Prelims 2017

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Day 15

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 Geography www.iasscore.in

HIMALAYAN PHYSIOGRAPHY
India is the seventh largest in terms of area (32, 87,263 km2) and second most populous country in the world
accounting for about 2.4% of the total world area. It lies in the northern hemisphere between the 804 N and
3706 N parallel of latitude and the 6807 E and 97025 E meridians of longitude, and is a part of the Asian
Continent.
The peninsular part of the India extends itself into the Indian Ocean dividing it into the Arabian Sea and
the Bay of Bengal.
In the oceanic and sea water India claims a 12 nautical mile of territorial waters and an exclusive
economic zone of 200 nautical miles.

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India has accounted to 6,100 km. of mainland coastline and total including island is 7,516.6 km.
India shares total of 15,200 km. land frontier with six nations those are: Pakistan (3,310 km), China

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(3,917 km), Nepal (1,752 km), Bhutan ( 587 km), Bangladesh ( 4,096 km) and Myanmar (1,458 km).
Indias total land mass is divided into four main geological featured regions as, northern mountains,
northern plains, peninsular region and coastal plains.
NORTHERN MOUNTAIN COMPLEX (HIMALAYA):
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This is among the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and highest mountain range in the world which
separating the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau.
It is the source of two of the worlds major river systems- the Indus basin and the Ganga-Brahmaputra
Basin.
This range is divided into:
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A. The Himalayas:
The central axial length of the Himalayas is about 2400 km. from Nanga Parbat in the west to Namcha
Barwa in the east.
Himalayan ranges are considered extension of the trans-Eurasian mountain ranges and Pamir knot
(roof of the world) is the connecting link between these ranges.
It is estimated that the Indian plate is still moving northward at a rate of about 5cm. per
year.
This is not a single range but series of chain of mountains. Suleman, kirthar, kulung shang, Tian sang,
Arkanyoma , Pegayoma are the well known mountain ranges situated in this mountain.
North- south division of Himalayas
Great Himalayas (Himadri)
Middle/ Lesser Himalayas (Himachal)
Shivalik (outer Himalayas)
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Greater/Inner Himalayas Lesser/Middle Himalayas

The highest mountain range
of the Himalayas.
These ranges have an
average height of about
E Outer/Lower Himalayas
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Situated to the south of This is the outer most range to the south of
the Himadri. the Lesser Himalayas.
Average height is above These discontinuous rangesjoin the lesser
3000 m Himalayas in the extreme east.
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6000 m.
Highest Mountain peaks
are situated in this range.
(e.g.Kanchanjunga - 8595m,
Nangaparbat-8126m)
The source of Ganges and
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Many health resorts are Its average height is about 1200 m
situated on the southern
slope ofthe mountain
range, e.g.:Shimla, Darjeeling
There are several elongatedand flat valleys

Yamuna runningparallel to the mountainranges. They are

calledduns. (E.g.: Dehradun)
Important Mountain passes in Himalayas
Banihal Pass: This mountain range separates the Kashmir valley in the Indian state Jammu and Kashmir from
the outer Himalaya and plains to the south.
Jelep la pass: It is a high mountain pass between India and Tibet in East Sikkim District of Sikkim. The pass
is in Sikkim and the route connects Lhasa to India.
Karakoram Pass: The Karakoram Pass is between India and China in the Karakoram Range.
Mana Pass: It is a mountain pass in the Himalayas on the border between India and Tibet. It appears to now
be thehighest vehicle-accessible pass in the world.
Nathu la: It connects the Indian state of Sikkim with Chinas Tibet Autonomous Region.
Rohtang Pass: It connects the Kullu Valley with the Lahul and Spiti Valleys of Himachal Pradesh, India.
Manali-Leh Highway, a part of NH 21, transverses Rohtang Pass.
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Shipki la Pass: Shipki La is a mountain pass and border post on the India-Tibet border. The river Sutlej enters
India (from Tibet) through this pass.
Zoji La Pass: Zoji La is a high mountain pass in Indian Kashmir, located on the Indian National Highway 1D
between Srinagar and Leh in the western section of the Himalayan mountain range.
East-West division of Himalayas
Western Himalaya:
Its extent is about 880 km between the Indus in the west and the Kali river in the east. The
western Himalayas spread in three states of Jammu and Kashmir Himalaya, Himachal Himalaya,
and Kumaon Himalayas, respectively.
The northern slopes are gentler and are bare and show plains with lakes, while the southern slopes are
rugged and forested. Zojila, Rohtang, Bara Lacha la and Shipki La are important passes.
This area has the beautiful valleys of Kullu, Kangra and Lahul and Spiti.

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Central Himalaya:
It stretches between the river Kali in the west and river Tista in the east for a distance

of about 800 km.
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It lies mainly in the Nepal. All the three ranges of the Himalayas are present here.
The great Himalayas attain maximum height here. Yepokangara, Lidanda, Chuuling, Annapurna, Mayondi
are glaciers are present in this region.
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Eastern Himalaya:
This lies between the Tista river in the west and the Brahmaputra river in the east.
Its extent is about 720 km. It occupies mainly the areas of Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan.
Important mountain passes are Zelap la, Bum la, Tse la, Tunga, Yonggypa and Kengri Karpo la.
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In this region of Himalayas, due to heavy rain fall by south west monsoon and north east causes heavy
fluvial erosion.
The Himalayas take a knee bend southward turn beyond Dihang george, running more or less
along Indias border with Myanmar known as Purvanchal Hills.
Locally they are known as Patkai Bum, Naga Hills, Kohima Hills, Manipur Hills, Mizo Hills (Lushai
Hills), Tripura Hills and Barail ranges.
Plains and Valley in Himalayas:
The existence of the undulating erosional plains of Aksai Chain, Deosia, Depsang and Lingzi Tang at high
altitudes within the Himalayas indicates that these plains were formed because of the erosional activities much
before the formation of the Himalayas. On the other hand, there are many small longitudinal valleys. They
are of tectonic origin and are known as the Duns.
Dehra Dun, Kothri Dun, Patli Dun and the Valley of Kashmir are some of the famous examples.
A. Trans Himalayan mountain region or Tibetans Himalayan Region:
This region is located to the north of the great Himalayas which is consists of Karakoram, ladakh, zhaskar
and kailash mountain range. It is also called the Tibetans Himalayan region because most of the part of this
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range lies in the Tibet. The Karakoram range is known as backbone of high Asia. K2 is the second highest
pick in the world and highest in the Indian Territory.
B. Eastern Hills or the Purvanchal Hills
After crossing the Dihang gorge (Brahmaputra gorge), the Himalayas Suddenly turn southward and form a
series of comparatively low hills running in the shape of a crescent with its convex side pointing towards the
west.
These hills are collectively called the Purvanchal because they are located in the eastern part of the country.
It extends from Arunachal Pradesh in the north to Mizoram in the south and form boundary between India
and Myanmar.
The Indo-Burma hill range is a part of the Arakan Yoma Suture zone that stretches south through Andaman
Nicobar island chain to Sunda. The elevation of the Eastern Hills (Purvanchal) decreases from north to south
and it is characterized by rough terrain, dense forests and swift streams. All these Ranges are generally 2,000m
or less in height but are rather forbidding because of dense forests, very rough terrace and inhospitable tribe.
It comprises of the following hills

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a. Mishmi hills Contains the loftiest range of the Purvanchal. Dapha Bum is its highest peak.
b. Patkai Bum Range It is the northernmost range forming the easternmost limit of the Great Himalaya
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Mountains, has synclinal structure and is made up of Tipam sandstone.
c. Naga Hills It lies south to the Patkai Bum and Saramati (3826m) is its highest peak. Patkai Bum and
Naga hills form the watershed between India and Myanmar.
d. Manipur Hills It is south to Naga hills and form boundary between Manipur and Myanmar. Its central
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part is a large basin which appears to be bed of an old lake, a remnant of which occupies the south-east
corner of the basin and is known as Loktak Lake. The Barail Range separates Naga Hills from Manipur
hills.
e. Mizo Hills (Lushai Hills) It lies south to the Manipur hills and its highest point is the Blue Mountain
(2157m) in the south.
RECENTLY IN NEWS:
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HIMANSH:
A high altitude glaciological research station in Himalaya called Himansh (meaning a slice of ice) began
functioning above 13,500 ft (4000 m) in a remote region in Spiti, Himachal Pradesh.
Researchers will use this station as a base for undertaking surveys that would digitize the glacier motion and
snow cover variations with exceptional precision.
CLIMATE CHANGE THREATENS HINDU KUSH-HIMALAYAS WATERS:
The Hindu Kush-Himalayan region hosts several of Asias great river systems, which provide water for drinking,
irrigation and other uses for about 1.5 billion people. The melt-water from glaciers in the Hindu Kush Himalayan
region supplements several great river systems such as the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra.
Scientific evidence shows that most glaciers in the Himalayan region are retreating, leading to concerns that
over time normal glacier melt will not be able to contribute to the regions water supply each year.
The largest cities in the Hindu Kush Himalaya region number in the millions of inhabitants. The most
populous cities include Kabul (Afghanistan), Kathmandu (Nepal), Srinagar (India), Peshawar (Pakistan), Quetta
(Pakistan), Xinning (China), and Dehra Dun (India).
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Large cities such as Kathmandu, Lhasa or Dehra Dun are growing at rates that double the population of these
cities every 10 to 15 years or so. At the other extreme are vast rural areas suffering from the paucity of basic
services, and where out-migration has evolved as a survival strategy.
CHINA OPENS NATHU LA AS 2ND ROUTE FOR KAILASH PILGRIMS:
China opened the second land crossing in Tibet via Nathu La to allow the first batch of Indian pilgrims
undertaking the arduous Kailash-Manasarovar Yatra, in the latest confidence-building measure between the two
neighbours.
The new route is in addition to the existing Lipulekh Pass, the only route that was badly damaged in the floods
in Uttarakhand in 2013.
SIGNIFICANCE OF HIMALAYA FOR INDIA:
Strategic significance: Acts as a natural frontier of India with other countries (China, Afghanistan and
Pakistan)

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Climatic significance: Prevent further northward movement of summer monsoon and also prevent cold
northern winds from Siberia to enter into India.

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Physical significance: The glaciers of the Himalayas feed the perennial rivers of North India. The rivers
erode the mountain ranges and deposit the alluvial soils which are highly productive.
Agricultural Significance: Rivers from Himalayas deposits a lot of sediment on its foothold, from which
are formed Indias most fertile agricultural grounds known as Northern plains. The water of the mightly
rivers arising out of the Himalayas is utilized for irrigation, industrial and domestic purpose. Alpine
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pastures provide nutritious grasses to the flock of transhumans. Tea, nuts, saffron, Apples and orchard
plantation on the undulating slopes.
Economic significance: Huge hydro-electric power potential of Himalayan rivers, Himalayan timber,
Himalayan Herbs & Medicinal plants. River sediments are used for a great source of minerals and building
material.
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Tourism Significance: Comprises of Large ecological biodiversity, natural views & hill stations. Abode of
numerous tribes. The Himalayas are rich in flora and fauna. Natural beauty, hill resorts, and tourism. Great
religious and mythological importance.
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NORTHERN PLAINS, PLATEAUS AND DESERT

NORTHERN PLAINS
They are formed by alluvial deposits brought by rivers Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra.
The Northern Plains extend 3200 km from east to west in Indian Physiography.
The Maximum depth of alluvium deposits from 1000-2000 km., 2400 km long & varying in width from
240 to approx. 320 km.
One of the largest, continuous and extensive plains
Fertile plain- flat topography -historically settled dense population
30% of the worlds population on 10% of worlds agro-land

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OR
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a) Northern plains subdivision

Bhabhar : (narrow belt parallel to Shiwalik foothills at slope break-up),
Lies along foothills of Shiwaliks, From Indus to Tista
Laid down by streams coming from hills
Comprises of pebble studded rocks (Highly porous bed plain)
Due to high porosity and permiablity- streams, rivers disappears here
Alluvial fans of Himalayan rivers coarse depo large boulders
Not good for cultivation
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b) Tarai : (narrow belt parallel to Shiwalik foothills at slope break-up),

Lies south of Bhabhar & runs parallel to it
Marked by re-emergence of underground streams of Bhabhar belt
Highly alluvial & agricultural land
Has a high water table due to groundwater percolating down from the adjacent zone
Bad drainage
Rivers re-appears swamps, marshy
Naturally Sal forest
Terai of Bengal and Bihar is more developed
The region is excessively moist and thickly forested. It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year

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and is populated with a variety of wildlife.
The Terai tract lies south of the Bhabar belt. The tract is marshy and lots of mosquitoes thrive there.

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The Terai belt is wider in eastern side especially in the Brahmaputra valley.
The high rainfall, newer alluvium makes it excessive damp and lots of forests are found here. This
implies that Terai belt is rich in biodiversity.
Over the period of time, the forests have been cleared in various states such as Uttarakhand, Uttar
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Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, and Jammu Divisions for cultivation of crops.
Terai belt is known for the good cultivation of sugar-cane, rice, wheat, maize, oilseeds, pulses, and
fodder.
c) Khadar:
Flood plains with newer and fresh alluvium deposited by flood and rivers almost every year
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Marked with fertile soil

Zone of intensive agriculture
Non porous, clayey and loamy
Slope between Bangar and Khadar: Punjab- Dhayas, UP- Khol, Bengal Bhils, Bihar Taal.
The Khadar land consists of sand, silt, clay and mud.
After Independence, most of the Khadar land has been brought under cultivation and devoted to
sugarcane, rice, wheat, maize, oilseeds, legumes, and fodder crops.
d) Bhangar:
Alluvial terrace lying above the level of flood plains
Composed of the oldest alluvial soil
Coarse in nature, contain kankar (lime nodules), pebbles, gravels
Soil of this region is locally known as kankar viz. calcareous concretions
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Old flood plains of rivers - Dry land

The older alluvium soil is dark in colour, rich in humus content and productive.
Bhangar is generally a well drained and the most productive land of the Great Plains of India.
e) Delta Plain:
The deltaic plain is an extension of the Khadar land.
It covers about 1.9 lakh sq km of area in the lower reaches of the Ganga River.
It is an area of deposition as the river flows in this tract sluggishly.
The deltaic plain consists mainly of old mud, new mud and marsh.
In the delta region, the uplands are called Char while marshy areas are known as Bili.
The delta of Ganga being an active one, is extending towards the Bay of Bengal.
Alluvial plains (located to the south of Tarai, mature stage of fluvial erosional and depositional landforms like

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sand bars, meanders. It is divided into Khadar and Bhangar).
East-west division of plains:
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Rajasthan Plains (Indus): West of Aravalli, North- Gangasagar region, Extension of Punjab plains of
Indus, West of Aravalli-Rajasthan Bagar, Drained by river Luni, Luni merged into Rann of Kutchh.
Rajasthan Bagar: fluvial grasslands Rajasthan steppe, Very fertile Rohi tracts, Western most Rajasthan-
marusthali/ Thar desert sand dunes Dhrians.
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Punjab plains (Indus): Fluvial plains Ravi, Beas and Sutlej (tributaries of Indus), Khadar plains: fertile
but limitations, Aridity, Basin topography (bad drainage) salination.]
Gangetic plains:
Divisions:
Upper Gangetic plains- From Yamuna to Ghaghara plains, Rohilkhand plain, Sandy deposits.
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Middle Gangetic plains- Kosi plain-called Magadh / Awadh /Anga plain, Flood-prone, shifting of
river course of Kosi.
Lower Gangetic plains- Ganga enters WB-Sundarban delta, Lowland-almost sea level, Sagar Island,
Lothian Island, Bengal tigers are belongs from this area.
Assam plains (Brahmaputra): Brahmaputra largest river of India (volume), Origin Mansarovar lake-
enters as Dihang in Arunachal Pradesh, River course narrow- numerous stream flows -flood prone.
Streams from north swift flowing form alluvial fans, Manas- Subansiri, Streams from south plateu
smooth flowing- Dibang, Lohit, Dhansiri, Kapilli.
Natural hazard and disaster
The Indo-Gangetic Zone of earthquake prone belt runs parallel to the Himalayan Zone on its
southern side.
The earthquakes along the foothills are of medium to high intensity.
However, the earthquakes of this zone are more harmful due to high density of population in this
area.
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In the Great plains some districts of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh receiving rainfall less than
75 to 80 cm of rainfall with variability over 40 per cent are prone to draught.
However, the severest draught have occurred in comparatively wet areas such as Bihar and west Bengal,
where rainfall is normally enough to allow high density of population and where failure of rainfall
can affect millions of people.
Being a plain area and drained by various big and small rivers often breaching their limiting banks during
the season of high discharge, this area is frequently hit by floods.
Importance of Great Plains
The Indo-Gangetic belt is the worlds most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the
deposition of silt by the numerous rivers.
The plains are flat and mostly treeless, making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also
rich in ground water sources.

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The plains are the worlds most intensely farmed areas. Fertile alluvial soils, flat surface, slow moving
perennial rivers and favourable climate facilitate an intense agricultural activity.

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The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. Others include maize, sugarcane
and cotton. The extensive use of irrigation has made Punjab, Haryana and western part of Uttar Pradesh
the granary of India (Prairies are called the granaries of the world).
The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the worlds most densely populated areas.
The Great Plains of India are covered with one of the most productive soils of the world.
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Its soils have the capacity to grow any crop of the tropical and temperate regions.
The sedimentary rocks of plains have petroleum and natural gas deposits.
The rivers here have very gentle gradients which make them navigable over long distances.
The plains are often termed as the Granary of India. Most of the rivers traversing the Northern Plains
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of India are perennial in nature.

A number of canals have been carved out of these rivers which make agriculture more remunerative and
sustainable.
The water table is high and suitable for tube well irrigation. The gentle gradient makes it navigable over
long distances.
Cultural tourism: Several sacred places and centres of pilgrimage are situated in these plains e.g. Haridwar,
Amritsar, Varanasi, Allahabad, Bodh Gaya, etc.
THE PENISULAR PLATEAU
The peninsular plateau of India is roughly triangular in shape with base coinciding with the southern edge
of the great Northern plains and its apex is formed by Kanyakumari in south.
The northern boundary of the peninsular block is an irregular line running from Kutch along the western
flank of Aravalis to near Delhi, and then roughly parallel to the Yamuna and Ganga as far as Rajmahal
hills and then Ganga delta.
The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats form its western and eastern boundaries respectively in South.
The entire plateau measures about 1600 km. in north-south and 1400 km. in east west direction.
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It covers about half of the total area of the country. It is the largest physiographic unit of India.
The average height of the plateau is about 600 to 900 m above MSL.
Largest of Indias physical divisions Comprises of broad & shallow valleys with rounded hills
This Triangular shape plateau; composed of the oldest rocks & Surrounded by hills.
Narmada Tapi divides it into 2 parts viz. Central highland & Deccan plateau.
The general slope of the plateau is from west to east with the exception of Narmada-Tapi rift which slopes
westwards.
DIVISION OF THE PENISUALR PLATEAU:
A. The Central Highlands
Lies to the north of the Narmada river between Aravali in North & Vindhya range in south

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OR
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Covers the major portion of the Malwa plateau (Madhya Pradesh)

Rivers in this region flow from southwest to northeast; which indicates the slope of this region
Further extension of it is Bundelkhand, Bhaghelkhand & Chhota Nagpur Plateau
Chambal & Betwa flows through it ! Region known as Bed land (Not fit for cultivation)
a) Malwa Plateau:
Lies in Madhya Pradesh b/w Aravali & Vindhyas
Extension of it is Bundelkhand, Bhaghelkhand & Chota Nagpur Plateau
b) Bundelkhand Plateau:
Lies along the borders of UP & MP
Has been transformed into ravines by extensive erosional activities of river Chambal & its tributaries.
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c) Chhotanagpur Plateau:
NE part of peninsular plateau
Includes Jharkhand, parts of Chhattisgarh & WB,
Highest Peak Parasnath
Famous as Patland plateau & known as ruhr of India.
B. Deccan Plateau
Largest plateau in India; Lies to the south of the Narmada River; Shaped as inverted triangle.
Surrounded by Satpura hills, Mahadeo hills, Maikala range, Amarkantak hills and Rajmahal hills, the
north; Western Ghats in the west and the Eastern Ghats in the east
Volcanic in origin, made up of horizontal layers of solidified lava forming trap structure with step like
appearance

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Sedimentary layers are also found in between the layers of solidified lava, making it inter-trapping in
structure


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Average elevation of Western Ghats is 900 1600 metres; compared to 600 metres of Eastern Ghats
Slopes towards east and south and descends abruptly towards west making sahayadri ranges
The plateau is suitable for the cultivation of cotton; home to rich mineral resources & a source to generate
hydroelectric power.
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Northern section Middle section Southern section

(Sahyandris) (Karnataka) (Kerala)
Important Kalsubai (1646 m), Vavulmatha (2339 m), Anaimudi (2695 km) Highest in
peaks Salher (1567 m), Kudermukh (1892 m), South India
Mahabaleshwar (1438 m), Pushpagiri (1714 m),
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Harishchandragarh (1424 m) Mulangiri (1913 m)

Important Thalghat (NH 3) Mumbai- No Major Palaghat gap, Separates southern
passes NasikBorghat (NH 4) section from rest of the Western
Mumbai-Pune Ghats. It is 24-30 km wide.
Other 1. Nilgiri hills form connection between Western and Eastern Ghats. Its peaks are: Dodabetta
features (2637 m) and Makurti (2554 m).
2. Anaimudi forms a Nodal point from where the following ranges radiate: Anaimalai (1800-
200 m) to North, Palani (900-1200 m) to North east, Elaimalai or Cardamom to South.
Northern section (UTKAL) Southern section (Andhra and Coromandel)
Extent Mouth Subarnarekha to KG valley gap KG valley gap to Kanyakumari
Important Madugal Konda Northern Circas Nallamala, Palikonda, Javadi and Shevaroy
ranges
Important Mahendragiri (1501 m) is the tallest Not worth mentioning
peaks peak of Eastern Ghats
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Western Ghats
Folded parts of Deccan Plateau
Also known as Shayadries
More Continuous & higher than Eastern Ghats
Separated from coast by narrow coastal plains
Rich watersheds give birth to large peninsular rivers like Godavari and Krishna
Extends from Tapi in North to Kanyakumari in south.
Maharashtra Plateau:
Deccan trap topography, almost entirely covered by lack cotton soil called regur.
Broad and shallow valleys of river: Godavari, Krishna, Bhima, Wainganga- Painganga-wardha system.
Bounded by sahyandris on west, Satpuda on north comprises Ajanta range, Balghat range, Harishchandra

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range, Satmala hills (Chikhaldara-on Gawaligarh hills).
Western Ghats
OR
Folded parts of Deccan Plateau
Also known as Shayadries
More Continuous & higher than Eastern Ghats
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Separated from coast by narrow coastal plains

Rich watersheds give birth to large peninsular rivers like Godavari and Krishna
Extends from Tapi in North to Kanyakumari in south.
Maharashtra Plateau:
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Deccan trap topography, almost entirely covered by lack cotton soil called regur.
Broad and shallow valleys of river: Godavari, Krishna, Bhima, Wainganga- Painganga-wardha system.
Bounded by sahyandris on west, Satpuda on north comprises Ajanta range, Balghat range, Harishchandra
range, Satmala hills (Chikhaldara-on Gawaligarh hills).
Important Passes (Rail Links)
Thalghat Mumbai Kolkata
Bhorghat Mumbai Chennai
Phalghat Kochi Chennai
Important Hill Ranges
Nilgiri Range (Highest peak Doda Betta along ooty (Udhagmandalam) ! TN
Highest Peak of South India Anaimudi From which 3 ranges radiates in 3 directions
Cardmom Hills to south,
Anamalai hills to north
Palni to North East
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Eastern Ghats
Extends from Odisha to North of Nilgiri hills
Discontinuous & lower then Western Ghats
Do not give birth to important rivers like western ghats
Separated from coast by very wide coastal plains
Geologically older than western ghats
Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri cut through this range to merge with Bay of Bengal
The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats meet in the Nilgiri hills
Telangana Plateau
Part of deccan plateau

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Located on north of river Krishna
Karnataka Plateau


South of deccan lava region
Consist of Bababudan hills
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Famous for iron ores
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Dandakaranya Plateau
Forms parts of Chhatisgarh & Odisha
Contains igneous & metamorphic rocks of Archaen period
River Indravati & Mahandi flows through this plateau
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Largely inhabited by Gond tribes

Shillong Plateau/Meghalaya plauteau:
Separated from the peninsular plateau block by a wide gap called Garo-Rajmahal Gap formed due to down
faulting which was later filled up by Ganga deposits.
Western-central and eastern parts are known as the Garo(900m.), Khasi-Jaintia( 1500m), Mikir (700m)
hills.
Shillong is the highest point of the plateau at 1961m on khasi hills tableland.
Part of Peninsular Deccan Plateau
Worlds highest rainfall receiving point Mawsynram is situated here.
Importance of the Peninsular Plateau Region
Ancient and stable landmass
Mineral storehouse of India, -Iron, Manganese, Copper, Bauxite, Mica, Gold, etc.
98% of Gondwana coal deposits come from PP region.
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Rocks: Slate, Shale, Granite, Marble.

Black cotton soil.
Western Ghats: cause of SW monsoon rainfall.
Tourism: Hills Stations- Ooty, Mahabaleshwar, Pachmarhi, Matheran, Khandala.
Forest and forest products.
Nilgiri hills are famous for Sandal wood and Teak forests.
Malagiri Range is famous for Sandalwood and other valuable timbers
Shevaroy Hills and Javedi hills are composed of Charnokite rocks.
Nallamalla range is the most prominent range of this section.
Nilgiri is called Blue Mt; it has two highest peaks-Doda Betta (2637m), Makurti (2554 m).
Ootacomandal hill station is located in a broad undulating valley at the foot of Doda Betta.

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The Tamil Nadu upland lies at the foot of the Eastern Ghats in Tamil Nadu, and is a typical example
of Peneplain.
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THE GREAT INDIAN DESERT
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Extends from the western margins of the Aravali Hills

Sometimes considered a part of the peninsular plateaus.
Oldest Fold Mountains of the world-long period of erosion, therefore also called relict mountains. Stretch
800 km. elevation; 300-900 m, highest peak: Guru shikhar, (near mt. Abu 1722 km.)
Some part fairly rich in minerals. One branch of the Aravali extend to the Lakshadweep through Gulf of
Khambat.
Important rivers originating through desert:
Sabarmati and Lluni- Luni is the only prominent river ( flow in west direction)
Ahmedabad situated on the banks of Sabarmati and Vadodara on Mahi sagar river.
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Dry N-W part- Thar Desert, Great Indian Desert.

It extends to Pakistan and dominated by shifting sand dunes, area of inland drainage.
Important lakes:
Deewdana, Sambar(important for salt production)
Minerals- Gypsum, Marble, Zinc, Lead, Copper, Mica

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OR
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Notes

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 Geography www.iasscore.in

COASTAL PLAINS AND ISLANDS

India has a coastline of7516.6 Km [6100 km of mainland coastline, coastline of 1197 Indian
islands]touching 13 States and Union Territories (UTs).
The straight and regular coastline of India is the result of faulting of the Gondwanaland during the
Cretaceous period. (Continental Drift)
As such the coast of Indiadoes not offer many sites for good natural harbours.
The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea came into being during theCretaceous or early Tertiary period
after the disintegration of Gondwanaland
Extends from Kutch in Gujarat in the west to the Gangetic delta in the east

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The coast of India is divided into western coast and eastern coastal plains.
The coastal regions of India are known for agriculture, trade, industrial centres, tourist centres, fishing and
OR
salt making.
They also provide important hinterlands for the ports.
EMERGENCE AND SUBMERGENCE COASTS
Coastline of emergence is formed either by an uplift of the land or by the lowering of the sea level.
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Coastline of submergence is an exact opposite case.

Bars, spits, lagoons, salt marshes, beaches, sea cliffs and arches are the typical features of emergence.
{Marine Landforms}
The east coast of India, especially its south-eastern part (Tamil Nadu coast), appears to be a coast of
emergence.
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The west coast of India, on the other hand, is both emergent and submergent.
The northern portion of the coast is submerged as a result of faulting and the southern portion, that is
the Kerala coast, is an example of an emergent coast.
Coramandal coast (Tamil Nadu) - Coastline of emergence
Malabar coast (Kerala Coast) - Coastline of emergence
Konkan coast (Maharashtra and Goa Coast) - Coastline of submergence.
WESTERN COASTAL PLAINS
The west coast strip extends from the Gulf of Cambay (Gulf of Khambhat) in the north to Cape
Comorin (Kanniyakumari). Lies between Western Ghats & Arabian sea from Gujrat in north to
Kanyakumari in south.
It is narrower & wetter than Eastern plains
Divided into Malabar coast, Kannada Coast, Konkan coast, Kanyakumari Coast, Kachchh and Kathiawad
peninsula
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It is made up of alluvium brought down by the short streams originating from the Western Ghats.
It is dotted with a large number of coves (a very small bay), creeks (a narrow, sheltered waterway such
as an inlet in a shoreline or channel in a marsh) and a few estuaries. {Marine Landforms}
The estuaries, of the Narmada and the Tapi are the major ones.
The Kerala coast (Malabar Coast) has some lakes, lagoons and backwaters, the largest being the Vembanad
Lake
Important Ports: Mumbai, Marmagoa, Cochin, Mangalore, Nhava-Sheva and Kandla.
Marked with Lagoons: Ashtamudi & Vembanad called Kayals (Kerala).
The division of western coastal plain is as follows:
a) Kathiawar Coast - Kutch to Daman (Tapti, Narmada, Sabarmati & Mahi river deposit huge load of
sediments in the Gulf of Cambay & form estuaries)

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b) Konkan Coast - Between Daman & Goa- For e.g. Maharashtra coast and Goa coast-a submerged plain
c)
d)
e)
Kannada Coast - Goa to Cannanore
Kanyakumari Coast - Cannanore to Cape Camorin OR
Malabar Coast/Kerala Coast - Kannada + Kanyakumari Coast- kerala nad Karnataka coast
a) Kutch and Kathiawar region
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Kutch and Kathiawar, though an extension of Peninsular plateau (because Kathiawar is made of the
Deccan Lava and there are tertiary rocks in the Kutch area), they are still treated as integral part of the
Western Coastal Plains as they are now levelled down.
The Kutch Peninsula was an island surrounded by seas and lagoons. These seas and lagoons were later
filled by sediment brought by the Indus River which used to flow through this area. Lack of rains in recent
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times has turned it into arid and semi-arid landscape.

Salt-soaked plain to the north of Kutch is the Great Rann. Its southern continuation, known as the Little
Rann lies on the coast and south-east of Kachchh.
The Kathiawar Peninsula lies to the south of the Kachchh. The central part is a highland of Mandav Hills
from which small streams radiate in all directions (Radial Drainage). Mt. Girnar (1,117 m) is the highest
point and is of volcanic origin.
The Gir Range is located in the southern part of the Kathiawar peninsula. It is covered with dense forests
and is famous as home of the Gir lion.
b) Gujarat Plain
The plain area between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea from the gulf of Kuchchh and Gulf of
Khambat located on either side of Kathiawar Peninsula is called Gujarat Plains.
The Gujarat Plain lies east of Kachchh and Kathiawar and slopes towards the west and south west.
Formed by the rivers Narmada, Tapi, Mahi and Sabarmati, the plain includes the southern part of Gujarat
and the coastal areas of the Gulf of Khambhat.
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The eastern part of this plain is fertile enough to support agriculture, but the greater part near the coast
is covered by windblown loess (heaps of sand).
c) Konkan Plain
The Konkan Plain south of the Gujarat plain extends from Daman to Goa (50 to 80 km wide).
It has some features of marine erosion including cliffs, shoals, reefs and islands in the Arabian Sea.
The Thane creek around Mumbai is an important embayment (a recess in a coastline forming a bay) which
provides an excellent natural harbour.
d) Karnataka Coastal Plain
1. Goa to Mangalore.
It is a narrow plain with an average width of 30-50 km, the maximum being 70 km near Mangalore.
At some places the streams originating in the Western Ghats descend along steep slopes and make
waterfalls.

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The Sharavati while descending over such a steep slope makes an impressive waterfall known as Gersoppa
(Jog) Falls which is 271 m high.
OR
Marine topography is quite marked on the coast.
2. Kerala Plain
a) The Kerala Plain also known as the Malabar Plain. Between Mangalore and Kanniyakumari.
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b) This is much wider than the Karnataka plain. It is a low lying plain.
c) The existence of lakes, lagoons, backwaters, spits, etc. is a significant characteristic of the Kerala coast.
d) The backwaters, locally known as kayals are the shallow lagoons or inlets of the sea, lying parallel to the
coastline.
e) The largest among these is the Vembanad Lake which is about 75 km long and 5-10 km wide and gives
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rise to a 55 km long spit that is called the Marine Landforms.

EASTERN COASTAL PLAINS
Lies between Eastern Ghats & Bay of Bengal from Gangetic delta in north to Kanyakumari in south
Broader but drier than Western plains
It is an emergent coastal plain, hence has less number of ports and harbours.
The Eastern Coast has well-developed deltas in Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri. The continental
shelf extends upto 500 km into Sea.
Consists of following sub coasts
a) Utkal coast - Deltaic plains of Ganga to Mahanadi delta (Famous Chilka lake is located in this plain)
b) Andhra Coast - Utkal plains to Pulicat lake (Contains deltas of Godavari & Krishna Rivers, & famous
Kolleru lake)
c) Northern Circars - Utkal Coast and Andhra Coast (Between Mahanadi & Krishna)
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OR
d) Coromandal Coast - Between Krishna & Kanyakumari (Consist of Kaveri Delta)Freshwater Kolleru
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Lake - Between Godavari & Krishna,
Marked with Famous Lagoons - Chilka lake (Orissa) & Pulicat (Tamilnadu)
Chilka Lake is the largest salt water lake in India
It lies in the state of Odisha, to the south of the Mahanadi Delta.
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Coromandal coastal plain is Spread from Northern chennai (Pulicat lake) to Kanyakumari in the south.
Contains deltaic plains of Kaveri & called as Pride of south India.
THE INDIAN ISLANDS
Apart from the large numbers of islands in the near proximity of the Indian coast, there are two
main groups.
Total 247 islands in India: 204 islands in Bay of Bengal and 43 in the Arabian Sea
Few coral islands also in the Gulf of Mannar.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands in Bay of Bengal consist of hard volcanic rocks.
The middle Andaman and Nicobar Islands are the largest islands of India.
Lakshadweep islands in the Arabian Sea are formed by corals.
The southern most point of India is in Nicobar Island, known as Indira Point.
Formerly Indira point was called Pigmalion Point, it is submerged now, after 2004 Tsunami
Some of islands in the Indian ocean away from the coast. They are as follows:
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ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLAND

The group of islands form an accurate chain, convex to the west, for a distance of about
590 km, with maximum width of about 58 km.
This archipelago is composed of 265 big and small islands.
The entire chain consists of two distinct groups of islands. The great Andaman group of islands in
the north is separated by the Ten degree channel from Nicobar group in the south.
The Andaman group of islands consists of 203 islands.
Volcanic islands representing submarine volcanism
Represent the surfaces of submerged folds viz. extension of Himalaya, precisely Arakan yoma Fold
Mountains of Myanmar.
Formed of Granite rocks & have high hills &l peaks for ex. Saddle peak
Equatorial climate with tropical rain-forests

E
The Nicobar group of islands consists of 7 big and 12 small islands together with several tiny islands.
Most of these islands are made of tertiary sandstone, limestone and shall rest on basic and ultra-basic
OR
volcanoes.
The Barren and Narcondam islands, north of port Blair, are volcanic islands.
Some of the islands are fringed with coral reefs.
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Saddle (737m) peak in north Andaman is the highest peak.

GS
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THE LAKSHADWEEP ISLAND

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OR
It is in the Arabian Sea having a group of 25 small islands. The total land area is 32km
Volcanic islands representing submarine volcanism
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Represent the surfaces of submerged folds viz. extension of Himalaya, precisely Arakan yoma Fold
Mountains of Myanmar
Formed of Granite rocks & have high hills &l peaks for ex. Saddle peak
Equatorial climate with tropical rain-forests
GS

The islands north to 11N latitude are known as Amendivi Islands while those south of this
latitude are called Cannanore islands.
In the extreme south is the Minicoy Island.
All are tiny islands of coral origin and are surrounded by fringing reefs. The largest and most advanced
is Minicoy Island. These Island form of coral deposits, are called atolls, are circular or horse shoe shaped
coral reefs.
Most of the island have low elevation and do not rise more than five metres above sea level.
PROMINENT INDIAN ISLAND:
A & N Islands: Continuation of Arakan Yoma mountain range of Myanmar
Saddle Peak: Just 147 km from Sumatra island (Indonesia) Highest Peak of Andaman
Pamban Island: Between India & Srilanka
Salasette: Group of 7 islands, known as Mumbai today
Diu: Fishing Island with Gujarati heritage.
New Moore Island: Disputed site b/w India & Bangladesh
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Wheeler Island: Missile launching island in BOB - Near Odisha coast

Sriharikota: Split Island - Rocket launching site in BOB in Andhra Pradesh

Bhavani, Diviseema, Hope: Andhra Pradesh

Wellington: Naval Station - Kerala

Majuli: Assam- biggest river Island

Divar: Goa-on river Mandovi

Grand: Goa. Famous for its Natural beauty

St. Marry: Karnataka

Munroe: Group of 8 minor island, Kerala

Lakshadweep: Sandy beaches and coral reef.

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Rameshwaram: Pilgrim center, Tamilnadu
OR
Coachin: Kerala

Elephanta, Oyster Maharashtra

rock, Cross, Butcher:

Srirangapatnam, River Kaveri, Karnataka

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Shivsamudram,
Nisargadhama:

Chorao: Portuguese invaded island, Goa

Bet Dwarka: Gujarat

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Abdul Kalam Island, Odisha

Ekakula Island:

Sagar, South Talpatti: West Bengal

Isukatippa: Puduherry

SIGNIFICANCE OF INDIAN OCEAN FOR INDIA:

Strategic significance: India overlooks some of the most important sea lanes viz. Suez Canal, Malacca
Strait

Economic significance: Long coastline, 2.02 million sq km EEZ (Exclusive economic zone)

Tourism Significance: Marine biodiversity and rich ecosystem with coral reefs, mangroves

Other: Large Fishing potential, Wave energy & Tidal energy potential, Zone of Hydrocarbons,

Generation of south west Monsoon.

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RECENTLY IN NEWS:
NEW GINGER SPECIES WITH MEDICINAL PROPERTIES DISCOVERED IN ANDAMANS:
Scientists from Botanical Survey of India (BSI) have discovered a new species of Zingiber (commonly referred
as ginger) from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The new species has been named as Zingiber pseudosquarrosum and belongs to genus Zingiber.
It is used for its medicinal values by the local Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) of the Andamans.
Key Facts The pseudo stem of Zingiber pseudosquarrosum is red in colour.
Its flowers are lotus shaped and have a vermilion tinge and dehisced fruit.
This species has tuberous root and its inflorescence buds are urceolate in shape.
The morphological features of this species make it distinct from other species belonging to the genus Zingiber.
Like other species of Gingers, it is edible and can be propagated vegetatively from the rhizome.

E
The new species possesses ethno-medicinal uses. The fresh extract (juice) of fleshy tuberous roots of this
species is used to treat abdominal pain and anti-helminthic troubles by native tribal communities.

A&N ISLANDS: OR
UNION CABINET APPROVES SUBMARINE OPTICAL FIBER CABLE CONNECTIVITY WITH

Government approved the provision of a direct communication link through a dedicated submarine optical
fibre cable (OFC) between Mainland (Chennai) and A&N Islands. As till 2018 it will connect the mainland
chennai with Port Blair and five other islands viz. little Andaman, car nicobar, Havelock, kamotra and great
SC
nicobar.
The total cost estimate for the project is 1102.38 crore rupees including operational expenses for 5 years.
It will equip A&N Island with appropriate bandwidth and telecom connectivity for implementation of e-
governance initiatives and establishment of enterprise and e-commerce facilities.
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It will also enable the provision of adequate support to educational institute for knowledge sharing, availability
of job opportunities and fulfill the vision of digital India.
SNOWFLAKE CORALS GROWTH OFF THIRUVANANTHAPURAM POSES THREAT TO MARINE
ECOLOGY:
As per the scientist colonies of the snowflake, an invasive speices, could pose a serious threst to the marine
ecology of the region.
The spices was found amid clusters of rockey reef off the coast of kovalam at 10 meter depth in
Thiruvananthapuram and Enayam at 18 meter depth in Kanyakumari.
The species was documented as part of a research project harnessing the traditional knowledge of fisherman
community to acess the marine biodiversity of the region.
It existence was reported across coral reef colonies in the gulf of mannar, gulf of kutch, goa and the Andaman
and Nicobar Isalnd.
A THREAT-
Its expansion may crowd out other species like corals, sponges, algae, ascidians that contribute to the rich
marine biodiversity of the region. They can monopolise the food and space resources of the reef ecosystem,
and exhibits high fecundity.
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UNION AND STATE LEGISLATURE

PARLIAMENT
Key Highlights
The institution of Parliament is central to a parliamentary form of government.
Art 79 to 122 in Part V of the Constitution deal with the organization, composition, duration, officers,
procedures, privileges, powers and so on of the Parliament.
Art. 79 provides for a Parliament consisting of the President, Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.

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Government of India Act, 1919 - Since 1919, the central legislature has been a bi-cameral body consisting
of lower House (LOK Sabha) and an upper House (Rajya Sabha)

SABHA (LS) represents the people of India as a whole. OR
The RAJYA SABHA (RS) represents the states and union territories of the Indian Union, while the LOK

The President of India is not a member of either House of Parliament and does not sit in the Parliament
to attend its meetings.
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He is an integral part of the Parliament. This is because a bill passed by both the Houses of Parliament
cannot become law without the President's assent.
The president summons and pro- rogues both the Houses, dissolves the Lok Sabha, addresses both the
Houses, and issues ordinances when they are not in session etc.
Functions of Parliament
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a) Law making functions

b) Providing the Cabinet: It is the Parliament which provides the cabinet. No person can continue to be
a minister for more than six months unless he is member of either House of the Parliament.
c) Control over the Cabinet: It is one of the more important functions and duties of the Lok Sabha to
ensure that the ministry remains in power only as long as it has the support of the majority in that house
[Art.75(3)].
d) Daily Answerability: In the Parliamentary system of Government the ministers have to answer questions,
reply to calling attention motions, move legislation and justify Government's actions in both Houses of
Parliament.
e) Financial Control: An important function of Parliament is to exercise financial control over the government.
Parliament also monitors spending of government money through its own committee called Parliamentary
Accounts Committee (PAC).
f) A Platform for discussion on National Issues: Parliament provides the single largest platform for discussion
of all important national and public issues and thereby it creates public opinion on these issues.
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Qualifications and disqualifications for being a Member of Parliament

To be qualified to become a Member of Parliament a person must be:
a) A citizen of India;
b) Not less than 30 years of age in the case of the Rajya Sabha and not less than 25 years in the case of
the Lok Sabha
c) A voter for any parliamentary constituency in India, but in the case of the Rajya Sabha a candidate must
be registered as an elector in the State or Union Territory from where he is to be chosen.
There are, however, certain disqualifications for becoming a member. A person would be ineligible for being a
member of either House of Parliament if the person:
a) Holds any office of profit under the government other than an office declared by Parliament by law not
to disqualify its holder
b) Is of unsound mind;

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c) Has ceased to be a citizen of India;
d) Is so disqualified by any law made by Parliament;
OR
e) Is so disqualified on the ground of defection.
f) If a person has been convicted, among other things, for promoting enmity between different groups or
convicted for the offence of bribery or has been punished for preaching and practicing social crimes such
as untouchability, dowry, or sati, then he is disqualified from being chosen as a member.
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g) There are also disqualifications for a government servant dismissed for corruption.
RAJYA SABHA
Composition
a) The Rajya Sabha is the permanent upper House and not subject to dissolution.
GS

b) It is composed of not more than 250 members.

c) Out of these 238 are to be the representatives of the State and the Union Territories and 12 are to be
nominated by the President.
d) Persons to be so nominated are required to have special knowledge or practical experience in respect of
literature, science, art or social service.
e) The object of this nomination is to provide distinguished persons a place in the Rajya Sabha without going
through the process of election.
Election - The representatives of the States are elected indirectly by the elected members of State Legislative
Assemblies in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable
vote.
LOK SABHA
Composition
a) The maximum strength of Lok Sabha is 552 of which 530 are elected from the states, 20 from union
territories and 2 are nominated from the Anglo-Indian community.
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b) The Constitution prescribes the numbers of seats in the Lok Sabha to be divided between the States and
the Union territories.
c) The allocation of seats in the Lok Sabha to a particular state and division of each state into territorial
constituency is done on the recommendation of the Delimitation Commission (Art. 82), which is appointed
after the completion of each census.
d) By 42nd Amendment Act, 1976 the allocation and division had been frozen till the year 2000.
e) By 87th Amendment Act, 2003 it has been laid down that the allocation of seats to a State shall remain
frozen till 2026.
f) The division of the State into territorial constituencies shall be done on the basis of the census figures
of 2001 census.

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OR
SC
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Notes

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THE STATE LEGISLATURE

Articles 168 to 212 in Part VI of the Constitution deal with the State Legislatures'
Organization of State Legislature
a) The state legislature consists of the Governor and one or two houses.
b) The Constitution under Article 168 provides that in some States there shall be two houses known as
Legislative Council (Upper House) and Legislative Assembly (Lower House).
c) There is no uniformity in the organization of state legislatures.
d) Most of the states have a unicameral system, while others have a bicameral system.

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e) At present, only seven states have two Houses (bicameral). These are Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka , Jammu and Kashmir and Telangana The twenty-four states have unicameral
OR
system. Here, the state legislature consists of the governor and the legislative assembly.
f) In the states having bicameral system, the state legislature consists of the governor, the legislative council
and the legislative assembly. The legislative council (Vidhan Parishad) is the upper house (second chamber
or house of elders), while the legislative assembly (Vidhan Sabha) is the lower house (first chamber or
popular house).
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LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY
Composition (Art.170)
a) The Legislative Assembly consists of not more than 500 and not less than 60 members chosen by direct
election form territorial constituencies in the state on the basis of universal adult franchise.
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b) Maximum strength is fixed at 500 and minimum strength at 60, in case of Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim
and Goa, the minimum number is fixed at 30 and in case of Mizoram and Nagaland, it is 40 and 46
respectively, some members of the legislative assemblies in Sikkim and Nagaland are also elected
indirectly
c) For the purpose of election, each state shall be divided into territorial constituencies in such manner that
the ratio between the population of each constituency and the number of seats allotted to it, as far as
practicable, be the same throughout the State.
d) At the end of each decennial Census, the constituencies will be recasted to make the necessary adjustments
to meet the variation in population.
e) There is, however, a provision for safeguarding the interests of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and
Anglo Indian community. Therefore, some constituencies are reserved for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled
Tribe.
Nominated Member
a) Constitution also empowers the Governor that when he feels that the Anglo-Indian community has not
been given proper representation, he can nominate a fixed number of members belonging to that community
to the State Assembly.
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b) Governor nominate one member from the Anglo-Indian community,

Qualifications
a) He is a citizen of India;
b) He must be 25 years old;
c) He posses such other qualification as may be prescribed in that behalf by or under any law made by
Parliament;
Duration
a) Every Legislative Assembly has a five years term from the date appointed for its first meeting unless
dissolved earlier.
b) The Assembly stands automatically dissolved after five years.
c) The period of five years, may, while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation, be extended by

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Parliament by law for a period not exceeding one year at a time, and not extending in any case beyond
a period of six months after the proclamation has ceased to operate.
Powers and Functions
a) OR
It can make laws on any subject provided in the State List. It can also make a law on a subject of the
Concurrent List in case; it is not in conflict with a law already made by the Parliament.
b) It has control over the State Council of Ministers - Its members may ask questions to the minister, introduce
SC
resolutions or motions, and may pass a vote of censure to dismiss the government. The Ministry is
collectively responsible to the Assembly. It controls the finances of the state.
c) It has constituent powers. According to Article 368, a bill of constitutional amendment first passed by
the Parliament shall be referred to the states for ratification. It is here that the Assembly has its role to
play.
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d) It is also provided that the President shall refer to the Assembly of the concerned state a bill desiring
alteration in its territory for eliciting its views in this regard before he recommends that such a bill be
introduced in the Parliament.
e) The Assembly also elects its own Speaker and Deputy Speaker and may remove them by a vote of no
confidence.
f) It takes part in the election of the President of India.
g) It considers reports submitted by various independent agencies like the State Public Service Commission,
Auditor-General, and others.
Parliament's Control over State Legislature
There are many restrictions on the powers of the state legislature, which make them subservient to the will
of the Parliament. The restriction on the powers of the state legislatures are as follows:-
a) State legislatures can neither legislate on an item of the Union List nor a residuary subject.
b) Though it can enact laws on a subject mentioned in the Concurrent List, it is Central law, which shall
prevail and to the extent to which the state law is violative of Central law it will be constitutional.
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c) Article 249 provides that Rajya Sabha may pass a special resolution by two thirds majority of members,
present and voting, to transfer any item from the State List to the Union or Concurrent Lists for the
period of one year on the plea that it is expedient in the national interest.
d) There are some categories that require that a bill passed by the state legislature shall be reserved by the
Governor for the consideration of the President
e) The state legislatures cannot override the veto of the President.
f) There are some kinds of bills that cannot be introduced in the state legislatures without the prior permission
of the President. Bills seeking to impose restrictions on trade, commerce or intercourse with other States
or within the State fall within this category.
g) The President is empowered to declare a state of emergency in the country without consulting the states. But
once such an emergency has been declared, the Parliament is empowered to legislate on the subject
mentioned in the State List.
LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL

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Abolition or creation of Legislative Councils (Art.169)
a) Article 169 states that Parliament may by law provide for the abolition of the Legislative Council or for
OR
the creation of such a Council in a State, if the Legislative Assembly of the State passes a resolution to
that effect by a majority of the total membership of the Assembly and by a majority of not less than
two-thirds of the members of the Assembly present and voting.
b) However, no such law shall be deemed to be an amendment of this Constitution for the purpose of article
368.
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Composition (Art. 171)

a) The total number of members in the Legislative Council of a State having such a Council shall not exceed
one-third of the total number of members in the Legislative Assembly of that state.
b) The total number of members in the Legislative Council shall in no case be less than 40, unless
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Parliament by law otherwise provides.

Qualifications
a) He should be a citizen of India
b) He must have completed the age of 30 years
c) Possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed by the Parliament from time to time
d) Person holding office of profit under the Union or the State Government and persons convicted by the
Court of election malpractices or other crimes are also not eligible for membership of the Legislative
Council.
Elections
Of the total number of members of the Legislative Council of a State-
a) As nearly as, 1/3 shall be elected by electorates consisting of members of municipalities, district boards
and such other local authorities in the State as Parliament may by law specify.
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b) As nearly as, 1/12 shall be elected by electorates consisting of persons residing in the State who have been
for at least three years graduates of any University in the territory of India or have been for at least three
years in possession of qualifications as equivalent to that of a graduate of such University,
c) As nearly as, 1/12 shall be elected by electorates consisting of persons who have been for at least three
years engaged in teaching in such educational institutions within the state not lower in standard than that
of Secondary School.
d) As nearly as, 1/3 shall be elected by the members of the Legislative Assembly of the State from
amongst persons who are not member of the Assembly;
e) The remainder shall be nominated by the Governor from among persons having special knowledge or
practical experience in respect of matters such as literature, science, art, co-operative movement and
social service.
Terms of Office
a) No person can be a member of both Houses of the State Legislature at the same time.

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b) The Legislative Council is a permanent body, not subject to dissolution. One-third of its members retire
every two years, after completing the term of six years. The quorum of the Council is one tenth of the
total strength or 10 members, whichever is greater.
Powers and Functions
a)
OR
As regards with its powers, the Legislative Council plays a more advisory role.
SC
b) Over legislative matters it has only a suspensive veto for a maximum period of 4 months.
c) Over financial matters, its powers are not absolute.
d) A Money Bill originates only in the Assembly and the Council may detain it only for a period of 14 days.
e) As similar to the case of the Parliament at the Centre, there is no provision for a joint sitting of both
the Houses of the States Legislature to resolve a deadlock between them, over legislative matters, if any.
GS

f) Thus, the Legislative Council is only a subordinate component of the Legislature.

Duration of Two Houses
a) Duration of Assembly
(i) Normal term is five years
(ii) The governor is authorized to dissolve the assembly at any time (i.e., even before the completion of
five years) to pave the way for fresh elections.
(iii) The term of the assembly can be extended during the period of national emergency by a law of
Parliament for one year at a time (for any length of time) cannot continue beyond a period of six
months after the emergency has ceased to operate
b) Duration of Council
(i) It is a permanent body and is not subject to dissolution
(ii) One-third of its members retire on the expiration of every second year
(iii) A member continues as such for six year
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(iv) Vacant seats are filled up by fresh elections and nominations (by governor) at the beginning of every
third year
(v) Retiring members are also eligible for re-election and re-nomination any number of times
Vacation of Seats
a) Double Membership: A person cannot be a member of both Houses of state legislature at one and the same
time. If a person is elected to both the Houses, his seat in one of the Houses falls vacant as per the
provisions of a law made by the state legislature.
b) Disqualification: If a member of the state legislature becomes subject to any of the disqualifications, his
seat becomes vacant.
c) Resignation: A member may resign his seat by writing to the Chairman of legislative council or Speaker
of legislative assembly, as the case may be. The seat falls vacant when the resignation is accepted11.
d) Absence: A House of the state legislature can declare the seat of a member vacant if he absents himself
from all its meeting for a period of sixty days without its permission.

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e) Other Cases: A member has to vacate his seat in the either House of state legislature,
(i) if his election is declared void by the court if he is expelled by the House,
OR
(ii) if he is elected to the office of president or office of vice-president, and
(iii) if he is appointed to the office of governor of a state
SC
GS
Notes

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NATIONAL POLICY FOR WOMEN, 2016

Ministry of Women and Child Development has unveiled the draft National Policy for Women 2016.
Salient features of the National policy for women empowerment:
a) To create a society with women working as equal partners in all spheres of life
b) To develop a framework to ensure equal rights and opportunities for women
c) To make cyber space a safe place for women and to address "redistribution of gender roles, for reducing
unpaid care work, review of personal and customary laws in accordance with the Constitutional provisions

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and many more."
d) It also seeks to review the criminalization of marital rape keeping women's rights in mind
e)
f) OR
Health and education of women have been kept a priority in the proposed draft
The draft has proposed to "improve access to pre-primary education, enrolment and retention of adolescent
girls."
g) To carry out skill development and provide equal employment opportunities
SC
h) To provide suitable benefits related to maternity and child care services
i) The draft plans to increase women's participation in the political, administration, civil services and
corporate boardrooms arena
j) To address all forms of violence against women
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k) To improve child sex ratio (CSR)

l) To prevent trafficking at source, transit and destination areas for effective monitoring of the networks
m) Operational strategies
n) To enable safety and security of women with the help of "One Stop Centres, Women Helpline, Mahila
Police Volunteers, Reservation of women in police force, Panic buttons in mobiles, Surveillance mechanisms
in public places.
o) To create eco-systems to encourage entrepreneurship amongst women. This has been proposed to be done
through podiums like Mahila E-Haat et.
p) Aiding women in workplace through "flexi timings, increased maternity leave, provision of child care/
creches at workplace, life cycle health care facilities."
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NEERANCHAL NATIONAL WATERSHED

PROJECT
Neeranchal will lead to reducing surface runoff of rainwater, increasing recharge of ground water and
better availability of water in rainfed areas resulting in incremental rainfed agriculture productivity, enhanced
milk yield and increased cropping intensity through better convergence related programmes in project
areas.
The project will be implemented by the Ministry of Rural Development.
It is a six-year period (2016-21) will support the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayi Yojana in hydrology and
water management, agricultural production systems, capacity building and monitoring and evaluation.
The Neeranchal project was approved by the cabinet with Bugdet sharing of 50% by Govt and rest 50%

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by the World Bank.
All 28 states which implement the watershed projects will benefit from Neeranchal.
OR
12% of the area which can be called as wasteland will be targeted through this project to make about 336
lakh hectares of land arable.
Neeranchal is primarily designed to address the following concerns:
a) Bring about institutional changes in watershed and rainfed agricultural management practices in India,
SC

b) Build systems that ensure watershed programmes and rainfed irrigation management practices are better
focussed, and more coordinated, and have quantifiable results,
c) Devise strategies for the sustainability of improved watershed. Management practices in programme
areas, even after the withdrawal of project support,
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d) Through the watershed plus approach, support improved equity, livelihoods, and incomes through
forward linkages, on a platform of inclusiveness and local participation.
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HYDROPONICS
Hydroponics is a subset of hydroculture, the method of growing plants without soil, using mineral nutrient
solutions in a water solvent. Terrestrial plants may be grown with only their roots exposed to the mineral
solution, or the roots may be supported by an inert medium, such as perlite or gravel. The nutrients in
hydroponics can be from fish waste, duck manure, or normal nutrients.
With hydroponics the plants are grown in an inert growing medium and a perfectly balanced, pH adjusted
nutrient solution is delivered to the roots in a highly soluble form. This allows the plant to uptake its food
with very little effort as opposed to soil where the roots must search out the nutrients and extract them. This
is true even when using rich, organic soil and top of the line nutrients. The energy expended by the roots in

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this process is energy better spent on vegetative growth and fruit and flower production.
Advantages


No soil is needed for hydroponics.
OR
The water stays in the system and can be reused - thus, a lower water requirement.
It is possible to control the nutrition levels in their entirety - thus, lower nutrition requirements.
SC
No nutrition pollution is released into the environment because of the controlled system.
Stable and high yields.
Pests and diseases are easier to get rid of than in soil because of the container's mobility.
Ease of harvesting.
GS

No pesticide damage.
Disadvantages
Without soil as a buffer, any failure to the hydroponic system leads to rapid plant death. Other disadvantages
include pathogen attacks such as damp-off due to Verticillium wilt caused by the high moisture levels associated
with hydroponics and over watering of soil based plants. Also, many hydroponic plants require different
fertilizers and containment systems.
Notes