Vol 6 No1 tcm18-7048 PDF

January 2005 Volume 6, Issue No 1
ISSN 1109-4028 Pages 1 63
Chemistry Education
Research and Practice
Published quarterly by The Royal Society of Chemistry

Chemistry Education Research and Practice
January 2005 Volume 6, Issue No 1

ISSN 1109-4028 Pages 1-63
Contents
Papers
Factors related to observed attitude change toward learning chemistry among university
students...............................................................................................................................1-18
C. Anders R Berg
Special section
Teaching and learning acids and bases
Textbooks and teachers understanding of acid-base models used in

chemistry teaching...........................................................................................................19-35
Michal Drechsler and Hans-Jrgen Schmidt
Conceptual change achieved through a new teaching program on

acids and bases.................................................................................................................36-51
Gkhan Demirciolu, Alipaa Ayas and Hlya Demirciolu
Traditional and computer-assisted learning in teaching acids and bases..................52-63

Inci Morgil, Soner Yavuz, zge zyalin Oskay and Seil Arda
Indexed/Abstracted in:
CHEMICAL ABSTRACTS (CA)
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH ABSTRACTS ONLINE (ERA)
http://www.tandf.co.uk/era
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Practice, published from the University of Ioannina, (http://www.uoi.gr/cerp/) have merged
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Its editorial policy will be the following.
Chemistry Education Research and Practice is the journal for teachers, researchers and
other practitioners in chemical education. It is the place to publish papers on:
research, and reviews of research in chemical education;
effective practice in the teaching of chemistry;
in depth analyses of issues of direct relevance to chemical education
Contributions can take the form of full papers, preliminary communications, perspectives on
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effective practice in the teaching of chemistry;
in depth analyses of issues of direct relevance to chemical education
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Educational research
Factors related to observed attitude change toward

learning chemistry among university students
C. Anders R. Berg
Chemical Education Research and Development, Department of Chemistry, Kemihuset,

Ume Universitet, 90187, Ume, Sweden.
e-mail Anders.Berg@chem.umu.se
Received 11 November 2004, accepted 12 January 2005
Abstract: To gain insight into factors associated with changes in attitude toward learning
chemistry, six students who displayed major attitude changes were identified through a pre- and
post-course attitude questionnaire administered to sixty-six first-year university chemistry
students. Those with largest attitude changes, both positive and negative, were selected to
highlight the contrast between students. The six students were interviewed; descriptions of their
one-semester chemistry course experiences were analyzed to identify factors associated with
their change in attitude. A positive attitude change was associated with evidence of motivated
behaviour, while a negative change was linked to less motivated behaviour. Students addressed
similar factors in the educational setting, but students with positive attitude changes exhibited
fewer negative views of educational factors, while students with negative attitude changes
showed an opposite pattern. Since the same factors, students perceived level of teacher empathy
for their efforts at chemistry learning, affected both groups, this indicates a possibility for
changes in educational setting beneficial to all students. [Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2005, 6 (1), 1-18]
Keywords: attitude change; motivation; university chemistry.
Introduction
If university teachers are asked, what is the most important student characteristic
associated with successful studies, they usually mention traits such as attitude, motivation,
and genuine interest. Similarly, questions about the importance of attitude (Dalgety et al.,
2003), and of motivation (Covington, 2000) have been investigated by many educational
researchers.
University students attitude towards learning chemistry is the focus of this study. To
gain insight in what could influence changes in attitude, six first-year university students,
attending an introductory chemistry course and displaying large changes in attitude toward
learning chemistry were identified through questionnaires about attitudes before and after the
course. These students were further interviewed about their chemistry course, in order to
determine factors associated with their positive or negative change in attitude and its relation
to motivation and contextual factors. The study intended to address the following two
research questions:
What factors are related to students shift in attitude toward learning in a university
chemistry context?
What is the relative significance of the factors thus identified?
Two additional, related, important aspects that this study touched upon were: (a) the
relationship between epistemological beliefs, motivation, and learning; (b) the effect of the
Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 2005, 6 (1), 1-18
This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry

C. Anders R. Berg 2
educational setting on students attitudes. These are treated in Appendixes 1 and 2

respectively.
Perrys theory of intellectual and ethical development of college students

A considerable part of theoretical thinking on the development of student attitudes
originates from William Perrys book, Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development During
the College Years: A Scheme. For an extensive overview of Perrys work and subsequent
research, see Hofer and Pintrich (1997).
Perry developed a theory of intellectual and ethical development among college students.
He portrayed a developmental process and not static personality traits, and described nine
stages, or positions, usually condensed into four sequential categories (Fitch et al., 1984;
Moore, 1994). Dualism (Perry positions 1-2) is characterized by a dualistic right or wrong
view of the worldauthorities supposedly know the truth, which the learner could acquire.
The role of the student is to learn the right answers. Multiplicity (Perry positions 3-4)
represents a modification of dualism, with the possible inclusion of not yet known, in
addition to right or wrong. The role of a learner is to find knowledge and also to think for
oneself. Contextual relativism (Perry positions 5-6) represents a major shift in perspective
from a world with many exceptions to right or wrong, to the opposite view, that everything is
relative and context-bound, with few right or wrong answers. The learner is an active maker
of meaning within a context. Commitment within relativism (Perry positions 7-9) mainly
concerns elaboration of identity and does not refer to cognitive change. Very few
undergraduate students reach the Perry positions 7-9 (Moore, 1994).
Perrys work was later modified (Fitch, 1984; Finster, 1991), and applied to science
education (Mackenzie et al., 2003). Finster adopted the Perry scheme in the context of
chemical education and presented examples of how a students attitude position could affect
how the roles of instructor, evaluation, and laboratory activities are viewed. This paper
follows this tradition, analyzing student attitudes towards learning in terms of views of
knowledge, assessment, laboratory activities, and perceptions of the roles of instructor and
student. It thus has a broader view regarding both the attitude object and attitudes than is
common in most science education research.
Experimental design
Sample and method

This investigation was completed during a 20-week, full-time introductory university
chemistry course. Seventy-two students attended the course, and data were collected from
sixty-six of them. Students were majoring in chemistry, biology, chemical engineering,
biological engineering, and teacher training. The main areas of chemistry (general, inorganic,
organic, physical and biochemistry) were covered in the course. Components of the schedule
were whole-group lectures, and also tutorials, seminars, and laboratory activities, all the
latter in smaller groups with 12-15 students. During the course students changed lecturers and
lesson/laboratory instructors for each area of chemistry. Almost all, including the six students
(three men, three women) interviewed in-depth, were first-year students.
To gain insight in what could influence changes in attitude toward learning chemistry; six
students displaying such changes were identified through a pre- and post-attitude
questionnaire administered to the sixty-six students. To understand attitude change, which
generally is a long-term process, it is informative to investigate those students in whom
marked attitude change has occurred.

C. Anders R. Berg 3
The students selected for the interviews were those displaying the largest pre/post
changes in attitudes toward learning, as assessed by the questionnaire (see below) and whom
this researcher was able to contact. Three students initially selected for interviews could not
be reached after the end of the course. Course results and the study program were not criteria
for selection but a brief description is presented below. The six interviewed students showed
a mixed picture of course results as measured by examination scores and completed
laboratory reports. The three students with positive attitude shifts showed results above
average and also above the three students showing negative attitude shift. The three students
with negative shifts also showed about average results in the course.
All the teaching and all parts of this investigation were carried out in Swedish. The
examples from the questionnaire and the interview quotations were all translated from
Swedish. An overview of the experimental design is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Overview of the experimental design.
In-depth
Pre and po st interviews with 6 App lying Pin trich
questionnaire students showing mo del for d eeper
66 students m ajor attitude analysis of interviews
changes
1 1 1
1 2 3 4 5
Ch ang e Preliminary Ch ang es in attitude and

inattitude analysis of its relation to mo tivation
interv iew s and contextual factors
for 6 students show ing
m ajor attitude changes.
= main fo cus of study
Questionnaire for measuring attitude towards learning

During the second day of the course, a questionnaire was distributed and 20 weeks later,
at the end of the course, the same questionnaire was distributed again. The attitude
questionnaire is based on work by Perry (1970) and subsequent applications made in
chemistry (Finster, 1991; Mackenzie et al., 2003), and constitutes a further development of
other extant questionnaires (Henderleiter et al., 1999; Berg et al., 2003). Another chemistry
attitudes and experiences questionnaire has been developed by Dalgety et al. (Coll et al.,
2002, Dalgety et al., 2003), but was not used in this work.
The questionnaire was designed to assess the attitudes of students towards chemistry
learning. It addressed students view of knowledge, the role of the teacher, students
perception of their own role, of assessment and of laboratory activities. The instrument
consists of thirty-four statements representing two viewpoints of the attitude object (Reid,
2003). To avoid the possibility of ambiguity, both views of each item were described with a
statement. As an example, the statement Learning all the material covered in lectures
should be enough to pass the course could prompt the response disagree from two students

C. Anders R. Berg 4
holding very different views. I strongly disagree since you should know much more and I
strongly disagree since it is enough to know part of what has been covered in lectures. With
the two-sided format, this possibility for ambiguity was avoided. The response categories
were, Strongly Agree, Agree, Undecided, Agree, Strongly Agree. Each statement pair in the
current attitude instrument characterizes fully reasonable views, with no viewpoint obviously
preferred over the other. To paraphrase Perry (1970), each statement pair ideally characterizes
two different positions from which a person views his world, See Table 1 for illustrative
items.
Table 1. Some illustrative items from the attitude questionnaire.

SA A N A SA
1 Learning the material covered in the Learning the material covered in the
lectures should be enough to pass a lectures is not enough to pass a
course. course.
3 I think that lecturers should avoid I think that lecturers should include
including course material that is difficult course material to provide a
difficult for the students. challenge for the students.
19 I believe that I best learn the theory I believe that I best learn the theory
illustrated in the lab by planning and illustrated in the lab if there are explicit
completing the experiment myself. instructions showing how the experiment
should be designed and completed.
30 It is important to include working To perform laboratory experiments

with real samples e.g. ores or food with real samples is too time consuming
during laboratory work even if it takes and complicated to be worth the effort.
more time and is more complicated.
Analysis of responses from the attitude questionnaire, Step 1 in Figure 1, was conducted
using PCA, principal component analysis (Eriksson et al., 2001). PCA is a multivariate
technique in which several related variables (in this case questionnaire items) are transformed
into a smaller set of uncorrelated variables, principal components. PCA resembles factor
analysis (FA), but is not the same as FA. The main difference is that PCA explains variability
and has a unique solution, whereas FA explains correlation and estimates are not unique
(Jackson, 1991).
The first principal component describes as much as possible variability within the data. If
the questionnaire is properly designed, the first principal component largely covers what was
intended to measure by the items. Another way to describe this is that the first principal
component measures the underlying basic attitude that manifests itself in the answers to
questionnaire items. In this study, the first principal component describes attitude towards
learning, since the statements are designed to assess views of knowledge, perception of the
role of the instructor and student, assessment and laboratory activities. In our research group,
data from approximately 1000 students in >10 groups collected over four years are available
for analysis. Within groups a stable first principal component can be found with loadings
from items showing a common pattern. PCA was used in the analysis since it is possible to
position each student within the model described by the principal component. This possibility
was important in selecting students for interviews, since individual student attitude shifts,
within that principal component, can be calculated. Construct validity for the instrument is
suggested by the fact that more than fifty interviews have been conducted where the

C. Anders R. Berg 5
interviewer did not know the students position beforehand (the interviewer only knew that
students represented a relatively high or low attitude position) but after the interview the
interviewer could conclude that the student held a higher position, HiPos, or lower position,
LoPos, always being consistent with the position indicated by the instrument (Berg et al.,
2003). It has also been shown that learning outcome (defined as frequency and level of
students spontaneous use of chemical knowledge) from pre-lab activity and cognitive focus
during laboratory work are affected by the students position in the first principal component
(Winberg et al., 2004), also suggesting that the instrument assesses central aspects important
for learning.
Attitude questionnaires were collected from the sixty-six students of the sample, at both
the beginning and end of course and a PCA model was fitted. These students attitude shift in
the first principal component was calculated; see Figure 2.
The interviews
As described above, six students, showing major pre- vs. post-course shifts in attitudes
toward learning chemistry (three with positive and three with negative shifts) were
interviewed (Step 2 in Figure 1). Their attitude shifts, compared to the whole group, are
shown in Figure 2.
Interviews were chosen as a means to obtain detailed, rich information (Perry, 1970;
Hofer et al., 1997; Hofer, 2001). This researcher conducted all the interviews 4-6 weeks after
end of the course. The 1-2 hour interviews were quite open, since it was not known or
decided beforehand what factors could be related to the attitude shift. The interviewer did not
know the direction of shift of each student, only that the students attitude had changed
considerably. (A colleague performed the translation of coded identities into names.) The
interviews consisted of three main questions:
1 What is your background (previous education, secondary education, working
experiences, plans for the future, etc.)?
2 Could you describe your experiences during this semester of chemistry studies?
3 What further thoughts do you have about what has been said in Parts 1 and 2 of this
interview?
Each student was free to select topics to talk about during the interview. Nevertheless, the
interviewer tried to explore the students study methods, and his/her experiences of the
teaching and laboratory work. In addition, the intention was to highlight important aspects of
student attitudes towards learning. If the student, for example, mentioned that the reason I
found the course interesting was lectures by X, the answer was followed up with the
question, could you try to think what made the course interesting? and, eventually, if
needed, was it something the lecturer did, how he did it, or what?
Analysis of interviews was completed in four stages. During the first stage, interview
passages containing information judged as relevant were marked, Step 3 in Figure 1. These
passages were given short descriptions such as experienced lack of time, appreciated
working with friends, well prepared before laboratory work, and engaged teacher.
Markings and descriptions were completed with a computer program, QMA (qualitative
media analyzer) (Skou, 2001). This preliminary analysis produced approximately 30
descriptors, and became a starting point for the second stage of analysis, aimed at obtaining
more systematic simple categories. The descriptors were found to fit well into Pintrichs
model (1994), Step 4 in Figure 1 - the majority of descriptors falling into the categories
contextual factors and motivated behaviour, and several into internal factors (Table 2).

C. Anders R. Berg 6
Table 2. Model for student motivation, after Pintrich (1994) (slightly modified).
Contextual Factors Internal Factors Motivated Behaviour
Factors influencing student Beliefs and emotions assumed Observable behaviours that can be used as
motivation to mediate between context and indicators of motivation
behaviour
1) Nature of Tasks 1) Expectancy Components 1) Choice Behaviour

- Content/Product - Control beliefs - Working on course instead of leisure
- Attributions activity
- Learned helplessness - Electing to take another course in discipline
- Self-efficacy - Selecting discipline for a major or going on
to graduate school or a career in area
2) Reward/Goal structures 2) Value Components 2) Level of activity and Involvement

- Individualistic - Intrinsic/Extrinsic goals - Trying very hard
- Cooperative/Competitive - Task value - Studying effectively, use of learning
- Personal interest strategies
- Thinking deeply, critically about material
- Asking questions, taking risks in expressing
ideas
- High level of performance/achievement
3) Instructional Methods 3) Affective Components 3) Persistence Behaviour/Regulation of

- Test anxiety Effort
- Self-worth - Maintaining effort in face of difficulty
- Other emotions (pride, shame) - Maintaining effort on boring tasks
- Maintaining effort even when fatigued
4) Instructor Behaviour
During the third stage of analysis, all marked passages were re-marked, using categories
from motivated behaviour and contextual factors. The categories were tagged with positive or
negative descriptions. If, for example, a student stated, Instead of studying (what the student
had planned to do) I went jogging, the passage was marked choice behaviour negative. If, on
the other hand, the student stated that rather than going to the cinema with friends, she/he
prepared for the next days laboratory exercise, the passage was marked as choice behaviour
positive. The third stage provided an overview of the data; the total passages in different
categories were summarized. A more qualitative analysis was then conducted in the fourth
stage where the interview data were summarized under subcategories within motivated
behaviour and contextual factors, Step 5 in Figure 1.
Results
The attitude shift data for all sixty-six students are presented in Figure 2, together with
identification of the six students with major attitude changes who were chosen for further
investigation. Table 3 and 4 summarize the total passages in different motivational and
contextual categories. This quantitative measure provides a partial answer to the first research
question, what factors are related to students shift in attitude towards learning in a university
chemistry context? But it could also provide information related to the second research
question, what is the relative significance of the identified factors?
A more in-depth analysis of the interviews is presented in the next section, containing
short summaries of each motivational and contextual subcategory. This analysis provides a

C. Anders R. Berg 7
qualitative perspective to the research questions posed, since nuances and emphases offered
by students could be captured.
Attitude shift for the whole group and the six interviewed students
Pre- and post-course questionnaires were collected for sixty-six students, forty-three
females and twenty-three males (Figure 2). This represents 92% of students who completed
the entire course. The students showed a statistically significant shift toward the negative
direction in principal component 1 (two sided paired t-test = 4.17, p < 0.01). This group shift
in the negative direction is interesting in itself, but was not a focus of the present study.
Figure 2. Attitude shifts for student group (n = 66). The six interviewed students with
major attitude changes are found in the darkened bars.
12
10
Num ber of students
0
-5 -4 .5 -4 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
S h ift
Numbers of passages in motivational and contextual categories

For all six interviewed students positive examples of motivated behaviour were found,
but students with positive shifts show higher frequencies in all three categorieschoice,
activity, and persistence (Table 3). More passages that revealed less motivated behaviour
were found among students with negative attitude shifts. For students with positive shifts, no
examples of negative choices were found. The main difference between the two groups was
that students with negative shifts showed forty-three examples of lacking motivation, while
students with positive shifts showed seven such examples.
Table 3. Total number of passages within motivational categories

Motivation category Students with positive shift Students with negative shift
Motivation Motivation Motivation Motivation
positive negative positive negative
Choice 12 0 3 9
Activity 23 2 20 23
Persistence 7 5 3 11

C. Anders R. Berg 8
Relations between attitude shifts and contextual factors are interesting to analyze, since
contextual factors could be expected to cause a change in attitude. Positive opinions of
context are found in both groups of students (Table 4). The only major difference is that
students with a positive attitude shift have twice as many passages concerning instructional
methods. Students with negative shifts expressed negative views of context more frequently.
This group has more than five times as many coded passages in all four contextual categories
than did students with positive shifts.
Table 4. Total number of passages within contextual categories.
Contextual category Students with positive shift Students with negative shift
Context Context Context Context
positive negative positive negative
Tasks 12 3 8 20
Reward/Goal 10 1 6 12
Instructional methods 26 5 13 29
Instructor behaviour 12 2 14 12
Student motivational behaviour

As summarized above, a positive attitude shift is associated with more motivated
behaviour, while a negative shift is linked to less-motivated behaviour. More details are
presented below from interviews of the six students showing major attitude changes that
illustrate this overall picture. Data from the interviews are first presented in a condensed
format in Table 5 where central themes expressed by students showing positive and negative
attitude shifts are contrasted. More details are then presented under the three categories given
by Pintrich (1994), (1) Choice behaviour, (2) Level of activity, and Involvement, and (3)
Persistence behaviour/Regulation of effort.
Table 5. Student reflections on motivational behaviour.
Motivated behaviour Students with positive shift: Students with negative shift:
central themes central themes
1) Choice Behaviour Attended all offered teaching and chose Did not attend all offered teaching and
to study further chemistry chose to study no further chemistry
2) Level of Activity and Worked full time or more on course. Worked full time or less on course. Study
Involvement Used conscious study strategies. strategies were teacher dependent. Course
Course involvement remained high. involvement declined over time.
3) Persistence Persistent when encountering Less persistent when encountering

Behaviour/Regulation of demanding tasks and studied hard even demanding tasks. Had good intentions
Effort after failures. that sometimes remained unfulfilled.

C. Anders R. Berg 9
Choice behaviour
Most of the six students made several positive choices before entering the university
e.g. studying subjects in upper secondary school to fulfil university admission requirements
and taking extra secondary-school courses. The fact that they started studying chemistry at the
university is an example of a positive choice. Two of the three students showing positive
shifts have applied for more chemistry courses than is required in their undergraduate
programmes; in the group showing negative attitude shifts, none. One of these students has
elected to leave the program.
All instructional activities, apart from laboratory exercises, safety briefings and exams,
are voluntary. The three students with positive shifts participated in all or most instructional
activities. In the student group with negative shifts more examples of not attending offered
chemistry activities are found. In the group showing negative shifts some students talked
about choosing leisure activities before intended studies: I went skiing instead of studying
during Christmas. Usually I could not concentrate as long as I had planned, but went
jogging instead.
Level of activity and involvement

One possible measure of student involvement is the total time devoted to studies. All
three students showing positive shifts claimed that they studied 40 h/week or more, including
lectures and classes, but only one student made that claim in the group showing negative
shifts. Examples of elaborated and conscious study strategies can be found in both groups, but
it is clear that the three students with positive shifts used more conscious study strategies,
such as staying in phase with lectures. They were also more aware of why they did this: This
is the method (studying continuously and staying in phase with the course) I have developed
during my years of study. By contrast, one student with a negative attitude shift commenting
on self-discipline/regulation and the role of the teacher argued, If you dont have to study
you dont study. Two of three students with negative shifts explained that their involvement
in the course had gradually declined over time, while this was not found at all among students
showing positive shifts.
Persistence behaviour / regulation of effort

The observed pattern of student persistence and regulation of effort is complex. However
it is clear that all three students showing negative attitude shifts tended to lack persistence
when encountering new tasks or course demands. For example, one student found that the
task of planning/preparing for laboratory activities took too much time. However, the picture
for students showing negative shifts was unclear. Some instances of great effort can be found,
i.e. working nine hours to really understand a laboratory activity. What is typical is that even
though these students may have good intentions and understand the relevance of tasks, their
persistence is low when encountering fuzzy tasks (ill structured or ill formulated tasks) or
teachers just giving formulae.
The three students showing positive shifts displayed more persistence when encountering
demanding tasks. For example, they showed a willingness to continue studying even after
failing an exam, I will learn this even better. One student showing a positive attitude shift
explained his point by saying, Im not brilliant, but Im rather stubborn and focused.
Student contextual factors

Students reasoning about contextual factors is presented under the four Pintrich (1994)
categories: (1) Perception of instructor behaviour, (2) Perception of tasks, (3) Perception of
reward and goal structures, and (4) Perception of instructional methods. Data from the

C. Anders R. Berg 10
interviews are first presented in a condensed format in Table 6 where central themes
expressed by students showing positive and negative attitude shifts are contrasted. More
details are then presented for each contextual factor.
Table 6.Students reflections on contextual issues
Contextual Students with positive shift: Students with negative shift:

Factors central views central views
1) Nature of Tasks Appreciation or acceptance of task. More complex and critical views of tasks.
Task requiring self regulated learning Tasks requiring self regulated learning
viewed as acceptable or suitable. viewed as too demanding or time
Applications of chemistry (e.g. to biology) consuming.
not mentioned as important. Applications of chemistry (e.g. to biology)
mentioned as important and interesting
2) Reward and Goal Possibilities to work collaboratively seen as positive. Good examination results viewed as
structures encouraging.
3) Instructional Generally positive view of instructional Less positive view of instructional

Methods methods. methods.
Experienced lack of time during the course Experienced lack of time during the course
was less prominent. was prominent.
4) Instructor Coherent descriptions of good teachers and bad teachers. Alternative explanations,
Behaviour eagerness to answer questions, being available and showing an understanding that certain
topics are hard to understand were appreciated traits. Bad teachers were described as the
opposite.
Perception of tasks
All three students with positive attitude shifts gave mainly positive views of tasks. Two
specifically mentioned tutorials with broader and more open-ended questions as very useful
for deeper processing of knowledge. As one student stated, I got on further in my knowledge
(during tutorials). The anticipation, or at least acceptance, of demanding tasks, e.g. planning
open laboratory activities and tutorials, was found for two of three students with positive
shifts. The students with negative attitude shifts did not mention such tasks as something
positive. One student clearly stated that she wanted to understand, but opposes course
demands for self-regulated learning (i.e. preparing individual flow charts for laboratory
activities). One student with a negative shift clearly stated that he wants more tasks clearly
connected to biology, and was very positive about the few connections that were made to
biology. Among students with positive shifts, this need for applications in biology was not
expressed. One student even commented with astonishment/self-surprise that she appreciated
tasks without connection to biology. Both of these students pursued a major in biology.
To summarize, students with positive attitude shifts appreciated or at least accepted most
course tasks presented to them. Students with negative shifts expressed more complex and
critical views. These critical views were most apparent for tasks that required self-regulated
and more demanding learning.

Perception of reward and goal structures

Two students with negative attitude shifts and one with a positive shift described the
possibilities of working together during laboratory activities and exercises as very positive; no
student mentioned it as something negative. It is obvious that good examination results
(sometimes described as better than expected) are very important for self-confidence. This
was highlighted by five of six interviewed students. A student with positive shift, who had
been very nervous before the first examination, commented: I was one of the better ones in
the exam and my self confidence grew. Only one student with a negative shift didnt
describe growing self-confidence after passing examsthis student had not passed exams.
Perception of instructional methods

At a surface level, a continuum was observed in student perception of instructional
methods, with three students showing positive shifts on one side and three showing negative
shifts on the other. The student with the most positive shift concluded, You (teachers and the
department of chemistry) have done what I as a student could expect in a passage where he
reported that he attended and appreciated lectures, laboratory work, and exercises during the
course. At the other end of the continuum, a student with negative shift characterized her
impression of laboratory work as, I just wanted it to end and contrasted the demanding
studies she experienced with other less-demanding studies. This student also stressed she
experienced lack of time. Regarding lack of time, only one student with positive attitude
shift mentioned this, while all three students with negative shifts, in some instances, claimed
to have experienced lack of time.
The possibility of asking questions and receiving answers was described as positive by all
three students showing positive shift, while only one student with negative shift gave the
same description. The lack of personal contact described by one student with negative shift
could be viewed as an opposite experience, since the opportunity of asking questions is one
type of personal contact.
Perception of instructor behaviour

The interviewed students devoted considerable attention to their teachers and their
behaviour. They often spontaneously contrasted good teachers with bad teachers. An
example of this was a student who appreciated teachers who were able to give alternative
explanations when she did not understand. She gave an example of the opposite: he didnt
listen to what we wanted to (be clarified) but instead just said the same thing once more.
This way of describing instructor behaviour was used both by students showing negative and
positive shifts (two of three in both groups). The descriptions of good teachers were very
similar within both groups. The students described good teachers as: creating an atmosphere
where it is accepted to ask questions; giving alternative explanations when students dont
understand; being structured, being available, and realizing that certain areas of chemistry
are hard for students to understand. The student descriptions of bad teachers also share
many traits in common, such as: seeming to become angry when students ask questions;
answering by saying this is the way it is, and seeming to want to be somewhere else.

Summary of information found for the two research questions
First research question: What factors are related to students shift in attitude toward
learning in a university chemistry context?
Evidence from interviews coinciding with Pintrichs model. The first step in analyzing the
interview material resulted in approximately thirty categories, which included everything
judged as relevant. During the next stage of analysis these categories were found to fit a
model of motivation described by Pintrich (1994) (see Table 2). In Pintrichs model,
contextual factors in conjunction with students internal factors (motivational beliefs and
emotions) affect motivation, which can be seen in motivated behaviour. This model is, as
Pintrich emphasizes, a simplification, since this relationship is also reciprocal.
Information about internal factors generally absent. During analysis of the interviews
using Pintrichs categories, some passages fell into internal categories (e.g. self efficacy and
task value), but these internal factors are not readily accessiblethey are, as described,
internal. An attempt was made, nevertheless, to describe information gained in this category.
For two students, one with positive and one with negative shift, internal information was
obtained, while the remaining interviews contained almost no information regarding internal
factors. One way to understand this could be that students employing metacognition were able
to give information on these internal factors during interviews, while those lacking
metacognitive skills could not. This would be in accord with previous findings that the
majority of college students fail to show metacognitive skills (Hofer et al., 1997).
Contextual and motivational categories show clear relations to attitude change. The
relation found between attitude shift and student motivation is that a positive attitude shift is
associated with motivated behaviour while a negative shift is linked to less motivated
behaviour. This is found for all three motivational categories, choice behaviour, level of
activity and involvement, and persistence.
The primary relationship found between attitude shift and contextual factors is that
students with negative shifts give many more instances expressing negative views of context
and also employ greater emphasis. This is found for all four categories, nature of tasks,
reward and goal structures, instructional methods, and instructor behaviour. Students with
positive attitude shift show essentially the opposite pattern with more instances and emphasis
related to positive views of contextual factors.
The descriptions of the semester showed a mixed picture. The finding of a mixed picture
containing both negative and positive views expressed by students is perhaps not surprising,
since interviewed students described one full semester of chemistry studies. During this
semester they had encountered all main areas of chemistry and numerous different teachers.
Although both groups displayed this mixed picture of experiences, what is most notable is
that negative views of context and examples of less motivated behaviour are more frequent
among those students with negative attitude shifts.
The second research question: What is the relative significance of those identified
factors?
The interviewed students views of context are valuable since contextual factors could, at
least partly, be an underlying cause of attitude change (Osborne et al., 2003). Evidence of

motivated behaviour, on the other hand, could be viewed as confirming a positive attitude
change.
The difference is in the balance of experiences. The pattern of roughly as many positive
views of context for both groups and many more negative views expressed by students with
negative shifts (Table 4) indicates that the main difference is the balance between positive
and negative experiences. For students with negative attitude shifts the balance tilted in a less
favourable direction. This is especially pronounced for tasks and instructional methods where
negative views were more than twice as frequent as were positive views. In contrast, the
group with positive attitude shifts show at least three times more positive views of context
compared to total negative views within all four categories.
Good and bad teachers, consensus among students. Students with both positive and
negative attitude shifts share essentially similar views of instructor behaviour. They speak
frequently about their teachers with considerable emphasis suggesting that this is important to
them. Good instructor behaviour is described by both groups as: eager to answer questions;
being available and having an understanding that certain things are hard for students to
understand.
It is instructive to reflect upon what was not said about teachers. An example is that
teachers knowledge in chemistry was never mentioned, even though students spoke
considerably about their teachers. Within the category of reward and goal structures, students
also agree that the opportunity to work collaboratively was appreciated and good examination
results were viewed as encouraging.
Tasks and instructional methods, disagreement among students. Regarding the nature of
tasks and instructional methods, some discrepancies are worth noting. For tasks requiring
more self-regulated learning, such as planning open experiments and tutorials, students with
positive attitude shifts reveal greater acceptance, while students with negative attitude shifts
are more reluctant to express positive views, even if they expressed an understanding of the
relevance of such tasks. Experienced time constraint is another factor where views of the two
groups differ. Students shifting negatively in attitudes generally reported more time
constraints in their chemistry classes than did positive-shift students.
Same factors but difference in experience. Regarding the relative significance of

identified factors, it can be concluded that both groups spoke about similar factors, but the
balance between positive and negative views differs considerably between groups. Students
showing positive attitude shift exhibited few negative views of context, tilting the balance
favourably, while students with negative attitude shifts show the opposite pattern.
Discussion
Show students respect in their chemistry learning

The overall goal of this study was to obtain insights regarding what factors within a
university chemistry setting can favourably affect student attitudes and motivation. Much of
what was found could be summarized as an instructor admonition show the students
respect. That instructor respect can be conveyed as a genuine interest in student learning,
offering clear goals and instructions, expressing acknowledgement that certain tasks can be
difficult for students, and being available for students. The teachers respect and empathy for
students learning (or the opposite) was a thought that all interviewed students expressed;

some examples/suggestions are offered in Table 5 regarding how this respect and empathy
could be conveyed in more concrete terms. The examples given should not be viewed as
patent solutions or as the only important aspects of learning, but as factors, which, according
to this study, could favourably affect student motivation and learning.
Table 5.Summary of suggested educational implications.
Stimulate situations/atmosphere like these Avoid situations/atmosphere like these
Teachers being available (mentally and physically) to Teachers just teaching with no genuine interest
students, creating an atmosphere where it is acceptable conveyed in student learning. Viewing student
to ask questions and it is accepted that everything may questions and problems as unwanted interruptions in
not be understood immediately. their teaching.
Teachers being accessible especially when students Students not allowed contact with teachers especially
approach demanding tasks. during demanding tasks.
Opportunities for students to work collaboratively and Individualistic, competitive atmosphere producing
exchange ideas. only a few winners.
Where appropriate and possible, connect chemistry to Chemistry viewed as an isolated subject with no
other subjects and situations. applications to areas outside chemistry.
Convey clear instructions and goals especially when Assigning students ill formulated or badly planned
students are expected to accomplish intellectually experiments or tasks. This should not rule out ill
demanding or new taskse.g. planning experiments or formulated tasks if they are intentionally set and
tutorial questions with no clear, single answer. students are aware that reality is seldom simple and
that they must learn to deal with such situations.
Allocate enough time for students to accomplish a task Create real or perceived lack of time so that students
and communicate clear goals for what is expected. feel that its useless for me to try.
The examples given above are congruent with much previous research (Dalgety et al.,
2003; Osborne et al., 2003 and references therein) and, hopefully, also in accord with
personal experiences of university teachers. Remember, that these examples are based on
what, according to the interviews, stood out for students.
Learning conditions suitable for all students

It is worth noting that students in their descriptions of teachers contrast the pros and cons;
the most striking feature is similar descriptions (of good and bad teachers) from both students
with negative and positive shifts. This indicates a consensus among the six students of the
characteristics a good teacher. Support for the commonly expressed view that anything I do
as a teacher will be good for some and bad for others is not found in this study. Instead,
students give quite coherent descriptions of what they have appreciated and valued, but also
what has not been experienced as especially positive. A trait described positively by some
students is not described negatively by others or vice versa. The only example pointing in this
direction is acceptance of more demanding tasks (e.g. planning your own experiments), which
was found among students with positive attitude shifts, whereas students with negative
attitude shifts often mentioned this kind of tasks as too demanding. In the interviews there are
indications that major student objections toward these demanding tasks is attributable to time
constraints and unclear goals, and not necessarily to the demanding tasks themselves. This

illustrates the importance of clear aims and goals in conjunction with appropriate time
allocated for tasks.
Two areas at the periphery of this study are the importance of students internal factors,
such as self-efficacy and goals, and the attitude change of the entire group of students over
the course. With respect to internal factors, the data collected was not considered rich enough
for analysis, something that could perhaps be overcome by an interview format aiming at
those internal factors. The observed negative attitude shift of the entire group of students in
this study (Figure 2) is not particularly encouraging, since goals of university education are to
provide the students with a capability of independent and critical judgment, an ability
independently to solve problems and an ability to follow the development of knowledge,
all within the field covered by the education (Swedish higher education act, 1992). One
constructive way to approach this important but disappointing finding could be through action
research, based on this and other studies (Dalgety et al., 2003) clearly focusing on student
attitude development as a complement to other efforts to create environments suitable for
good learning.
Final reflections
After listening to students and trying to evaluate the relationship among attitude towards
learning, motivation, learning context and, ultimately, learning outcomes, this researcher is
struck by the differences/discrepancies in students stories about what affected them during
their semester of chemistry study and efforts by the chemistry department to increase the
quality of teaching. The departmental focus has been on selecting the best available literature
and level of content, favourable schedule, choosing appropriate laboratory activities and
tutorials, while students primarily focus on teacher attitude, atmosphere, and other soft
values.
It is tempting, in conclusion, to speculate that university teachers should consider those
aspects of student learning as of equal importance to course features already considered.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Professor Henry Heikkinen for extensive comments on the
manuscript. I also would like to thank Professor Johan Lithner, Professor Lisbeth Lundahl,
and Professor Lars-Olof hman for valuable discussions. The author is indebted to Dr
Norman Reid for valuable discussions about the attitude instrument. Feedback from two
anonymous reviewers and the editors was also appreciated. This work was supported by
grants from the Swedish National Agency for Higher Education.
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Appendix 1: Epistemological beliefs, motivation, and learning
The present study focuses on attitude towards learning, where knowledge is central, and
is thus closely related to research into personal epistemological beliefs. Epistemology
concerns the nature and justification of human knowledge, while epistemological beliefs
denote the theories and beliefs they hold about knowing, and the manner in which such
epistemological premises are a part of and an influence on the cognitive processes of thinking
and reasoning (Hofer et al., 1997).
An example: The way a student approaches and views laboratory activity is affected by
the students epistemological belief. A view, that knowledge is a set of accumulated facts and
the student a receptor of knowledge, may create a view of laboratory activity as an illustration
of facts and learning of procedures. A view that knowledge is an integrated set of constructs
and the student constructs knowledge may, on the other hand, stimulate a view of laboratory
activity as a situation where knowledge is generated and the student is learning not only
procedures, but also scientific methods.
Beuhl and Alexander (2001) present a model illustrating the multilayered nature of
epistemological beliefs, with domain-specific beliefs as part of a full epistemological belief
system (Figure 3). The focus of the present study is on the domain-specific beliefs as reflected
in views of knowledge, perception of roles of instructor and student, assessment and
laboratory activity.
Figure 3. Model of an epistemological belief system (Buehl et al., 2001).
General Epistemological Beliefs
Academic Epistemological Beliefs
Domain-Specific
Beliefs
What causes changes in epistemological position?

In the field of research on epistemological beliefs there is consensus about a trend toward
developmental progression, particularly for those who experience a college education (Hofer
et al., 1997). However, there is less agreement on what causes this change; this has been
suggested for further research by several writers (Hofer et al., 1997; Paulsen et al., 1998;
Buehl et al., 2001; Hofer, 2001; Schraw, 2001; Osborne et al., 2003). For example, Hofer
argues: Regardless of the model, there has been a presumption of all those working in this
area that educational experiences play a role in fostering development or belief change. But
what types of experiences are most conducive? What instructional strategies can best be
employed? Although the literature is replete with advice, less research exists that clarifies the
relation between methods and types of instruction and personal epistemology. (Hofer, 2001,
p. 372).
The present study addresses this question of what experiences and what instructional
strategies fosters development and belief change? raised by Hofer. The instructor respect

described in the discussion and the suggested educational implications found in Table 5 are a
partial answer for this question, in university chemistry setting.
Relations between epistemological beliefs, motivation and learning

The relationships among epistemological beliefs, motivation, and learning are important,
especially in real educational settings, and it has been shown that epistemological beliefs
affect motivation as well as the quality of learning (Hofer et al., 1997; Paulsen et al., 1998;
Hofer, 2001). The importance of epistemological beliefs for student learning and motivation
has been described in a working model by Hofer (2001), where epistemological beliefs affect
student motivation and strategy selection, which then, separately and in conjunction, affect
learning.
In the present study, a more positive attitude towards learning has been accompanied by
more motivated behaviour. This could be seen as confirmation of the model described by
Hofer, even if attitude, as viewed in this study, is broader than epistemological belief since it
includes views of knowledge, instructor and student roles, laboratory activities, and
assessment.
Appendix 2: Educational setting and students attitudes
The effect of educational setting upon student attitudes is of major interest to teachers and
researchers. This interest could be captured by this fundamental question. Is there a (positive)
effect of efforts to create classroom environments suitable for good learning?
Attempts to answer this question have been made by studying many students in diverse
educational settings and applying statistical analyses to characterize relationships (e.g.
Ramsden et al., 1981). In their study Ramsden and Entwistle found a profound effect of the
educational setting upon the orientation and study approaches of students. Another approach
has been to investigate, with a smaller sample of students, how students adapt to different
educational settings (Hofer, 2004). This study showed that first-year college students view
knowledge in science as more certain and unchanging than they do in psychology. Both
studies indicate the importance of educational setting and subject in developing students
attitudes towards learning.
In the present study a third approach was used, studying the students with major attitude
changes in one educational setting. It was found that essentially the same factors in the
educational setting had affected students with negative and positive attitude shifts. Even
though the same factors had affected students the balance in experiences was very different.
Students showing positive attitude shift exhibited few negative views of factors in the
educational setting, tilting the balance favourably, while students with negative attitude shifts
show the opposite pattern. More detailed information about factors in the educational setting
and their effect is presented in the results and discussion sections of the article.

Textbooks and teachers understanding of

acid-base models used in chemistry teaching
Michal Drechsler* and Hans-Jrgen Schmidt
Karlstad University, Department of Chemistry, Universitetsgatan 1, SE- 651 88 Karlstad,

Sweden.
e-mail: michal.drechsler@kau.se
Received 29 April 2004, accepted 7 January 2005
Abstract: Acid-base reactions can be described in several ways: by formula equations as

reactions between substances, or by ionic equations as proton transfer reactions according to
Brnsteds model. Both models are introduced in chemistry teaching at Swedish secondary
schools. The aim of this study was to determine how textbooks and teachers handle the different
models to explain acid-base reactions. First, chemistry textbooks most widely used in Swedish
upper secondary schools were examined. Second, semi-structured interviews were conducted
with six chemistry teachers. The textbooks neither described the differences between the models
used to explain acid-base reactions nor clarified why the Brnsted model was introduced.
Teachers were well aware of the importance of using models in their lessons. However, they
seemed to have difficulties in applying this view with respect to acids and bases. There was no
clear distinction between the models, some teachers had even not reflected on the differences
between them. They seemed to rely on the content of chemistry textbooks. Implications for
textbook writers, teachers and further research are discussed. [Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2005, 6 (1),
19-35]
Keywords: ionic equation; acidbase reaction; Brnsted model; Arrhenius model; textbook
analysis; models in teaching.
Introduction
Studying science involves understanding the concepts that shape science. For teachers it
is important to know how students interpret these concepts. Schmidt and Volke (2003)
distinguished between the label/term and the content/meaning of a concept. Concepts that
have a different meaning in science and in everyday life can confuse students (Pines and
West, 1986). This can also happen with scientific terms that are used in different contexts
because they have shifted their meaning in the course of the historical development (Schmidt,
1997). The concept oxidation is an example thereof. It can be defined with reference to the
gain of oxygen (atoms) or to the loss of electrons. Here the content/meaning of the term is
related to different models. Boulter and Gilbert (2000) considered it important for students to
learn about models and their use but also to recognize their limitations. This would allow
students to gain a better understanding of the subject and of how scientific knowledge is
achieved. Nuffield Chemistry claims: Pupils must learn to see the interplay between
observed fact and explanation and to appreciate how science develops through this
interplay (Nuffield Foundation, 1968, p. 5), Science education research should, therefore,
provide teachers with information that can be used to overcome students problems in this
process.

Michal Drechsler and Hans-Jrgen Schmidt 20
Models link theories with phenomena, they are part of theories scientists develop to
explain phenomena that can be observed. Models used in chemistry can be both mental and
more tangible instruments, such as ball and stick models, schematic pictures, diagrams or
mathematical formulas. Each model emphasizes a specific part of the target only (Harrison
and Treagust, 1998). A model should have the following characteristics (Van Driel and
Verloop, 1999):
A model is always related to a target that is represented by the model.
A model is a research tool that is used to obtain information about a target that cannot be
observed or measured directly.
A model bears certain analogies to the target, which enables the researcher to derive
hypotheses from the model, which may be tested while studying the target.
A model is kept as simple as possible by deliberately excluding some aspects of the
target.
A model is developed through an interactive process in which empirical data from the
target may lead to a revision of the model.
This study concentrates on different models used to explain acids and bases and how
teachers and textbooks handle these models.
Background
Scientific background
The concepts of acids and bases belong to the basic principles of chemistry curricula. The
way acids and bases have been explained has changed during the development of chemistry.
New models are introduced trying to give a better description of reality. The alchemists
defined acids on the basis of their sour taste. The way acids were explained developed
stepwise until 1810 when Davy proposed that all acids contained hydrogen. The bases were
still seen as neutralizers of acids, but a common composition was not known. At the end of
the 19th century Arrhenius introduced the dissociation theory, for which he was awarded the
Nobel Prize in 1903 (Arrhenius, 1903). He connected the acidic properties to positively
charged hydrogen ions. Acids were defined as substances that produced H+ ions in water
solution. Bases were defined analogously as substances that produced OH- ions. Using the
Arrhenius model, bases are limited to substances that contain OH groups. The Arrhenius
model is also limited to water as a solvent. In the reaction between an acid and a base water is
formed and as a by-product a salt. A reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydroxide can be formulated like this (Arrhenius, 1903):
(1) (H+ + Cl-) + (Na+ + OH-) (Na+ + Cl-) + HOH
or simplified:
(2) H+ + OH- HOH
In 1923, Brnsted (and at about the same time Lowry) suggested a more general acid-
base definition. According to Brnsted, acids and bases are particles (molecules or ions).
Acids are defined as particles that donate protons while bases are defined as particles that
accept protons. Acids and bases exist side by side. Brnsteds acid-base definition is not
limited to water as a solvent. When an acid donates a proton it becomes a base. If, for
example, the acid HA donates a proton, the base A- remains. If the base B- accepts a proton,
the acid HB is formed. An acid and a base connected in this way are said to be a conjugated
acid-base pair. A proton transfer according to Brnsteds model can be written like this:

(3) acid1 + base2 base1 + acid2

or:
(4) HA + B- A- + HB
To explain the basic properties of ammonia using the Arrhenius model, the existence of
NH4OH (although it does not exist) is assumed as an intermediate. It is formed in a reaction
between water and ammonia:
(5) NH3 + H2O NH4OH
In a second step NH4OH dissociates producing OH- ions:
(6) NH4OH NH4+ + OH-
A better explanation of the basic properties of ammonia in water can be given using
Brnsteds model. Equation (7) illustrates how in an equilibrium reaction ammonia molecules
accept protons from water molecules forming hydroxide ions:
(7) NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-

Equations 1 and 2 suggest that acids and bases consume each other. A reaction between
equivalent amounts of an acid and a base should, therefore, always result in a neutral
solution. This is, however, not always true. If equivalent amounts of a weak Arrhenius-acid,
e.g. acetic acid, react with a strong Arrhenius-base, e.g. sodium hydroxide, the resulting
solution will be basic. This phenomenon can be attributed to the following proton transfer
reaction (8), in which acetate ions and water molecules are in equilibrium with hydroxide
ions and acetic acid molecules.
(8) AcO- + H2O OH- + HOAc

Brnsteds proton transfer definition can be seen as a special case of the more general
Lewis definition, where acids are defined as electron pair acceptors and bases as electron pair
donators. In 1954 Gutman and Lindqvist (Hgg, 1963) suggested another acid-base
definition, in which the transfer of ions is emphasized. An acid is defined as a cation
donor/anion acceptor and a base as a cation acceptor/anion donor. Here the Brnsted model
can be seen as a special case, too, namely the transfer of cations in the form of protons.
Research literature
Previous research in science education shows how students (and teachers) struggle to
understand the role of models in general as well as in chemistry to describe acid-base
reactions. Justi and Gilbert (1999, 2000) reported that teachers used hybrid models instead of
specific historical models in their teaching. Hybrid models result from a transfer of attributes
from one model to another one. The authors also showed that many chemistry textbooks do
not discuss why scientists use different models. Rayner-Canham (1994) stated that students
must be clearly informed about the benefits of introducing a more complex model. Hawkes
(1992) observed that the Arrhenius acid-base model confused students. When asked to use
the Brnsted model, which applies to a variety of bases, students thinking was still
dominated by the Arrhenius model, in which only OH- ion-producing substances are
considered as bases. The author suggested that the Brnsted model should be introduced first,
and that the Arrhenius model should only be used as a historical footnote. Demerouti et al.
(2004) reported that students from upper secondary school were more familiar with the
Arrhenius model; they did not use the Brnsted model to explain the properties of acids and
bases.

Schmidt (1991) showed that students had difficulties understanding the concept of
neutralization. Many students believed that any neutralization reaction would always result in
a neutral solution. He attributed part of this difficulty to the ambiguous use of the term
neutral in ordinary language and in the chemical context. Schmidt and Volke (2003)
identified the mechanism students used to interpret the reaction from NO3- to NO in (9):
(9) 3Cu + 2NO3- + 8H3O+ 3Cu 2+ + 2NO + 12H2O
First, oxide ions are released second these ions react with H3O+ forming water
according to , (10) and (11):
(10) NO3- + 3 e- NO + 2 O2-
(11) 2 O2- + 4 H3O+ 6 H2O
In doing so students combined the redox reaction (10) with the acid-base reaction (11).
Schmidt and Volke also found that students had problems accepting water as a base. Carrs
(1984) study of chemistry textbooks showed that the books did not clearly distinguish
between the Arrhenius and the Brnsted acid-base models. No explanation was provided why
a new model was introduced and how a new model differs from the previous one. Oversby
(2000) identified in a survey chemistry textbooks that explained different acid-base models
but did not discuss the strengths and limitations of each model. de Vos and Pilot (2001)
studied the past and the present of the chemistry curriculum in the Netherlands. Several
layers (or contexts) of knowledge were identified that had been added to the curriculum in the
course of the historical development. The authors showed that in many modern textbooks
these layers are not well connected and sometimes inconsistent with each other. As a result
chemistry teachers and students are confronted with incoherent acid-base models that are
difficult to teach and to learn.
Aim
Acids can take part in acid-base reactions and in redox reactions. Several models are in
use to describe both types of reactions. The aim of the present study was to determine how
chemistry textbooks and chemistry teachers handle different models used in schools to
explain acid-base reactions. Data were collected by analyzing chemistry textbooks and
interviewing chemistry teachers, having the following specific questions in mind:
How do Swedish upper secondary school textbooks and chemistry teachers
introduce the acid-base concept
present the neutralization reaction/acid-base reactions
treat chemistry models in general
treat models in the context of acids and bases
Method
The research process involved several steps. In order to define the area in which students
problems should be studied, multiple choice tests from Examination Boards in the US and the
UK, dealing with acid-base reactions, were studied. In the next step chemistry textbooks
commonly used in Swedish upper secondary schools were analyzed to see how they treat
acid-base reactions. Interviews were then conducted with six upper secondary school
chemistry teachers about how they introduce and present acid-base reactions, and how they
use chemistry models in general and in the context of acids and bases.

Analysis of multiple choice tests from Examination Boards

Examination board tests can be seen as a collection of questions based on practitioners
statements about what students should know. Examination board questions in the form of
multiple choice questions show in addition, which alternatives to a correct answer are
especially attractive to students. If a student based his or her reasoning on an alternative
interpretation of a concept, he or she will arrive at a certain incorrect answer. If, therefore,
multiple choice items are correctly constructed, the incorrect answers (distractors) may hint at
problems students have in understanding chemistry concepts (Schmidt, 1991). Based on these
reflections we analyzed the results of examination board tests to readjust the research
questions.
Examination boards usually do not publish exam questions and test results. However,
several boards in the United Kingdom and the United States provided us, for research
purposes, with test items and in some cases with the test statistics, i.e., the distribution of
students answers against the options (answer pattern), too. The multiple choice questions
were stored in a computer file. Using a computer program about 500 questions dealing with
acids and bases were selected from the item bank. The analysis of these items led to a few
multiple choice items that asked simple questions, had an interesting answer pattern and
contained some interesting incorrect answers. Three such questions are given as examples.
Item 1: Students were asked to identify the reaction equation that would describe best the
reaction between dilute hydrochloric acid and aqueous sodium hydroxide. The correct answer
was H+ + OH- H2O. The students preferred the following incorrect answers:
Na+ + Cl- NaCl
Na+ + Cl- + H+ + OH- NaCl + H2O
Item 2: Students were given the following information
NH3 (g) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

A. NH3 reacts as a proton acceptor
B. H2O reacts as an acid
C. OH- reacts as a base
The student should chose among options that described the above statements as true. The
majority of the students avoided all answer options where water was described as an acid.
Item 3: Students were asked to identify how nitric acid acts in the reaction with copper.
A reaction equation was not given. Many students chose the option as an acid.
We interpreted the results of the analysis of the examination board questions as follows.
Item 1. Students preferred reaction equations that name salt or water as a product of an
acid-base reaction. These students seemed to prefer the Arrhenius model to explain acid-
base reactions.
Item 2. Students did not accept water as an acid or a base. These students did not
consider Brnsteds proton transfer model to explain acid-base reactions.
Item 3. Students had not realized that in this case nitric acid acts does not act as an acid
only, but as an oxidizing agent, too.
It was decided to use items 1 and 2 in the interviews with the chemistry teachers asking
them to comment on the examination results.

Analysis of chemistry textbooks

In Sweden the acid-base concept is introduced at lower secondary level (ages 14-16) and
further developed at upper secondary level (ages 17-19). At lower secondary level chemistry
is taught with reference to phenomena. Reactants and products of chemical reactions are
considered as substances, reaction equations written as formula equations.
(12) Acid + Base Salt + Water
The formula equation can be seen as a simplified version a curricular model of the
historical Arrhenius acid-base model.
When students move from lower to upper secondary school which are separate schools
in Sweden Brnsteds acid-base model is introduced. The Lewis model and other more
advanced acid-base models are not taught in upper secondary schools.
The scope of the Swedish introductory course for upper secondary schools has recently
been reduced. One of the main changes was that the chapter on chemical equilibrium was
moved to the advanced course.
To find answers to the research questions the following four chemistry textbooks for
upper secondary schools were analyzed: Andersson, Sonesson, Stlhandske, and Tullberg
(2000), Born, Larsson, Lif, Lilleborg, and Lindh (2000), Henriksson (2000), and Pilstrm,
Wahlstrm, Lning, and Viklund (2000). The final report was planned as a collection of
stories in the sense used by Kvale (1996). He described the qualitative researcher as a
traveler to a foreign country telling stories when returning home (Kvale, 1996, p.4). To find
the information needed the acid-base chapters of the books were analyzed about how they
introduce and present the following concepts:
acid/ base
pH
acid-base reaction
redox reaction
neutralization
salt
acid-base models/theories
Brnsteds model/ theory
All reaction equations of the acid-base chapters were categorized with respect to the
model they refer to:
Arrhenius model
Brnsteds model
hybrid between the two
redox model
The introductions to all books were read in order to see how they present chemistry
models in general. For the same reason the contents of the books were searched via their
indexes.
Interviews with chemistry teachers

Instead of drawing the teachers at random from a larger population, the interviewer
(M.D.) invited six former colleagues who were known to have an interest in reflecting on and
discussing teaching matters. This strategy has been discussed by Miles and Huberman (1994,
p.268). All teachers had participated in evening lectures at the university in which results
from research in chemistry education were presented. They were between 35 and 60 years
old, all had at least 8 years of teaching experience and were teaching at four different upper
secondary schools. Five of the teachers had masters degrees. All of them used (like most

other chemistry teachers in the area) Anderssons chemistry textbook (Andersson et al.,
2000).
Semi-structured interviews were designed according to Kvale (1996). They consisted of
three distinct phases: the briefing and warm up phase at the beginning, the main phase, and
the debriefing phase at the end. Briefing and debriefing were not tape-recorded.
In the briefing phase the interviewer explained the purpose and the procedure of the
interview (duration, use of audio recorder etc.). The teachers were asked for permission to
use the tape recordings for research purposes and were assured about their right to withdraw
from the interview at any time.
In the warm up phase certain parts of the chemistry curriculum the teachers liked and
disliked were discussed. Teachers were also asked about how they tackled these parts.
In the main phase answers to the research questions were sought. Teachers were asked
about how they introduced and presented the acid-base concept. It was discussed how they
handled chemistry models in general and in the context of acids and bases. Teachers were
also invited to comment on the textbooks. Finally, they were shown the first two of the
multiple choice questions presented above and the test results from the examination boards to
initiate a discussion about problems students may have to understand the chemistry of acids
and bases.
During the debriefing phase, the research project was described more in detail. Teachers
were given the opportunity to comment both on the content and the procedure of the
interview. Teachers were again informed about their right to withdraw the permission to use
the tape recordings for research purposes. The interview guide is presented in Appendix 1.
The interviews were transcribed in full. From the transcripts summaries of four pages per
interview were written. The transcripts of the interviews and the summaries were read by
both authors. They were first analyzed using a provisional list of categories that emerged
naturally from the research questions and the interview guide (Miles and Huberman, 1994, p.
58). However, the interviews performed were semi-structured. This means that on the one
side the questions used in the interviews were predetermined. On the other side the interviews
were open for teachers unexpected ideas, too. Therefore, some interview questions were
added after the second and the fourth interview had been completed. The results of the
interviews are presented in the form of eight stories in the sense of Kvale (1996). Each story
is given a specific headline (see the Result and Discussion section).
Results and discussion
Analysis of chemistry textbooks

The following stories resulting from the textbook analysis consist of summaries
followed by examples and discussions.
How textbooks introduce the acid-base concept

The book by Pilstrm (2000) introduces the acid-base concepts by defining acidic, basic
and neutral solutions using the pH scale and indicators. Next, the book lists different acids
and shows that all acids contain hydrogen. The Brnsted proton transfer reaction of acids in
water is shown, followed by reactions of acids with non-precious metals. The book by Born
et al. (2000) introduces acids and bases by showing that all acids contain hydrogen. Several
examples are given. Acid-base reactions according to Brnsted and redox reactions of acids
with non-precious metals are discussed simultaneously. The books by Henriksson (2000) and
Andersson et al. (2000) introduce acid-base chemistry by listing the properties of acids such
as their sour taste and their reactions with non-precious metals. All books define bases
according to Brnsted after the concept of acid was introduced. Bases and acids are, however,

listed as substances. The books by Pilstrm et al. (2000) and Henriksson (2000) use both, the
terms bases as well as basic substances.
Excerpt 1. Acid-base reactions and redox reactions of acids (Henriksson, 2000, p. 161).
Reaction with carbonate
CaCO3(s) + 2H3O+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) + 2Cl-(aq)
After simplification
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Reaction with non-precious metal
Mg(s) + 2H3O+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 2Cl-(aq)
After simplification
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
The problems that arise when introducing the acid-base concept are manifold. No hints
are given in the books that models are used to characterize acids and bases and to understand
their properties. The readership is not informed that different models are used in parallel and
why. The texts are not always clear about the model that is being used in a certain situation.
Another misgiving arises from the formulation of the reaction equations. There is a difference
between formula and ionic equations. Formula equations identify the substances that are
involved when, for example, hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate (13) or hydrochloric
acid and magnesium (14) react with each other. Excerpt 1 refers to these reactions.
(13) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(14) Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Ionic equations name the particles that are involved in a reaction. Spectator ions are of no
interest. The following equations (15) and (16) refer to the same reactions as (13) and (14).
(15) CO32-(aq) + 2H3O+(aq) CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) or
(15a) CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(16) Mg(s) + 2 H3O+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g) + 2H2O(l) or
(16a) Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
Equation (15) illustrates how a proton transfer reaction between hydrogen ions and
carbonate ions according to Brnsted takes place. Equation (15a) is a simplified version of
(15). It will, however, not be easy to identify the proton transfer reaction that is mentioned in
excerpt 1. Maybe the authors wanted to make the equations for acid-base and redox reactions
as similar as possible
How textbooks present the neutralization reaction

Having discussed the concepts acids and bases, the books Andersson et al. (2000) and
Henriksson (2000) explain the term neutralization. Henriksson (2000) informs the reader that
this is a reaction in which H3O+ and OH- ions disappear. Andersson et al. (2000) describe the
neutralization as a water producing reaction. The authors mention, however, the formation of
a salt, too. Born et al. (2000) and Pilstrm et al. (2000) describe the neutralization reaction
as a way to produce salts.
Excerpt 2. Reaction between sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid (Andersson et al. 2000 p.
112).
Na+ + OH- + H3O+ + Cl- 2H2O + Na+ + Cl-
H+

We can see that the ions Na+ and Cl- do not participate in the reaction. They are called counter
ions or spectator ions. Thus only the following reaction takes place.
OH- + H3O+ H2O + H2O
base acid
The reaction between an acid and a base is called neutralization. A salt is formed.
Excerpt 3. Neutralization reaction (Born et al., 2000, p. 90)

In a neutralization reaction a salt solution is produced If you neutralize e.g. sulfuric acid
with a solution of potassium hydroxide, a potassium sulfate solution is obtained.
All textbooks claim that they use Brnsteds model to explain acid-base reactions. For
Brnsted the neutralization reaction is a proton transfer between an acid and a base forming
water (if water is used as solvent). The ionic equation (17) describes this aspect of the
reaction properly.
(17) H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq) H2O(l) + H2O(l)

A formula equation like (18) is, however, needed to illustrate that in a neutralization
reaction a salt is formed, too.
(18) HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
All textbooks analyzed state that in a neutralization reaction an acid and a base consume
each other. This is what the formula equation (18) tells us. However, in Brnsted reactions
acids and bases never disappear. An acid reacts with a base forming another acid and another
base see equations (3) and (17). Two distinct models are needed to describe the different
aspects of the reaction, but we found no discussion of that in the textbooks.
How textbooks use chemistry models in general

One of the books only describes the term model in the introduction. The book by
Pilstrm et al. (2000) informs the reader that models are required to explain phenomena at the
particle level. They are tools needed to work with what one cannot see. Henriksson (2000)
does not mention the term model in the introduction, but describes how, by inventing and
testing a hypothesis, chemists produce new knowledge.
All textbooks present pictures of ball-and-stick molecular models. In this context the
term model is named, but not discussed.
In three books the term model is mentioned in connection with atomic models. Only two
of the books, however, namely Pilstrm et al. (2000) and Henriksson (2000), really explain
how these models can be used. In the book by Andersson et al. (2000) the term model is
mentioned in this context, but not explained.
How textbooks use models in the context of acids and bases

The book by Pilstrm is the only one describing the history of the acid-base models
(Pilstrm et al., 2000, p. 204). The other books do not mention the different models.
Excerpt 4. Acid-base reactions (Pilstrm et al., 2000).

When gaseous ammonia is dissolved in water, some of the ammonia molecules will react as
follows:
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH- (p. 55).

H+

If you mix hydrochloric acid with a solution of sodium hydroxide, the hydrogen ions react with
the hydroxide ions in the hydroxide solution according to the equation
H+ + OH- H2O (p. 56).
Although in the book by Pilstrm et al. (2000) several acid-base models are mentioned,
the authors are not clear about which model they refer to at a certain moment in the text.
All the books analyzed, describe the Brnsted model as if no previous models existed.
Interviews with chemistry teachers

The following stories resulting from the interviews consist of short summaries from the
transcripts, followed by excerpts from the interviews and discussions of the results. In the
excerpts the interviewer is indexed I while the teachers are indexed T1, T2 ... T6.
The parts of the curriculum the teachers liked and disliked

The teachers named various parts of the curriculum as their favorites: stoichiometry,
physical chemistry, organic chemistry, biochemistry, or redox chemistry. However, they had
two reasons only for their preferences: teachers felt (1) they were knowledgeable in the
particular field, or (2) they could easily connect that part of the curriculum to situations in
everyday life.
T5. During my chemistry studies I concentrated on analytical and physical chemistry so I guess
thats why I especially like physical chemistry. Its because I know it so well.
T4. I usually ask the students what they think about my teaching and they say that everyday
applications are very important.
The parts of the curriculum the teachers did not like to teach were: electrochemistry (two
teachers), biochemistry (two teachers), organic chemistry (one teacher) and acid-base
chemistry (one teacher). Teachers had two reasons for their misgivings: they felt these parts
of the curriculum were (1) too abstract and difficult, or (2) too easy, students would not profit
from them.
T4. Electrochemistry. Students think its very difficult and abstract. They also tend to confuse
galvanic cells and electrolysis. This part is very theoretical and the demonstrations are difficult
for students to understand.
T1. The acid-base part has become superficial. Its what you have already done at the lower
secondary school, and you dont get any further or deeper. There are a couple of pages with
properties of some acids and what will dissolve in them, general chemistry, only whats
happening and no explanations why. Students dont see this as knowledge, just as a lot of facts.
You dont get much out of it.
The strategies teachers used were the same for all parts of the curriculum and did not
depend on their preferences.
Teachers attitudes and expectations towards teaching acid-base chemistry

Five teachers enjoyed teaching acid-base chemistry and felt that students would
understand this part of the curriculum easily. One teacher said that teaching acids and bases at
upper secondary level would repeat what has already been taught at lower secondary level.
The teachers expected their students to have problems only with understanding stoichiometric
calculations, logarithms (pH) and buffer solutions.

T6. This part is easy to teach, students already know a lot. They want to know moree.g.,
calculate the pH of weak acids.
I. What do you think are the main difficulties for students in this part?
T2. Its logarithms, because they dont know enough math yet. Then you have to explain it, and
since Im also a math teacher I know some ways to explain it 2-3 ways, but its 10-pH, whats p,
whats log, is pH a concentration?
I. You think that the students problems are mostly mathematical?
T2. Yes, and then we have concentrations. Students must distinguish between HCl and H2SO4 and
also mole proportions.
None of the teachers were aware that students could have difficulties in applying formula
and ionic equations to acid-base reactions and to understand the related acid-base models.
How teachers introduced acid-base reactions

Four teachers introduced the acid-base concept listing acids and bases that students know
from everyday life. Writing chemical formulae students were expected to see that all acids
contained hydrogen. Acids were then defined as substances that when dissolved in water
produced hydrogen ions. Later, pH values of acidic solutions were determined and related to
the concentrations of hydrogen ions. Two teachers introduced the acid-base concept
measuring the pH of various acidic solutions. Students were told the pH to be a measure of
the hydrogen ion concentration. Similar experiments were conducted with basic solutions.
T4. I always start from everyday life. What is an acid and what is a base? We show them, so the
students can smell, feel and taste. Then you can go on and apply this to the human body. What
will happen if this gets into our body? Which are more dangerous, acids or bases? Thats how I
introduce it.
All teachers defined acids and bases as particles taking part in proton transfer reactions.
However, they showed students substances as examples for acids and bases.
How teachers presented the neutralization reaction

All teachers discussed with their students the neutralization reaction. Strong acids were
titrated with strong bases as a laboratory experiment. All teachers emphasized that in this
reaction water and salt were formed. Three teachers demonstrated in comparison titrations
with weak acids or bases, too. However, the focus was still on the formation of salt.
T3. The students perform the titrations with strong acids and bases themselves. Then I
demonstrate a titration of a weak acid.
I. How do you compare the results? Do you draw titration curves?
T3. No, not in the introduction course. We just look at the formation of salt and water of
course.
All teachers claimed that they used in class the Brnsted model to interpret acid-base
reactions. Discussing the neutralization reaction, however, they referred to reaction equation
(12).
How teachers used chemistry models in general

All teachers agreed that it was important for students to know that chemistry deals with
models. They admitted they had not discussed this aspect satisfactorily with their students.

T1. I try to discuss models and why we use models with the students. Its difficult to make the
student understand that we deal with models. They are inclined to believe we deal with the truth.
T2. I try to explain the use of models right from the start. This is the model we use right now since
we can understand it. Later on, when we know more physics and mathematics, we can move on to
other models.
How teachers used models in the context of acid-base chemistry

Teachers had difficulties applying their general view of models to acid-base reactions. In
their view the Arrhenius and the Brnsted acid-base definitions did not count as models.
I. Can you give me examples of models you use?

T2. Yes, Bohrs atomic model.
I. Do you use models in the acid-base part as well?
T2. Yes We use ball-and-stick molecule models sometimes.
In addition, teachers had difficulties to see the differences between the models.
T3. This about a proton, a hydrogen ion, and an oxonium ion. Not all students understand that
its the same.
T3. They have problems realizing that theres no reaction with sodium hydroxide in water. Its a
queer element that it only dissolves as compared with ammonia.
I. What do the students think about writing acid-base reaction equations?

T5. That they learn quickly that water is formed in a neutralization reaction and a salt.
I. But if you dissolve ammonia in water, you dont get water and salt.
T5. No, thats protolysis in water. Water is the acid and isnt formed.
I. Do you see this as a different model for explaining an acid-base reaction?
T5. No I havent thought about it that way. Water cant be formed if it participates in the
reaction as an acid or base.
The teachers were aware that the Brnsted and Lewis definitions of acids and bases are
related to different models. These are the ones they will have met in their teacher training at
University. This may be the reason why they did not recognize previous models.
Teachers comments on the chemistry textbook

All teachers used Anderssons textbook (Andersson et al., 2000). Two teachers used in
addition examples from other textbooks, but the book by Andersson et al. (2000) was the
main source for the students. Two teachers did not like how redox reactions of acids are
presented and excluded these parts of the book from their lessons. Teachers felt that the
textbook was simple and accessible. They said that their students appreciated the book highly
because of the summaries in the margin. One teacher thought the textbook was so clear
presenting acids and bases that he had used it as a self-study material for the students.
T2. If the students miss a lesson, they can easily read it themselves. Last year I asked them to
read a chapter on their own. I chose the acid-base chapter since its relatively easy and the
students at that point have been through a major part of the chemistry course. I think the book
explains it well.
T5. Students like the book. Its a good thing it has summaries in the margin.

Since the teachers were not aware of the different acid-base models, they had not noticed
that the textbook did not clearly distinguish between them. They perceived the book to be
quite clear in this respect. Two of the teachers noticed that the book discussed acid-base
reactions and redox reactions of acids simultaneously.
Teachers comments on the multiple choice tests

Teachers were surprised about students answers to the multiple choice questions. Two
statements occurred repeatedly:
Item 1
T5. You focus on whats formed, not on what really happens.
T1. You forget about the counter ions. You teach that in the beginning of the course but then you
forget about it.
Item 2
T4. Maybe you shouldnt emphasize that acids and bases are dangerous substances
T3. The students should know that water is an ampholyte.
The discussion with teachers showed: they realized that students could have difficulties
to understand what was taught in class.
T5. Ive never thought of it this way. It makes sense. Ill have to check the book more closely.
Teachers may have felt uncomfortable during the interview when their teaching was
questioned (Kvale, 1996, p. 128). In order to minimize this tension, the interviewer explained
that the research questions were developed from examination questions. The discussion of the
results of the examination tests offered an opportunity to discuss students problems
understanding acid-base chemistry in general. Teachers thus realized that other students had
the same problems in this field. The discussion about the multiple choice items continued in
the debriefing phase.
General discussion
Research has shown that textbooks play an important role for teachers planning a lesson.
Tobin, Tippins, and Gallard (1994) reported that when planning science programs, teachers
partitioned the years work into topics to be covered each term and subsequently planned the
content to be covered each week and in each lesson (p. 51). It seems that for the teachers
participating in the present study the chemistry textbook was an important source of
information, too.
In our study the analysis of the textbooks and the interviews revealed that the acid-base
concepts presented by the books and by the teachers were the same. Acids and bases were
introduced as substances. Later the Brnsted model was used. Most textbooks and all
teachers mentioned the formation of salt when talking about the neutralization reaction. It is
reasonable to introduce acids and bases at the phenomenological level as substances that
consume each other. This interpretation of a neutralization reaction is properly described by
formula equations. The Brnsted model, however, defines acids and bases as particles
exchanging protons. This is properly interpreted by ionic equations.
Research has shown that teachers were aware that different models exist but did not use
them in their classes (Justi and Gilbert, 2002). The same was observed in the present study.
The teachers were well aware of the importance of models but had difficulties to make use of

them to explain the properties of acids and bases. Textbooks and teachers neither described
the differences between the models nor clarified why the Brnsted model was introduced.
Some teachers had not even commented on the differences between them. Most teachers
claimed they taught the Brnsted model, but they also used previous models simultaneously.
The interviews showed that teachers did not realize that their textbook did not clearly
distinguish between Brnsteds and previous models. They may not have recognized older
models because they only met the Brnsted and other modern acid-base models at university.
We expect other researchers to arrive at similar results interviewing teachers in Sweden.
There are two reasons for it:
(1) What teachers told us during the interviews was similar to what was described in their
textbook. This can easily be explained assuming that the textbook they relied upon had
influenced the teachers. Our textbook analysis was based on books that are commonly used in
Sweden. It is, therefore, reasonable to expect that the books will influence other teachers in
the same way.
(2) Teachers selected for the interviews were known to have an interest in reflecting on
their teaching. The present study shows that even these teachers were not clear about the use
of acid-base models. If these teachers did not think about the use of models this may apply
even more to ordinary teachers.
Perhaps the situation observed in Swedish schools can also be seen in other countries.
The following observations may illustrate our expectations. One important goal of Nuffield
Chemistry, the famous British curriculum development of the 1960s, was helping students to
develop relationships between experimental results and explanations in terms of a model
(Nuffield Foundation, 1968, p. 7). With respect to acid-base chemistry the Handbook for
Teachers states: when pupils know how to represent what is going on at a molecular
level (they) are then ready for a simple form of Lowry-Brnsted approach (Nuffield
Foundation, 1969, p. 31). However, a more detailed analysis of this aspect is missing. In 1977
Keller, a well-known chemistry educator from Germany, published a book about models in
chemistry teaching (Keller, 1977). Under the heading Models used in relation to chemical
reactions, the Brnsted concept is mentioned (p. 33), but not discussed in detail.
Finally, the observation that the textbooks failed to discuss the different models used to
describe acid-base reactions is not intended to imply that the textbook authors are unaware of
these models. In discussions the textbook authors gave a simple and valid argument for the
chosen presentation of the acid-base concept: to simplify it and thereby facilitate learning.
Implications for teaching and research
The results of the present study emphasize the need for teachers and textbook authors to
provide students with clear descriptions of the models that are used to explain the properties
of acids and bases. They should help students to understand why at a certain point of the
course the Brnsted model is introduced and how this model differs from the one that had
been used before. In this context a distinction between formula and ionic equations has to be
made. To identify some key points:
Acids and bases are introduced as substances referring to students experience from
everyday life. In an acid-base reaction acids and bases consume each other forming salt and
water. Formula equation (18) describes the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium
hydroxide properly at the phenomenological level.
Brnsted defines acids and bases as particles. In an acid-base reaction an acid reacts with
a base forming a new acid and a new base. The formation of salt (and water) is not a
prerequisite of a Brnsted acid-base reaction. The ionic equation (17) illustrates what really

happens in a neutralization reaction. However, (17) does not tell us which substances react
with each other.
Teachers should also expect their students to have difficulties classifying water as an acid
or a base. In the reaction between ammonia and water, ammonia molecules accept protons
from water molecules and, therefore, act as a base (7). Water molecules donate protons and
act as an acid. In this Brnsted acid-base reaction neither a salt nor water is formed.
Acids do not only react with bases, but also with (certain) metals. This phenomenon is
often presented to students when introducing the concepts acid and base. The present study
revealed that textbooks (and teachers) should clearly describe the differences between acid-
base and redox reactions. Formula equation (14) refers to the reaction between hydrochloric
acid and magnesium, naming all reactants and products. The same is true for equation (18)
illustrating the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide. It may be
reasonable for upper secondary school courses to describe (14) as an electron-transfer
reaction using the ionic equation (16), and (18) as a proton transfer reaction using the ionic
equation (17).
The recommendations mentioned here could be used in chemistry lessons helping
students to gain an understanding of what it means to approach a problem scientifically,
(Nuffield Foundation, 1968, p. 1).
The teachers interviewed used their chemistry textbooks to prepare their lessons. They
had, however, not noticed that their textbooks did not clearly distinguish between the
different acid-base models used in school. Teachers should be more critical when reviewing
textbooks.
More research is needed for a better understanding of the role of acid-base models in
teaching and learning. During the interviews teachers described how they taught acid-base
chemistry. From the results, however, we do not know what really happened in the
classroom. We also do not know how Swedish students apply their general view of models to
other concepts in chemistry. Another interesting question to be answered is how students
understand acid-base concepts and models and in what way they are influenced by chemistry
textbooks. An investigation of this type is under way. A study that clarified whether the
results of the present study are applicable to students in other countries is needed too.
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Appendix 1
Interview guide
Introduction
o Presentation: About the interviewer and the research project
o Permission to use tape recorder
o Questions from interviewee; regarding the interview procedure
Briefing
o Teaching experience, years, and schools?
o Favourite domain in chemistry
! Why is it your favourite?
! How do you introduce / teach it?
! What do students think about it?
o Are there other domains you do not like to teach?
! Why do you dislike them?
! Are there any differences in the way you teach them compared to the one above?
! How do you introduce / teach them?
! Do you think the book is clear in this domain?
! What do students think about this domain?
Main Phase
o I would now want to talk about acids and bases. What is your opinion about this part?
o Do you think it is easy to teach?
o In your opinion, what problems do students have in understanding acids and bases?
o How do you introduce acids and bases?
! Do you use Brnsteds definition?
! How do you move on?
! How do you explain acid-base reactions?
! How do you write equations?
(acid + base salt + water; acid1 + base2 base1 + acid2)

! Do you see them as several models?
o Do you discuss the use of models in chemistry in general?
o Do you discuss the differences between acid-base reactions and redox reactions of acids?
o Which textbook do you use? Do you find it clear with respect to acids and bases?
o Do you have any experience from the previous chemistry courses and previous books? What
is better now and has anything become worse?
o How does the book use and explain the use of models in chemistry?
o Presentation of multiple choice questions
! Explain the research project in detail. Our conclusions from the multiple choice questions.
Discuss the different models related to acid-base chemistry.
Debriefing
o I have no further questions. Questions from the interviewee, permission to use the recording,
discuss some points of the interview.

Conceptual change achieved through

a new teaching program on acids and bases
Gkhan Demirciolu*, Alipaa Ayas and Hlya Demirciolu
KTU Fatih Education Faculty, Department of Secondary Science Education,

Stl Mevkii, 61335, Akaabat/TRABZON, Turkey.
e-mail: gdemir@ktu.edu.tr,
Received 26 May 2004, accepted 14 January 2005
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects on students achievement and
misconceptions of new teaching material developed for the unit acids and bases. Also, the
students attitudes towards chemistry were explored. The new material included worksheets
based on the conceptual conflict strategy. The sample consisted of eighty-eight students. The
research was carried out with an experimental/control group design, and lasted for four weeks.
Two instruments The Concept Achievement Test and Chemistry Attitude Scale were used to
collect data before and after the study as pre-tests and post-tests. The results from the post-tests
indicated that the students in the experimental group, taught with the new teaching material,
showed significantly greater achievement in the unit than did the students in the control group. In
addition, the experimental group had a significantly higher score than the control group with
regard to their attitudes toward chemistry. This shows that the implementation of the new
material produced better results both in terms of achievement and attitudes. The students
misconceptions in experimental group were less than the control group. [Chem. Educ. Res. Pract.,
2005, 6 (1), 36-51]
Keywords: new teaching material; chemistry education; conceptual conflict; conceptual change
and misconceptions.
Introduction
Research has indicated that students often construct their own theories about how the
natural world works, prior to formal science education, but their theories are frequently
contrary to those of scientists (Osborne et al., 1985). Students self-constructed conceptions
have been referred to in the literature as misconceptions, alternative conceptions,
preconceptions, naive conceptions etc (Driver et al., 1978; Krishnan et al., 1994; Demirciolu
et al., 2001). Throughout this article, the term misconceptions has been used to refer to
these ideas that are not in agreement with accepted scientific ideas. There are a variety of
sources of misconceptions. These are: experiences encountered in daily life (Head, 1982),
traditional instructional language (Bergquist et al., 1990), teachers, mismatches between
teacher and student knowledge of science (Hodge, 1993), chemical terms that have changed
their meaning (Schmidt, 1999; Schmidt et al., 2003) and textbooks (Stake et al., 1978).
Misconceptions are resistant to change, persistent, and difficult to extinguish even with
instruction designed to address them. Also, the misconceptions learners may hold generally
hinder their subsequent learning (Ben-Zvi et al., 1986; de Vos et al., 1987; Haidar et al.,
1991; de Posada, 1997). So, learners misconceptions should be taken into consideration in
the developing of science curricula. Unfortunately, many of the current science curricula and
textbooks have not addressed the persistence of any misconceptions. In the conventional
curriculum development, curricula have been generally taken up as a whole and prepared by

Gkhan Demirciolu, Alipaa Ayas and Hlya Demirciolu 37
central commissions, and teachers ideas have often been ignored. Kelly and Monger (1973)
explored that, with this approach, the expected achievement level hasnt been reached.
According to the constructivist view of learning, which is a relatively new approach in
curriculum development in science, learners existing ideas are important to make sense of
new experiences and new information (Wittrock, 1974; Hand et al., 1991; Duffy et al., 1991).
In this model, it is suggested that learners construct their knowledge and concepts in the
direction of their abilities and experiences (Osborne et al., 1983). This shows that each
individuals learning style is different. For this reason, curriculum development has begun to
be conducted for individual topics or concepts during the last three decades or so (Osborne et
al., 1982; Osborne et al., 1985).
Over the last three decades or so, various teaching models have been developed to
change learners misconceptions into scientific conceptions. This type of studies has been
phrased as conceptual change models (Posner et al., 1982). In general, conceptual change
has been described as part of a learning mechanism that requires the learners to change their
conceptions about a phenomenon or principle either through restructuring or integrating new
information into their existing schemata (Hewson, 1996). The best-known conceptual change
model has been that of Posner, Strike, Hewson, and Gertzog (1982), which describes the
conditions of conceptual change. In this model, there are four steps: (1) learners must become
dissatisfied with their existing conceptions; (2) the new conception must be intelligible; (3)
the new conception must be plausible; and (4) the new conception must be fruitful. After
these conditions have been met, students can experience conceptual change.
It is important to create a learning environment in the classroom where students can make
sense of science and use science to make sense of the world. The methods and strategies used
in such an environment should guide students toward science. Based on conceptual change
theory, cognitive conflict is known as an important factor in conceptual change (Posner et al.,
1982; Hewson et al., 1984; Hewson et al., 1989; Niaz, 1995), even though there are still
questions about its positive and negative effects on science. A cognitive conflict can be
produced by a situation consisting of disequilibria that is, questions of felt lacunae that arise
when the student attempts to apply existing schemas to a new situation (Mischel, 1971).
Several researchers have shown that instruction based on conceptual change can be effective
at changing students chemistry conceptions (Basili et al., 1991; Ebenezer et al., 1995).
Hewson and Hewson (1983) employed a conceptual change approach to promote conceptual
change in students regarding density, mass and volume concepts. This study showed that the
use of instructional strategies taking students' misconceptions into account results in better
acquisition of scientific conceptions. Basili and Sandford (1991), however, have found that
most students retain their misconceptions, and teachers may have difficulty teaching for
conceptual change. Roth (1985) also prepared specific curriculum materials, engaging
students in a process of knowledge restructuring. Moreover, many strategies have been
suggested for facilitating conceptual change in the literature (Driver, 1989; Dykstra et al.,
1992; Guzzetti et al., 1993; Smith et al., 1993).
Students conceptions of acids and bases

It is known that chemistry is one of the most difficult subjects in secondary schools.
Therefore, many of the students have difficulties in understanding fundamental concepts
(Kavanaugh et al., 1981). Research on students understanding of chemistry concepts has
revealed that students have many misconceptions. The concepts examined include
equilibrium (Banerjee, 1991; Demirciolu et al., 2000), phase changes (Bar et al., 1991),
chemical reaction (Barker et al., 1999), gases (Benson, et al., 1993), stoichiometry
(BouJaoude et al., 2000), atoms and molecules (Griffiths et al., 1992), acids and bases (Ross
et al., 1991), and covalent bonding (Peterson et al., 1986; nal et al, 2002). Many of the

topics about which students hold misconceptions are basic to chemistry knowledge and are
interrelated. Two of these fundamental concepts in chemistry are acids and bases. The
concepts are related to many of the other chemistry concepts, such as the nature of matter,
chemical equilibrium, chemical reaction, stoichiometry, and solutions. In the literature, there
have been a number of studies that address various aspects of students understanding about
acids and bases (Cros et al., 1986; Cros et al., 1988; Hand et al., 1991; Nakhleh et al., 1993;
Nakhleh et al., 1994; Botton, 1995; Sisovic et al, 2000; Demirciolu et al., 2001;
Demirciolu, 2003; Demirciolu et al, 2004). These studies involved students at different
stages in their school or university training. Some of these studies are reviewed below.
Cros et al. (1986), investigating 400 first-year university students conceptions of the
constituents of matter and conceptions of acids and bases, found that the students knew more
about acids than bases and had a good knowledge of formal descriptive aspects, but they had
inadequate conceptions of concrete phenomena, such as heat being released during an acid-
base reaction. They noted that students found it easy to give examples of acids; the most
frequently mentioned being hydrochloric (93%), sulphuric (61%), and ethanoic acids (56%),
but when asked to list three bases, 43% couldnt name more than two. In addition, 17%
answered that pH was a measurement of the degree of acidity. Ross and Munby (1991)
reported this misconception in their study too. In a follow-up study done by Cros (1988), it
was found that some of the students in the second year had modified their concepts; for
example, the former descriptive definition for acids (pH less than 7) replaced a scientific
definition (an acid releases or can release H+). However, other concepts had hardly changed.
Hand and Treagust (1991) identified five key misconceptions about acids and bases
among sixty 16-year-old students. Then, they developed and implemented a curriculum about
Acids and Bases based on the conceptual change approach, which aimed to remedy the
student misconceptions. These were: (1) An acid is something which eats material away; an
acid can burn you, (2) Testing of an acid can only be done by trying to eat something away,
(3) To neutralize is to break down an acid or to change from an acid, (4) A base is something
which makes up an acid, and (5) A strong acid can eat material away faster than a weak acid.
Almost all these misconceptions relate specifically to acids. The results showed that students
taught by using the new curriculum about Acid and Bases topic have had a higher
achievement than those taught by using conventional methods. Hand (1989) followed up
twenty-four of the students reported in Hand and Treagust (1991). Some students had been
taught more sophisticated ideas in a pure chemistry course, while others had studied a
broader based science course or biology. A test based on the five original misconceptions was
administered to the group. The results of the test showed that only students studying
chemistry could answer basic recall questions correctly, while those studying biology did best
overall. The author concluded that the biologists did better because they were not having any
interference from new definitions.
In order to investigate students understanding of acids and bases, Ross and Munby
(1991) conducted two audio taped interviews with each participant. The study was started
with a multiple-choice test. This test was used to gain additional information for the
interviews and to select the participants. The first interviews conducted three days after the
administration of the multiple-choice test included tasks written on a card that contained a
stimulus in the form of a drawing, diagram, or picture. In the second interviews, each student
was asked to write five words or phrase he or she associated with acids and bases. The second
interviews were conducted four weeks after the first interviews. The interviews were
grounded on a model concept constructed from the curriculum. The results were depicted in
concept maps and compared to the model concept map. Ross and Munby (1991) found that
students understand more about acids than bases and had particular problems with the ionic
nature of acids and bases. Driver et al. (1994) suggested that pupils ideas about acids are

derived from sensory experiences such as tasting sour foods, and from advertisements for
antacid remedies and crime stories about acid baths and news about the effects of acid rain.
Since Nakhleh and Krajcik (1994) investigated how different levels of information,
presented by various technologies, influenced secondary students understanding of acid,
base, and pH concepts, they used concept maps constructed from the propositions that the
students used in interviews conducted before and after a series of acid-base titration. After the
initial interviews, students were divided into three groups. Within each group, students
individually performed the same set of titrations using different technologies: chemical
indicators, pH meters, and microcomputer-based (MBL). The results indicated that the order
of the influence of technology on understanding is: MBL>chemical indicator>pH meter. In
addition to this, they also established that some of students who participated in the study had
the following misconceptions.
1. The pH is inversely related to harm and bases are not harmful. 2. Bubbles or bubbling
is a sign of chemical reaction or strength. 3. Acids and bases have their own particular color
or color intensity (bases are colored blue, acids are colored pink, and even different pH
solutions have different colors). 4. The molecules fight and combine, and phenolphthalein
helps with neutralization. 5. Acids melt metals, acids are strong and bases are not strong. 6.
pH is a compound called phenolphthalein, a chemical reaction and a number related to
intensity.
Schmidt (1991) has stressed the example of a common misconception about
neutralisation: that the neutralisation of acid and base always gives a neutral product. He
refers to the neutralisation label as a hidden persuader: after all pupils are usually
introduced to neutralisation reactions through examples where strong acids react with strong
bases to give a neutral solution.
In order to investigate students understanding of acids and bases, Demerouti,
Kousathana, and Tsaparlis (2004a) constructed and utilized a questionnaire consisting of ten
multiple-choice and eight open-type questions. The test was given to 119 Greek students in
the twelfth grade. They found that the students had misconceptions and difficulties on the
following topics: dissociation and ionization, definition of Brnsted-Lowry acids and bases,
ionic equilibria, neutralization, pH, buffer solutions, and degree of ionization. Some of the
misconceptions are similar to those reported elsewhere in the literature. Demerouti,
Kousathana and Tsaparlis (2004b) investigated the effect of two psychometric variables:
developmental level and disembedding ability or cognitive style on twelfth-grade upper-
secondary students ability to deal with conceptual understanding and chemical calculations.
They found that both variables played an important role in the performance of the sample (N
= 119). Disembedding ability clearly had a larger effect. Developmental level was connected
to most cases of concept understanding and application, but less so with situations involving
complex conceptual situations and/or chemical calculations. On the other hand, disembedding
ability was involved in situations that required conceptual understanding alone, especially in
demanding cases, and in combination with chemical calculations.
Only one of the studies above, conducted by Hand and Treagust (1991), was designed to
change students misconceptions about acid and bases to scientific conceptions. Some of the
misconceptions identified in the above studies were used to develop the test in the study
reported here.
The Science Curriculum in Turkey

The current Turkish Education System consists of these components: a) Basic Education
which is eight years, compulsory, and free of charge in public schools, b) Secondary
Education which is three years, not compulsory and free of charge in public schools. Science
was a compulsory subject in Turkish schools until recently. When students came to the

secondary schools (Lycees) they had to take chemistry, physics and biology as compulsory
subjects. The curricula for these three subjects comprise only textbook based syllabuses.
There are no accompanied teacher guides, laboratory manuals or computer programs for
simulations etc. Moreover, the worldwide problems of education such as overcrowding, lack
of materials, inadequate laboratories, and poor teacher preparation are commonly faced in the
study context as well (Ayas et al., 1993; Ayas et al., 2001). The concepts of acid, base and
salt are taught initially in the eighth grade (age 13-14) of the basic education. In the second
year of secondary (tenth grade) school, the concepts are studied in more detail again. It is the
last unit in the curriculum. The time devoted to the unit is 17 hours. The unit contains the
theories of acids and bases, the properties of acids and bases, strength of acids and bases,
neutralization (titration), hydrolysis of salts, and buffers.
The curriculum should normally include general purposes, topics of domain, special aims
of topics, and behavioral objectives, teaching and learning activities, teaching tools, learning
results, assessment tools and methods (Ayas, 1993). However, in Turkey, it only contains
general purposes, topics of subject area and subtitles of each topic, with the remainder resting
on the shoulders of teachers. That is, determining special aims of topics, behavioral
objectives, teaching and learning activities, teaching tools, learning results, assessment tools
and methods left to teachers. However, Akdeniz, Karamustafaolu and Keser, (2000) found
that teachers, even experienced ones, could not describe behavioral objectives at the expected
level for each of the topics. In recent curriculum development studies, aims and behavioral
objectives of related topic have been determined, as in the Chemistry Draft Program
developed and piloted by the National Ministry of Education in 1998, but it has not been
pursued since then. In addition, several chemistry textbooks are prepared according to the
national curricula prepared by the National Ministry of Education. All textbooks are
sequenced in the same order of topics.
The purpose of the present study

Students interests in science were another important factor in learning science (Hofstein
et al., 1976). Different and new materials developed for teaching any science topics were
thought to play an important role on students attitudes toward science. Thus, our hypothesis
is that the developed teaching material in this study increases students achievement and
attitudes regarding chemistry.
For this study, we developed new teaching material (NTM) designed to encourage
conceptual conflict for those students holding misconceptions about acids and bases. The
purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the NTM about the unit acids and
bases on students chemistry achievement, misconceptions and attitudes toward chemistry in
the tenth grade. The following research questions were specifically addressed;
1. Would the new teaching material or traditional introduction be more effective in
improving students achievement and attitudes?
2. Does the new teaching material promote conceptual change concerning acids and
bases?
The Development of the New Teaching Material
The new teaching material related to the unit acids and bases was taught to grade 10
students. The NTM was designed to help students: a) correlate scientific knowledge with
their existing conceptions and b) use their new knowledge when they describe and explain
new phenomena. To develop the NTM, we examined a number of related resources such as
the Turkish chemistry textbooks, lycee II chemistry curriculum, and annual plans prepared by
chemistry teachers to determine the depth, size and time devoted for teaching the unit. Then,

we developed nine worksheets, five demonstrations and three analogies aiming at remedying
the misconceptions identified from the interviews and the concept achievement test
implemented prior to the study. In total, we prepared material that consists of eighteen lesson
plans (each lesson lasts 45 minutes) and requires the students active participation. The NTM
was developed and implemented with a conceptual conflict strategy. In this strategy, there
was a need to determine the students preconceptions and the existence of any
misconceptions before any teaching plan was prepared. The NTM covered the entire content
of the current curriculum about the unit acids and bases, the same number of lessons, but
with a different teaching approach. The implementation procedure of one of the worksheets
used in this study is shown in Figure 1. As can be seen from this, each worksheet consists of
three sections. These were: (1) the student misconceptions identified from interviews and pre-
tests, (2) the practical activity (3) questions. While preparing the NTM, we benefited from the
ideas of ten experienced chemistry teachers and two chemistry educators. The NTM was first
piloted in a tenth grade class consisting of forty students. During the pilot study, paper-and-
pencil tests, informal students and teachers interviews and classroom observations were
carried out. Based on the results, it was revised.
Method
Subjects
The subjects for this study were eighty-eight tenth grade students from a secondary
school on the north coast of Black Sea Region in Turkey. The school has nearly 900 students
in total. There are eight classes at grade 10, each of which consisted of 22-24 students.
Students' ages ranged from 16 to 17 years old. Two of the four chemistry teachers in the
school volunteered to participate in the study. Each teacher had two tenth grade classes that
participated in the study. Once one of the teachers and her two classes were randomly chosen
as the experimental group, the other teacher and her two classes became the control group.
The experimental group teacher (teacher A), using the new material, had 13 years of
experience teaching chemistry, although she only transferred to the present school five years
ago. The control group teacher (teacher B), using the traditional approach, had 12 years of
experience and has only ever taught in this school. From this, we could say that the teachers
had similar experience in teaching chemistry.
The chemistry course in the school consists of five 45-minute periods per week; it
includes three lectures and two laboratory sessions. However, the chemistry teachers in the
school generally conduct lectures in the classroom setting and rarely use the laboratory.
Informal interviews with the teachers showed that their main goals for the chemistry course
were to help students pass the University Entrance Examination. According to them, students,
parents, and school principals value success on this examination. So, the teachers encouraged
their students to solve many multiple-choice questions to prepare themselves for University
Entrance Examination in the chemistry courses. Thus, an important part of the courses was
used for this aim.
Procedure
The teacher of the experimental group was introduced to the NTM and to the teaching
strategy (conceptual conflict) for two weeks and underwent training on the appropriate use of
the NTM before implementation in order to be sure that the NTM was used as we planned. In
addition, the researchers held meetings as often as necessary to correct any misuse of the
NTM as well as the teaching strategy. Both experimental and control groups were observed
during the implementation of the unit. In a typical instructional sequence, while the
experimental teacher tried to help their students recognize and resolve the conflict between

personal knowledge and scientific knowledge with the NTM, the control group teacher used a
teacher-centered approach mainly involving talk and chalk sessions without practical
sessions.
The two groups spent equal time studying the unit. However, the lessons in the
experimental group generally focused on the prepared worksheets, analogies and
demonstrations from the NTM, designed to encourage conceptual conflict for those students
holding misconceptions about acids and bases. As an example, the implementation procedure
of one of the worksheets is described below:
The first stage of each worksheet was focused on the misconceptions described at the top
of each worksheet (Figure 1). At this stage, the students encountered the misconceptions
without any indication that they were misconceptions. This was used at the start of the lesson
to create a cognitive conflict. During this process, the misconceptions were checked up in our
sample. The students indicated that these phrases were generally true. If the students have
different misconceptions, other than the ones on the worksheet they were discussed before
going forward to the actual activity. These were usually done before the second stage. Then
the practical activity on the worksheet was carried out to create a clear sign of the concept
under investigation in the students mind. At the end of each practical activity, small group
(four or five students per group) and whole class discussions took place under the guidance of
the class teacher to encourage students to think about their misconceptions and the outcome
of the activity. After these discussions, the students have changed their misconceptions, as
well as the misconceptions presented at the top of each worksheet, to scientifically sound
concepts. In each of the activities, we generally preferred to use substances often used in
daily life, such as lemon juice, red cabbage, vinegar, baking soda, coke, etc. In addition, the
teacher made use of the pre-designed analogies for some concepts, such as theories of acid
and base, relative strengths of acids and bases and equilibria of weak acid and base. Also,
experiments that could be harmful to the students were demonstrated by the teacher.
Figure 1: Example of a worksheet used in the study
The purpose of the following activity is to remedy the following student misconceptions; i. whether a
liquid is an acid or a base can just be determined by using litmus paper; ii. The only way to test a sample
whether it is an acid or a base is to see if it eats something away, for example metal, plastic, animal, and us.
Tools and materials needed for the activity: test tubes, dropper, HCl solution, NaOH solution, litmus,
methyl orange, phenolphthalein, lemon juice, vinegar, red cabbage, soapy water.
Carrying out the activity: In this test you will be using three known indicators and red-cabbage juice.
Follow the sequence in the chart below. In each test, place about 4 cm3 of each solution in different test tubes.
Then place 2-3 drops of the indicator into each of the test tubes. Carefully record the color in the test tubes.
You are going to test the unknown solution after finishing the other tests.
Solution Litmus Phenolphthalein Methyl orange Red cabbage

1. HCl solution
2. NaOH solution
3. Lemon juice
4. Vinegar
5. Soapy water
6. An unknown solution
Questions: Which solutions used in the activity are acidic? Why?

Can you use red-cabbage juice to test a liquid whether it is an acid or a base?
What do you have to know about an indicator before you use it? Why?
Instruments

The Concept Achievement Test (CAT)

A twenty-item test related to the concepts of acids and bases unit was constructed for the
purpose of identifying the students understanding and misconceptions in chemistry. The
items in CAT were multiple-choice and constructed based on a methodology used by
Peterson, Treagust, and Garnett (1986) and Treagust (1988). Each item in the CAT included
one scientifically acceptable answer; one common misconception revealed in the previous
studies and found out during the interview sessions, and three reasonable and plausible
distracters. During the development of the CAT, the following steps were taken into
consideration. First, instructional objectives related to the acids and bases topic were
determined, based on the current curriculum. Second, the literature related to students'
misconceptions about the acids and bases concepts was examined. Third, interviews were
conducted with ten high school students who were randomly selected from the sample to
investigate in depth their misconceptions. The interviews were analyzed to obtain a list of
students misconceptions about acids and bases. And then, a review of research on students
misconceptions about these concepts was conducted to gather more information and validate
the findings of interviews (Hesse, 1988). The identified misconceptions were used to develop
the multiple-choice items of CAT. An example of items in CAT was:
Item 8: Which one of following is a correct statement about the effects of the acids and
bases?
A. Acids burn and melt everything

B. Beverages with soda contain weak bases.
C. Strong acids melt and destroy metals.
*D. Some weak acids can be tasted.
E. All acids have bubbles.
The correct answer of this item was option D, as marked by an asterisk (*). The
common misconception in this item was that Acids burn and melt everything.
For purposes of content validation and reduction of errors, the CAT was examined by a
group of experts consisting of three chemistry educators in the Chemistry Department in the
Faculty of Education and five high school chemistry teachers who had taught chemistry for
over ten years at the central lycees in the city of Trabzon. These experts checked the
correspondence between the items in the CAT and the identified misconceptions, and they
determined that there was an acceptable correct choice for each item of CAT. In addition,
CAT was piloted with forty students from grade 10. For the reliability of the CAT, an item
analysis was made. After conducting the item analysis, the final form of CAT has included
the elected 20 items. The alpha reliability coefficient (KR20) was found 0.92. Students
completed CAT in a 45 minutes period. The t-test was used to compare the pre-test and post-
test scores of the groups.
Interviews with students

The grade 10 students were individually interviewed for 30 to 40 minutes to obtain their
preconceptions about the concepts of the acids and bases. The interviews were conducted
approximately three months before teaching the acids and bases topic. For the interviews,
students were categorized by the grades they received on the teacher-made exams in
chemistry as high achievers, middle (average) achievers, and low achievers. The teachers
were asked to select ten volunteers from middle achievers in chemistry. A semi-structured
approach was used in the interviews. Six students were male and four female. All the
interviews were audio taped and transcribed verbatim by the researchers. Appendix A shows
the questions used in the interviews. Interview results were used to construct the items of the
CAT.

Chemistry Attitude Scale (CAS)

We also developed the CAS, which contains 25 attitude statements (11 positive and 14
negative). Items in the CAS were designed to measure students attitudes toward the learning
of chemistry. Because a goal of the NTM was for the students to hold more positive attitudes
toward the learning of chemistry after they were taught with the NTM, items in the CAS
needed to measure this. Sample attitude items crafted for instrument included: I like
chemistry, I am looking forward to taking more chemistry courses, and I enjoy learning
how to use chemistry in daily life. One factor was identified by factor analysis: attitude
towards chemistry. This factor explained 44% of variance. The CAS contains items in a 5-
point Likert-scale (strongly agree, agree, undecided, partially disagree, strongly disagree).
After an item analysis based on a pilot, we selected 25 items from 42 items. The reliability
coefficient was 0.84 and validated by three professors in the field of education. While the
ratings ranged from Strongly Agree (5) to Strongly Disagree (1) for the 11 positive
statements, the reverse ratings, Strongly Agree (1) to Strongly Disagree (5), were used for the
14 negative statements. The score from the CAS can range from the lowest (25) to the highest
(100). In the analysis of the CAS, firstly, the total score of each student on the CAS and then
mean score of each group were computed. The mean scores of the groups were compared by
using t test for both the pre-tests and post-tests.
Design
The study utilized a nonequivalent pretest-posttest control group design (Campbell and
Stanley, 1963, p. 43). Because we were unable to assign the students randomly to the groups
due to constrains of the context, this study was quasi-experimental in nature.
Pre-test Instruction Post-test

EG T1, T2 X1 T1, T2
CG T1, T2 X2 T1, T2
EG represents Experimental Group, using the NTM (X1) while CG represents the control
group, using the traditional approach (X2). T1 represents CAT, T2 the CAS.
Results and Discussion
The CAT and CAS were administered to both the experimental and control group
students before the instruction. No statistically significant mean difference was found
between the two groups with respect to chemistry achievement (t = 0.439, df = 86, p > 0.05)
and chemistry attitude scale (t = 0.406, df = 86, p > 0.05), indicating that students in the
experimental and control groups were similar in respect of these two variables. As there were
no significant differences between the pre-test scores of the experimental and the control
groups, the post-tests scores of the groups could be compared using an independent t-test.
The first research question asked whether the new teaching material or traditional
introduction would be more effective in improving the students achievement and attitudes.
The data showed that there was a significant difference in chemistry achievement between
the experimental group (M= 73.9, SD= 12.7) and the control group (M= 60.0, SD= 15.9) t=
4.496, p < 0,001 (Table 1). This finding showed that students in the experimental group
exhibited significantly higher science achievement scores than did students in the control
group. Although the mean difference of 13.9 raw score seemed to be quite high, the mean of
the experimental group was lower than it was expected. A reason for this was that the topic

Acids and Bases was related to many other chemistry topics, such as the particulate nature
of matter, oxidation and reduction, and chemical equilibrium.
Table 1. Comparison of the Experimental and Control Groups for Overall

Differences in CAT, and CAS
Groups Experimental Control

group group t p
Measures
N Mean SD N Mean SD
CAT 44 73.9 12.7 44 60.0 15.9 4.496 0.000
CAS 44 79.7 10.9 44 74.4 13 2.528 0.013
The results of the t-test (Table 1) also denoted that significant differences found between
groups in favor of experimental group (t = 2.528, p = 0.013), with regard to their attitudes
toward chemistry. The students were more active in the laboratory approach in the NTM than
in the traditional laboratory. The experimental group students spent longer time than the
control group in the laboratory. Thus, they had a lot of experience in measuring, interpreting,
drawing conclusions, and making generalizations. This may generate more positive attitudes
towards chemistry.
The percentages of the students misconceptions in both groups on the pre-test and the
post-test are given in Table 2. The misconceptions reflected by the distracters in multiple-
choice items in the test are the common misconceptions in a certain conceptual area. As can
be seen from Table 2, the students in both groups held almost the same misconceptions on the
pre-tests. The misconceptions obtained from the subject of this study support previous
findings in the literature (Ross et al., 1991; Hand et al., 1991; Nakhleh et al., 1994; Ayas et
al., 2002; Demirciolu, 2003.). Prior to the instruction, the percentages of the misconceptions
held by the students in the experimental group ranged from 18 % to 84 %, and those of the
students in the control group ranged from 20 % to 95 %, as shown in Table 2. This shows that
the subjects have a great number of misconceptions related to the concepts under
investigation. Before the treatment, the most common misconception among students in both
groups was that "All salts are neutral" (Table 2). This misconception is also widespread
among the student teachers (Demirciolu et al., 2001; Ayas et al., 2002).
The second research question asked whether the use of the teaching material based on the
cognitive conflict strategy promoted conceptual change concerning acids and bases. The data
indicate that it contributed significantly to a better understanding of the topic acids and
bases as the experimental group reached a higher level on post-tests. After the instruction,
the percentages of the misconceptions held ranged from 0 % to 10 % in the experimental
group, from 2 % to 41 % in the control group (Table 2). In both groups the percentages of
student misconceptions decreased on the post-tests, but the experimental group did better
than the control group. The students in the experimental group had completely corrected the
following misconceptions: as pH increases, acids becomes harmless and bases are not
harmful, pH solutions have different colors, The only way to test a sample whether it is
an acid or a base is to see if it eats something away, for example metal, plastic, animal, and
us, Bubbles or bubbling is a sign of chemical reaction or strength of an acid or a base,
As the number of hydrogens increases in the formula of an acid, its acidity becomes
stronger. These findings support previous research studies on the effectiveness of the
teaching for conceptual change (Guzzetti et al, 1993; Tsai, 1999)
However, a few students maintained their misconceptions, which are depicted in the
Table 2. Although these results are encouraging, they are still below the expected level. The

reason for this could be the lack of active participation in acquiring of knowledge. In
addition, misconceptions, once embedded in a learners conceptual schemes, are extremely
hard to remove (Novak, 1988; Songer et al., 1994).
Table 2. The percentages of students misconceptions determined in the pre-tests and post-
tests in the experimental and control groups
Experimental Group Control Group

Student Misconceptions Pre-test Post-test Pre-test Post-test
f % f % f % f %
Acids burn and melt everything 21 48 6 14 25 57 13 30
All acids and bases are harmful and
16 36 3 7 12 27 4 9
poisonous
As pH increases, acids become harmless and
11 25 0 0 9 20 3 7
bases are not harmful
Different pH solutions have different colors. 11 25 0 0 10 23 5 11
pH is a measure of acidity 22 50 2 5 25 57 12 27
A strong acid doesnt dissociate in water
solution, because its intra-molecular bonds 20 45 8 18 21 48 10 23
are very strong.
The only way to test a sample whether it is an
acid or a base is to see if it eats something
20 45 0 0 24 55 11 25
away, for example metal, plastic, animal, and
us
All salts are neutral 37 84 8 18 42 95 18 41
Salts dont have a pH value 26 59 3 7 29 66 9 20
In all neutralization reactions, acid and base
32 73 5 11 35 80 13 30
consume each other completely
At the end of all neutralization reactions,
there are neither H+ nor OH- ions in the 26 59 10 23 22 50 19 43
resulting solutions
A strong acid is always a concentrated acid 8 18 2 5 10 23 1 2
Bubbles or bubbling is a sign of chemical
13 30 0 0 16 36 6 14
reaction or strength of an acid or a base
Indicators help with neutralization 15 34 6 14 15 34 10 23
As the value of pH increases, acidity
8 18 3 7 11 25 1 2
increases
While bases turn blue litmus paper into red,
12 27 1 2 9 20 1 2
acids turns red litmus paper into blue.
As the number of hydrogen atoms increases
in the formula of an acid, its acidity becomes 24 55 0 0 26 59 12 27
stronger
Species having formulas with hydrogen are
acids and those having formulas with 18 41 1 2 21 48 5 11
hydroxyl are bases
If the results are examined in detail, it can be seen that many students explained the
testing of an acid based on sensory perceptions, often with statements such as The only way
to test a sample whether it is an acid or a base is to see if it eats something away, for example

metal, plastic, animal, and us. 45 % of the students in the experimental group and 55 % of
the students in the control group held this misconception prior to instruction. After the
instruction, while 25% of the students in the control group maintained the misconception,
none of the students in the experimental group did so. This result showed that when
chemistry concepts were related to everyday life during teaching, their retention in the
learners mind was greater. This finding was similar to that of Ross and Munby (1991). They
found that the students retain everyday concepts more than are scientific concepts. After the
instruction, the most common misconception was that "At the end of all neutralization
reactions, there are neither H+ nor OH- ions in the resulting solutions, with 23% of the
experimental group and 43% of the control group holding it. The misconception indicated
that most of the students, especially in the control group, failed to realize the central role of
water in neutralization reactions. The concentration of H3O+ and OH- ions in the neutral
aqueous solution is about 10-7 mol/l. Therefore, neutral doesnt mean that the two are not
present in the medium. In the literature, Schmidts (1991, 1995) suggestion for the reason of
this misconception was that students misunderstood the concepts of neutralization and
neutrality. Another major misconception was that All salts are neutral. This misconception
was held by 18% of the experimental group students and 41% of the control group students
on the post tests. The misconception indicated that the students had the idea that acid and
base consume each other completely in all neutralizations.
This discussion shows that there are a number of misconceptions that are not confined to
students of one nationality only. Therefore methods used to remedy them may, to some
extent, be effective in other cultures.
Conclusions and Implications
The results indicate that training with the NTM based on the conceptual change strategy
was more successful in remedying students misconceptions on acids and bases than
conventional instruction. This result supported the notion that it is not easy to eliminate
misconceptions just by employing traditional instructional methods. The students
participation in the practical activities has caused not only greater understanding but also
greater interest in the study of chemistry. So, while teaching acids and bases, teachers should
organize activities that encourage students to use their prior knowledge and experience, and
also provide them with opportunities to apply the newly acquired concepts in a variety of
situations. That is, instructional strategy should focus on: first, what is known or unknown
about the concepts of acids and bases, and then the new knowledge should be constructed
upon existing knowledge.
We have concluded that the students misunderstandings of the concepts of the acids and
bases generally originated from their experiences in everyday life. So, when preparing a
teaching program and student-activities on the concepts, it is very important to include
everyday substances in the activities. Additionally, the students in both groups had more
difficulty in understanding the neutralization (titration process) and related concepts than the
others in the unit, because of the complex structure of the neutralization concept. In the
teaching of this concept, in addition to simple titration activities that we used in this study,
using different technologies, especially microcomputer-based activities could be suggested as
better teaching tools (Nakhleh et al., 1993).
Another important conclusion was that the students in the experimental group attained
more positive attitudes toward chemistry than did those in the control group. This result
indicated that the NTM achieved success in moving the students attitudes in the desired
direction. This conclusion was not surprising because the experimental group students spent
longer time than the control group ones in the laboratory. However, this conclusion may be

surprising for many science teachers in Turkey because they tend not to use labs and do not
believe that the practical activities can influence their students attitudes towards science.
This study is important in emphasizing that the NTM and laboratory activities are quite
influential on students achievement and attitudes.
Teachers should be aware of students' prior knowledge and misconceptions on acids and
bases, because they are strong predictors of student achievement. They should be informed
about the usage and importance of worksheets based on conceptual change approach. In
short, when suitable strategies are used in the teaching of the unit acids and bases, they are
more likely to cause a significantly better removal of misconceptions and acquisition of
scientifically sound concepts. In addition, chemistry teachers should be encouraged to
prepare teaching materials related to the other chemistry topics in the light of the models of
conceptual change. In this process, we have thought that the present study would be an
important source for the chemistry teachers in Turkey as well as that in other countries. Also,
current chemistry textbooks should be revised to include the elements of conceptual change.
Pre-service and practising science teachers should be introduced to constructivist ideas
of teaching and learning so that they become aware that the teachers role is not simply to
transmit knowledge but to facilitate student learning. Relevant research results about student
conceptions should be communicated to teachers, curriculum developers to inform
improvement in the practice.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Research Fund of Karadeniz Technical University,
Project Number: 21.116.001.1.
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Appendix A. Interview questions
1. The student was shown a beaker marked dilute acid, and was asked to describe the
solution.
2. The student was shown an unlabelled beaker of liquid and was asked the question
How would you test this liquid without litmus paper whether it is acidic or basic?
3. The student was first shown four labeled cans of vinegar, lemon, dishwashing
detergent, and soapy water. Each example was then discussed as to whether it might contain
an acid or a base.
4. The student was first shown four bottles labeled HCl, NaOH, NH3 and NaCl. Each
example was then discussed as to whether the formula indicated an acid or base.
5. The student was shown three beakers marked pH 4, pH 7 and pH 12, and was asked to
describe the solutions.
6. The student observed the changes that occurred when the dilute acid and base were
mixed. The student was then asked to describe what had happened to the acid and base.

Traditional and computer-assisted learning in

teaching acids and bases
Inci Morgil*, Soner Yavuz, zge zyalin Oskay and Seil Arda
Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Beytepe-Ankara, Turkey.
e-mail: inci@hacettepe.edu.tr
Received 3 September 2003, accepted 6 December 2004
Abstract: The traditional and the computer-assisted teaching methods for teaching a fundamental
topic within chemistry education, acids and bases, were compared and the influences of the three
dimensional spatial visualization abilities, computational attitudes and learning styles of the
students on their acquisition of knowledge were investigated. The students were randomly
distributed into control and experimental groups and their knowledge about acids and bases was
assessed by a test comprising twenty questions. After this test, the experimental group received
computer-assisted teaching and the control group was taught by traditional teaching methods for
two days on the related subject. After two days of teaching, the students were tested again with
the same twenty questions. Parallel to this, the three-dimensional spatial visualization abilities,
computational attitudes and learning styles of the students from both groups were assessed. The
three dimensional spatial visualization abilities, computational attitudes and learning styles of the
students were not found to influence their test scores. However, a 52% improvement was
observed in the post-instruction test results of the students of the experimental group whereas the
control group only improved by 31%. The independent two-sample t-test was applied for the
evaluation of the results of the study and there was a significant difference favoring the
experimental group. [Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2005, 6 (1), 52-63]
Keywords: acid-base chemistry; computer-assisted education; spatial visualization ability;

computational attitudes; learning styles.
Introduction
Computer-aided instruction
It is possible to acquire information through using computers and the Internet in science,
especially by chemistry classes of primary, secondary and higher education. The teaching
tools prepared by institutions specializing in such applications could also be used in virtual
media. By using such teaching tools, students could learn the subject matter in a better way,
as they are provided with a variety of knowledge, and a medium where they can observe the
virtual experiments and repeat the same experiments many times if they request. As a result,
it is expected that computer-assisted applications affect the students achievement.
One of the common teaching methods that chemistry teachers prefer today is the lecture
method. In this the teacher transmits knowledge to the students who sit passively in the
classroom and listen. Another common method is the question-and-answer approach, which
was developed in order to avoid the boredom caused by lectures and to provide a more
efficient learning environment. On the other hand, case studies allow the students to face the
problems that occur in real life. They help to fill the gap between theory and practice through
putting the previously learnt concepts and principles into use. The best part of this method is
that it enables the students to apply what they have learnt to what they are living through
(Snmez, 1986).

Inci Morgil, Soner Yavuz, zge zyalin Oskay and Seil Arda 53
A useful part of instruction in chemistry is the performing of experiments. This can be

done by demonstrations when the teacher actively carries out the experiments in front of the
class or demonstrates some materials (Bayraml, 2000) or by the students who learn about a
subject by carrying out experiments in the laboratory or classroom, in which case, the role of
the teacher is to guide and help them where necessary.
In contrast to the previously described methods, in Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI),
the teacher can use computers at different times and places according to the characteristics of
the subject matter, the students, and the available software and hardware. Computer programs
can be used for practice, revision, one-to-one instruction, problem solving, or simulations
during the applications (Demirel, 1996).
In many studies, CAI has been shown to have some benefits, although there are also
cases where none were observed. With CAI, there is a form of one-to-one instruction (or two
students together at each computer), plus the opportunity for the students to proceed at their
own pace, repeating parts of the exercise as they wish. None of these features are easily
available in a didactic classroom situation. In addition, there is added variety and, perhaps,
novelty in CAI, along with the potential to use vivid and animated graphics, enabling three-
dimensional aspects, and other features to be viewed more realistically. Of course, not all
computer programs have these features, but the potential is certainly there.
For understanding to occur, students need to have the time to be able to handle new
information, to think through ideas and to revisit difficult areas. All of this may reflect
features of many computer programs. However, computers lack the human dimension and the
ability to provoke thought by spontaneous questions and answers. A good teacher can
respond to the way a class is reacting to a lesson by the skillful use of such spontaneous
questions and answers. This flexibility is not easy to develop in a computer program and the
style of presentation will depend on the ingenuity of the program developer and his/her own
understandings of the subject matter.
In a study that was conducted to find out the effects of the computer on attitudes,
motivation or learning, and the possible advantages of computer-assisted test programs
(Jackson, 1988), secondary school students were distributed into control and experimental
groups. The assessment of the experimental group was done using computers, whereas that of
the control group was done through a written test. The statistical evaluations displayed a
higher achievement rate for the experimental group that received a computer-assisted test.
Levine and Donitsa-Schmidt (1996) compared the traditional learning strategies with
computer-based activities. Applications and the assessment were administered after the
students were distributed into control and experimental groups. The results of the evaluations
showed that the experimental group was more successful at answering the questions of the
Chemistry Achievement Test than the control group. In another study, Demirciolu and
Geban (1996) compared CAI with the traditional teaching method on 6th grade students in
science classes. The students of the experimental group were taught with CAI in addition to
the traditional teaching method. The students of the control group were taught through
problem solving. The topics were static electricity, electrical transmission, electrical wires
and Ohms laws. The science achievement rates of the two groups were compared through a
t-test and the group that was taught through CAI was found to be more successful.
The effects of the CAI were assessed by Gerardo (1986). This study compared the
effectiveness for learning of the technology-assisted and the traditional method. The students
were shown to be more successful in the technology-assisted applications. In another study,
the achievement rate increased when the general chemistry applications were made through
the CAI (Jackman, Moellenberg, & Brabson, 1990). Lord (1999) in a study of 90 high school
students observed that they had difficulty in understanding the nitrogen cycle and
experienced misconception problems when they were taught through traditional methods.

The students were then distributed into a control and experimental group. The control group
was taught through the traditional method with teacher-centered education using models,
slides, OHP and the students were not allowed to ask any questions. The experimental group
was taught in groups using the question and answer method in an active way. It was reported
that the achievement rate of the treatment group was higher.
In another study by Jackman and Moellenberg (1987), the effects of the traditional
learning cycles and computer simulations on the achievement of freshmen university students
in the laboratory applications on a spectrophotometer were compared. The comparisons were
evaluated through t-tests. The results of the group that received CAI were found to be higher
than that of the group that was taught through the other two methods. No significant
difference was found between the post-test results of the groups who were taught through the
learning cycle and the traditional method. Ertepnar (1995) conducted a study on the effects
of the two different teaching methods involving logical thinking skills, computer-assisted
education and students portfolios on the achievements of 119 high school chemistry
students. The results showed that the application with two methods and the logical thinking
skills of the students had a significant contribution to the achievement of the students in
chemistry. Yldrm, zden and Aksu (2001) compared the traditional and hypermedia
learning environments on the chosen subjects in a control-treatment group and pre- and post-
test design in their study on acquiring and retaining knowledge. Forty-nine 9th grade biology
students were distributed into subject (hypermedia learning environment) and control
(traditional) groups. Pre-tests, post-tests and retention tests were administered to both groups.
The results of the post-test did not display a significant difference between the control and
experimental groups about acquiring knowledge. However, the retention tests showed that the
experimental group retained knowledge better than the control group. Rivers and Vockell
(1987) studied how to develop the problem solving skills of high school biology students by
way of using computer simulations. Simulations were administered to the experimental group
of students with and without guidance, whereas they were not administered to the control
group. In order to study the effects of simulations on the development of the problem solving
skills of the students, their performance was assessed through pretests, scientific thinking
tests and critical thinking tests. According to the results, the students who used simulations
could understand the main subjects as well as the control group students. The students who
were guided through simulations could achieve better in the post-tests, scientific and critical
thinking tests. In a similar study, Ybarrondo (1984) attempted to find out whether computer-
assisted teaching could increase the level of learning in high school biology classes. The
treatment group received CAI in addition to the traditional method. The CAI applications
were computer simulations. The post-test results of both groups were evaluated through a t-
test but no significant difference could be observed. The students were more interested in the
computer-assisted applications.
A similar study was conducted by Redish, Saul and Steinberg (2000) in the introduction
to calculus by distributing the students into two groups and comparing the laboratory class
method based on microcomputers and the traditional problem solving method. Multiple-
choice and openended exam questions were used for the assessment of both groups.
Similarly to the study done by Denton (1972), the group that received computer-assisted
teaching was found to be more successful than the other group. In a study by Durbin (2002),
where computers and the Internet were used as teaching tools in a geography class, an
increase in the students achievement rates and knowledge acquisition was observed.
Acids and bases

Since Liebig defined acids as substances that form hydrogen when they react with metals
in 1838, many studies have been conducted about ways of teaching acids and bases. While

defining acids and bases systematically, Sumfleth (1989) used concept maps; Schmidkunz
(1985) used curriculum spirals; Weienhorn (1994) and Hilbing and Barke (2000) used
thinking and visual models. In chemistry education, as in daily life, acids and bases have a
special importance. Pfeifer, Husler and Lutz (1992) used student reflections in education.
Also, there are many studies in which traditional education techniques are used in order to
improve student performance (Bhler, 1973; Legall, 1977; Bukatsch, 1979; Weskamp, 1993;
Kopyciok et al. 1998; Reiners, 2000; Sumfleth, 2001). While teaching acids and bases,
demonstrations (Radford et al., 1995; Meyer et al., 2003), and carrying out experiments
(Stairs, 1978; Markle, 1984; Thompson, 1998) play an important role. Instead of theoretical
learning, learning by doing improves students performance (Sumfleth, 1987, 1997). In the
applications, there are techniques that use constructivism (Hand and Treagust, 1991),
problem based learning (Radford et al. 1995) inductive approach (Boeck, 2000) and learning-
cycle (Beisenherz and Dantonio, 1996). In the analogy applications, acids and bases are
taught by football analogy (Todd, 2000). When computer-assisted applications started, acid-
base titrations were taken into the visual medium (Gipps, 1994). The misconceptions and
difficulties associated with acids and bases, the factors such as developmental level and
disembedding ability that affect learning were investigated by Demerouti et al. (2004a,
2004b) and their effects on achievement was determined. But, in the studies done up to this
time, the comparison of the educational techniques used in teaching of acids and bases has
not been investigated.
The aim of this study is to identify any possible difference in student achievement when
the subject of acid-base is taught using CAI or the traditional methods in chemistry education
at the university. Moreover, the effects of the factors such as the students three-dimensional
spatial ability, attitudes towards computers, learning styles and socio-economic status on the
students achievement were investigated.
Method
The subjects
The participants of the study were 84 students who were attending the chemistry
education and chemistry education seminar classes at Hacettepe University, Faculty of
Education, Department of Chemistry Education.
The test instruments

The data of the study were collected through the following tests, scales and applications.
Purdue Rotation-Orientation Test

The spatial (three-dimensional) visualization skills of the students were evaluated by the
Purdue Rotation-Orientation Test (Bodner and Guay, 1997). The students were asked to
answer the twenty questions of the test in ten minutes. The results of the evaluation pointed
out the relationship between the psychometric structure known as the spatial ability of the
students and their achievement in the chemistry classes. The aim of the applied test was to
determine the abilities of the students in visualizing the structure in their minds when the
pieces of a figure (shape) or picture moved, moving the shapes (spatial structure intact
visualization) and maintaining while the changes in the orientation occurred (spatial
orientation).

The Scale of Attitude

The Scale of Computational Attitude developed by N. Selwyn, consisting of twenty-
one questions, was used in order to assess the attitudes of the students towards computer-
assisted chemistry education (Selwyn, 1997). The scale focused on four main structures
expressed under the four main titles; these were the computational perception of the students,
their previous knowledge of computers, their computer related behaviors, and whether they
had any difficulties in using computers or not. The five-point likert-type scale was used for
the evaluation of the statements (strongly agree, agree, indecisive, disagree, and strongly
disagree). The scale consisted of eleven positive and ten negative statements.
The Inventory of Learning Style

The Inventory of Learning Style, developed by Kolb in 1985, determines the learning
style of the individuals (Kolb, 1984, 1985; Kolb, Baker, and Dixon, 1985). The identification
of the learning style for individuals indicates their choices of profession, attitudes towards
problems and objectives. Moreover, it is a scale that identifies the strong and weak parts of
the individuals. Kolb defined four learning styles depending on the experimental learning
theory. The Inventory of Learning Style applications consists of twelve statements, each with
four choices, that require the four learning styles to be ordered as to which describes them
best. In Kolbs learning model, the learning styles are cyclical and The Inventory of Learning
Style locates the individual in that cycle. There are four learning cycles, which are Concrete
Experience, Reflective Observation, Abstract Conceptualization and Active Experience. The
learning ways that symbolize each learning style are different from each other, which are, in
turn, learning by, Feeling for the Concrete Experience; Observing for the Reflective
Observation; Thinking for the Abstract Conceptualization and Doing for the Active
Experience. However, there is no single style that identifies the learning style of the
individual. The learning style of each individual is a composition of these four basic styles,
which are Accommodator, Assimilator, Diverger and Converger (Akar, and
Akkoyunlu, 1993).
The computer software

The software that was used in the computer-assisted applications is the CCI Project
Software program (Creative Chemistry on the Web) prepared by ETH (Eidgenossiche
Technische Hochschule Zurich/Switzerland). The software is available through the Internet
(CCI-Project (Creative Chemistry on the Internet) by ETH (Eidgenssische Technische
Hochschule, Zurich; http://www.cci.ethz.ch). The software includes some experiments on the
subject of concepts, which can be viewed on Real Player. Moreover, there are explanations
and parts where the students can watch the detailed information and reactions during the
experiment show.
Chemistry achievement test

The chemistry achievement test was prepared by the researchers according to the
CCI_Project (creative chemistry on the web) applications. The chemistry achievement test
consists of 20 open-ended questions on concepts related to the subject of acid-base. The
opinions of specialists were asked in order to determine which concepts were to be asked on
the test; after the experts views were taken into consideration, the inner validity of the
chemistry achievement test was achieved. The questions are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. The chemistry achievement test on acids and bases.
The Chemistry Achievement Test

1. When a NaOH solution was added to an AlCI3 solution that had a pH of 3.5, the pH of the solution
increased to 12.0. Later, when the HCI solution was added, the pH decreased to 1.6 Write the
chemical reactions of the processes.
2. What is an amphiprotic property of a substance? Explain with an example.
3. Complete the following chemical reactions
Al +H2O
Al +HCl
Al +HNO3
Al + NaOH
4. Identify the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent in the following reaction.
3C + 2KNO3 K2CO3 + N2 + CO + CO2
5. Complete the following chemical reaction.
NH4Cl + H2SO4
What happens when NaOH is added to the solution at the end?
6. Complete the following chemical reactions. Explain the reasons for the effect of an acid on copper
and aluminum
Cu +HCl
Cu +HNO3
Al +HCl
Al + HNO3
7. What is a masking reagent? How does it mask in a given chemical reaction?
8. What kind of reagent can be used in the masking of [Al (H2O)6]]+3 ion. Write the equation.
9. Explain the identification reaction of ammonia.
10. How does the oxidizing power of KMnO4 vary according to the pH? Explain.
11. Which gases evolve at the anode and at the cathode during the electrolysis of the water?
12. What is the proportion of the volumes of the gases that evolve at the anode and the cathode during
the electrolysis of the water?
13. What colour solution results if phenolphthalein is added to the following?
a) Concentrated H2SO4, b) 1M H2SO4, c) 0.1M NaOH, d) 1M NaOH.
14. Write boric acid (H3BO3) in the Lewis acid form.
15. Write the reaction between HCl/H2O and Na2S2O3 in aqueous solution.
16. Explain the reactions that take place when
a) 12M HCl, and b) 6M NaOH are added separately to acetic acid-sodium acetate buffer solution.
17. Write the chemical reaction between gaseous NH3 and HCl. What is the name of the solid
substance formed?
18. Describe the dependence of the equilibrium between the CrO42 and Cr2O7-2 ions on the pH of the
solution?
19. Explain the electron-pair acceptor property of a Lewis acid with an example.
20. Explain the electron-pair donor property of the Lewis base with an example.
Test-administration procedure
In our study of computer-assisted learning in chemistry education, the first step was to
assess the knowledge of the students about acids and bases through the above test. This topic
had been taught to all the students three semesters earlier. The second step was the formation
of the control and the experimental groups, and the subject matter of acids and bases was
taught to the experimental group through the computer assisted teaching method and to the
control group through the traditional learning method. The students all took the same test
after the teaching period of two days and the changes in the students performance were
observed. The post-test was administered one week after the application of the pre-test. The

attitudes of the students towards computers, their spatial visualization abilities, learning
styles, and socio-economic profiles were also studied as the factors that may affect learning.
Eighty-four students of Hacettepe University, Faculty of Education, Department of Chemistry
Education, who were attending the Internet, Chemistry Education and Chemistry Education
Seminar classes were randomly chosen and distributed into the experimental and control
groups of forty-two each.
Results
When the effects of the traditional and the computer-assisted methods of teaching on
students achievement in acid-base in chemistry education were compared, the average
increase scores of the experimental group students was found to be 52%. The average
increase with the control group, however, was found to be 32%. The average score of the
control group students at the pretest was found to be 36%, whereas that of the experimental
group was found to be 28%. However, when the post-test results were examined the average
grade of the control group was 68%, whereas that of the experimental group was 80%. When
the results of the Rotation-Orientation test were examined, the average values of the control
and treatment groups were found to be similar, in which more than 50% of the students were
found to have adequate three-dimensional spatial visualization abilities in the Rotation-
Orientation tests.
When the attitudes of the students towards computers were assessed and the attitude
statements were evaluated, the students in the experimental group were found to have a better
understanding in computer-assisted teaching than the students in the control group and it was
observed that they could use computers. In other words, students in the experimental group
were observed to have adequate knowledge and skills to use computers. However, the
students did not have much experience related to technology, concerning the computers.
After the Kolb Learning Style Inventory was administered, the students were observed to
display all four different learning styles. Twenty-six students from each group belonged to
the assimilator learning group that could make reflective observations and abstract
conceptualizations and ten students from each group belonged to the diverger learning group
that could think, make abstract conceptualizations and create active experiences. Two
students from the treatment group and three from the control group displayed the converger
learning style, and four students from the treatment group and three from the control group
displayed the accommodator learning style.
Similar results were observed with students of Science and Technology Education (Akar
and Akkoyunlu, 1993). As a result, the students commonly possessed the assimilator and
diverger learning styles. The pre- and post-test results of the control and treatment groups that
consisted of eighty-four students were statistically evaluated and independent two-sample t-
tests were administered. In the study, first the pre- and post-test results of the control and
experimental groups were statistically evaluated (a), then the pre- and post-test results were
compared for the control and the experimental groups (b). The results are displayed in Table
2.

Table 2. The statistical evaluation of the pre- and post-test results of the experimental
and the control groups
(a)
Control Group Experimental Group
N x s t p N x s t p
Pre test 42 36.3 42 28.2
9.62 -21.41 0.000 7.07 -47.63 0.000
Post test 42 68.0 42 80.2
Significant difference was observed Significant difference was observed
favoring the post-test. favoring the post-test.
(b)
Pretest Post-test
N x s t p N x s t p
Experimental 42 28.2 42 80.1
Group 11.05 -4.72 0,000 14.13 5.22 0.000
Control Group 42 36.2 42 68.7
Significant difference was observed Significant difference was observed
favoring the Control Group the pretest favoring the Experimental Group in the
results. post-test in the results.
N: number of students; x: average, s: standard deviation, t: significance factor, p: significance,
Discussion
When all the instruments on learning styles, attitudes towards computers, rotation-
orientation abilities, and increases in the achievement rates between the pre- and post-test that
was administered on 84 students, in which chemistry education Internet class students were
evaluated altogether, the following results could be acquired. Table 3 demonstrates the
learning styles of the students.
Table 3. Correlation of learning styles with improvement between the two tests, the students
Rotation-Orientation Test scores and their computational attitude scores.
Control Group
Kolb N The increase in the success rates of The rotation- Attitude
classification the pre- and post- tests orientation test
Assimilator 26 32% 64% 70
Converger 3 33% 86% 73
Accommodator 3 30% 68% 74
Diverger 10 32% 51% 74
Experimental Group
Kolb N The increase in the success rates of the The rotation- Attitude
classification pre and post tests orientation test
Assimilator 26 51% 58% 71
Converger 2 49% 40% 69
Accommodator 4 58% 76% 71
Diverger 10 51% 56% 77
As Table 3 illustrates, the achievement increases of the students from all four learning
style groups were observed to be somewhat higher with computer-assisted teaching.

Moreover, it was observed that the other factors shown above do not have a great effect on
achievement. However, because of the small number of participants, this study could be
repeated with more participants and the results can be subsequently compared. Similar results
were found in the researches done with students who participated in science lessons (Akar
and Akkoyunlu, 1993). Table 4 displays the combined above stated results for the
experimental and the control groups.
Table 4. Comparison in the improvement in the test scores, the Rotation-Orientation Test and
Attitude test scores between the two groups.
The Increase In The Success Rates Of The Pre- The Rotation- Attitude
And Post- Tests Orientation Test
Control 31% 62% 71

Experimental 52% 58% 73
As Table 4 illustrates, the increase in the success rates of the experimental group students
is higher than that of the control group students. This finding proves the superiority of the
computer-assisted teaching method over the traditional one in this exercise. However, the
results of the Rotation-Orientation Test or the Attitude Scale did not display any difference
between the students of the control and experimental groups according to the t-test results.
When students learning styles were not taken into consideration, the averages of the
Rotation-Orientation test in the control group and the averages of the items for students
attitudes towards computers in the experimental group were found to be higher. The point
being, although the results of the three-dimensional spatial visualization abilities of the
control group were higher, their achievement increase at the end of the traditional
applications was not high at all.
The increase in the test scores of the experimental group was higher despite their slightly
lower three-dimensional spatial visualization ability results. This shows that the attitudes
towards computers and the ROT Test results were not a significant factor in the students
achievement concerning computer-assisted education. The superiority of the computer-
assisted teaching method over the traditional one stems from the students learning the
subjects as a whole on the computer.
Some questions on the chemistry achievement test on acid-base could be considered. For
example, on question number 3, the students were asked to explain the reactions of aluminum
with H2O, HCl, concentrated HNO3 and NaOH. The students of the experimental group with
the computer-assisted teaching watched the above-mentioned reactions in the virtual media as
dynamic experiments followed by the equations that explained the reactions. The
presentations were repeated as many times as the students wished. The control group learnt
the same subject directly from the teacher using transparencies at the OHP. There was not a
live presentation and the revision could only be done through questions and answers. Another
example could be question number 19. In the computer-assisted application, in order to
explain the acceptor characteristic of the Lewis acid, a virtual experiment was done and
DMF, CH2Cl2, CH3CH2OH, CH3COOH and concentrated H2SO4 were dropped in turns into
the experiment tubes in which there was [Fe (phen)2 (CN)2] complex.
The solutions in different colors could be observed and the experiment was followed by
explanations of the characteristics of each solvent calculating the number of acceptors. The
traditional application consisted of the explanations of the teacher using the OHP
transparencies. If the teacher had done the same experiments in test tubes in the class in the
traditional way, that would also not helped because the students would not have the chance to

see the experiments several times. Although some constructivist applications such as
question-answer, meaningful learning, and conceptual understanding are administered in the
control group in order to enable them to learn the subject though the process of the study, the
complex knowledge that could be presented through computer-assisted teaching could not be
fully acquired.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Hacettepe University Research Fund and German DAAD
(Deutsche Akademische Austausch Dienst) for providing the necessary equipment and tools
for this study.
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January 2005 Volume 6, Issue No 1

ISSN 1109-4028 Pages 1 63

Published quarterly by The Royal Society of Chemistry

January 2005 Volume 6, Issue No 1

Textbooks and teachers understanding of acid-base models used in

Conceptual change achieved through a new teaching program on

Traditional and computer-assisted learning in teaching acids and bases..................52-63

Norman Reid (Chair, UK)

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Liberato Cardellini (Italy)

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Factors related to observed attitude change toward

Chemical Education Research and Development, Department of Chemistry, Kemihuset,

Received 11 November 2004, accepted 12 January 2005

Keywords: attitude change; motivation; university chemistry.

This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry

educational setting on students attitudes. These are treated in Appendixes 1 and 2

Perrys theory of intellectual and ethical development of college students

Sample and method

Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 2005, 6 (1), 1-18

This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry

Figure 1. Overview of the experimental design.

Ch ang e Preliminary Ch ang es in attitude and

= main fo cus of study

Questionnaire for measuring attitude towards learning

This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry

Table 1. Some illustrative items from the attitude questionnaire.

30 It is important to include working To perform laboratory experiments

This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry

Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 2005, 6 (1), 1-18

This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry

1) Nature of Tasks 1) Expectancy Components 1) Choice Behaviour

2) Reward/Goal structures 2) Value Components 2) Level of activity and Involvement

3) Instructional Methods 3) Affective Components 3) Persistence Behaviour/Regulation of

This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry

Numbers of passages in motivational and contextual categories

Table 3. Total number of passages within motivational categories

Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 2005, 6 (1), 1-18

This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry

Table 4. Total number of passages within contextual categories.

Student motivational behaviour

Table 5. Student reflections on motivational behaviour.

3) Persistence Persistent when encountering Less persistent when encountering

Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 2005, 6 (1), 1-18

This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry

Level of activity and involvement

Persistence behaviour / regulation of effort

Student contextual factors

This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry

Table 6.Students reflections on contextual issues

Contextual Students with positive shift: Students with negative shift:

3) Instructional Generally positive view of instructional Less positive view of instructional

Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 2005, 6 (1), 1-18

This journal is The Royal Society of Chemistry

Perception of reward and goal structures