C yr BP that correlates with sim-
1000-yr lead of Southern relative to Northern ilar abrupt warming in the Northern Hemisphere
Hemisphere climate. and is quite different in timing and character
Marine sediment core MD88-770 (4601'S, from the gradual early warming documented in
9628'E), calibrated with 16 acceptable AMS the Byrd ice core. Moreover, the abrupt warm-
radiocarbon dates, shows a small lead of plankton- ing in the Greenland ice cores near the Oldest
ic 5180 and summer sea-surface temperatures over Dryas/B61oing transition occurred at least 1600
benthonic 6180 at the initiation of the last deglaci- 14C yr after deglaciation began elsewhere in the
ation (Fig. 9) (Labeyrie et al. 1996). Bracketing ra- Northern Hemisphere.
diocarbon dates suggests that surface water began * Although the chronology of the last deglaciation
to warm at sometime between 16,780 and 13,500 in the Southern Ocean remains confusing, all
142
a.
MD88-770
Summer SST (C)

Foraminiferal 6180 (%o)
- 2 4 6 8 10
I543 2
5700
-<~v ~-\ Diatoms 216,780 2150 --
1,530
g v-" Foraminifers 13500
cm- 21,610
20,400
8~~~~~- < ~ ~--2 1,290
, ;/:= 25,160 -
0.
40 o- ~-- - - - - 23 25,010
0.
O- -C > Foraminifers Benthonic 2730,500
~<~*~~ -^ Foraminifers Y ~32,790
- -'-37,220
'f>- % -,._._ -< ( 44,620
|- ,' . Diatoms
C. MD84-527
N. pachyderma 1. 6180 (%0)
b.
RC1 1-83
-O
0.
*0
Drafted by R. D. Kelly Jr. 1997 - - 28,620 -0
- - 30,580
Fig. 9. Foraminiferal records from the three well-dated deep-sea cores in the Southern Ocean. Isotope records from core MD88-770
show a small lead of planktonic 6180 and summer SST over benthonic )180. Interglacial SST values were reached by 12,150 14C yr
BP (Labeyrie et al. 1996). Oxygen-isotope records from RC11-83 do not show an obvious lead of planktonic over benthonic 6180 at
the beginning of deglaciation; however, a plateau in planktonic 6180 during deglaciation is thought by Charles etal. (1996) to correlate
with the Antarctic Cold Reversal seen in the Vostok Ice Core. Based on gas chronologic comparisons of Byrd and GISP2 ice cores,
the Antarctic Cold Reversal is thought to have occurred during Boiling time (Sowers and Bender 1995). In any case, 6180 values typical
of interglacial temperatures were reached by 12,360 14C yr BP (Charles et al. 1996). The third well-dated record comes from MD84-
527 where i180 values of Neogloboquadrina pachyderma indicate that full interglacial conditions were reached by 12,130 14C yr BP
(Bard et al. 1990; Labracherie et al. 1989).
143
G.H. DENTON ET AL
three of the extensively AMS-dated marine sed-
Southern Lake District, Chile
iment cores show near-Holocene values of sea-
(4030'- 4225'S; 72o25'- 73045'W)
surface temperatures, or else significant deple-
tion of planktonic 6180, at close to 12,000-
12,500 14C yr BP. This is in accord with the sit-
uation in the southern Chilean Lake District ter-
restrial pollen records (Fig. 5) (Heusser et al.
1999; Moreno et al. 1999) and the Argentine
Andes glacial record (Ariztegui et al. 1997).
This warm interval corresponds with peak
Bolling warmth in the North Atlantic region
(Fig. 5), and it is out of phase with the climate
oscillations in the Byrd and Vostok, but not in
0)
the Taylor Dome, ice cores in Antarctica (Sow-
ers and Bender 1995; Blunier et al. 1997; Steig
a)
etal. 1998).
(U
Figure 10 suggests that the Southern Hemi-
10
sphere summer insolation peak at about 23,000
cal. yr BP (which is nearly out of phase with the
precession-forced summer minimum in the
Northern Hemisphere) did not cause an early
warming response in the New Zealand and
Chilean paleoclimate records during Termina-
tion I. In contrast, detailed pollen analysis of
cores and sections from the Canal de la Puntilla,
Llanquihue, Fundo Llanquihue, Bella Vista
Insolation (W/m2)
Bluff, Dalcahue, and Mayol sites together show
-- - ------ - ----
that the cold, wet conditions of the LGM contin-
ued through the interval of high southern inso- Fig. 10. Comparison of our new paleoclimate record for the Chil-
ean Lake District and the New Zealand Southern Alps derived
lation right up to the time of the youngest glacial
from glacial geologic and palynological data with summer solar
peak at 14,550-14,805 14C yr BP (Denton et al.
insolation at 45N and 45S over the last 40,000 years (Berger
1999; Heusser et al. 1999; Moreno et al. 1999).
1978). A rise in Southern Hemisphere summer insolation begin-
LGM conditions came to a close only after the ning 30,000 cal. years ago did not produce signs of early warming
in New Zealand and Chilean paleoclimate records.
culmination of this youngest advance. The same
situation holds for New Zealand. In like fashion,
reference to Fig. 4 shows that significant early
warming is not obvious in the New Zealand
paleoclimate record during Termination II.

ditions did not set in until approximately 26,000
14C yr BP.
* Within this long interval of the LGM, snowline
Summary
was depressed about 1000 m, relative to present-
Combined glacial geologic and palynologic data day values, during glacier advances into the out-
from the Chilean Andes and Southern Alps high-

er Llanquihue-age moraine belt at 29,400,
light the following features of middle latitude 26,760, 22,295-22,570, and 14,550-14,805 14C
Southern Hemisphere paleoclimate through the yr BP. Additional glacial maxima may have been
LGM and the last termination.

achieved shortly before 17,800 14C yr BP and
again shortly before 15,730 14C yr BP. The coe-
The moraine chronology suggests that full-gla-

val lowering of treeline suggests that mean sum-
cial or near-full-glacial climate conditions pre- mer temperature was depressed 6-8C, com-
vailed from about 29,400 to 14,550 14C yr BP in

pared to modern values, during the LGM.
the southern Lake District-Isla Grande de Chi- * In the Southern Alps, the known glacial advanc-
loe region. However, pollen records from Isla es during the LGM culminated at 22,400,
Grande de Chilo6 suggest that full-glacial con- 17,700, 16,200, and 14,000-15,000 14C yr BP.
144
Additional maxima may have occurred shortly ing pulse so evident elsewhere. We suggest that this
before 19,740 14C yr BP, shortly after 18,600 14C was because of a massive collapse of marine ice-
yr BP, and in Younger Dryas time. Relative to sheet sectors from North Atlantic continental
present-day values, snowline depression during shelves during the Heinrich 1 event of Oldest Dryas
the most extensive advances was about 875 m age. We speculate that this massive collapse was
(Porter 1975). the key connection between these two (Oldest
The last glacial/interglacial transition began Dryas and Oldest Dryas/B61iing) warming pulses,
with a decisive warming at 14,600-14,700 14C suggested by our Southern Hemisphere data to
yr BP in both New Zealand and the Chilean An- have been interhemispheric events. The timing and
des. Subsequent details are not yet known in magnitude of the Oldest Dryas warming pulse
New Zealand, except for late-glacial readvanc- make it a prime candidate for triggering the mas-
es. But a second and decisive warming pulse in sive Heinrich 1 ice collapse, which so decreased
the region of the southern Lake District-Isla North Atlantic salinity that downwelling was sup-
Grande de Chiloe occurred at 12,700-13,000 pressed to its lowest level of the last glacial cycle
14C yr BP. After an interval of near-interglacial (Sarnthein et al. 1994), thereby depressing North
warmth, a late-glacial climate reversal set in Atlantic sea-surface temperatures and maintaining
close to 12,200 14C yr BP and continued at least regional cooling of Greenland. We speculate fur-
into the early part of Younger Dryas time. Al- ther that a strong rise in the salinity of the northern
though strong contrary opinions have been ex- North Atlantic Ocean occurred at the end of the col-
pressed, this reversal of trend may well have cul- lapse, because the reservoir of glacial ice on con-
minated in a Younger Dryas event in both the tinental shelves, as well as in feeder ice streams,
Chilean Andes and the Southern Alps. was so depleted that the influx of icebergs dropped
precipitously. Together with rising summer insola-
The similarity in timing and magnitude of middle- tion in the Northern Hemisphere, such a strong sa-
latitude snowline lowering with that in the North- linity jump could have switched North Atlantic
ern Hemisphere suggests global atmospheric cool- thermohaline circulation into its interglacial mode,
ing during the LGM. When compared with paleo- with a vigorous LNDW component formed from
climate records from the North Atlantic region, the inflow of warm and salty water into the Nordic
middle-latitude Southern Hemisphere terrestrial Seas. The paleoclimate record is the prime clue to
data imply interhemispheric symmetry of the the fundamental role of this thermohaline circula-
structure and timing of the last glacial/interglacial tion switch in the last termination, because it shows
transition. Particularly prominent are warming coeval warming to near-interglacial values not only
pulses beginning at 14,600 14C yr BP (Oldest in Chile but even in Europe, despite the fact that
Dryas) and 12,700-13,00014C yr BP (near the Old- Northern Hemisphere ice sheets were still close to
est Dryas-Boiling transition) that together termi- maximum LGM volumes.
nated the LGM and brought large regions in both In this view, the decisive thermohaline mode
hemispheres to near-interglacial warmth in about switch near the Oldest Dryas/B61iing boundary
1600 14C yr. was the culmination of a series of cycles in which
This synchrony of atmospheric temperature marine-based ice built up on North Atlantic conti-
changes during both the LGM and the glacial- nental shelves and then collapsed during Heinrich
interglacial transition suggests that shifts of ocean events. Such buildup-and-collapse cycles of
heat across the equator from changing North At- grounded continental shelf ice could have been a
lantic ventilation power (Crowley 1992) was not powerful regulator of North Atlantic near-surface
the major control on interhemispheric atmospheric salinity. Low salinity from a steady influx of ice-
signals. Rather it implicates changes in greenhouse bergs occurred during each buildup phase, the low-
gas, most likely in the inventory of atmospheric est salinity accompanied each Heinrich iceberg
water vapor, as the dominant climate linkage be- pulse, and a salinity jump occurred after each Hein-
tween the hemispheres. rich collapse depleted reservoirs of grounded ice
A conspicuous anomaly in the Greenland ice- marginal to the North Atlantic Ocean. The salinity
core records may afford the clue for the cause of the jump after each Heinrich collapse caused increased
two climate warming pulses that dominated the last conveyor overturn and ocean heat input into the
termination. Namely, there is little or no indication North Atlantic Ocean. But it is postulated that only
in these ice-core records of the Oldest Dryas warm- the Heinrich 1 collapse was massive enough to
Geografiska Annaler - 81 A (1999) 2
145
G.H. DENTON ETAL.
drain peripheral ice completely (and hence to cause em Hemisphere lead at climate transitions has been
a salinity jump big enough to initiate the intergla- attributed to varying ocean heat transport across
cial mode of North Atlantic thermohaline over- the equator linked to changing strength of North
turn), because by this time the circum-Atlantic ice Atlantic Deep Water production (Crowley 1992;
sheets had reached maximum size (and hence vul- Blunier et al. 1998), to local insolation forcing of
nerability to unstable collapse from continental sea ice on the Southern Ocean (Kim et al. 1998), or
shelves) and also because the Oldest Dryas warm- to a bipolar seesaw of thermohaline circulation
ing trigger was the most significant, at least as re- (Broecker 1998).
corded in the Chilean Lake District, since prior to There are two unsolved stratigraphic problems
49,892 14C yr BP. in identifying interhemispheric climate linkages.
Because it is registered so strongly in our South- The first is that a new ice-core record from the pe-
ern Hemisphere data, as well as in some European ripheral Taylor Dome of the East Antarctic Ice
paleoclimate repositories, at a time when Green- Sheet shows a climate signal very close to that of
land ice-core records preclude a major North At- the Greenland ice cores, implying interhemispher-
lantic thermohaline switch, the Oldest Dryas ic synchrony in atmospheric signals (Steig et al.
warming pulse is inferred to have originated in the 1998), probably facilitated by rapid thermohaline
tropics, perhaps from direct forcing of atmospheric linkage of polar seas (Weyl 1968). The reason for
water-vapor production by half-precession effect. such fundamental differences between the Taylor
In contrast, the decisive warming near the Oldest Dome and Byrd isotope records is unknown. The
Dryas/Bolling transition was most likely caused by second problem is that the key subantarctic marine
the major thermohaline switch recorded so promi- cores that suggest a Southern Hemisphere lead of
nently in North Atlantic paleoclimate repositories. sea-surface temperatures are at nearly the same lat-
This switch was the most fundamental change in itudes as the terrestrial records in the southern Chil-
deep circulation of the world ocean during the last ean Lake District and New Zealand discussed here.
glacial cycle. The fact that atmospheric warming Again, the reason for the perceived differences be-
was registered as far south as the Chilean Lake Dis- tween the two data sets is unknown.
trict and Isla Grande de Chiloe, and even at Taylor A possible resolution of these problems can
Dome in peripheral East Antarctica (Steig et al. come from detailed AMS radiocarbon chronolo-
1998), strongly suggests a coincident change in the gies of marine and terrestrial records from a pro-
greenhouse gas content of the atmosphere, most posed Antarctic Circumpolar Transect (ACT) at the
likely water vapor. Thus our paleoclimate record latitude of subantarctic waters (where abundant fo-
from the southern Chilean Lake District suggests raminifers allow extensive dating). This transect
that the major thermohaline switch near the Oldest would cross key land masses, including southern
Dryas/B611ing transition affected tropical atmos- South America and New Zealand, to permit de-
phere/ocean dynamics in such a way that the pro- tailed comparison of marine and terrestrial records.
duction of water vapor was reset to near-intergla- The results from Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian
cial values. Ocean sectors should show if abrupt climate
Because the middle-latitude Southern Hemi- changes during the last glacial/interglacial transi-
sphere and the North Atlantic regional paleocli- tion were synchronous between the hemispheres, if
mate records show key similarities, we stress trop- there was a lead in Southern Hemisphere climate,
ical and North Atlantic triggers for major climate or if there was a mosaic of NADW outcrops at the
changes during the last glacial-interglacial transi- surface of the Southern Ocean that caused mixed
tion. But there is a major problem with this ap- climate signals in Antarctic ice cores.
proach. Namely, the Byrd ice core in central West
Antarctica, along with some Southern Ocean ma-
Acknowledgements
rine cores, suggest that Southern Hemisphere
warming preceded that in the Northern Hemi- The research was supported by the Office of Cli-
sphere by several thousand years at the beginning mate Dynamics of the National Science Founda-
of the last termination (Hays et al. 1976; Sowers tion, the Lamont-Scripps Consortium for Climate
and Bender 1995). Also the Vostok and Byrd ice- Research of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
core records imply that the B611ing and Younger Administration, the National Geographic Society,
Dryas oscillations were out of phase between the the Norwegian Research Council, and the Swiss
two hemispheres (Blunier et al. 1997). The South- National Science Fund. P.I. Moreno was supported
146
by the EPSCoR Program of the National Science Christian Schliichter, Institute of Geology, Univer-
Foundation. The overall project was carried out in sity of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
co-operation with the Servicio Nacional de Ge-
ologia y Mineria, Santiago, Chile. We are very David R. Marchant, Department of Geology, Bos-
grateful to W.S. Broecker for his continued support ton University, 675 Commonwealth Avenue, Bos-
and for many discussions on problems of paleocli- ton, Massachusetts 02215, USA.
mate; he initiated this work in 1989 by inviting G.
Denton, C. Heusser, and L. Heusser on a field trip
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Denton Et Al 1999

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Denton Et Al 1999

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Interhemispheric Linkage of Paleoclimate during the Last Glaciation

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DURING THE LAST GLACIATION

G.H. DENTON', C. J. HEUSSER2, T.V. LOWELL3, P.I. MORENO4, B.G. ANDERSEN5,

LINDA E. HEUSSER6, C. SCHLUCHTER7 and D.R. MARCHANT8

'Department of Geological Sciences and Institute for Quaternary Studies,

University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA

2100 Clinton Road, Tuxedo, New York, USA

3Department of Geology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

4Institute for Quaternary Studies, University of Maine, Orono, Maine, USA

5Institute for Geology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

6Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Palisades, New York, USA

7Institute of Geology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

8Department of Geology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA

The synchronous and nearly uniform lowering of snowlines in

ern Hemisphere middle latitudes. At the last glacial maximum

(LGM), snowline lowering relative to present-day values was

des (1000 m). Particularly noteworthy are the new Younger-

Geografiska Annaler * 81 A (1999) 2

lennial-scale oscillation of the climate system is mospheric water vapor?

undergo abrupt mode changes. To assess these interhemispheric linkages, we

108 Geografiska Annaler * 81 A (1999) - 2

Geografiska Annaler 81 A (1999) 2

ture well-preserved moraine-and-outwash systems of dominant Southern Hemisphere westerlies and

triggering climate change. Also, unlike the North

of numerous cores from surface mires and of sev-

110 Geografiska Annaler 81 A (1999) 2

Southern Lake District, Chile Lago Mascardi, Argentina

(40o30'- 4225'S; 72o25'- 73045'W) (41017'S; 7135'W)

Mean Summer Temperature

8C 10C 12C 14C 160C 345678

Drald bev R. D. Klv Jr. t1997

were analysed at more widely spaced intervals and

the chronology controlled with fewer radiocarbon

Chilean Andes paleoclimate record

dates (Heusser et al. 1999). The organic layers re-

Geografiska Annaler 81 A (1999) - 2

112 Geografiska Annaler 81 A (1999) 2

till layer. landsurface buried by a coarsening-upward gla-

along nearly 2 of latitude uniformly show an open (Denton et al. 1999).

Geografiska Annaler 81 A (1999) - 2

it of radiocarbon dating. with low frequencies of Gramineae, Myrtaceae,

neath radiocarbon-dated interdrift organic silt-and- al. 1999).

1999). 36,960-39,340 '4C yr BP at the Frutillar Bajo and

114 Geografiska Annaler 81 A (1999) 2

the Chilean Andes (4035'-4225'S). All ages are in 14C yr BP.

Heinrich events Gramineae events Glacier maxima

North Atlantic Ocean Isla Grande de Chiloe Chilean Andes

(Elliot et al. 1998) (Heusser et al. 1999) (Denton et al. 1999b)

H-1 13,200-15,000 T-3 13,040-15,200 14,550-14,805

H-2 20,200-22,200 T-5 21,430-22,774 22,295-22,570

H-3 26,000-27,700 T-7 24,895-26,019 26,760

H-4 34,200-35,200 T-9 32,105-35,764 -

H-5 44,220 T-11 44,520-47,110

Isla Grande de Chiloe.

Geografiska Annaler * 81 A (1999) 2

1999). moraine system during the LGM occurred at about

116 Geografiska Annaler * 81 A (1999) 2

Puntilla (Moreno 1997; Moreno et al. 1999) and LGM.

et al. 1999). mophilic arboreal elements of the North Patagoni-

intervals between 16,270 14C yr BP and 14,060 14C at each site.

Geografiska Annaler 81 A (1999) 2

this age for the beginning of the last termination is

ern Chilean Lake District and on Isla Grande de

. . *^S < 15,080:200