Chemistry Manish Mishra

Matter In Our Surroundings

Matter and its Forms

Take a look at your surroundings. You may find a pencil, a book, an apple, a table or a chair.
Can you feel the air blowing? These are different forms of matter. One or more of our senses can
recognize these. These objects possess mass, occupy space and have different shapes, sizes and
colours. All that we see, smell, taste or touch around us consists of matter.

Matter can be defined as anything that occupies space, (i.e., has a volume), possesses mass,
offers resistance and can be felt through one or more of our senses.

Till very recently, it was assumed that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. Scientists
have established that there are two fundamental entities in the universe: Matter and Energy. They
have also come to the conclusion that the total quantity of matter and of energy in the universe is
constant. After the discovery of radioactivity, and work done by scientists like Einstein, it was
realized that matter and energy are inter-convertible. It is this convertibility of matter into energy
that is responsible for construction of atom bombs and nuclear reactors. Keeping these facts in
mind, we can broadly define matter as "a condensed form of energy that has mass and extension
in space and time."
sition of Matter
Ancient View Early Greek Idea
Empedocles (500 - 430 B.C) and Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C) suggested that all matter was made up
of four primary elements fire, water, air and earth. Further, the properties of any particular
substance were believed to be due to the composition ratio of these four primary elements. [Note
the hint towards properties of elements].

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Early Indian Concept

Around (600 - 500 B.C) the 'Samkhya' philosophy was popular. It asserted that matter was made
up of five 'bhutas' or elements consisting of akasa (sky or space), vayu (air), tejas (fire), ap
(water) and kshiti (the Earth). These bhutas, besides sharing common properties like colour,
smell, taste and touch had distinguishing properties of their own. Some of the distinguishing
properties are as follows:

One of the major impacts of these theories is the concept of an element having a distinct set of
properties.

The Indian philosopher Kanad (600 B.C) was of the view that matter consists of eternal and
imperceptible particles called parmanus. The combination of these parmanus in different
proportions forms matter.

Democritus (400 B.C) a Greek philosopher proposed that matter was made up of very tiny
particles,. The word 'atom' was later ascribed to them and is derived from the Greek word
meaning 'indivisible'.

Particulate Nature of Matter

Intensive investigation by scientists over the years led to the development of a mental model (the
minuscule particles couldn't be actually seen at that time) known as 'dynamic particle model'. All
matter is assumed to be made up of particles that are very small, which may be atoms, molecules
or ions.

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Characteristics of Particles of Matter According to the dynamic particle model all states of matter
are made up of tiny particles and matter as a result is an aggregation of very small particles.
Nevertheless, the state of aggregation of particles is different in different substances. Some
characteristic features of these particles are as follows: Particles in matter are in a state of
continuous motion The particles present in matter are not stationary, but have a tendency to acquire
motion. In fact they are in a state of continuous motion. The rate of movement of the particles is directly
proportional to the thermal energy of the particles. Particles in matter attract one another The
particles in matter attract one another. This attraction is inversely proportional to the distance between
the particles. However, the magnitude of these inter-particle forces differs from one substance to
another. Particles in matter have spaces between them Empty spaces called voids separate the
particles from one another. The distance between them ranges from 10 -8 cm to 10-5 cm. Due to these
voids matter is able to disperse into one another bringing about diffusion.

States of Matter All matter consists of atoms and molecules. Each of these atoms and molecules has
certain amount of energy. The level of this energy decides the state in which the matter exists. When
heat energy is supplied to matter, this energy level rises. As a result of this, state or the form in which a
matter exists can change. Matter is classified into different categories depending upon its physical or

chemical nature. Physically, matter can exist in

three states or forms. These states are: Solid, Liquid and Gas. Atoms or molecules in the solid state have
the least energy whereas those in the gaseous state have the maximum energy. In the case of liquids,
the atoms or molecules have a midway energy. The basic differences between the three states of matter
explained on the basis of dynamic particle model are as follows: Solid State In solids, atoms or
molecules are closely packed and the intermolecular space or void is minimum. The average distance
between particles is of the order 10 -8cm; consequently, solids are almost incompressible. In addition, the
intermolecular attraction in solids is quite high and for that reason the movement of atoms or molecules
in solids is restricted. As a result, atoms or molecules in solids have no freedom of mobility; they only
vibrate in their fixed positions. Consequently, a solid will have a definite volume and shape. A solid can
form a firm and rigid structure, which allows it to be cut into many shape and sizes. This can result in a
solid having any number of free surfaces. A Solid will also have high density, incompressibility and a high
melting and boiling point. A solid may be converted to a liquid when it is given heat energy. A solid
has a definite characteristic shape tends to resist deformation of its shape is relatively non-
compressible Example: Diamond Solids can be classified as: Crystalline Amorphous In a crystalline

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substance, a definite well-defined external geometric shape such as cube, octahedron or tetrahedron

characterizes the solid. Internally, particles are orderly

arranged in a three-dimensional pattern. Example: Common salt and copper sulphate Amorphous
solids (solids without definite structure) do not exhibit clear-cut external geometrical shapes. Their
internal particle arrangements are less regular; they do not have a defined melting point and display a
tendency to deform more easily. Example: Glass and plastic. Glass does not resist deformation very
well. It softens rather than melts when heated and sags and flows on heating over a long period of time.
Liquid State In liquids, the intermolecular space or the void is slightly more than that of solids while the
intermolecular attraction is less. The average distance between particles is of the order 10 -7 to 10-5 cm.
When compared to solids, the particles of liquids are relatively loosely packed. This type of packing leads
to a greater mobility of the molecules and liquid particles can move about but cannot separate and so
can flow. As a result, a liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape. It takes the shape of the
container in which it is placed. As the intermolecular space is not much, like solids, a liquid cannot be
compressed much, even if high pressures are applied. A liquid has only a single free surface the layer
that is exposed to the surroundings. The boiling point of a liquid is above room temperature. The liquid
state is an intermediate state between solids and gases.

A liquid has a definite volume no

characteristic shape takes the shape of the container is fluid - is able to flow and change shape
without separation is essentially non-compressible Example: Water and milk Gaseous State In gases,
the intermolecular attractions are very poor. The particles are loosely packed at random and the voids
between particles are very large. As a result, a gas does not have a definite shape or a definite volume. It
will assume the shape and the volume of the container in which it is placed. Even if a very small quantity
of a gas is introduced into a large vessel, the gas fills the whole of the vessel. As it fills the whole
container it takes the shape of the container and has no surface of its own. We say that the gas has no
free surface. Unlike solids and liquids, a gas is highly compressible. For a definite mass of a gas, its
volume depends on the pressure and the temperature. Effect of Temperature and Pressure on States
of Matter A gas has no definite volume or shape is a fluid is highly compressible. It takes the
volume and shape of the vessel in which it is kept. Example: Oxygen, Hydrogen and Carbon dioxide

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Characteristics of the Three States of Matter

A fourth state called plasma refers to the super heated gaseous state. This state
is a mixture of electrons and positively charged ions with unusual properties. It is found at extremely
high temperatures such as interiors of the sun or stars. Astronomers reveal that 99% of all matter in the
universe is present in the plasma state. Super Cooled Solid State A fifth state has recently been
revealed that refers to the super cooled solid. In the super cooled state atoms lose their separate
identity and get condensed. They behave like a single 'super atom'. The existence of this state was first
envisaged in 1925 by Albert Einstein, who based the idea on the work by Satyendra Nath Bose, the
Indian physicist, who had predicted a class of fundamental particles called 'BOSONS' that were named
after him. A 'Super atom' was actually created on the 5 th of June 1995 by the scientists Wieman and
Cornell. They chilled atoms of a gas, to the lowest temperature ever achieved, and created a new state
of matter called BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE. Using lasers and an exotic evaporation method, they
plunged the temperature of RUBIDIUM gas almost to 'absolute zero' or -273 oC. All atomic motions come
to a stand still at this temperature. We shall concern ourselves with the study of matter in the three

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main states i.e., solid, liquid or gas. The fourth and fifth states of matter are beyond the scope of our
study.

Inter-conversion of the States of Matter

Depending on the conditions of temperature and pressure, matter can exist in any of the three
main states i.e., solid, liquid or gas. Matter can be inter-converted from one state to the other by
the addition or removal of heat energy. All the three states of matter are inter-convertible.

For example, when water is cooled to 0oC, it transforms into ice (solid). On heating, at 100oC, it
begins to boil and gets converted into vapour (gas). On cooling, water vapour gradually
reconverts back into water (liquid).

The inter-convertibility of states is possible with all chemical elements. But in case of chemical
compounds, this is not possible for all compounds. When a chemical compound is heated, it may
undergo a chemical change called decomposition and as a result, an entirely new compound is
formed. For example, when calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes into calcium oxide and
carbon dioxide.

Effect of Temperature on Matter Solids The temperature effect on heating a solid varies depending
on the nature of the solid and the conditions required in bringing the change. Fusion or Melting When
we heat a solid, we add energy to the system increasing the vibration of the particles. Eventually these
particles break free from their binding forces and fuse. Fusion is the change of state from solid to liquid.
This is generally referred to as melting. The temperature at which the substance melts is called its
melting point. The normal melting point of a crystal is the temperature at which it melts under one
atmospheric pressure. A substance has a definite melting point, at a constant pressure. Increase in
pressure usually raises the melting point. During melting, the temperature of a substance remains
constant till the entire substance is converted into liquid due to the latent heat of fusion. The extra heat
is used up in changing the state by overcoming the forces of attraction.

The

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amount of heat required by one kilogram of solid to convert itself into liquid at atmospheric pressure at
its melting point is known as latent heat of fusion.

Sublimation Some solid substances when heated get converted directly to the gaseous or vapour state
without first passing through the liquid state. When this vapour or gas is cooled, it gets converted
directly into a solid, without passing through the liquid state. Such change of state of a solid directly into
gas or vapour and back to the solid state, without passing through the liquid state, is called as
sublimation. When a sublimable solid substance is heated, it is said to 'sublime' into a gaseous state; and
when sublimable substances are cooled from their vapour state, the solid obtained is called the
'sublimate'. Some sublimable substances are: iodine, camphor, naphthalene, dry ice carbon dioxide) etc.

Experiment Take some crystals of iodine in an

evaporating dish. Cover it with a glass funnel, as shown in figure 2.3. Close the tip of the tail of the
funnel with some cotton. Heat the dish gently. The space inside the funnel gets filled with purple
vapours of iodine. Stop the heating. The purple vapours solidify to form beautiful purple crystals of
iodine on the cooler sides of the funnel. These crystals are the sublimate of iodine.

Naphthalene balls which keep insects away when placed inside a cupboard, give a peculiar smell due to
its vapours. The naphthalene balls become smaller and smaller day be day. This is due to sublimation.

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Liquids On heating a liquid, the energy of the particles increase. They overcome the inter-particle forces
of attraction and turn into a gas or vapour. The temperature effects on liquids is as follows:
Vaporization and Evaporation When molecules of a liquid escape from its surface and go into vapour
(gaseous) phase, it is called evaporation or vaporization. Evaporation is a slow change of a liquid into a
gas on its surface. It is process of escaping of molecules spontaneously from the surface of the liquid to
vapour state. The greater the surface area of the liquid exposed to atmosphere, greater will be the
evaporation. Similarly, at higher temperatures but below boiling point, there will be more evaporation.
As the temperature increases, the particles gain more energy and move more rapidly. For this reason
the possibility of some particles overcoming the inter-particle forces of attraction and escaping
increases. So, higher the temperature, higher is the rate of evaporation. Low humidity in the
atmosphere also raises the rate of evaporation. Different molecules in a liquid have different speeds of
movement and therefore, have different kinetic energies. A certain fraction of the molecules that lie
near the surface have very high kinetic energies. These molecules can readily overcome the attractive
forces in the liquid and escape from the liquid surface into vapours. During the process of evaporation
cooling is always caused. Cooling takes place because molecules of higher kinetic energy escape during
evaporation. The slow moving molecules possessing lower kinetic energy are left behind and, therefore,
the average kinetic energy of the molecules in the liquid state is lowered. We assume that no heat is
supplied from some outside source. The lowering of the average kinetic energy results in a temperature
drop in the liquid. Boiling Boiling of a liquid occurs at a point, when it is freely converted into vapour.
At this point, called the boiling point, the vapour pressure within the liquid is equal to the external
pressure or the atmospheric pressure on the liquid. Thus, molecules escape easily in a gaseous state. At
the boiling point, the temperature remains constant till the entire mass of the liquid is converted into
gas due to the latent heat of vaporization. The particles in the vapour state have absorbed extra energy
in the latent heat form. Boiling is similar to vaporization except that in boiling, bubbles of gaseous
substance form throughout the body of the liquid and rise up to escape at the surface. External pressure
affects boiling. Changing the atmospheric pressure can change the boiling point of a liquid. So, like
melting point, boiling point is always considered at one atmospheric pressure. For instance water boils
on a mountain- top at a much lower temperature than at sea-level. Atmospheric pressure being less
requires lesser thermal energy to get vapour pressure equal to atmospheric pressure.

Water
boils at 100oC at 1 atmospheric pressure. When dissolved impurities are present in the liquid, the boiling
point is increased and the freezing point gets decreased. When you add a small amount of urea or sugar
in water, its boiling point will be more than 100 oC and its freezing point will be less than 0oC. The
amount of heat required by one kilogram of liquid into gas at atmospheric pressure at its boiling point is
known as latent heat of vaporization.

Solidification or Freezing When the liquid produced by melting a crystal is cooled, it eventually solidifies
or freezes. The temperature at which the liquid freezes under one atmospheric pressure is the normal
freezing point. The change from liquid state to solid state is called solidification or freezing. Water
freezes at 0oC. Gases On heating gases, the kinetic energy increases and the inter-molecular forces of

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attraction decreases. As a result the particle are more spread out with a bigger volume. In other words
the gaseous state undergoes expansion on heating.

Effect of Pressure on Matter Pressure has little effect on the state of solids and liquids as the inter-
particle distance is already minimized in these situations. However, the effect of pressure in case of
gases is considerable. Condensation The change of state from the gaseous form to the liquid form is
called condensation. It is also called liquefaction. A good example of this process is that of water vapour
in atmosphere condensing to form rain. By applying pressure to a gas the particles come closer and
start condensing to the liquid state. By applying pressure and reducing temperature one can liquefy
gases. A good example is the liquefaction of petrol gas from oil refineries into LPG cylinders (liquefied
petroleum gas). Experiment A 100 mL syringe is taken whose nozzle is plugged or closed by inserting a
rubber cork. The plunger is drawn out such that the whole space is occupied by air. When the plunger is
pushed back into the syringe we notice that the air inside the syringe decreases i.e., it is compressed.
The experiment is repeated with water replacing the air in the syringe. It is found that the plunger
cannot be pushed into the syringe. This is because liquids are hardly compressible. This shows that
pressure does not produce much effect upon liquids.

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Accordingly, temperature and pressure determine the

state of a substance either solid, liquid or gas.

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Question (1): A substance has a definite volume but no definite shape. State whether this substance is a
solid, liquid or a gas. Answer: The substance is a liquid. It has a definite volume but no definite shape
and takes the shape of the container in which it is placed Question (2): A small quantity of a gas is let
into a large evacuated chamber. a) How much of the chamber gets filled with the gas? b) What property
of the gas helps it to do so? Answer: a) The entire chamber gets filled with the gas. b) The gas
molecules have very weak intermolecular forces of attraction. This permits the gas molecules to diffuse
and fill up the entire chamber. Question (3): Why do solids not diffuse into one another? Answer: Solids
have very little intermolecular spaces, there by not allowing the molecules of another solid to enter.
Moreover, the intermolecular force of attraction between molecules of one solid is very high and this
prevents diffusion of molecules of one solid into another solid. Question (4): What is matter? How is it
classified? Answer: Matter is anything that occupies space, possesses mass, offers resistance and can
be felt by one or more of our senses. Matter may be classified as shown below:

Question (5): Among solids, liquids and gases which

one has the maximum movement of molecules, the maximum intermolecular attraction and the
minimum space between molecules. Answer: Maximum movement of molecules is seen in gases

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Maximum intermolecular attraction is found in solids Minimum space between molecules occur in solids
Question (6): Name the properties that decide whether a given substance exists as a solid, liquid or a
gas. Answer: The properties are:
Space between molecules
Force of attraction between molecules
The kinetic energy of molecules Question (7): List two properties that liquids have in common with
gases. Answer: Two common properties shared by liquids and gases are i) Gases and liquids do not have
a fixed shape ii) Gases and liquids flow easily Question (8): What happens when a liquid is heated?
Answer: The heat is absorbed by the liquid has the following effects:

It increases the average kinetic energy of the particles in the liquid, increasing its temperature.

It furnishes energy for the particles to pass from liquid to vapour state. As heating continues and
temperature approaches the boiling point, more and more energy is utilised for vapourising the liquid
and less and less for raising the temperature. Question (9): Why does water boil at a lower temperature
at higher altitudes? Answer: Boiling occurs at a point where vapour pressure is equal to the external
atmospheric pressure. At higher altitudes atmospheric pressure is much less. Less thermal energy is
required to get vapour pressure equal to the atmospheric pressure. Example: cooking of potatoes take
much longer at the top of a mountain because boiling temperature of water is lower. Question (10):
What is the principle used in a pressure cooker? Answer: The pressure in the enclosed volume above
the liquid reaches much greater values than atmospheric pressure, thus the temperature of boiling
water within the cooker is greater than the normal boiling temperature. Hence, things cook much faster.
Question (11): Figure given below represents a block of ice. Give few reasons why this block of ice is
considered as 'matter'.

Answer: This block of ice is considered as matter as,

i) It has a definite mass and
ii) It occupies space i.e., has a volume
iii) It can be perceived by our senses Question (12): When some alcohol is rubbed on the hand, the area
feels cold. Explain. Answer: Alcohol is a volatile liquid, which evaporates at room temperature. When
rubbed on the hand, it draws heat from the skin and evaporates into the surroundings. Hence the hand
feels cold where the alcohol is rubbed. Question (13): How can the boiling point of pure water be raised,
without making it impure? Answer: Increasing the pressure of the atmosphere in which, it is being
boiled can raise the boiling point of water. For e.g., in the pressure cooker, the pressure of steam is high
and hence the boiling point of water is raised to about 125 oC Question (14): Give reasons why weight is
not a property of matter. Answer: The weight of a body depends upon its position on the earth. Weight
is the product of mass and acceleration due to gravity 'g'. As 'g' varies from place to place, so does the

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weight of a body vary from place to place. Hence, it is not a property of matter. Question (15): Explain
why a gas can be compressed to a great extent. Answer: The molecules of a gas are very loosely packed
with large intermolecular spaces. On the application of pressure, the molecules can be brought closer
i.e., the gas can be compressed. Question (16): When a bottle of perfume is opened, the odour is
experienced all around the room. Explain. Answer: Perfume is a highly volatile liquid. When the bottle is
opened the molecules of perfume turn into the vapour state. These molecules then diffuse in the air
around, as air has large intermolecular spaces. By diffusion the perfume molecules spread throughout
causing the scent to spread within the room. Question (17): Distinguish between evaporation and

boiling. Answer:
Question (18): What is common to dry ice and iodine? Answer: Both dry ice and iodine sublime on
heating Question (19): There is no rise in temperature of a melting solid despite applying heat to it.
Explain. Answer: The energy that is being supplied for melting the solid is used to reduce the attractive
forces between molecules of the solid. In addition, the excessive heat energy is stored as potential
energy in the resulting liquid in the form of latent heat energy. As a result there is no rise in
temperature. Question (20): A gas jar containing vapours of bromine is inverted and covered mouth to
mouth with another gas jar containing air. What will you observe after the two jars have remained
together for some time. Give reasons for your answer. Answer: Bromine vapours are reddish brown in
colour. On keeping the two jars together in contact, it will be observed that the brown vapours will
move slowly into the lower jar containing air. Reddish brown streaks will be seen in the lower jar. Finally
the two gases will mix uniformly to give a homogenous mixture, which is light red or brown in colour.
Question (21): Explain why the volume of a gas increases when heated? Answer: In gases, the
intermolecular forces of attraction are weak but the kinetic energy of the molecules is high. When more
energy is supplied in the form of heat, the kinetic energy of the gas molecules further increase but as
the attractive forces are weak, the gas molecules move and spread apart to occupy a greater volume.
Question (22): Wet clothes when hung out in the sun, dry out. What is the process involved. Explain.
Answer: Evaporation is the process that takes place here. On exposure to the heat of the sun, the liquid
molecules of the wet clothes absorb energy and change into the gaseous state and escape from the
surface of the clothes thus leaving it dry. Question (23): A glass beaker containing water and a large
crystal of potassium permanganate. It is kept aside for a few hours. a) What is the colour of the solution
in the beginning? b) What do you observe after sometime? c) Why does such a change take place?
Answer: a) The solution is colourless in the beginning.

b) After a few minutes the water at the bottom of the beaker is dark pink, while that towards the top, is
light pink. After a few more minutes, the entire liquid becomes uniformly dark pink in colour.

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c) The crystals of potassium permanganate sink to the bottom and dissolve in the water, giving the
solution its colour. Gradually, the molecules of the solid move up in the intermolecular spaces of the
liquid. By this movement of diffusion, a uniformly coloured solution is produced.

Question (1): Matter has ___________.

1. no mass but occupies space
2. mass but occupies no space
3. mass and occupies space
4. no mass and occupies no space
Ans: 3 Question (2): The gaseous form of water is called as _______.
1. water gas
2. water vapour
3. fog
4. snow
Ans: 2 Question (3): The state of matter with only one free surface is _______.
1. liquid
2. gas
3. solid
4. plasma
Ans: 1 Question (4): In gases, particles vibrate _________.
1. about their mean position
2. about a vertical axis
3. about a horizontal axis
4. in any direction
Ans: 4 Question (5): Mixing of gases is called ______.
1. diffusion
2. effusion
3. filtration

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4. sedimentation
Ans: 1 Question (6): A property not possessed by a fluid is _________.
1. it can flow
2. it has mass
3. it has a definite shape
4. can be perceived by our senses
Ans: 3 Question (7): Which among the following is a solid at room temperature?
1. Nitrogen
2. Potassium permanganate
3. Bromine
4. Helium
Ans: 2 Question (8): Which of these is a characteristic property of gases?
1. Gases are not at all rigid.
2. Gases are not compressible.
3. Gases have particles in fixed positions.
4. Gases have high density.
Ans: 1 Question (9): A solid has _________.
1. maximum intermolecular space
2. definite mass but no definite volume
3. very high compressibility
4. maximum intermolecular force of attraction
Ans: 4 Question (10): Conversion of gas to liquid is called _________.
1. condensation
2. sublimation
3. vapourisation
4. solidification
Ans: 1 Question (11): The process by which wet clothes dry up is called _______.
1. evaporation
2. boiling
3. condensation
4. solidification
Ans: 1 Question (12): A solid that sublimes on heating is _________.
1. sodium chloride
2. copper sulphate
3. lead sulphate
4. ammonium chloride
Ans: 4 Question (13): Matter changes from one state to another with change in _________.
1. density
2. temperature

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3. volume
4. height
Ans: 2 Question (14): The process of a solid changing into liquid is called ___________.
1. liquefaction
2. melting
3. freezing
4. solidification
Ans: 2 Question (15): The freezing point of pure water is __________.
1. 100oC
2. 0oC
3. 5oC
4. 78.3oC
Ans: 2 Question (16): The force between particles of matter is called as ___________.
1. cohesive force
2. adhesive force
3. kinetic energy
4. thermal energy
Ans: 1 Question (17): Particles of matter are __________.
1. stationary
2. vibrating in one position
3. in continuous motion
4. rotating about an axis
Ans: 3 Question (18): The temperature at which vapour changes into liquid is called ________.
1. freezing point
2. melting point
3. boiling point
4. liquefaction point
Ans: 4 Question (19): Temperature is a measure of ___________.
1. total kinetic energy of molecules
2. total potential energy of molecules
3. average potential energy of molecules
4. average kinetic energy of molecules
Ans: 1 Question (20): For any substance the temperature remains same during the change of
state due to ___________.
1. loss of heat
2. latent heat
3. less supply of heat
4. lattice energy
Ans: 2

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