Unit 6 Time-varying Field

Two new concepts will be introduced:

A changing magnetic field electric field
A changing electric field magnetic field

First, we will introduce the concept of flux linkage.

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6.1 Flux linkage and inductance

Flux linkage
For an ideal coil of N turns in which a current I produces a
total flux . The flux linkage is defined as

Fig. 6 .1
I

2
For a coil having a single turn, the flux linkage is equal to
the total flux = .

Inductance (self-inductance)
Inductance is defined as the ratio of the total flux linkage to
the current which they link
N
L
I I (Henry) (6.1)
For linear magnetic media, L has a constant value.
For nonlinear ferromagnetic materials, L=L(I).

Example
Calculate the inductance per unit length of a coaxial
conductor as show in Fig. 6.2 (suppose the currents are on
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the surfaces of the conductors).
o I
Between the conductors B a .
2r

Fig. 6.2
For a length l, the total flux linkage is
o I o Il b
Bdrdz
l b l b
drdz ln
0 a 0 a
2r 2 a
The inductance for a length l is
0l b
L
I 2 a
ln
(H) (6.2)
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The inductance per unit length (1 m) is
o b
L ln (H/m) (6.3)
2 a
Example
Find the inductance of an ideal solenoid with 300 turns, l =
0.50 m and a circular cross-section of radius 0.02 m.

The axial magnetic flux intensity can be determined by

H dl I
300 I 300 I
, Hl 300 I , H 600 I (A/m)
l l 0.5
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 B 0 H 0 600 I (Wb/m)
BS B [ (0.02) 2 ] 0.754 0 I 9.45 10 7 I
284 10 6
I
N 300 284 10 I ,6 L 284 H
I I
Mutual Inductance

Fig. 6.3
In Fig. 6.3, a part (12) of the magnetic flux produced by the
current i1, through coil 1 links the N2 turns of coil 2. We can
define the mutual inductance M12 between the circuit 1 and
circuit 2, in terms of mutual flux linkage:

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 N 212
M 12
i1 (H) (6.4)
Similarly, we can define M21
N121
M 21
i2 (H) (6.5)
where 21 represents the flux produced by i2 through coil 2
which links the N1 turns of coil 1.
M 12 M 21 (6.6)
Example
A solenoid with N1=1000, r1 = 1.0cm, and l1 = 50cm is
concentric within a second coil of N2 =2000, r2 =2.0cm, and
l2 = 50cm. Find the mutual inductance assuming free-space
conditions.

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For long coils of small cross section, H may be assumed
constant inside the coil and zero for points just outside the
coil.

With the first coil carrying a current I1,

Hl1 N1 I1
1000
H I 1 (A/m) (in
0.50 the axial direction)
B H 0 2000I1 (Wb/m2)
12 BS 0 2000 I1 0.012
(Wb)
Since H and B are zero outside the coils, this is the only flux
linking the second coil.
M 12 N 2 20004 10 7 2000 10 4 1.58

I1 mH
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6.2 Faradays Law and Lenzs Law
A changing magnetic field electric field

Faradays Law states that:

A magnetic field varying in time produces an
electromotive force (e.m.f.) which causes a current flow in
a closed circuit in the field.

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The definition of the electromotive force (e.m.f.) is:
e l
E dl
(volts) (The reference direction of e: dl .)
A dimensional check shows that it is measured in volts.
So an electromotive force is merely a voltage source.

The induced e.m.f. (e) is proportional to

the time rate of decrease of magnetic flux linkage in the
circuit.
d d
e N
dt dt (V) ()
(The directions of e and : follow the right hand rule.)
The negative sign indicates that the direction of current flow
tends to prevent flux change to take place (this is known as
Lenzs law, see Fig. 6.4)
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The relative directions of anand dl
and e
follow the right hand rule.

In Fig. 6.4(a), B is increasing along an , producing increase

in flux linkage, hence the induced e.m.f. is negative and
current I flows against dl and E (against the increase in B
along an ). In Fig. 6(b), B is decreasing and e is positive,
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current I flows in the same direction as dl and E.

d
A nonzero value of dt may result from any of the
following situations.
1. A time varying flux linking a stationary closed path.
2. Relative motion between a steady flux and a closed
path.
3. A combination of the two.
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For a one turn circuit,
d
e E dl B dS
d

l dt dt S
(6.8)

(1) Stationary-path
The current paths are fixed in space with respect to B and
the area S does not change with time, hence we have
e E dl
l
d
dt

d
dt
B dS
S S
B
t
dS

E dl
B
e dS
l S t (6.9)
In power engineering, this e is often called the
transformer e.m.f.

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Maxwells second equation has a more general form:

E dl
B
dS
l S t
Lets obtain the point form of this integral equation.
Applying Stokes theorem to the closed line integral, we
have
E dl
E dS

l S

B
E
Therefore,

t

This is Maxwells second equation in point form.

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Example
z

(0,1,0)
(0,0,0) y

(1,0,0) I 100
(1,1,0)
x

B
Fig. 6.5

A square loop of wire has corners at (0,0,0), (1,0,0), (0,1,0),

(1,1,0) cm. The loop is perfectly conducting except for a
small 100 resistor in one side. The field B 10 sin(108
t )a z T.
Calculate the power being delivered to the resistor as a
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 function of time.
S=1 cm2 =10-4 m2
e
B
dS
B
S

10 sin(108 t ) 10 6
S
S t t t
10 cos(10 8 t )(10 8 )(10 6 )(10 4 )
= -10-1cos(108t) (V)
e 10 1 cos(108 t )
I 10 3
cos(10 t) (A)

8
R 100
P e I 10 cos(10 t ) 10 cos(10 t ) 10 cos (10 t )
1 8 3 8 4 2 8
(W)

At t=0, B, , e is negative, the current flow is opposite to

the direction to that shown in Fig. 6.5.

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(2) Moving path, flux density is constant
conducting
rails
z
y

B y

_ Moving bar
+ with sliding
O x contacts
L

Fig. 6.6
At any instant, the flux linkage = BS = BLy
d dy
e BL BLv (6.10)
dt dt

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Let us consider this conductors in motion through
time-independent fields.

The force F on a charge Q in a magnetic field B , where

the charge is moving with velocity v , was examined in Unit
5:
F Q (v B )
In Unit 2, we already know that if a charge Q in an electric
field E , a force will act on it:
F
F QE , E
and Q
Now for a charge Q in a magnetic field B , we can also
suppose that, there is a special electric field intensity Em :

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 F
F Q Em , Em
and Q
This special electric field intensity Em , is called motional
electric field intensity, which is defined as the force per unit
charge:
F
Em v B
Q
When a conductor with a great number of free charges
moves through a field B , the impressed Em creates a
voltage difference between the two ends of the conductor.

The motional e.m.f. produced by the moving conductor is

then

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 e E
l
m dl v B dl
l (6.11)
For a closed loop the line integral must be taken around the
entire loop.
Of course, if only part of the complete loop is in motion, it is
necessary only that the integral covers this part, since Em
will be zero elsewhere.
If B is uniform, e v B L .
If B is uniform, the velocity v and the field B are at right
angles, and the conductor is normal to both, then a conductor
of length L will have an e.m.f.:
e BLv (6.12)

(3) Conductors in motion through time-dependent fields

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When a closed conducting loop is in motion (this includes
changes in shape) and also the field B is a function of time
(as well as of position), then the total induced voltage is
made up of a contribution from each of the two sources of
flux change. Faradays law becomes
e v B d l
B
d S
S t l (6.13)
The first term on the right is the voltage due to the change in
B , with the loop held fixed; the second term is the voltage
arising from the motion of the loop, with B held fixed. The
polarity of each term is found from the appropriate form of
Lenzs law, and the two terms are then added with regard to
those polarities.

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 Maxwells second equation*

Induced e.m.f.:
E dl v B d l
B
e d S
l
m
S t l (6.14)
Applying Stokes theorem to the closed line integral, we
have
t d S v B d S
B
e E md S
S S S

The point form:

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 Em
B
t
v B
Usually the electric field produced by charges is called
Coulomb electric field, denoted as EC.
The total electric field is
E EC Em
For the Coulomb electric field:
l
E C dl 0

For the induced electric field:

E
l
m dl
S
B
t
l

d S v B dl

Add these two equations together:

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 E dl
l S
B
t
l

d S v B dl
Maxwells second equation
The point form:
E
B
t
v B

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Example

Fig. 6.8

As shown in Fig. 6.8(a), a planar conducting loop rotates

with angular velocity about the x axis; at t = 0 it is in the
x-y plane. A time-varying magnetic field, B Bt a z , is
present. Find the voltage induced in the loop.
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Solution:
Method 1:

d
B dS
d
e
using dt dt S
d
B dS BS cos t
d d dB d
e S cos t BS (cos t )
dt dt S dt dt dt

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 dB
S cos t BS sin t
dt
Method 2*: using the two-term form of Faradays law
Let the area of the loop be S. The contribution to e due to the
variation of B is
e1 d S
B dB dB
a z dS a n S cos t since a z a n cos t
S t S dt dt
To calculate the second, motional contribution to e, the
velocity v of a point on the loop is needed. From Fig. 6.8(b)
it is seen that
y
v r a n an
cos t
so that
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v B
y
cos t
an B a z
y
cos t
B sin t a x since
a n a z sin t a x

( an is on y-z surface)
Consequently,

e2 v B d l
B sin t
cos t y ax d l

Stokes theorem can be used to evaluate the last integral:

ya
l
x
S
S

d l y a x d S a z dS a n S cos t ( ya x a z )
B sin t
Therefore e2 S cos t BS sin t
cos t

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Application: electric generator

In conductors rotating in magnetic field, the e.m.f. will be

induced, then generate electric current.

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6.3 Displacement current - Maxwells hypothesis

A changing electric field magnetic field

From Faradays Law, we have

d
l E d l dt S t dS
B

This law has been proved by experiments.

By analogy with the electric field, we might expect the

following relation
H
D
dl dS (6.15)
l S t

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 D
JD
is called displacement current density. Note that
t
(6.15) has not been proved: they are just a postulate. But
since they are found to be consistent with all physical
phenomena so far observed, they may be accepted as being
true.

With the concept of displacement current, the Ampres

circuital law may be written as
H dl I
D
d S
l S t (6.16) ()
displacement current
conduction current

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 Displacement current in a flat-plate capacitor

Let S = area of each plate of capacitor

d = separation between two plates
0S
then C
d

From circuit theory,

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the conduction current IC = capacitor current
d Vm sin t
cost
dQ dv
C C CV
dt dt dt
m

0 SVm
IC cost
d
This current obviously cannot flow across the plates of the
capacitor.

According to Maxwell, there is a displacement current ID

which complete the circuit:
ID JD d S
D
dS
S S t

Ignoring fringing, in the space between the plates

Q Cv CVm sin(t ) 0 S Vm sin(t ) 0Vm
D sin(t )
S S S d S d
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 D 0Vm
cos(t )an
t d (normal to the plates)
0Vm
ID dS
D
cos(t )an d S
S t S d
V SV
0 m cost S 0 m cos(t ) I C
d d

6.4 Maxwells equations: final forms

These take account of the time-varying modifications.

Integral form:

1. SD d S Q, D V Gausss Law

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 d B
l E d l dt S t dS , E t Faradays Law
B

2.

l H d l I S t d S ,
D D

3. H J

t Amperes circuital Law
4. S B d S 0 , B 0 No isolated magnetic

charge
The auxiliary equations:
D E from D 0 E P and P e 0 E
B 0 H M and M m H

B H from

J E conduction current density

J V v convection current density

Because of its fundamental importance we should include

the Lorentz force equation, written in point form as the force
per unit volume: F V E v B (here V is volume charge density.)

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 Boundary conditions for time-varying fields

General:
Et1 = Et2
Ht1 Ht2 = JS (surface current density)
Dn1 Dn2 = S
Bn1 = Bn2
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*
Perfect conductor (material 2), i.e. 2 =
Et1 = 0 E2 0
Ht1 = JS ( H t1 J S an ) H 2 0 (not for static fields)

Dn1 = S J2 0
Bn1 = 0

Note:
1. S is possible for dietectrics (insulators) and conductors.
2. It is often desirable to idealize a physical problem by
assuming a perfect conductor for which = but J is
finite.
From Ohms law J E , then, in a perfect conductor,

E0
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 For time-varying fields, it follows from the point form of
B
Faradays law E that

t
B 0 and H 0
D

The point form of Amperes circuital law H J
t
then shows that the finite value of J is
J 0
and the current can only be carried on the surface as JS,
not J .
B

E
3. E0 in a perfect conductor. Since t for
time-varying fields, B 0 and H 0 .
This is not the case for static fields. In static fields,
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 E 0
According this equation, we cannot determine B and H.

That is, for static fields, in a perfect conductor, it is

possible that B 0 and H 0 .

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