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Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 12831294

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A critical review of constructal theory

a,* b
Lutfullah Kuddusi , Nilufer Egrican
a
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Mechanical Engineering Department, Gumus suyu, 34437 Istanbul, Turkey
b
Yeditepe University, School of Engineering and Architecture, Department of Mechanical Engineering, 26 Agustos Yerlesimi,
Kayisdagi Caddesi, 81120 Kayisdagi, Istanbul, Turkey

Received 24 August 2006; accepted 8 May 2007

Available online 20 August 2007

Abstract

Constructal theory applied to the volume to point or point to volume ows aims to decrease global ow resistance by furnishing low
resistive ow links in the ow eld. Constructal theory expects to improve the ow performance by increasing the branching of the low
resistive ow links. Fourteen dierent constructal theory applications involving tree shaped ow networks are reviewed with the purpose
to check whether the increase in branching of tree shaped ow networks leads to increased ow performance or not? In other words, the
review aims to answer the question; does the evolution model of constructal theory, increasing the branching of tree shaped ow net-
works through the sequence of constructal designs, improve the ow performance? The review shows that constructal theory will not
necessarily improve the ow performance if the internal branching of the ow eld is increased, in contrast, the performance will mostly
be lowered if the internal branching of the ow eld is increased.
2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Constructal theory; Tree network; Optimization

1. Introduction are treating a three dimensional problem, but then, all g-

Constructal theory concentrates mainly on geometric
optimization of volume to point or point to volume ow
problems encountered not only in engineering but also in
other branches of science. The owing object may be heat,
uid, goods, people etc. What ows in the eld plays a sec-
ondary role in constructal theory. Constructal theory tries,
in a manner, to unify the world of volume to point ows by
introducing a hierarchical geometric ow structure applica-
ble to all such ows encountered in any branch of science.
It would be really exciting if constructal theory succeeds to
do so. A clarication on the terminology of volume to
point ows in constructal theory is necessary at this point.
Throughout early applications of constructal theory, inves-
tigators use a description of volume to point ows as if they
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 212 2931300x2452; fax: +90 212
2450795.
E-mail address: kuddusi@itu.edu.tr (L. Kuddusi).
ures are in two dimensions. In order to stress the actual
dimension of problems in most constructal works,
throughout the paper, whenever possible, a surface to
point ow terminology is used and preferred to volume
to point ow. The global objective in all surface to point
ows is to realize the ow with a minimal resistivity. Con-
structal theory uses two or more ow regimes with a
decreasing resistivity. The majority of the ow surface is
served by the ow regime with the highest resistivity. The
links of ow with much lower ow resistivity occupy the
remaining small part of the ow surface. In a surface to
point ow, the ow from any point inside the surface is rst
directed to a low resistive link of ow using the most resis-
tive ow regime. The low resistive ow link delivers the
ow to a lower resistive link of ow. The sequence of deliv-
ery of the ow from a link to a lower resistive link is con-
tinued until the last and the lowest resistive link channels
the ow to a point located at the border of the ow surface.
The constructal solution strategy of a surface to point ow

0196-8904/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2007.05.023
1284 L. Kuddusi, N. Egrican / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 12831294

starts with geometric optimization of the smallest ow sur- each A1 element is to channel its innite number of travel-
face to maintain minimal ow resistance. The smallest ow lers into a single street, along which the speed V1 is higher
surface is usually called the elemental ow surface. It is than V0. and The volume is constructed as a sequence of
called elemental ow surface because a unique low resis- building blocks, which starts from the smallest volume ele-
tive ow link channels the ow to a point on the border of ment and proceeds in steps of larger assemblies. Access to
the ow surface. The next step in the constructal solution is the innity of points is assured by placing the lowest speed
geometric optimization of a larger ow surface that is (V0) at the smallest volume scale. The geometry of each
formed by assembly of a number of optimized elemental building block is optimized for shape (Hi/Li) and angle
ow surfaces on the upper and lower sides of another (ai). The resulting path (V0, V1, V2 , . . .) is a tree network..
low resistive link of ow. The sequence of assembly of pre- The optimized features for the constructs, shown in
viously optimized ow surfaces into a larger ow surface Fig. 1, are found as [6],
and geometric optimization of the larger surface is contin-  
H1 2V 0
ued until the required ow surface is obtained. The process 1
L1 opt f1 V 1
of assembly and optimization steps leads to formation of a  
tree network of low resistive ow links inside the ow sur- 1 V 0
a1;opt sin 2
face. Constructal theory expects to decrease the global ow V1
 
resistance by increasing the branching of the tree network Hi V i1
of low resistive ow links. In other words, in going from for i P 2 3
Li opt fi V i
the elemental surface toward higher order constructs, a  
V i1
decreasing ow resistance, or equivalently, an increasing ai;opt sin1 for i P 2 4
ow performance is expected. 2V i
Ghodoossi [1] reviewed three basic constructal applica- where
tions of constructal theory [24] and showed that the
expectation above is baseless. Thus, Ghodoossi [1] ques- 1 V0
f1  tan a1 5
tioned the generality of constructal theory. However, later, cos a1 V 1
a critique arose that the three unsuccessful applications are 1 V i1
fi  tan ai for i P 2 6
not sucient means of evidence to question the generality cos ai 2V i
of constructal theory. That is, constructal theory may fairly
The optimized features above may be used to calculate the
work well in applications other than the three reviewed by
minimum time travel between the farthest point (P) and M
Ghodoossi [1]. The present work is an attempt to clarify
for the constructs. The results are
whether constructal theory is successful in other applica-
 1=2
tions or not. The work covers the review of 14 dierent 2f 1 A1
constructal theory applications that involve tree shaped t1 7
V 0V 1
ow networks. The 14 applications consist of the majority  1=2 "  #
of such applications available in the open literature. The A2 1 1 V1
t2 1=2
f2  tan a2
procedure to be followed in the review process is to com- f2 V 1 V 2 1  V 21 =4V 22 2 V2
pare the ow resistances in the elemental surface and the 8
rst and second constructs for every constructal applica-  1=2 ( "
tion. A constructal application would be successful if a A3 1 1
t3
decreasing ow resistance, or equivalently, an increasing f3 V 2 V 3 2f 2 1  V 21 =4V 22 1=2
ow performance with increasing branching is achieved.    
1 V1 1 V2
f2  tan a2 f3  tan a3 9
2 V2 2 V3
2. Constructal applications that involve tree shaped ow
networks Now, we are at a position to compare the goodness of the
constructs against each other. Of course, this should be done
2.1. Streets tree networks and urban growth on an equal basis, namely, A1 = A2 = A3 = A. The area lo-
cated at the right side of the curve indicating t2/t1 = 1 in
How may we minimize the time of travel between an Fig. 2, is the region where transition from the elemental vol-
area and one point? The constructal solution to this prob- ume to the rst construct would be benecial, whereas, the
lem, given by Bejan [5] and also by Bejan and Ledezma [6], area located at its left side is the region where the elemental
is probably the earliest constructal theory application. The volume would be preferable. For example, if the available
constructal approach to the problem is [6] to cover A with travel links are those with V1/V0 = 1.5 and V2/V1 = 1.5,
a sequence of optimized area elements of increasing sizes then the elemental volume would provide the shortest travel
(A1, A2 , . . .) (Fig. 1). The smallest area element A1 is the time for all the points located at A. Evaluating the ratio t3/t2
level where every point of A is connected to the optimal shows that it is always less than unity provided that travel
access network that will emerge. From every such point, links with increasing speed at the higher order constructs
the travel starts at the lowest speed (V0). The function of are available, that is, the speed ratios are higher than unity;
 L. Kuddusi, N. Egrican / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 12831294
Fig. 1. (Fig. 1 of Ref. [6]) The elemental volume, the rst and second constructs.
Fig. 2. The regions where the ratio t2/t1 is less or higher than unity.
V2/V1 > 1 and V3/V2 > 1. Therefore, transition from the
rst construct to the second is always benecial. In sum, if
the conditions that make the rst construct preferable rela-
tive to the elemental volume are in place, then proceeding to-
ward higher order constructs will always make sense
provided a travel link with higher speed is available.
2.2. Constructal theory network of conducting paths for
cooling a heat generating volume
Consider a uniform heat generating volume to be cooled
by links of high conductivity material that are responsible
1285
to discharge the generated heat to a heat sink located at
the boundary of the heat generating volume. The construc-
tal solution to the problem, so dened, is realized by min-
imizing the thermal resistance at the hot spots in the second
most initial constructal work of Bejan [2]. Later, Ghodo-
ossi and Egrican [7] improved and extended the solution
of Bejan [2]. Ghodoossi [1] re-examined the same work
with a critical point of view. The constructal solution strat-
egy of Bejan [2] to this problem is summarized in Fig. 3. A
unique link of high conductivity material discharges the
generated heat to the heat sink (point M) in the elemental
volume. Assembly of a number of optimized elemental vol-
umes on the upper and lower sides of a new link of high
conductivity material makes up the rst construct. Simi-
larly, the second construct is composed of an assembly of
Fig. 3. Constructal solution strategy: (a) elemental volume, (b) rst
construct and (c) second construct.
1286 L. Kuddusi, N. Egrican / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 12831294
optimized rst constructs. Since the problem has been
widely examined before [1,7,8], only the conclusion of
Ghodoossi [1] is reported here: thermal resistance in the
rst construct will be less than that in the elemental volume
if the condition ^k/ > 8 is satised. . . thermal resistance in
the second construct is always higher than that in the rst
construct. ^k and / are conductivity ratio and volume frac-
tion of high conductivity material.
Therefore, the performance does not increase by pro-
ceeding toward higher order constructs with higher internal
branching.
2.3. Deterministic tree networks for uid ow: geometry for
minimal ow resistance between a volume and one point
This is another initial application of constructal theory
realized by Bejan and Errera [3], which is also available
in the book of Bejan [9]. Ghodoossi [1] re-examined this
work with a critical point of view.
Consider an area A that is lled by a porous medium
saturated with a single phase uid. The permeability of
the porous medium K is uniform throughout A. The objec-
tive is to realize a mass ow rate m_ 0 from the area A to the
point M on its border by using several links of ow with
higher permeability, K0, K1, K2 , . . . such that the global ow
resistance is minimal. The ow is supposed to be in the
Darcy regime and driven by the pressure eld P(x, y). Opti-
mization is realized by ow resistance minimization, or
equivalently, by peak pressure PPeak minimization. The
constructal solution strategy is shown in Fig. 3. Since the
work has already been re-examined by Ghodoossi [1], only
his conclusion is reported here: Constructal solution to
this problem with a xed percentage of the high permeable
materials will cause a decrease in the performance if the
internal complexity of the ow area increases..
2.4. Conduction trees with spacings at the tips
The initial constructal application of Bejan [2], discussed
also in Section 2.2, considers cooling a uniform heat gener-
ating volume by links of high conductivity material.
Almogbel and Bejan [10] applied constructal theory to
the same problem with some changes. The changes are:
(a) in constructal works, optimized constructs are used to
build up the next higher order construct. In this work,
the optimized features of the preceding constructs that
are used as building blocks in building a new construct
are not preserved; (b) spacings are allowed between the tips
of neighboring high conductivity inserts; (c) the heat con-
duction problem, dierent from the initial application [2],
is treated two dimensionally and numerically. All these
changes improved the constructal solution quality.
The thermal resistance for the elemental volume and the
rst and second constructs are found as 0.0838, 0.0573 and
0.0304, respectively. This work is one of the rare applica-
tions of constructal theory that ends with increasing perfor-
mance as the internal branching (complexity) increases.
This point is underlined in the work [10]: Performance
increases (resistance decreases) as we move-in time-from
the simplest internal structure (one blade, Fig. 1) to a more
complex one (e.g. Fig. 8) in a system that has the same total
volume. This is why nature makes increasingly complex
internal structures, even though the rate of improvement
in performance decreases..
2.5. Constructal trees of convective ns
The problem is stated by Bejan and Dan [11] as we con-
sider the two dimensional volume of frontal area A and
length W, where W is aligned with the freestream (U1, T1)
(Fig.1(a)). The problem consists of distributing optimally
through this volume a xed amount of high conductivity
(kP) material, which takes heat from one spot on the
boundary and discharges it throughout volume..
Bejan and Dan [11] give the constructal solution to the
problem and conclude: We illustrated elemental volume
(Section 2), the rst construct (Sections 3 and 5) and the
second construct (Section 4). The procedure could be con-
tinued toward higher order assemblies, however, an inter-
esting feature characterizes the trees of ns optimized in
this paper. If we compare on the same basis ( A e2 A e1
and /2 = /1), the twice minimized conductances of the sec-
ond construct (Fig. 9) and the rst construct (Fig. 5), we
nd virtually no dierence between the two when A e 1;2 is
e 1;2 values, the sec-
of the order of 10 or smaller. At larger A
ond construct is inferior to the rst construct. This nding
represents a departure from the trend known in pure con-
duction and pure uid heat trees. It is also an invitation
to more realistic modeling, numerical and experimental
work in the future, on the performance and optimization
of rst and second constructs.
This simply means that the performance does not
increase beyond the rst construct. In other words, pro-
ceeding toward higher order constructs is not benecial.
2.6. Two constructal routes to minimal heat ow resistance
via greater internal complexity
The problem and its constructal solution is stated by
Bejan and Dan [12] as the geometry of the heat ow path
between a volume and one point can be optimized in two
fundamentally dierent ways. In the growth method of
the original constructal theory, the structure is optimized
starting from the smallest volume element of xed size.
Growth, or optimal numbers of constituents assembled into
larger volumes, is one route to resistance minimization. In
the design method, the overall volume is xed, and the
designer works inward by optimizing the internal features
of the heat ow path.. Bejan and Dan [12] conclude: In
both approaches, the overall resistance decreases as the
internal complexity of the conductive composite increases..
The inward design strategy is shown in Fig. 4. The min-
imized maximum thermal resistance of the elemental and
the rst assembly designs are found as [12]
 L. Kuddusi, N. Egrican / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 12831294 1287

contour. The constructal solution of Neagu and Bejan

[14] has led to nding the thermal resistance for the elemen-
tal volume and the rst and second constructs as
T max  T min 1
 1=2 13
q000 A0 =k 0 ~
3 k/0
Fig. 4. Inward designs: (a) elemental design, (b) rst assembly design and T max  T min 8
(c) second assembly design. 14
q000 A1 =k 0 9~k/1
!1=2 T max  T min 1:69
  15
DT 0 1 1 q000 A2 =k 0 ~k/2
10
q000 A0 =k 0 min 2 ^k/0 Now, let us compare the thermal resistances of the con-
 
DT 1 3 1 structs on an equal basis, namely, A0 = A1 = A2 = A and
11 /0 = /1 = /2 = /. The rst construct produces less resis-
q000 A1 =k 0 min;min 2 ^k/1
tance than the elemental volume if,
where /i and ^k k P =k 0 are the volume fraction of high
conductivity material in the ith design and conductivity ra- ~k/ > 64 16
9
tio, respectively. Incorrect mathematics in the work of Be-
The second construct produces higher resistance than the
jan and Dan [12] has led to deriving the thermal resistance
rst construct. Therefore, proceeding toward higher inter-
of the second assembly design incorrectly. Similar calcula-
nal branching (complexity) is not benecial.
tions, as in Ref. [13], show that the minimized thermal
resistance for the rst and higher order inward assembly
2.8. Three dimensional tree constructs of constant thermal
designs remain unchanged and follows the following recur-
resistance
rence form,
 
DT i 3 1 The two dimensional volume to point constructal heat
iP1 12
q000 Ai =k 0 min 2 ^k/i conduction problem described above is solved this time
by the same authors, Neagu and Bejan [15], three dimen-
The performance of the designs can now be compared on
sionally. The thermal resistance for the elemental volume
the same basis, namely, A0 = A1 = Ai = A and /0 = /1 =
and the rst and second constructs are found by Neagu
/i = /.
and Bejan [15] as
The appearance of recurrence with an unchanged value
2=3  2=3
for thermal resistance of the inward designs is sucient to T max  T min 1 /0  Ln /0 9 1
claim that increasing the internal complexity is not mean- R0
000 2=3
q V 0 =k 0
1=3
/0 2p ~
6k 1=3
ingful because no decrease in the thermal resistance will
occur if the internal complexity increases. The sequence 17
 1=3
of inward constructal designs should be stopped at the rst T max  T min 2Ln /0;opt
order level provided that the condition ^k/ > 9 is satised. R1  2=3 ; where
q000 V 2=3
1 =k 0 p~kp/0;opt
The condition ^k/ > 9 ensures a lower thermal resistance
in the rst order design with respect to the thermal resis- /0;opt
1  /0;opt 2Ln /0;opt /1 18
tance of the elemental design. Ln /0;opt
T max  T min
2.7. Constructal theory tree networks of constant thermal R2 2=3
19
q000 V 2 =k 0
resistance
The values of R2 is given graphically in Fig. 10 of Ref. [15].
Consider a uniform heat generating volume to be cooled Now, let us compare the thermal resistance of the ele-
by links of high conductivity material that are responsible mental volume and the rst and second constructs on an
to discharge the generated heat to a heat sink located at equal basis, namely, V0 = V1 = V2 = V and /0 = /1 =
the boundary of the heat generating volume. The construc- /2 = /. Fig. 5 shows that the rst construct produces less
tal solution to the problem, so dened, is realized by min- resistance than the elemental volume for p~k 1=2 > 200, where
imizing the thermal resistance at the hot spots [2]. The same p is a constant that represents the number of elemental
problem is solved by Neagu and Bejan [14], not by mini- cones (needles) installed radially in the slice of the rst con-
mizing the maximum thermal resistance at a few hot spots, struct. The thermal resistances of the rst and second con-
but by decreasing the thermal resistance by distributing the structs are given in Figs. 6 and 7, respectively. A
hot spots more uniformly through the heat generating vol- comparison of the two gures shows that the second con-
ume. The objective in this constructal problem is to deter- struct produces higher resistance than the rst construct.
mine the shape of the heat generating volume so that the Therefore, proceeding toward higher internal branching
outer boundary forms a constant maximum temperature (complexity) is not benecial.
1288 L. Kuddusi, N. Egrican / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 12831294
Fig. 5. (Fig. 12 of Ref. [15]) Comparison between the thermal resistances
of an optimized rst construct (R1) and an optimized elemental volume
(R0).
Fig. 6. (Fig. 6 of Ref. [15]) Thermal resistance of the optimized rst
construct.
Fig. 7. (Fig. 10 of Ref. [15]) Thermal resistance of the optimized second
construct.
2.9. Constructal theory of economics
Consider a ow of goods at ow rate m from a nite size
area A to a point M on its border. It is supposed that the
ow is uniform so that the ow rate per unit area c is con-
stant over A. The ow of goods from area A to point M has
a cost. It is supposed that this cost is proportional with the
ow rate m and the distance goods move. This leads to
dening a cost factor K, which is the cost of ow of a unit
of goods per unit distance. Obviously, the cost factor K can
have various values depending on the means of transport
of goods from area A to point M. Therefore, in the case
of this problem, we will have several cost factors that are
identied by K0 > K1 > K2 >    The objective is to realize
the total ow rate m from A to point M by making use
of several cost factors Ki such that the total cost of ow
is minimum.
As usual, the problem is analyzed rst in the smallest
area, which is referred to as the elemental area. Goods
from any point inside the rectangular elemental area will
reach the point M using, rst, the most expensive route
of transport K0 and second, a relatively less expensive
transport link K1. The whole area o the less expensive link
K1 is served by the most expensive transport route K0.
Goods at any point, rst, will use a perpendicular path,
which involves the highest cost factor K0, to reach the K1
link located on the longer axes of the rectangular elemental
area, and then, goods collected in the K1 link will be trans-
ported to the point M in aggregate by a relatively lower
cost factor K1. Analysis of the rst order assembly con-
struct comes after analysis of the elemental area by apply-
ing a constructal design to the eld of economic activity.
This time, the new area is composed of a number of ele-
mental areas assembled on the upper and lower sides of
the new transport link K2, which is less expensive relative
to the K1 link. Goods collected by the K1 link at any ele-
mental area inside the new construct are delivered to the
less expensive transport link K2. Finally, goods collected
in the K2 link are transported to point M in aggregate by
the low expense link. The process is moved one step ahead
by designing the second order construct that is an assembly
of rst order constructs and introducing a newer, less
expensive, means of transport with lower cost factor K3.
The sequence of assembly of optimized areas in a larger
area may be continued until a new means of transport with
lower cost factor exists.
The constructal problem of economics is solved by
Bejan et al. [4,16]. The solution of Bejan et al. [4,16] is cor-
rected by Ghodoossi and Egrican [17,18] and re-examined
by Ghodoossi [1]. The average cost for the elemental area
and the rst and second constructs are compared by Ghod-
oossi [1], and it is found that the average cost shows an
increasing trend as the order of the constructs rises. That
is, the performance decreases as the internal branching
(complexity) increases.
Bejan et al. [4,16] have studied the same economic activ-
ity based on constructal theory with a dierent objective.
This time, the objective is to realize the total ow rate m
from A to point M by making use of several cost factors
Ki such that the total revenue of the ow, total sales minus
total cost, is maximal. The ow of goods from A to point
M has, along with a cost, a revenue as well. It is supposed
that the sale price of a unit of goods arriving at M is g. The
dierence between total sales and total costs of the stream
of goods arriving at M will generate the revenue of the
ow. The criterion for performance in this case is the
average revenue of ow of unit of goods.
The average revenue of the ow of the unit of goods for
the elemental area and the rst and second constructs are
compared by Ghodoossi [1], and it is found that the aver-
 L. Kuddusi, N. Egrican / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 12831294
age revenue of the ow of the unit of goods shows a
decreasing trend as the order of the constructs rises. That
is, the performance decreases as the internal branching
(complexity) increases.
2.10. Convective trees of uid channels for volumetric cooling
There are many constructal applications of cooling of a
uniform heat generating volume by inserting channels of
high conductivity material that are responsible for dis-
charging the generated heat to a heat sink located on the
boundary of the heat generating volume. Bejan et al. [19]
proposed an alternative constructal solution to the prob-
lem of cooling of a uniform heat generating volume in
which the channels of high conductivity material are
replaced by channels of ducts with uid ow. The objective
is [19] to cool every point of the volume, to maximize the
000
overall thermal conductance q HL/(TPeak  T0), and to
accomplish this task with minimal pumping power.
The elemental volume is optimized by minimizing the
thermal resistance, and the minimized thermal resistance
is found as [19]
3
D Te 0;min
25=3 M 2=3
1=2
m_ 00 c A
where M kP0 0 is a constant.
The rst and second constructs are optimized by mini-
mizing the overall pressure drop, which is equivalent to
minimizing the pumping power. The minimized dimension-
less overall ow resistances of the rst and second con-
structs are found as [19]
16
D Pe 1;mm
/31
512
D Pe 2;mm
21=3 M 4=3 /32
Compared on an equal basis, namely, /1 = /2 = /, the sec-
ond construct produces less resistance than the rst con-
struct if
p and the amount of pipe wall material. Unknown are the
M >8 2 23
Therefore, proceeding toward higher internal branching
(complexity) is benecial if the condition above is satised.
The condition above simply means that the second con-
struct would raise the performance if a high ow rate
m_ 00 is supplied. The performance increases conditionally
if the internal branching (complexity) of the constructs
increases.
2.11. Constructal optimization of nonuniformly distributed
tree shaped ow structures for conduction
Constructal conductive cooling of a uniform heat gener-
ating volume by channels of high conductivity material is
resolved by Almogbel and Bejan [20], while this time, the
degree of freedom of the problem is increased by relaxing
1289
the elemental volume size constraint in the rst and higher
order constructs. The problem is summarized as [20] Con-
structal tree designs are hierarchical high conductivity
paths that minimize the global resistance between an entire
volume and one point. In past work, the structure was opti-
mized as a sequence of building blocks (volume sizes),
which started with the smallest size (elemental volume)
and continued toward larger and more complex assemblies
(rst construct, second construct etc.). The resulting struc-
ture had a uniform distribution of interstitial spaces,
because the size of the elemental volume was xed. In this
paper, we relax the elemental size constraint and show that
the added design freedom leads to signicant improve-
ments in global performance.
The thermal resistance of an optimized rst construct
with number of constituents n1 equal to 2, 4 and 6 is found
numerically as [20]
n1 2 Te 3m 0:05305 24
n1 4 Te 4m 0:0355 25
n1 6 Te 5m 0:0307 26
The physical properties are /1 = 0.1 and ~k 300. The ther-
20 mal resistance of an optimized second construct for dier-
ent combinations of numbers of constituents (n1, n2) is
found numerically and given graphically [20] in Fig. 8.
The lowest thermal resistance of the second construct is
obtained, as shown in Fig. 8, for the combination n1 = 6
and n2 = 6. However, the thermal resistance of such a sec-
ond construct is not yet lower than that of the rst con-
struct. Therefore, proceeding toward more complex
branching congurations is not benecial.
21
2.12. Tree shaped insulated designs for uniform distribution
of hot water over an area
22
The work of Wechsatol et al. [21] deals with a study of
the optimal geometric layout of schemes for distributing
hot water uniformly over an area. Constrained are the
amount of insulation material, the volume of all the pipes
distribution of insulation over all the links of the network
Fig. 8. (Fig. 8 of Ref. [20]) Thermal resistance of an optimized second
construct for dierent combinations of number of constitutes (n1, n2).
1290 L. Kuddusi, N. Egrican / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 12831294

and the conguration of the network itself. The main focus the rst construct. The ow resistance drops almost to half
is on how the geometric conguration may be selected in in the second construct, but it is still much higher than that
the pursuit of maximized global performance. The objec- in the elemental volume. Therefore, increasing the com-
tive is [21] to supply with hot water the users distributed plexity of branching congurations does not provide higher
uniformly over Ai and to accomplish this task with minimal performance.
pumping power and a nite amount of thermal
insulation.. 2.13. Constructal design for cooling a disc shaped area by
The pressure drop for the elemental volume and the rst conduction
and second constructs are found as [21]
The well known volume to point heat conduction prob-
f m_ 20 L0
DP 0 27 lem, cooling of a uniform heat generating volume by chan-
p2 2qr5i0
  nels of high conductivity material, is applied to a disc
f m_ 20 L0 12 1 shaped area by Rocha et al. [22]. The work presents [22]:
DP 1 2 28
p q r5i1 2r5i0 a hierarchical strategy to developing the optimal internal
!
f m_ 22 L0 3=2 12 b5=2 structure of a round heat generating body cooled at its cen-
DP 2 29 ter with the help of optimally distributed inserts of high
p2 q r5i2 162 r5i1 conductivity material. The sequence begins with optimizing
where the geometry of the smallest heat generating entity a sec-
 2 tor shaped elemental volume with the smallest dimension
ri1 and a single high conductivity insert. Many such elements
b 30
ri0 are assembled into disc shaped constructs, or into sector
The conditions that minimize the pressure drops in the rst shaped constructs in which the elemental volumes are
grouped into a formation shaped as a fan. When several
and second constructs are found, respectively, as [21]
  sector shaped constructs are assembled into a disc, they
ri1 constitute a quasi-radial heat ow structure in which each
25=6 31
ri0 opt high conductivity insert exhibits one branching.
  The elemental volume is a sector of a circle shown in
ri2
26=7 32 Fig. 9. The elemental volume is optimized by minimizing
ri1 opt
the maximum thermal resistance and the minimized maxi-
The ow resistance of the optimized constructs is not de- mum thermal resistance is found as [22]
rived in Ref. [21]. The ow resistance may be dened as T max  T 0 min 2
B0 39
DP i p2 qr5i0 q000 As =k 0 3~k/
1=2
D Pe i 33
m_ i f m_ 0 L0
Note that As represents the area size of the elemental
The ow resistances of the optimized elemental volume and volume.
the rst and second constructs are calculated by using the A number (N) of optimized elemental volumes that t a
pressure drop relations given above, respectively, as complete disc, shown in Fig. 10, make up the rst con-
DP 0 p2 qr5i0 1 struct, the minimized maximum thermal resistance of
D Pe 0 34 which is found as [22]
m_ 0 f m_ 0 L0 2
  T max  T 0 4
DP 1 p2 qr5i0 1 1 B1 40
D Pe 1
5
1225=6 54:00 35
m_ 1 f m_ 0 L0 4 2 q000 NAs =k 0 3p~k/
!
DP 2 p2 qr5i0 16 3 6=7 5 12 b5=2
D Pe 2 5=6 5 2 26:17
m_ 2 f m_ 0 L0 2 2 162
36

Note that the ow rates of the rst and second constructs

are given as
m_ 1 4m_ 0 37
m_ 2 16m_ 0 38
To minimize the pumping power requirement is equivalent
to minimizing the pressure drop (ow resistance) along the
ducts.
The calculations above show that the ow resistance
highly increases in going from the elemental volume to Fig. 9. (Fig. 2 of Ref. [22]) Elemental volume.
 L. Kuddusi, N. Egrican / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 12831294
Fig. 10. (Fig. 1 of Ref. [22]) First construct (radial patterns).
Note that NAs represents the area size of the rst construct
(a complete disc).
In the second construct, shown in Fig. 11, one high con-
ductivity blade stretches radially to the distance L0 away
from the central heat sink and continues with a number
(n) of branches that reach the rim. Each of the branches
make the elemental size of the second construct with an
area size A1. The thermal resistance of the second construct
is dened as
T max  T 0
B2
q000 pR2 =k 0
The thermal resistance of the second construct is given
graphically and compared with the thermal resistance of
the rst construct in Ref. [22]. The authors state [22]: If
we compare this resistance (B2,min) with the corresponding
resistance (B1) of the disc with radial inserts (Fig. 1), we can
determine the recommended transition from radial pat-
Fig. 11. (Fig. 4 of Ref. [22]) Second construct (branched patterns).
1291
terns to branched patterns. We make this comparison
based on the same elemental size (As = A1) and the same
amounts and properties of conducting materials ~k; /.
and The gure shows that when R e exceeds 2.18 (in the
~
case / = 0.1, k 300), the global resistance is smaller when
the high conductivity material is distributed according to
the optimized branched pattern.. In other words, the
authors conclude that the performance increases in transi-
tion from the rst construct (radial patterns) to the second
construct (branched patterns).
The authors compare the thermal resistances when the
elemental size of the second construct is equal to the sector
size of the rst construct and conclude that the second con-
struct performs better for R e > 2:18. The comparison is not
on a logical basis. The thermal resistances must be com-
pared, as done in other constructal works, only when the
total sizes of the rst and second constructs are equal. Since
this is not done in the paper, it is not possible to judge the
goodness of the second construct relative to the rst
construct.
2.14. Constructal network for heat and mass transfer in a
solid gas reactive porous medium
An interesting application of constructal theory is the
work of Azoumah et al. [23]. They use a constructal tree
network to provide optimal heat and mass transfer in a
reactive medium. The model for a solid gas reactor con-
tains [23]: a porous solid that is able to x a certain
41
amount of substance, which enters the reactor in vapour
phase. and A parallelepiped elemental volume is chosen
for this study. . .This elemental volume is similar to the one
that Bejan used to introduce the constructal method. . .This
permits the analytical integration of Eqs. (5)(7), leading to
a simple expression for entropy generation. . .the gas enters
the elemental volume V0 through a diuser, for the chemi-
cal reaction. . .This reaction generates heat which is col-
lected over the volume V0 and lead to the heat sink,
through heat collector, on its boundary (at x = 0; D0/
2 < y < D0/2). It is important to note that heat collector
and gas diuser are combined in an element, which called
integrated heat and gas collector. This collector is charac-
terised by a single length scale, the thickness D0. This may
seem dicult to realise in practice, however, this type of
collector has already been studied.
The elemental volume described above and the rst con-
struct are shown in Figs. 12 and 13. Optimization is real-
ized by minimization of the entropy generation number
in the constructs. The minimum entropy generation num-
ber for the elemental volume and the rst and higher order
constructs are found [23], respectively, as
1
S 0 min e0 1=2 1  e0 5=2 1 g1=2 ~k0 g~k 0 1=2 42
3
1 5=2 1=2 2
S i min 1  /i ei1;opt 1  ei1;opt
3
1=2
 /i  ei1;opt for i P 1 43
1292 L. Kuddusi, N. Egrican / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 12831294

Now, let us calculate the new entropy generation numbers

for the constructs
P 0 r_ P 0 r
_ E0 E 0
S 00 S0 48
V0 E0 V 0 V 0
P i r
_ P i r
_ E i Ei
S 0i Si 49
Vi Ei V i V i
To compare the performances of the constructs we may
calculate the ratios S 00 =S 01 and S 0i =S 0i1 .
_ 0 2 V 1 S 0 V 0 S 0
S 00 E0 V 1 S 0 q_ 20 V 1 S 0 qV 1 S0
0 2
Fig. 12. (Fig. 2 of Ref. [23]) Elemental volume.
2
S 1 E1 V 0 S 1 q_ 1 V 0 S 1 qV V
_ 1 0 1 S V S
1 1 n 1 S1

50
S 0i Ei V i1 S i q_ 2i V i1 S i

S 0i1 Ei1 V i S i1 q_ 2i1 V i S i1
2
qV
_ i V i1 S i
2
_ i1 V i S i1
qV
V i Si 1 Si
for i P 1 51
V i1 S i1 ni1 S i1
In order to provide an equal basis for comparison, we as-
sume /0 = /1 = /i = /. On this basis, the ratios S 00 =S 01
and S 0i =S 0i1 are functions of only /. The variation of ratio
S 00 =S 01 with / is given in Fig. 14. As the gure shows, the
Fig. 13. (Fig. 3 of Ref. [23]) First construct. ratio S 00 =S 01 is always smaller than unity. This simply means
that the elemental volume is a superior design compared to
the rst construct. On the other hand, in Ref. [23], it is con-
The entropy generation number Si is dened as cluded that Si = Si+1 for i P 1. This is clearly understood
from Eq. (43) too. This leads to
P i r
_
Si 44
Ei S 0i 1 Si 1
0 <1 52
where P i r
_ is total entropy generation in the ith construct S i1 ni1 S i1 ni1
and Ei is a constant dened for the ith construct as
The interpretation of inequality above is simple. Any con-
q_ 2i struct produces less entropy generation number than the
Ei 1 g 45
W kP T 2 next higher order construct for i P 1. In other words, the
performance of any construct is higher than the next one
and where g is a constant dened as
with more complex branching conguration.
kP lT In sum, the highest performance is achieved at the ele-
g 46
k P q2 r 2 mental volume. Proceeding toward constructs with more
complex branching conguration is not benecial.
Note that q_ i qV
_ i represents total heat generation rate for
the ith construct. Also, note that q_ is volumetric heat gen-
eration, which is a constant for all constructs, and Vi is the
volume of the ith construct.
These denitions show that the entropy generation num-
bers found above cannot be compared as a criterion for
rating the performance of the constructs because the
entropy generation numbers, as dened above, represent
the total entropy generation per unit squared volume.
To provide an equal basis to compare the performances
of the constructs, the total entropy generation per unit
volume must be dened. We dene this new entropy gen-
eration number S 0i as
P i r
_
S 0i 47
Vi Fig. 14. Variation of ratio S 00 =S 01 with /.
 L. Kuddusi, N. Egrican / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 12831294
3. Discussion
The review of constructal applications shows that ow
performance mostly does not increase with increasing com-
plexity of branching congurations. In other words, con-
structal theory does not accomplish its task; increasing
the ow performance through a sequence of constructal
designs with increasing complexity. The review shows that
constructal theory is established on a wrong theoretical
basis, which is responsible for unfavorable results in con-
structal applications. The point is claried below.
Observation of nature shows that nature likes tree like
ow paths. Mother Nature performs natural volume (sur-
face) to point ows mostly in the form of a tree network
of ow paths. Human beings believe in nature. What nat-
ure does is the best, the optimal. What nature designs is
the optimal design according to the constraints existing in
natural phenomena. The fact that nature does good what
she does was realized by human beings a long time ago
in history. This has led human beings to design man made
tools or systems similar to those observed in nature. Con-
structal theory also tries to act like this. If tree like ow
paths is a reality in nature, so why not in engineering sys-
tems involving volume (surface) to point ows? Nobody
would object to constructal theory for its trial to liken engi-
neering volume (surface) to point ow systems to natural
ones. Any objection to constructal theory may only rise
on the point of how good or how bad it imitates the nature.
The results of this paper show that constructal theory is a
very bad imitator of nature. The evolution of the tree
toward better ow performance in constructal theory is
not similar to formation of natural tree shaped ows.
The point is discussed in detail.
The problem lies in a defective strategy of constructal
theory in designing tree like ow paths. A careful study
shows that the way constructal theory designs tree like ow
paths is not similar to that of Mother Nature. Nonunifor-
mity between tree like ow paths in constructal theory and
those in nature is raised by a defective strategy of construc-
tal theory in designing tree like ow paths. The strategy of
constructal theory to obtain a tree like ow system starts
with optimization of an elemental ow volume with only
one low resistive ow link. Obtaining a tree like ow sys-
tem begins by designing the rst construct that is made
up of optimized elemental ow volumes on the upper
and lower sides of a new low resistive ow link. In most
constructal applications, ow performance increases in
transition from the elemental ow volume to the rst con-
struct. An increase in ow performance by transition from
a simple ow system (elemental ow volume) to a tree net-
work of ow paths (rst construct) is an expected situation
because nature, as mentioned above, does like tree like
ow paths. If nature would be obliged to make a choice
between the elemental volume and the rst construct of
constructal theory, no doubt she would prefer the latter
because between the two ow systems, the rst construct
is the most similar to her volume (surface) to point ows.
1293
Can the performance level obtained at the rst construct
be increased more? Constructal theory aims to do this by
introducing the second construct that is designed in a sim-
ilar manner as the rst construct. Introducing the second
construct forms the tree network of low resistive ow paths
that are more complex, and constructal theory expects to
obtain a higher ow performance via higher complexity
(internal branching). Constructal theory even aims to raise
the ow performance much more by introducing the third,
forth, . . . constructs that make the tree network of low
resistive ow paths more and more complex. If the perfor-
mance rises as the order of the constructs rises, then a
question rises also. What would be the limit for this? That
is, at what level of complexity (branching) should the
designer stop? Constructal theory limits the complexity
(branching) by manufacturing considerations. Increasing
performance by increasing branching is a thought that
both mentally and practically is wrong. Mentally it is
wrong because if a continuously increasing performance
with increasing branching were possible, no doubt nature
would apply that, but observation of nature shows that
all volume (surface) to point natural ows are of limited
branching. Otherwise, we would not be able to see the nat-
ural ow structures because of the highly ne system
induced by unlimited branching. For example, consider a
leaf on a tree. The tree like ow structure in the leaf is vis-
ible and possesses a limited branching. The thought is also
practically wrong because the review of 14 constructal the-
ory applications in this paper showed that most of them
end with a decrease in performance if the branching
increases.
The discussion above designates the starting point in
the sequence of constructal designs where the strategy of
constructal theory in designing high performance con-
structs loses eciency and becomes defective. This point
is where constructal theory intends to increase the perfor-
mance by increasing the branching of the rst tree net-
work of low resistive ow paths. That is, constructal
theory strategy in designing high performance constructs
becomes defective starting from the second construct
and even much more defective beyond the second con-
struct. Therefore, the sequence of constructal designs
should be stopped at the rst construct. However, a ques-
tion may arise; can the performance of the rst construct
be increased more? No doubt, the performance can be
increased more but not by the way of constructal theory.
Observation of natural tree shaped ows shows that there
may exist two routes to increase the performance of the
rst construct; rst, by improving the geometric form of
the tree network of low resistive ow links, and second,
by nding an optimal level for branching (complexity).
In most constructal theory applications, neither the geo-
metric form of the ow paths nor the branching level
are optimized. Especially, the early constructal applica-
tions used the angle between consecutive ow paths as a
choice that, in turn, forced the ow to be one dimen-
sional. So, a two dimensional surface of ow channels is
1294 L. Kuddusi, N. Egrican / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 12831294
simulated by joining many one dimensional ow channels
with all intersections being at the same angle. Recently,
this problem of covering the area with one dimensional
ow paths was noted, and a two dimensional ow path
was found by Kuddusi and Denton [24]. They noted that
an alternate strategy of constructs in three dimensions
might lead to a succession of constructs of decreasing glo-
bal resistance.
Nature performs volume (surface) to point ows in the
form of a tree like ow structure with optimal geometric
form and optimal branching level (complexity) for the tree.
Let us go back to the leaf example. Imagine that the geo-
metric form of tree like ow structure in a leaf is changed,
or, the branching of the tree like ow structure is increased
by much spreading of the ow links on the leaf (keeping the
amount of ow links the same). Certainly, the performance
would decrease, because, if these were good, nature would
do both. This shows that in the leaf example, nature has
found the optimal geometric form and optimal branching
(complexity) level for the tree like ow structure. The same
is advisable for engineering volume (surface) to point ows.
As a last point, it should be said that Mother Nature has
much to teach us, and constructal theory is very useful if
and only if the researchers are careful to emulate Mother
Nature correctly.
4. Conclusion
Fourteen dierent constructal theory applications
involving tree shaped ow networks are reviewed with
the purpose to check whether an increase in branching
(complexity) of tree shaped ow network leads to an
increase in ow performance or not? In other words, the
review aims to answer the question; does the evolution
model of constructal theory in increasing the branching
(complexity) of tree shaped ow networks through the
sequence of constructal designs, namely, elemental volume,
rst construct, second construct, . . . , improve the ow per-
formance? The review supported the conclusion of Ghodo-
ossi [1]: constructal theory will not necessarily improve
the ow performance if the internal complexity of the ow
area is increased . . . In contrast, the performance will
mostly be lowered if the internal complexity of the ow
area is increased.
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