Switch Mode Power Supply Basics

Tutorial
- Summary or tutorial about the basics of switch
mode power supplies, their design, operation
and advantages and disadvantages.
Switch mode power supplies are widely used because of the advantages
they offer in terms of size, weight, cost, efficiency and overall
performance.
As a result of their performance, switch mode power supplies are used in
all but the most exacting applications to provide an efficient and effective
source of power for most forms of electronic systems.
Switch mode power supplies have become an accepted part of the
electronics scene and are often referred to as switch mode power
converters, or just switchers.

Switch mode power supply terminology

Switch mode power supply, SMPS, technology may be referred to by a
number of similar terms. While they all look at the same basic technology,
they refer to different elements of the overall technology:

Switch mode power supply, SMPS: The term switch mode power
supply is generally used to indicate an item that can be connected to
the mains, or other external supply and used to generate the source
power. In other words it is a complete power supply.

Switch mode regulator: This typically refers just to the electronic

circuit that provides the regulation. A switch mode regulator will be
part of the overall switch mode power supply.

Switch mode regulator controller: Many switch mode regulator

integrated circuits do not contain he series switching element. This
will be true if the current or voltage levels are high, because an
external series switching element would be able to better handle the
 higher current and voltage levels, as well as the resultant power
dissipation.

Switch mode power supply basics

The basic concept behind a switch mode power supply or SMPS is the fact
that the regulation is undertaken by using a switching regulator. This uses
a series switching element that turns the current supply to a smoothing
capacitor on an off.

Switching regulator concept used in switch mode power supply

The time the series element is turned on is controlled by the voltage on
the capacitor. If it is higher than required, the series switching element is
turned off, if it is lower than required, it is turned on. In this way the
voltage on the smoothing or reservoir capacitor is maintained at the
required level.

Switch mode power supply advantages / disadvantages

The use of any technology is often a careful balance of several advantages
and disadvantages. This is true for switch mode power supplies which
offer some distinct advantages, but also have their drawbacks.

SMPS advantages

High efficiency: The switching action means the series regulator

element is either on or off and therefore little energy is dissipated as
heat and very high efficiency levels can be achieved.
 Compact: As a result of the high efficiency and low levels of heat
dissipation, the switch mode power supplies can be made more
compact.

Flexible technology: Switch mode power supply technology can

be sued to provide high efficiency voltage conversions in voltage step
up or "Boost" applications or step down "Buck" applications.
SMPS Disadvantages

Noise: The transient spikes that occur from the switching action on
switch mode power supplies are one of the largest problems. The
spikes can migrate into all areas of the circuits that the SMPSs power
if the spikes are not properly filtered. Additionally the spikes or
transients can cause electromagnetic or RF interference which can
affect other nearby items of electronic equipment, particularly if they
receive radio signals.

External components: While it is possible to design a switch mode

regulator using a single integrated circuit, external components are
typically required. The most obvious is the reservoir capacitor, but
filter components are also needed. In some designs the series switch
element may be incorporated within the integrated circuit, but where
any current is consumed, the series switch will be an external
component. These components all require space, and add to the cost.

Expert design required: It is often possible to put together a

switch mode power supply that works. To ensure that it performs to
the required specification can be more difficult. Ensuring the ripple
and interference levels are maintained can be particularly tricky.

Costs: Careful consideration of the costs of a switch mode power

supply must be made before designing or using one. Beyond the basic
power supply, additional filtering may be required and this can add to
the cost.
Despite the disadvantages, switch mode power supply technology is the
major form of power supply technology used for a whole variety of
applications especially those included in computers. For applications
where very low noise is required, linear regulator technology is still widely
used.
A switch mode regulator is at the heart of any switch mode power supply.
The switch mode regulator is the circuit that provides the voltage
regulation. It can be used on its own or as part of a complete power
supply.
Switch mode regulators come in a variety of forms, but each one will be
able to provide voltage regulation by using a series switching element that
charges up a reservoir capacitor when the voltage falls below a
predetermined level.

Switching regulator basics

The basis of switch mode regulator revolves around the ability of
inductors and capacitors to store energy. The capacitors and inductors are
integral elements of the switch mode regulator technology.

Capacitance If a current is applied to a capacitor, the capacitor

gradually charges up and the voltage across it rises linearly at a rate
equal to I/C where the applied current is and C is the capacitance. In
this case the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantly.

When an instantaneous change in current occurs, the voltage changes

linearly. [This assumes a current source with an infinite voltage
capability is used].
 Inductor: For an inductor, it is not possible for there to be an
instantaneous change in current. Instead, when a voltage is applied,
the current builds up linearly over time at a rate equal to V/L where V
is the applied voltage and L is the inductance.

Using the standard equations it is possible to determine the current

and voltage profiles:

The energy from the rising current is stored in the magnetic field
associated with the inductor. If the current flowing through the
inductor is suddenly interrupted, the magnetic field reacts against this
and produces a very high "back emf" to counteract the change.
Having seen the fundamental or basic concepts behind switching voltages
and currents to capacitors and inductors, these basic concepts can be
applied to switch mode regulator solutions to provide a variety of
scenarios for voltage step up and step down circuits.
As the technology uses switching techniques where the series element is
on or off, this approach provides much better levels of efficiency than a
linear where power is dissipated.

Capacitor based switch mode regulation

The basic concept of the capacitor switched mode regulator is shown in
the diagram. When the switch is closed, current is able to flow into the
reservoir capacitor and provide charge. When the voltage on the capacitor
is at its required level, the switch opens and the load will draw current
from the capacitor.
As the voltage falls, this will be sensed by the control circuitry and the
series switch will be turned on again to bring the capacitor voltage up to
the required level.

This circuit is not as effective as may be thought at first sight. Although the
only resistive element in the theoretical circuit is the load, this is not the
only way in which energy is lost because charging a capacitor directly
from a voltage source or a capacitor dissipates as much energy as is
transferred to the capacitor. As a result of this, switching mode regulators
cannot use capacitor switching techniques alone.

Inductor based switch mode regulation

It is also possible to use inductors as an element in switch mode
regulators.
The inductor can be used to transfer energy from one voltage source to
another. While a simple resistor can be used as a dropper to drop voltage
when transferring from one voltage source at a higher voltage to one at a
lower voltage, this is very wasteful in terms of power. If an inductor is
used, then all the energy is transferred, assuming a perfect inductor.
The use of an inductor has the advantages that energy can be transferred
from one source to another regardless of the respective values of voltage
and their polarities. To achieve this, the proper configuration is obviously
required.

When the switches are in the positions shown above, the voltage V1 is
applied across the inductor and the current i1 builds up at a rate equal to
V1/L. Therefore the peak value obtained will be proportional to the time
the switches are in this position, i.e. (V1/L) x t
When the switches are reversed, the current will continue to flow at a rate
i2 which is equal to -V2/L.
As an ideal inductor dissipates no energy, there is no power loss in an
ideal system using an inductor in this fashion. As a result, it is this method
of energy transfer that forms the basis for all switching regulators.
With power being a key parameter in many designs, step down or "buck"
regulators are widely used.
Although a resistor would enable voltage to be dropped, power is lost, and
in applications such as the many battery powered items used today,
power consumption is a crucial element.
As a result step down switch mode converters or as they are more
commonly termed, buck regulators are widely used.

Linear step down

The most basic form of step down transition is to use a resistor as a
potential divider or voltage dropper. In some cases a Zener diode may
also be used to stabilize the voltage.

The issue with this form of voltage dropper or step down converter is that
it is very wasteful in terms of power. Any voltage dropped across the
resistor will be dissipated as heat, and any current flowing through the
Zener diode will also dissipate heat. Both of these elements result on the
loss of valuable energy.
Basic buck converter or regulator
The fundamental circuit for a step down converter or buck converter
consists of an inductor, diode, capacitor, switch and error amplifier with
switch control circuitry.

The circuit for the buck regulator operates by varying the amount of time
in which inductor receives energy from the source.
In the basic block diagram the operation of the buck converter or buck
regulator can be seen that the output voltage appearing across the load is
sensed by the sense / error amplifier and an error voltage is generated
that controls the switch.
Typically the switch is controlled by a pulse width modulator, the switch
remaining on of longer as more current is drawn by the load and the
voltage tends to drop and often there is a fixed frequency oscillator to
drive the switching.

Buck converter operation

When the switch in the buck regulator is on, the voltage that appears
across the inductor is Vin - Vout. Using the inductor equations, the current
in the inductor will rise at a rate of (Vin-Vout)/L. At this time the diode D is
reverse biased and does not conduct.
When the switch opens, current must still flow as the inductor works to
keep the same current flowing. As a result current still flows through the
inductor and into the load. The diode, D then forms the return path with a
current Idiode equal to Iout flowing through it.
With the switch open, the polarity of the voltage across the inductor has
reversed and therefore the current through the inductor decreases with a
slope equal to -Vout/L.

The step down, buck converter circuit can be further explained by

examining the current waveforms at different times during the overall
cycle.
In the diagram of the current waveforms for the buck converter /
switching regulator, it can be seen that the inductor current is the sum of
the diode and input / switch current. Current either flows through the
switch or the diode.
It is also worth noting that the average input current is less than the
average output current. This is to be expected because the buck converter
circuit is very efficient and the input voltage is greater than the output
voltage. Assuming a perfect circuit, then power in would equal power out,
i.e. Vin In = Vout Iout. While in a real circuit there will be some losses,
efficiency levels greater than 85% are to be expected for a well-designed
circuit.
It will also be seen that there is a smoothing capacitor placed on the
output. This serves to ensure that the voltage does not vary appreciable,
especially during and switch transition times. It will also be required to
smooth any switching spikes that occur.
Regulator input and output filtering
A key aspect of switch mode power supply regulators is the input and
output filtering. This is a particular issue because of the switching that
occurs at the input.
In reality ripple voltage on the output is dependent not only on the output
smoothing, but more importantly on an input filter capacitor.

One of the advantages of switch mode power supply technology is that it

can be used to create a step up or boost converter / regulator.
Boost converters or regulators are used in many instances from providing
small supplies where higher voltages may be needed to much higher
power requirements.
Often there are requirements for voltages higher than those provided by
the available power supply - voltages for RF power amplifiers within
mobile phones is just one example.

Step-up boost converter basics

The boost converter circuit has many similarities to the buck converter.
However the circuit topology for the boost converter is slightly different.
The fundamental circuit for a boost converter or step up converter
consists of an inductor, diode, capacitor, switch and error amplifier with
switch control circuitry.
The circuit for the step-up boost converter operates by varying the
amount of time in which inductor receives energy from the source.
In the basic block diagram the operation of the boost converter can be
seen that the output voltage appearing across the load is sensed by the
sense / error amplifier and an error voltage is generated that controls the
switch.
Typically the boost converter switch is controlled by a pulse width
modulator, the switch remaining on of longer as more current is drawn by
the load and the voltage tends to drop and often there is a fixed
frequency oscillator to drive the switching.

Boost converter operation

The operation of the boost converter is relatively straightforward.
When the switch is in the ON position, the inductor output is connected to
ground and the voltage Vin is placed across it. The inductor current
increases at a rate equal to Vin/L.
When the switch is placed in the OFF position, the voltage across the
inductor changes and is equal to Vout-Vin. Current that was flowing in the
inductor decays at a rate equal to (Vout-Vin)/L.

Referring to the boost converter circuit diagram, the current waveforms

for the different areas of the circuit can be seen as below.
It can be seen from the waveform diagrams that the input current to the
boost converter is higher than the output current. Assuming a perfectly
efficient, i.e. lossless, boost converter, the power out must equal the
power in, i.e. Vin Iin = Vout Iout. From this it can be seen if the output
voltage is higher than the input voltage, then the input current must be
higher than the output current.
In reality no boost converter will be lossless, but efficiency levels of
around 85% and more are achievable in most supplies.
A simple buck converter can only produce voltages lower than the input
voltage, and a boost converter, only voltages higher than the input. To
provide voltages over the complete range a circuit known as a buck-boost
converter is required.
There are many applications where voltages higher and lower than the
input are required. In these situations a buck-boost converter is required.

Buck-Boost Converter basics

The buck-boost DC-DC converter offers a greater level of capability than
the buck converter of boost converter individually, it as expected it extra
components may be required to provide the level of functionality needed.
There are several formats that can be used for buck-boost converters:

+Vin, -Vout: This configuration of a buck-boost converter circuit

uses the same number of components as the simple buck or boost
converters. However this buck-boost regulator or DC-DC converter
produces a negative output for a positive input. While this may be
required or can be accommodated for a limited number of
applications, it is not normally the most convenient format.

When the switch in closed, current builds up through the inductor.

When the switch is opened the inductor supplies current through the
diode to the load.

Obviously the polarities (including the diode) within the buck-boost

converter can be reversed to provide a positive output voltage from a
negative input voltage.

+Vin, +Vout: The second buck-boost converter circuit allows both

input and output to be the same polarity. However to achieve this,
more components are required. The circuit for this buck boost
converter is shown below.
In this circuit, both switches act together, i.e. both are closed or open.
When the switches are open, the inductor current builds. At a suitable
point, the switches are opened. The inductor then supplies current to
the load through a path incorporating both diodes, D1 and D2.