The Psychophysics of Vision

Submitted on June 20, 2003

School: Fachhochschule Offenburg

Studies: CME2 (SS 2003)

Class: Theory and Applications of Digital Image Processing

Professor: Dr. A. Erhardt-Ferron

From
KAREN TSO
Mat. Nr.: 164303
 Table of Contents

ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................3

PSYCHOPHYSICS..........................................................................................................4

2.1 Introduction to Psychophysics ................................................................................... 5

2.2 Psychophysical Measurements .................................................................................. 7

THE VISUAL PROCESS..............................................................................................13

3.1 Human Visual System............................................................................................... 13

3.1.1 Cones and Rods.................................................................................................... 14
3.1.2 Visual perception from eye to brain..................................................................... 15

PSYCHOPHYSICS OF VISION...................................................................................17

4.1 Visual Acuity ............................................................................................................. 18

4.1.1 Types of acuity tasks............................................................................................ 19

4.2 Dark and Light Adaptation...................................................................................... 21

4.2.1 Dark Adaptation................................................................................................... 21
4.2.2 Light Adaptation.................................................................................................. 22

4.3 Depth Perception....................................................................................................... 25

4.3.1 Monocular cues.................................................................................................... 25
4.3.2 Binocular Cues ..................................................................................................... 29

REFERENCE..................................................................................................................32

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Abstract

This paper is about the Psychophysics of Vision. In general, it is organized into three
main sections. The first and second sections introduce the fundamental basics of
Psychophysics and the Visual system to prepare the readers for the third section,
Psychophysics of Vision. The first section introduces the principals of Psychophysics as
well as various measurement methods of Psychophysics including the method of
adjustment, method of limits and method of constant stimuli. The second section talks
about how human perceives the information from eyes to brain. It discusses some
parameters of the visual system, which play important roles in the psychophysics of
vision. Finally, the third section focuses on the Psychophysics of Vision. Three types of
psychophysics are discussed in this section: Visual Acuity, Dark and Light Adaptation
and Depth perception. The fundamental of each psychophysics and the methods for their
measurements are analysis.

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Psychophysics

Is my hearing normal? Do I need glasses? Which of these job candidates would make the
best pilot (e.g., best visual acuity, fastest reaction times)? How can we design the best
equipment (e.g., ambulance siren, traffic lights)? These are some daily examples in which
psychophysics are applied. So What is psychophysics? Psychophysics is the study of
the relationship between physical stimuli and the perceptual experiences they generate. It
describes how an organism uses its sensory systems to detect events in its environment.
Historically, psychophysics was used at answering philosophical questions about the
relationship between mind and body. Now a day, it is mainly a set of tools for
investigating the nervous system. Gustav Fechner (1801-1887), a German scientist, was
the founder of the field of psychophysics. One of his philosophies is that if the perceptual
world (mind) is mathematically related to the material world, then psychology, which
concerns the mind, can become a science, since the mind can be studied through physical
measurement. There are two important laws in psychophysics: the Webers law and the
Fechners Law. Webers law documents the relationship between the size of a stimulus
(I) and the amount (I) that needs to be added or subtracted to that stimulus for the
observer to just notice a difference (JND). It is written as:

I = kI

where k is a constant.

Fechner further generalized this law to produce Fechners Law, which explains the
relationship between the physical intensity of a stimulus, and the sensory experience that
it causes. He stated that sensation increases as the logarithm of stimulus intensity:

S = k logI

where S = subjective experience, I = physical intensity, k is a constant.

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2.1 Introduction to Psychophysics

Psychophysical methods and procedures involve in determining sensory thresholds.
There are two kinds of sensory thresholds: Absolute thresholds and Difference thresholds
also know as the just noticeable difference (JND). Absolute Thresholds determine the
detection ability of the perceptual system. It is the weakest stimulus that can be detected
in any type of sensation. The approximate absolute thresholds for the five senses of
human: vision, hearing, taste, touch and smell are as follow.
Vision -- a candle flame seen at 30 miles on a dark, clear night
Hearing -- the tick of a watch under quiet conditions at 20 feet
Taste -- one teaspoon of sugar in two gallons of water
Touch -- the wing of a fly falling on your cheek from a distance of one cm
Smell-- 1 drop of perfume in a 3 room apartment

Difference thresholds determine the discrimination ability of the perceptual system. It is

the minimum amount by which a stimulus must be changed to produce a noticeable
difference. For instance, how different in pitch (high vs. low tones) does your mobile
phone have to be from your friends phone in order for you to tell the difference?

Figure 2.1. A hypothetical threshold function with perfect discrimination

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Figure 2.2. A realistic threshold function with imperfect discrimination

However, humans are not perfect observers, and often thresholds are defined in
probabilistic terms; thus, threshold can be considered the point where 50% of the stimuli
are detected. The classical threshold theory assumes that a below-threshold stimulus is
equivalent to no stimulus since when stimulus is not detected, it causes no events in the
nervous system (Figure 2.1). However, results from absolute or difference threshold
experiments in reality show an S-shaped function (Figure 2.2). In addition, analyses of
detection need to take both motivation and expectancy into account. These considerations
gave rise to signal detection theory, a form of psychophysics, which takes into account
both the sensitivity of the nervous system, and the goals and expectations of the observer.

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2.2 Psychophysical Measurements

Measurement of visual response can be achieved through several psychophysical
methods. These methods include:

1) Method of adjustment
2) Method of limits
3) Method of constant stimuli

The method of adjustment adjusts the intensity of stimulus until target is just detectable.
Typically, observer has control of stimulus and he/she has to increase the stimulus
intensity from non-seeing until the stimulus can just be seen or to decrease the stimulus
intensity until the stimulus has just disappeared. This method is rather simple and is quit
efficient. However, after several trials, observer tends to develop a habit of responding to
a stimulus and might prematurely report seeing the stimulus before the threshold has been
reached. Thus, there is a possibility of adaptation and errors of anticipation.

The method of limits adjusts intensity in discrete steps until observer reports that
stimulus is just detectable. Typically, experimenter has control of stimulus and involves
presenting a stimulus well above threshold and decreasing the stimulus intensity in small
steps until the subject cannot detect the stimulus (Descending limits) or when a stimulus
is first presented well below threshold, then the stimulus intensity is increased to reach
threshold (Ascending limits). Threshold is calculated by taking the average of the
threshold points estimated by several ascending and descending limits.

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Figure 2.3. Trials sample for method of limits

A = Ascending limits, D = Descending limits, Y = Yes, the stimulus is seen and N = No, the stimulus cannot be seen

This method is a simple and quick in determining threshold and reduces observer bias
and possibility of adaptation; however, it is inefficient and the problem of errors
anticipation remains.

In the method of constant stimuli, a number of stimuli are repeatedly and randomly
presented. The percentage of detection is determined as a function of stimulus intensity.
Some high intensity points will always be detected while other low intensity points will
never be detected. Figure 2.5 shows the percentage of detection versus the stimulus
intensity graph. The threshold value is defined as the value where 50% of the stimuli are
detected. For our example in Figure 2.4, the threshold is 98.7. In general, the graph
shown in Figure 2.5 is called psychometric function. It is a description of the relationship
between stimulus intensity and subjective experience.

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Figure 2. 4. Trials sample for method of constant stimuli

Figure 2.5. Psychometric function of method of constant stimuli

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This method gives a reasonably reliable results in determining threshold as well as in

reducing observer bias and possibility of adaptation and anticipation; however, it is very
inefficient and time consuming.

In additional, it is possible to use the method of constant stimuli to measure a persons

ability to discriminate between two stimuli. The threshold, which measures this amount
of discrimination, is called difference threshold. Figure 2.6 shows the psychometric
function for discrimination. Two measurements, Just Noticeable Difference and Point of
Subjective Equality can be derived from this graph.
The Just Noticeable Difference (JND) threshold is calculated by dividing the difference
of the 75% and 25% points by 2.

JND = (75% point - 25% point)/2

And the Point of Subjective Equality (PSE) is 50% point of the graph.

Figure 2.6 Psychometric function for discrimination

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All these measurements of visual response depend on the observers criteria and
willingness to guess. In order to minimize the variability in obtaining threshold, several
psychophysical procedures are enforced to ensure the observer to commit to an answer.

The Forced Choice Procedure involves forcing the observer to choose from alternative
choices, one of which contains the stimulus.

Figure 2.7. Is the square on left or right?

A two-alternative forced choice (2AFC) describes choosing between two alternatives.

Choosing from four alternatives and six alternatives are called 4AFC and 6AFC,
respectively. The percentage of correctness for the various stimuli intensities can be used
to construct a psychometric function to determine the threshold. As there is already a
50% chance of a correct response with 2AFC, threshold is commonly considered as 75%

Figure 2.8 2AFC Psychometric Function

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The determination of thresholds still plays a major role in contemporary psychophysical

research. And there are still many problems and concerns when designing and developing
different techniques and experiments.

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The Visual Process

Before discussing the Psychophysics of Vision, it is important to understand the visual

process of human. Our perception of the visual world follows from a sequence of events
leading from the eye to the brain.

3.1 Human Visual System

Figure 3.1 Eye Ball

Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3

In the eye the transparent cornea and the lens focus the image of the world outside on
light-sensitive elements at the back of the eye. These connect to other nerve cells at the

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back of the eye in a delicate and thin structure called the retina. The retina is made up of
two basic types of receptors, rods, and cones. These photoreceptors are the sensitive
elements that absorb light and start the electrophysiological process that sends visual
signals to the brain.

3.1.1 Cones and Rods

The rods and cones are not evenly distributed across the retina. In the very center of the
fovea there are very few rods. Cones are highly concentrated in a region near the center
of the retina called the fovea region. The maximum concentration of cones is roughly
180,000 per square mm in the fovea region and this density decreases rapidly outside of
the fovea to a value of less than 5,000 per square mm (Figure 3.4).

Figure 3.4 Distribution of cones and rods

Rods are sensitive to blue-green light with peak sensitivity at a wavelength of 498 nm,
and are used for vision under dark or dim conditions. There are three types of cones that
give us our basic color vision and they are L-cones (red) with a peak sensitivity of 564
nm, M-cones (green) with a peak sensitivity of 533 nm, and S-cones (blue) with a peak
sensitivity of 437 nm (Figure 3.5, Figure 3.6).

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Figure 3.5

Figure 3.6
3.1.2 Visual perception from eye to brain

When light enters the eye, some of it will eventually find its way to the outer segment of
the receptors. These outer segments contain photopigment molecules. When light is
absorbed by one of these photopigment molecules, it undergoes a morphological (shape)
change called isomerization.

These photopigments molecules measure how much light was absorbed and starts the
neuropsychological process that eventually sends signals to our brain. The information is
then sent to the brain in a large bundle of nerve fibers leaving the back of the eye. They
leave at the optic disk and form the optic nerve.

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Figure 3.7 From eye to brain

The fibers in the optic nerve pass the information to the brain where they are connected in
a special structure called the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus, which in turn sends connections
to the visual cortex. Through many complex connections between the different visual
cortical areas, our perception of the visual world is integrated into the image we see in
our mind's eye.

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Psychophysics of Vision

In the previous two sections, the principal of Psychophysics and the Visual process have
been discussed. Since the psychophysics concerns with determining thresholds,
psychophysics of vision simply involves the various ways in measuring the thresholds of
vision in several aspects. In this section we will discuss the following Psychophysics of
Vision:

Visual acuity - the spatial resolving capacity of visual system

Dark and Light Adaptation- the sensitivity of our eye to the range of luminance
Depth Perception - the power of the visual sense to give an immediate perception
of depth

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4.1 Visual Acuity

Visual acuity is the spatial resolving capacity of the visual system. It determines how
well one can see. The standard definition of normal visual acuity (20/20 vision) is the
ability to resolve a spatial pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute of arc. Since
one degree contains sixty minutes, a visual angle of one minute of arc is 1/60 of a degree.
The spatial resolution limit is derived from the fact that one degree of a scene is projected
across 288 micrometers of the retina by the eye's lens. Which in this 288 micrometers
dimension, 120 color sensing cone cells are packed. Thus, if more than 120 alternating
white and black lines are crowded side-by-side in a single degree of viewing space, they
will appear as a single gray mass to the human eye.

The calculation of the resolution of the eye at a specific distance away from the lens of
the eye is shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1

For the case of normal visual acuity the angle Theta is 1/60 of a degree. Using
trigonometry,

X/2 = d (tan Theta/2)

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4.1.1 Types of acuity tasks

In every days life, optometrists and ophthalmologists use the measurement of visual
acuity to refract the eyes. There are different kinds of tests to evaluate the ability to
resolve spatial detail. In general acuity test are divided into three types of tasks according
to the kind of stimulus used: detection acuity, recognition acuity and resolution acuity.

The task of detection requires only the perception of the presence or absence of an
aspect of the stimuli but not the discrimination of target detail.

Figure 4.2 a) Bright test object on dark background b) Dark test object on bright background

In Figure 4.2 observer has to state whether the spot or line is presented in both dark
(Figure 4.2 a) and light (Figure 4.2 b) background.
Another example shown in Figure 4.3 is mostly use in clinic.

Figure 4.3 a)The Landolt C b) The Illiterate E

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In this test, observer has to detect the location of the gap, e.g. top, left, right or bottom.

The task of recognition is most commonly performed in clinical visual acuity

measurements where observer is required to recognize or name a target. One of the best-
known acuity tests is with the use of Snellen letters. In this test, the observer has to
identify the letter.

Figure 4.4 Snellen letters

Snellen letters are constructed so that the size of the critical detail (stroke width and gap
width) extends to 1/5th of the overall height.

Task of resolution are used to determine the smallest angular size at which observer can
discriminate the separation between critical elements of a stimulus pattern such as a pair
of dots, a grating or a checkerboard.

Figure 4.5 a) dots b) grating c) checkerboard

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4.2 Dark and Light Adaptation

The human visual system can operate over an enormous range of ambient light intensity -
- about 13 log units. The sensitivity of our eye can be measured by determining the
absolute intensity threshold, which is the minimum luminance of a test spot required to
produce a visual sensation. The adjustment of sensitivity in response to light intensity is
called adaptation, and there are two major types: Dark adaptation and Light adaptation.

4.2.1 Dark Adaptation

Dark adaptation refers to how the eye recovers its sensitivity in the dark following
exposure to bright lights. This can be measured by placing a subject in a dark room, and
increase the luminance of the test spot until the observer reports its presence.

As discussed in the Visual process section, the receptors contain photopigments in their
outer segments. When light is absorbed by these photopigments, they undergo certain
changes, which stops them from helping to send visual signals to the brain. These
changes are reversed in darkness.

Our visual system is most sensitive when the photopigments have not absorbed any light
for about 30 minutes. Under these conditions the photopigments are fully regenerated.
When the rod photopigments are exposed to light, the photopigment color actually turns
almost transparent. They regenerate and regain their pigmentation again in dark.

Dark adaptation forms the basis of the Duplicity Theory, which states that above a certain
luminance level (about 0.03 cd/m2), the cone mechanism is involved in mediating vision
(photopic vision). Below this level, the rod mechanism provides scotopic (night) vision.
Since there is no abrupt transition between the two mechanisms, the range where two
mechanisms are working together is called the mesopic range.

The dark adaptation curve shown in Figure 4.6 depicts this duplex nature of our visual
system. The red curve reflects the cone mechanism. The sensitivity of the rod pathway
improves considerably after 5-10 minutes in the dark and is reflected by the black curve.
At initial, this curve decreases rapidly in threshold, and then it declines slowly. The curve

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approaches to a minimum (absolute threshold) after approximately 30 minutes in the

dark. The point at which the rods become more sensitive is called the rod-cone break.

Figure 4.6 Dark adaptation curve

4.2.2 Light Adaptation

Similar to dark adaptation, light adaptation looks at what happens when we go from a
dark environment to a bright one. It refers to the change in sensitivity to lights, which are
superimposed upon a steady background light. One of the major differences between
dark adaptation and light adaptation is their time course. Dark adaptation takes about 30
minutes to be complete, whereas light adaptation happens very quickly, usually in less
than a minute. Another difference between these two types of adaptation is when the eyes
are light adapted and then got exposed to a very dark room for a while, the eyes may not
see anything at all. As the eyes adapt to the darkness, the vision improves. However,
when we emerge from a darker area to a very bright one, we usually perceive something,
though at a very low contrast visual level.

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Light adaptation can be tested by determining the increment thresholds. In an increment

threshold experiment, a test stimulus is presented on a background of a certain
luminance. The stimulus is increased in luminance until detection threshold is reached
against the background (Figure 4.7). Therefore, the independent variable is the
luminance of the background and the dependent variable is the threshold intensity or
luminance of the incremental test required for detection.

Figure 4.7 Light adaptation using threshold experiment

a) Example of the stimulus used b) Luminance profile of the stimulus

A threshold versus intensity (tvi) curve, also know as light adaptation curve, for
presentation of a yellow test field on a green background is plotted in Figure 4.8. This
stimulus choice leads to two branches. The lower branch represents the rod system. As
the background light level increases, visual function shifts from the rod system to the
cone system.

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Figure 4.8 Light adaptation curve

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4.3 Depth Perception

One of the major perceptual tasks is judging depth in a visual stimulus. This task can be
accomplished in many ways. One way is to use monocular cues, which is possible to
appreciate the relative location of objects using one eye. Another way is via binocular
cues, which require the use of both eyes. In general, binocular cues are more powerful
than the monocular cues.

4.3.1 Monocular cues

Several strong monocular cues allow relative distance and depth to be judged. These
monocular cues include

Interposition
Linear perspective
Aerial perspective
Light and shade
Monocular movement parallax

Relative Size

The more distant an object is, the smaller the image of that object will be perceived. This
effect on object size as distance increases is illustrated in Figure 4.9. The car in the front
looks larger than the car further away. This reducing in size at the eye is part of the
reason that people look like ants as we fly in an airplane and stars appear as dots even
though they are enormous. Additionally, retinal image size allows us to judge distance
based on our past and present experience and familiarity with similar objects.

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Figure 4.9 Example for Relative size

Interposition

Interposition cues occur when there is overlapping of objects. The overlapped object is
considered further away. The impression of depth that generally arises from interposition
is quite minimal, but when the depth range that is being depicted is quite small, overlap
may become a very important depth cue.

Figure 4.10 Example for Interposition

Linear Perspective

In linear perspective, parallel lines that recede into the distance appear to get closer
together or converge.

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Figure 4.11 Example for Linear Perspective

Aerial Perspective

Relative color of objects gives us some clues to their distance. For example, the short or
blue wavelengths of light are most easily scattered by the particles in the atmosphere,
which is why the sky is blue, although scattering does occur to some extent for other
wavelengths of light. Thus, distant mountains appear blue. When the scattering of light
blurs the outlines of objects, the object is perceived as distant. Mountains are perceived to
be closer when the atmosphere is clear.

In Figure 4.12, the picture of the Grand Canyon, the texture on the near side is clear,
sharp, and tinged with reddish hues. The far rim is less distinct, and the walls, made of
the same material as the near side, have a decidedly bluish cast.

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Figure 4.12 Example for Aerial Perspective

Light And Shade

Highlights and shadows can provide information about an object's dimensions and depth.
Since our visual system assumes the light comes from above, a totally different
perception is obtained if the image is viewed upside down.

Figure 4.13 Light and Shade

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In addition, shadow can play a very powerful role in defining form by giving the object a
three-dimensional feel. It presents sense of broader in defining depth between objects
since objects that are in shadow must be farther from the light than objects that are not in
shadow.

Monocular Movement Parallax

When our heads move from side to side, objects at different distances move at a different
relative velocity. Closer objects move towards the direction of head movement and
farther objects move in the direction of head movement.

4.3.2 Binocular Cues

Stereopsis (stereoscopic vision) is the process, where the corresponding points in left and
right image results an impression of depth. This is the only binocular cue needed to create
still stereo images. When two eyes view the same scene, the images drawn on the retinas
differ by a small degree. From these two corresponding images and the position of the
eyes, the brain creates a sensation of depth (Figure 4.14).

Figure 4.14

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There are two major binocular cues: convergence and retinal disparity.

Convergence

The two eyes rotate and convergence on an object when it is being viewed. The brain can
use the angle of convergence as a cue to how far away that object is. When observing a
near object, our eyes point slightly inward and have sharp angle. This difference in the
direction of the eyes is called convergence. This depth cue is effective only at short
distances (less than 10 meters).

Figure 4.15

Retinal Disparity

Human eyes are spaced apart. The average distance of this spacing is 7 centimetres. Each
eye gets a slightly different view of the world. By combining the two views, stereoscopic
vision is formed. In general, the amount of disparity (difference) between the two retinal
images can be used as a cue for distance.

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Figure 4.16

The above images illustrate how the same scene might look to the left and the right eyes.
Objects are different distances from one another in the two pictures. The difference in the
lateral positions of an object in the left and right eyes' image defines the retinal disparity
for that object.

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