Radiophysics and Quantum Electronics, Vol. 46, Nos.

89, 2003

PASSIVE MILLIMETER-WAVE IMAGING

Yu. A. Pirogov UDC 535.36.01

We briefly review the M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University developments on the millimeter-
wave radio imaging using the super-resolution regime in systems comprising single-channel re-
ceivers and sensor arrays. A tenfold enhancement in the spatial resolution in the 8-mm range
is achieved by the mathematical processing of some natural radio thermal scenes with allowance
for the precisely measured point-spread function of the imaging system. It is shown that the
super-resolution is limited by the signal-to-noise ratio of an observed scene.

1. INTRODUCTION

Passive millimeter-wave radio imaging becomes extremely popular in view of the recently arising
possibilities for the development of compact onboard all-weather imaging facilities for blind landing of
aircraft, equipment for surveillance of coastal water areas, and the imaging of objects concealed by an
optically opaque camouage. The millimeter waves are most suitable for radio imaging. Such waves are
the shortest radio waves for which the atmosphere is transparent. At the same time, the millimeter-wave
systems provide for the maximum resolution among all-weather radio-imaging facilities. Unlike the optical
and infrared radiation, the millimeter radio waves easily penetrate through hydrometeors and aerosols, such
as haze, fog, snow, rain, dusty clouds, smoke screens, etc. In comparison with active (radar) facilities,
radiometric systems are much more ecient, dicult to unveil, and portable.
However, millimeter-wave imaging devices have two fundamental drawbacks: (i) the small spatial
resolution in comparison with optical systems and (ii) fairly low speed of operation. The second drawback
can easily be removed by using arrays of sensors, which are capable of imaging two-dimensional thermal
scenes in real time. On the contrary, to improve the spatial resolution, it is necessary to get over a funda-
mental constraint, namely, the Rayleigh resolution limit. Since the possibilities of enlarging the diameters of
receiving antennas of radio-optical systems are always very limited, the resolution can only be improved by
virtue of the mathematical processing of obtained radio images, i.e., by using the regime of super-Rayleigh
resolution, or super-resolution.
The human eye is the most obvious prototype of a radio-imaging system. Similarly, a radio-imaging
facility should comprise a radio-optical lens (or a parabolic mirror) as an analog of the crystalline lens and a
sensor array (an analog of the retina) in the focal plane. In the case of millimeter-wave imaging of a thermal
scene, the resolution and viewing angle closest to the optical capabilities of the human eye can be achieved
by using an imaging system with antenna aperture equal to 1 m and array of 10000 radiometric channels
having a time constant of about 0.1 s. Prototypes of such a system are already designed at present and,
in the nearest future, will be mounted onboard aerospace vehicles [13] and incorporated into ground-based
facilities for all-weather (including nighttime) imaging, as well as used for detection of objects hidden under
clothes, e.g., weapons in airports [46].

M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia. Translated from Izvestiya Vysshikh Ucheb-
nykh Zavedenii, Radiofizika, Vol. 46, Nos. 89, pp. 660670, AugustSeptember, 2003. Original article submitted
May 29, 2003.
594 0033-8443/03/4689-0594$25.00
c 2003 Plenum Publishing Corporation
 At the same time, the problem of high spatial resolution is not yet solved to the necessary extent.
Notable progress in this eld was achieved only in few British [7, 8], American [9, 10], and Russian [13
18] laboratories. As far as the level of super-resolution is concerned, the best results were obtained at
the M. V. Lomonosov Moscow State University (MSU), partially in collaboration with American scientists
from NASA, the University of Georgia in Atlanta, and Johnson C. Smith University (Charlotte, North
Carolina) [1621], and were reported at the AeroSense symposia in Orlando (Florida, USA) in 19972003
within the framework of the conferences Passive Millimeter Wave Imaging Technology IVII. The main
results of domestic developments is an experimentally obtained 10-fold increase in the spatial resolution of
passive radio-imaging systems designed both as single-element facilities and on the basis of sensor arrays. The
super-resolution algorithms developed at the MSU are suitable for systems with arbitrary antenna geometry
and ensure both the high accuracy of sighting-eld reconstruction and the higher rate of two-dimensional
image processing. The latter is especially important for real-time measurements.
The best results of applying super-resolution algorithms were achieved using the nonlinear processing
techniques based on the Janssonvan Sitter [17, 18, 22] and LucyRichardson [21, 23] iterative procedures.
The use of super-resolution techniques in radioastronomy at the solar radiotelescope RT-7.5 (N. E. Bauman
Moscow State Technological University) in the 3-mm wavelength range led to the discovery of a number
of new features of physical phenomena [17]. The developed technique has serious prospects concerning
multipath radio-imaging systems with parallel reception of signals and parallel processing of received infor-
mation [18].
Let us briey consider the essence of the corresponding models and a few specic examples of their
practical use in millimeter-wave devices.

2. MATHEMATICAL MODELS

Let us adopt the integral relationship

I(r) = A(r r
)I0 (r
) ds(r
), (1)
D

where D is the area of observation, A(r r
) is the point spread function (PSF), or the antenna pattern,
I0 (r
) is the undistorted image, and I(r) is the image of an observed scene at the output of a radio-imaging
system, as a model for the formation of a radio image in a single-channel system. Hereafter, ds(r
) and
ds(r) are the area elements at the points r
= (x
, y
) and r = (x, y).
If a rectangular area is observed, then the periodic continuation of the images I0 (r) and I(r) can
be constructed, and the Fourier transform of model (1) for a nite orthonormalized system of harmonics
{kl (r)} can be done in the area D. It is expedient to arrange the Fourier coecients such that the spatial
frequencies of the corresponding harmonics be in ascending order under the normalizing condition



A(r) ds(r) = 1.
D

The modulation transfer function (MTF) B(f ) was estimated in the area D using the normalized PSF
A(r r
) by correctly solving the eigenvalue problem [12]



kl
B(r) (r) = A(r r
)kl (r
) ds(r
). (2)
D

The above-mentioned ordering of the Fourier coecients with increasing spatial frequency means that the
desired MTFs B(f ) yield exactly the solution of problem (2).

595
 In comparison with continuous-scanning model (1), the continuousdiscrete image-formation model



I(i, j) = A[r(i, j) r] I0 (r) ds(r) (3)
D

is more adequate for a radio-imaging system with discrete scanning of an observed region. Here, the
designation (i, j) means that the resulting image is constructed using a mesh {r = r(i, j)} of antenna-
pattern pointings in the area D. In what follows, the initial image in Fig. 1 will be processed exactly by
continuousdiscrete model (3).

3. LINEAR METHOD OF COMPENSATING FOR DISTORTIONS IN RADIOTHERMAL IM-

AGES

The linear image-formation model corresponding

to model (3) is written as

I = AI0 + , (4)

where I is the image detected in the area D according to

model (3), A is the four-dimensional matrix correspond-
ing to all possible discrete positions of the antenna pat-
tern in the area D, and I0 is the undistorted image. The
noise is a combination of instrumental uctuations and
discretization noise (mostly high-frequency) arising when
continuousdiscrete model (3) is replaced by its numerical
Fig. 1. The MSU main building (MSU MB), i.e., analog (4):
the object of radio shooting, is seen in the back-


ground. The facility for radio imaging in the 3-mm (i, j) = A[r(i, j)r] I0 (r) ds(r)A(i, j, n, m)I0 (n, m).
wave band is seen on the left in the foreground. D
(5)
The problem of compensating for distortions in a radiothermal image at the output of a radiometer whose
receiving antenna-pattern is specied by the matrix A was formulated using discrete model (4) [11]:
  

inf R E2  R2 < , (6)
R

where E is a unit matrix. If R is the solution of problem (6), then the image RI can be considered measured
using the device A which is closest to the ideal device E among all the devices corresponding to noise with
mean square norm R2 no larger than . Here, by a device we mean a mathematical model of a detecting
system with a narrower antenna pattern that, as a rule, cannot be physically realized. The solution of
problem (6) has the form
R() = (A A + E)1 A , (7)
where A is the transposed matrix A and is the solution of the equation R()2 = for < R(0)2
and = 0 for R(0)2 . The resolution achieved in the images R()I is limited mainly by noise of
discrete numerical schemes (5) [12].

4. NONLINEAR METHOD OF COMPENSATING FOR DISTORTIONS

The problem of compensating for instrumental distortions in a system for radio observations of the Sun
was solved by the nonlinear Janssonvan Sitter method [22] proposed earlier for analyzing one-dimensional
problems of optical spectroscopy. In [17, 18], this method was used in a more general form for solving

596
two-dimensional problems. The Janssonvan Sitter method is iterative. It is applied assuming that the
brightness range of the analyzed image is known: I0 min I0 (r) I0 max .
In the nonlinear method, continuous image-formation model (1) corresponds to a model for which
(k)
I0 (r
) and I(k) (r), where k is the iteration number, are the iteration images at the input and output of
a radio-observation system, respectively. The algorithm for this method begins with assigning the initial
values:
(0)
I0 (r) = I(r). (8)
The iterative part of the algorithm can be outlined as follows. In step I,



(k) (k)
I (r) = A(r r
)I0 (r
) dr
, (9)
D

in step II,
(k+1) (k)
I0 (r) = I0 (r) + Re l(r) [I(r) I(k) (r)], (10)
where   
 (k) 
Re l(r) = C 1 2 (I0 max I0 min )1 I0 (r) (I0 max I0 min )/2

and C = const, in step III,

k = k + 1,
and in step IV, a transition to step I is performed.
This nonlinear method was realized according to numerical discretediscrete image-formation model (4).
(1) (15)
The rst iteration yielded a more blurred image I0 than the initial image I. If C = 1, then the image I0
obtained after approximately 15 iterations had a notably higher resolution in comparison with the linear
method of resolution improvement. In this case, it suces to conne oneself to 15 iterations. If 30 or more
iterations are performed, then the resolution becomes apparently higher, but it is impossible to guarantee
that this result is free of the eects of noise of discrete numerical schemes (5).

5. MULTIPATH RADIO-IMAGING SYSTEMS

Continuous image-formation model (1), continuousdiscrete model (3), and discrete analog (4) of the
former models are applicable only if the viewing angle is small, i.e., it is expedient to model even actual single-
path systems as multipath by taking into account the spatial inhomogeneity of image-formation systems
for actual viewing angles. Of course, account of such a spatial inhomogeneity when solving the problems of
compensating for distortions yields a better result in comparison with a linear spatially homogeneous model
with a certain eective PSF.
Development of the theory of multipath systems seems to be quite topical and useful. Indeed, indi-
vidual rays cannot be identical, and any discrepancy can be taken into account by mathematical correction
of the received initial data. In this sense, analyzing passive multipath radio-imaging systems reduces to the
mathematical problem of such a consistent discrimination between an image and a distorting operator for
which the problem of inversion (with subsequent composition of the resulting image) can be stably solved
with minimal distortions using minimal or no a priori information [17].

6. SUPERHIGH RESOLUTION IN THE 8- AND 3-MM WAVELENGTH RANGES

The rst experiments on radio imaging in general and on applying the super-resolution algorithms
in particular were performed using 8- and 3-mm facilities with single-element sensors. Superheterodyne
receivers with sensitivity to 0.050.07 K served as the sensors. Parabolic mirrors of diameter 250 mm (for the
wavelength = 8 mm) and 500 mm with Cassegrain secondary mirror (for = 3 mm) served as the antennas.
The point-spread function A, i.e., the antenna pattern in the received frequency range, was measured in the

597
 Fig. 2. Super-resolution obtained by the linear method: (a) initial image I = AI0 + , (b) noise is reduced
(the symbol
marks the thermometer on the right tower of the MSU MB), (c) reduced image R()I for
= 0.0005, and (d) radio-brightness distribution along the selected vertical line: initial image ((b), dashed
line) and reduced image ((c), solid curve).

Fig. 3. Improving the resolution of various fragments of the MSU main building (MB) in 3-mm radio images:
(a) image of a part of the MSU MB, (b) architectural details of the MSU MB are resolved, (c) image of the
right-hand tower with a thermometer, and (d) the thermometer cursor is resolved.

far zone with optical accuracy (about 15

) of adjustment of the reference angles. The use of a precisely
measured PSF ensured the high degree of super-resolution in the course of mathematical processing of
the initial radiothermal images. In turn, the modulation transfer function B(fij ) was estimated using the
normalized quantity A by correctly solving problem (2) on a discrete basis of the area D.
Figure 2a shows the initial radio image obtained using a single-channel radiometer of the 8-mm
wave band, which was mounted on the roof of the MSU Physical Faculty. An equivalent optical image
of the MSU main building (MSU MB) is shown Fig. 1. Figure 2c illustrates the resolution improvement

598
Fig. 4. Improving the resolution of radiothermal images obtained in the 3-mm wave band: (a) initial image of
the MSU MB and (b) the result of compensating for PSF distortions by the linear method.

Fig. 5. Improving the radioastronomical resolution achieved using the linear and nonlinear methods. The right
panels show the radio-brightness distributions along the selected line (a) in the initial image of the Sun,
(b) in the initial image (hereafter, the dashed curves) and after its processing by the linear method (the solid
curve), and (c) and (d) after processing of the initial image by the nonlinear method (15 and 30 iterations,
respectively).

599
achieved by the linear method. The noise in discrete model (4) lies mainly in high-frequency range (5),
hence it was easily rejected (Fig. 2b) without signicant distortions of continuousdiscrete image (3). This
permitted us to increase the signal-to-noise ratio in discretediscrete model (4) by one-third to a value of
120. The linear problem of compensating for antenna-pattern distortions was solved more stably using a
preliminarily ltered image. Figure 2d presents the radio-brightness distributions along the line passing
across the part of the MSU MB with a tower thermometer (see Fig. 2b). Although the thermometer was
completely unrecognizable in the initial radio image, it was resolved in the radio image shown in Fig. 2c.
Analysis of the plots in Fig. 2d shows about a tenfold increase in the resolution of contrast fragments.
The thermometer is imaged better on a radiothermal picture obtained in the 3-mm wavelength range (see
Fig. 3). One can even recognize cursors on the thermometer face. In general, it can be easily seen that the
resolution of an image of the MSU MB, obtained in the 3-mm wavelength range, is already comparable with
that of an optical image (Figs. 4a and 4b). Of course, the wavelength of the detected radiation is 3 times
shorter, and the antenna aperture is 2.5 times larger compared with the 8-mm facility. However, such a
considerable improvement of the image quality is achieved due only to the mathematical processing.

7. SUPER-RESOLUTION IN THE SOLAR RADIOASTRONOMY

It is seen in Fig. 5a that the existing system for radio observations of the Sun (the RT-7.5 radiote-
lescope of the N. E. Bauman Moscow State Technological University [24]) does not allow one to resolve to
the necessary extent the ne-structure details on the surface of the Sun. An increase in the resolution by
about one order of magnitude is achieved by applying nonlinear algorithms (see Figs. 5c5d) which form
super-resolved images with such ne-structure details on the surface for which the false jingle at the edge
of a solar-disk image, which is typical of the known linear algorithms, is absent. A number of new phys-
ical features were clearly revealed for the rst time. Among them we can mention, e.g., periodic density
and temperature strips on the surface of the chromosphere, almost zero radio brightness temperatures
of emission from the areas of ejection of plasma clumps into the circumsolar space, the clumps themselves
suspended in the circumsolar space above a chromospheric cavity, plasma ows around the Sun, which are
looped by a magnetic eld, and other features observed due to their emission in the 3-mm wave band.

8. MULTI-CHANNEL RADIOMETERS

As we already noted, if a radio-imaging system

comprises multi-element receivers (arrays or lines of sen-
sors), then the time necessary to observe a radiother-
mal image decreases by the corresponding factor. At
the same time, new problems typical only of multipath
devices come into play, such as electrodynamical incom-
patibility (interference) of neighboring sensors, dierences
in the partial point-spread functions, optimization of the
data-vector formation for successful solution of the super-
resolution problem, etc. The algorithms for processing
images obtained at the output of a multi-element system
Fig. 6. Block diagram of a multi-channel radio- should also be formulated almost anew. Somehow, this
imaging system with a sensor array: 1 is a lens, work has already begun, and the rst radio-imaging sys-
2 is an input feed of an individual channel, 3 is tems with a heterodyne-sensor line and a lens antenna
a millimeter-wave receiver, 4 is an intermediate- with aperture 200 mm have already been developed and
frequency amplifier, 5 is an analog-to-digital con- tested. Such systems comprise an 11-element line of sen-
verter, 6 is a local oscillator. sors of the 8-mm wavelength range or an 8-channel line
of sensors for receiving 3-mm waves [14, 19, 20] (Fig. 6 and 7). The rst radiothermal images obtained
in the 8-mm wavelength range by a multi-channel facility were processed by one of the super-resolution

600
 Fig. 7. Outlook (a) and design (b) of matrix radiometers for the 8- and 3-mm wave bands.

methods called the Wiener-ltering technique. In this case, we succeeded in solving a few problems typical of
multipath devices, such as spatial (with respect to the point-spread functions) and temporal (compensation
for parameter drifts) calibration of the channels, electrodynamic compatibility of the channels, etc. These
features were specially discussed at the AeroSense2002 Symposium in Orlando (USA) and at the All-
Russia Seminar Physics of Microwaves in Nizhny Novgorod in 2003 [20, 21].

9. NOISE LIMIT OF SUPER-RESOLUTION

It is a priori clear that the signal-to-noise ratio poses the main limit for increasing the spatial reso-
lution since the process of retrieval of an actual image, as well as any inverse problem, is ill-posed. In [25],
such a limit was found in the form
Sr = (1/3) log 2 (1 + Sn ), (11)
or
Sr 0.1Sn [dB] (12)
without using a priori information on the retrieved image. Here, Sr = / is the value of the super-resolution
which is equal to the ratio of the Rayleigh resolution (the angular-pattern width of the receiving antenna
of a radiometer) to the resolution achieved by applying a super-resolution algorithm and Sn is the
signal-to-noise ratio calculated according to the formula

Sn = Es /En (13)
 
in which Es = 2 (i, j), En = 2 = M 2 , 2 (i, j) is the image brightness at the point (i, j), 2 is
i j i j
the noise variance averaged over the scene, and M is the number of pixels. Note that the signal factors Es
and En are calculated by summing over the entire measured radiothermal image. According to Eq. (12), the
super-resolution can amount to Sr 5 for the value Sn = 50 dB obtained in the described experiments,
which is in agreement with the obtained experimental data.
At the same time, our approximate phenomenological formula
1/2
Sr (1/2) Sn0 (14)

is equally convenient for estimating the limiting super-resolution. According to this formula, a fairly high
signal-to-noise ratio is necessary for achieving a high super-resolution. In Eq. (14), the quantity Sn0 has
the meaning of a signal-to-noise ratio determined by the threshold sensitivity of radiometric measurements

601
in relative units for a signal whose intensity corresponds to the average value of the brightness maxima in
a radio image. The quantity Sn0 amounts to about 100 in experiments with single-sensor radio-imaging
systems, which yields a similar value Sr 5 in the cases shown in Figs. 3 and 4.

10. CONCLUSIONS

The above consideration shows that the most promising line in the eld of radio imaging is the
development of multipath (multi-channel, multi-sensor) systems with arrays of straight receivers based on
eld-eect millimeter-wave HEMT transistors, as well as the development of new techniques for analysis,
mathematical modelling, and optimization of multi-sensor systems.

The works highlighted in this paper were supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research
(project Nos. 970100971 and 970217469), the Ministry of Industry and Science of the Russian Federation
(projects 3.14 and 3.16 of the Interbranch Science and Technology Program Physics of Microwaves), and
the Federal Program Integratsiya (project AO 107/2.1315).

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