Three Reading Models

1. 1. Theories in reading instruction Maria Antonette C. Andres Jeannel Soco EFR3-4

2. 2. TOP-DOWN READING MODEL Emphasizes what the reader brings to the text Says reading is
driven by meaning Proceeds from whole to part
3. 3. Views from some researchers 1. Frank Smith Reading is not decoding written language to spoken
language 2. reading is a matter of bringing meaning to print
4. 4. FEATURES OF TOP-DOWN APPROACH 1. Readers can comprehend a selection even though they
do not recognize each word. 2. Readers should use meaning and grammatical cues to identify
unrecognized words. 3. Reading for meaning is the primary objective of reading, rather than mastery of
letters, letters/sound
5. 5. 4. Reading requires the use of meaning activities than the mastery of series of word- recognition
skills. 5. The primary focus of instruction should be the reading of sentences, paragraphs, and whole
selections 6. The most important aspect about reading is the amount and kind of information gained
through reading. FEATURES OF TOP-DOWN APPROACH
6. 6. BOTTOM UP Emphasizes a single direction Emphasizes the written or printed texts Part to
whole model Reading is driven by a process that results in meaning
7. 7. PROPONENTS OF THE BOTTOM UP 1. Flesch 1955 2. Gough 1985
8. 8. FEATURES OF BOTTOM- UP Believes the reader needs to: 1. Identify letter features 2. Link these
features to recognize letters 3. Combine letter to recognize spelling patterns 4. Link spelling patterns to
recognize words 5. Proceed to sentence, paragraph, and text- level processing
9. 9. INTERACTIVE READING MODEL It recognizes the interaction of bottom- up and top-down
processes simultaneously throughout the reading process. Reading as an active process that
depends on reader characteristics, the text, and the reading situation (Rumelhart, 1985) Attempts to
combine the valid insights of bottom-up and top-down models.
10. 10. PROPONENTS OF THE INTERACTIVE READING MODEL 1. Rumelhart, D. 1985 2. Barr, Sadow,
and Blachowicz 1990 3. Ruddell and Speaker 1985

EFFECTIVE READERS
A familiarity with effective and ineffective reading strategies can help the teacher look for effective reading behaviours in
learners, encourage wider use of these strategies, and be on the lookout for learners using less effective strategies. An
effective reader is one who can select the correct strategy for the purpose and text. Studies have shown that most effective
readers:
discover the distinctive features in letters, words and meaning
try to identify meaning rather than letters or words
use their knowledge of the world
eliminate unlikely alternatives through inference and prediction
have a clearly defined purpose
locate topic sentences
distinguish main points from subordinate ones, and fact from opinion
are aware of cohesion and reference
are aware of explicit and implied relationships between sentences and paragraphs
are aware of the importance of argument, tone and function
are able to work out the meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary from context
have confidence in their own ability and take chances
Which of the above do your students do well?
What activities do you use to develop these strategies?

INEFFECTIVE READERS
On the other hand, ineffective reading is often caused by:
'mouthing'
word-by-word reading
inappropriate translation
inaccurate linguistic analysis
paying attention to unfamiliar words which are not relevant to the purpose of reading
panic
and therefore these students do not take chances.
Which of the above to you see in your classes?
How do you help your students overcome these tendencies?
HOW DO WE READ?
Match the column on the left with the definition on the right and decide which are most applicable to the above categories.

Skimming reading shorter texts to extract accurate detailed information

Scanning quickly reading a text to get the gist of it
Extensive reading quickly going through a text to find a particular piece of information
Intensive reading reading longer texts, usually for pleasure

WHAT SKILLS DO WE NEED TO READ SUCCESSFULLY?

Look at the following subskills, consider each at two different levels (e.g. advanced and beginners) and then number the
ten most important skills for each level.
* Recognising the script of a language.
* Deducing the meaning of unfamiliar lexical items.
* Understanding explicitly stated information.
* Understanding conceptual meaning.
* Understanding the communicative values of sentences and utterances.
* Understanding relations within the sentence.
* Understanding relations between sentences through grammatical and lexical cohesive devices.
* Interpreting text by going outside it.
* Identifying main points in a discourse.
* Extracting salient points to summarise.
* Basic reference skills (contents, index, abbreviations, ordering).
* Skimming.
* Scanning.
* Transcoding written information to tabular or diagram form and vice versa.

THE PROCESS OF READING SCHEMA THEORY

One of the most influential models of reading in recent years has been the Psycholinguistic Model described by Goodman
and drawing heavily on top-down processing. It is based on a consideration of schema theory which says that
comprehension depends on the activation of schemata. These are pictures or frameworks of a situation which help us to
understand the situation. In other words, as soon as we begin to read, we form a schema triggered by the title, format, first
sentence etc. and based upon our previous knowledge. This schema will be reinforced, adapted or discarded as we
continue to read. This model has profound implications for the process of reading. It is essentially a selective process
which involves a minimal sampling of the text. The confirmation of the schema chosen may render much of the language
redundant.

BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING
This process reflects the old models of reading as a simple process of decoding words into thoughts. However, it accepts
that words must first be recognised and, having been decoded, the thoughts must then be remembered. It is an approach
which works from the parts to the whole, building up gradually in a process of growth.

TOP-DOWN PROCESSING
This model states that readers begin with expectations and ideas about a text, based on its title, format and style, before
they begin to look for words that will substantiate or refute these expectations. It is an approach which begins with a
picture of the whole and deals with the parts in terms of this.
Are your students primarily top down or bottom up processors?
Or is there a healthy mixture? Why? Why not?
Should we make students aware of their own reading processes? Why? Why not?
How can an awareness of the theories above help us as teachers?

PROBLEMS IN READING
There are basically three positions in the literature of today.
1. The Processing Problem - argues that L2 learners may be proficient in the language, but they still have problems
reading. Therefore, the core of the problem is the failure to transfer reading strategies from the L1 to the L2.
2. The Language Problem - states that L2 reading is very different from L1 reading. It argues that the L2 reader has
problems with memory span, mistakes are likely to lead to hesitation, and there is a possibility of L1 interference.
3. The Short Circuit Problem - aims to strike a balance between the first two and states that L2 readers bring a great deal
with them to help in the reading process, but it concedes that the language problem is of fundamental importance. In other
words, good L1 readers are theoretically able to transfer their reading skills, but when language competence is limited
there is a short circuit. There is no conclusive evidence for this theory as yet, but the idea is intuitively appealing. Readers,
who do not know enough of the language, cannot transfer skills from their L1 because they need to be more proficient in
the L2 to activate the skill.
What problems do you find your classes have?
What activities do you use to overcome these problems?
Share your favourite and most successful reading classes.

THE THREE PHASES IN A READING LESSON

PRE-READING
* to introduce and stimulate interest in the topic
* to motivate students by providing a reason for reading
* to provide language preparation for the text
WHILE-READING
* to clarify content and vocabulary of the text
* to help students understand the writer's purpose
* to help students understand the structure of the text
POST-READING
* to consolidate and reflect upon what has been read
* to relate the text to the students' own knowledge/interests/views
* to provide a stimulus for other language activities

POSSIBLE STAGES OF A READING LESSON

Below you will see a number of possible stages for a reading lesson. These stages are in a jumbled order. Please re-
arrange the stages according to what you consider to be an appropriate order. (Note that in any particular lesson some of
these stages might be omitted and/or other stages added.)
a Students ask the teacher about unfamiliar vocabulary.
b Students work very quickly in order to work out the answers to one or two general questions.
c Students work out the meaning of selected words and expressions from the context.
d Students predict the content of the text from the title/picture/first line.
e The teacher draws attention to some of the grammar in the text.
f Students complete a detailed true/false exercise.
g Students locate topic sentences in some paragraphs.
h Students discuss topics related to the content of the text.
i Students scan the text to pick out proper names.

ACTIVITIES FOR DEVELOPING READING SKILLS

- Preview/Predict/Anticipate
- Scanning
- Skimming
- Comprehension Questions (e.g. "wh-" questions)
- Jigsaw Reading (jumbled and re-order)
- Information Transfer (e.g. draw diagram/graph/map/plan; complete a table)
- Directions / Instructions (e.g. follow directions, complete a task, arrange something)
- Cloze
- Disappearing Lexis
- C-Test
- Reference Identification (pronouns, anaphoric, cataphoric)
- Inference
- Write Headlines
- Write/Complete Summaries
- Make/Complete Notes (e.g. tree diagrams, mind maps)
- Integrated Skills activities (e.g. oral summary, paraphrase text, re-write in own words)

SELECTING TEXTS
We should decide if we are going to use narrow-angle texts or wide-angle texts before we look for a specific passage.
Narrow-angle texts are those which are drawn from the student's specialist field. They are prepared, authentic and require
intensive reading. They tend to be highly motivating, good for vocabulary and integrate naturally with other class work.
Wide-angle texts, on the other hand, offer a greater range of choice and flexibility. They are authentic, often require less
preparation and can be used effectively with extensive reading exercises. However, we need to know our students well to
choose appropriately. Studies have concluded that the teacher can encourage effective reading through the careful
selection of texts and setting of tasks. Panic can be minimised through the use of concrete, realistic tasks and groupwork.
How do you select texts for your classes?
Which texts do you find work best?
Which texts do you find fall flat?
Are there any particular sources you find especially useful?
You could use the two lists below to jog your memory.

WHAT DO WE READ?
Tick the categories you feel apply to your students and number them in order of importance. Add any further categories or
examples you feel should be included.
* Novels, literary texts (e.g. essays, biographies etc.)
* Plays
* Poems
* Letters (postcards, telegrams, notes)
* Newspapers and magazines (different articles and features)
* Reports, technical and specialised articles, pamphlets etc.
* Handbooks, textbooks, guidebooks
* Recipes
* Adverts, brochures, catalogues
* Puzzles, problems, rules for games
* Instructions, directions (e.g. how to use ..), notices, warnings, rules and regulations, signs, forms, tickets, price lists,
menus
* Comic strips, cartoons
* Statistics, diagrams, charts, tables, maps
* Telephone directories, dictionaries, phrase books, food labels

KEY QUESTIONS FOR READING TEACHERS

Here is a summary of key questions we need to ask ourselves as teachers.
Why do people read?
What do people read?
Why do we teach reading?
Why do students need to read?
How do we read?
What skills do students need in order to read effectively?
What difficulties do students face when reading?
How do we teach reading?

KSQ4R
This technique for teaching reading is based on a top-down processing model and involves the following steps:
K for 'Knowledge of the World'. This means that before reading a passage students should be given the chance to activate
their background knowledge of the topic.
S for 'Survey'. Students should look through the passage to find out how long it is, what charts, pictures, headings etc. it
contains, and think about what they can learn from it, how useful the information might be and how it relates to them and
their class.
Q for 'Question'. Each heading is turned into a question.
R for 'Read'. Students read purposefully to answer the questions. They also underline the main ideas and put a question
mark beside any sentence they did not understand.
R for 'Recite'. After reading a paragraph, the student covers it and checks if the main idea can be expressed in their own
words. If not, it is marked with a question mark to show rereading is necessary.
R for 'Review'. After finishing the passage, the student looks back at the markings and reviews the main ideas noted. Any
sections question marked are reread.
R for 'Reflect'. After reading the whole passage, the student reflects on how useful the information will be, paying
attention to the connection between the passage and the student's own knowledge.

Amodelof listening

For background on listening skills, I wanted to learn more about college courses focusing on listening. The
leading text seems to be Listening: Attitudes, Principles, and Skills by Judi Brownell, professor of management
and organizational behavior at the Cornell School of Hotel Management. This text has a lot of insights and I will
be sharing them and applying them to the legal context throughout the life of the blog.

The backbone of Brownells approach is the HURIER model:

Hearing
Understanding
Remembering
Interpreting
Evaluating
Responding
Future posts will explore each step of the HURIER model. For now, here are a few holistic observations and
broad applications for lawyers:

The proportions within the model are important: Responding makes up just one-sixth of it. This proportion
confirms everyones intuition that a bad listener is someone who is just working up a response instead of
actually engaging with what the speaker is saying. Clients need to be listened to and not talked over, and
judges dont want advocates to interrupt their questions. There are endless situations in the legal professional
where speakers can make oafs out of themselves by talking without really listening. Future posts will explore
how to mitigate bad listening habits like this and become more effective at listening.

As another broad observation on the HURIER model, it is not meant as a strictly linear or chronological outline
of listening. According to Brownell, the model is based on a systems perspective, meaning the parts of the
whole are interrelated and interdependent. (She cites Littlejohns Theories of Human Communication on this
point.) Lawyers engage in so many complex communication situations that this interdependency should be
very apparent. How we as lawyers interpret and evaluate depends in part on how much we hear and whether
our attention was divided at the time. We can respond by clarifying points that enhance our understanding of
the situation and help a further, more substantive response, but excessive requests for clarification could
suggest that our hearing and/or understanding may be subpar. The overall process is not neatly linear but
iterative and self-reinforcing.

The HURIER model has insights to offer for face-to-face interaction as well as mediated conversations such as
videoconferencing and mediated asynchronous communication such as podcasts, webinars and MOOCs. The
individual listeners methods may differ depending on the situation: In a face-to-face meeting, a lawyer may ask
a client to repeat something or may decide not to ask, so as not to interrupt the flow of conversation but rather
to investigate later. In a webinar with a learning quiz attached, an attorney may choose to rewind the material
to repeat something because the flow of conversation with the recording is unimportant. Listening contexts
vary for lawyers as for everyone else, but the model remains informative.

And lastly, the model skirts around difficulties nailing down a specific definition of listening, Brownell writes.
Perhaps the most authoritative definition is the International Listening Associations http://www.listen.org :
Listening is the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and/or nonverbal
messages. For lawyers, each and every piece of this definition matters very much to their effectiveness.
12. What are listening strategies? are techniques or activities that contribute directly to the comprehension
and recall of listening input. can be classified by how the listener processes the input. These are: Top down,
Bottom up and Metacognitive *STRATEGY -Is a high level plan to achieve one or more goals under conditions
of uncertainty. --an elaborate and systematic plan of action
13. Top - Down Listening Strategies refers to the use of background knowledge in understanding the
meaning of the message. Background knowledge Consists of context, the situation and topic, and co-text(what
came before and after). >>CONDUCT AN ACTIVITY USING THE TOP DOWN LISTENING STRATEGY
14. Top - Down Listening Strategies are listener based; the listener taps into background knowledge of the
topic, the situation or context, the type of text, and the language. This background knowledge activates a set of
expectations that help the listener to interpret what is heard and anticipate what will come next. Top-down
strategies include: listening for the main idea Predicting drawing inferences summarizing >>CONDUCT AN
ACTIVITY USING THE TOP DOWN LISTENING STRATEGY
15. Top - Down Listening Strategies Top down strategy focuses on content. Students can predict the content of
listening activity beforehand and use various materials such as pictures and key words to understand the
meaning. This strategy is more broad approach than bottom- up and related with daily lives. When we watch
drama or movie, we usually focus on whole meaning, not structure or forms. Likewise, we listen to news
programs to grasp overall content and music by understanding the whole meaning. Some people do these
activities by using bottom-up strategy, but this is rare case. The materials that can be used in top- down are
prevalent. Teachers can use authentic information. When students listen to real-life story, it can increase their
interest and make them think about main idea more seriously. >>CONDUCT AN ACTIVITY USING THE TOP
DOWN LISTENING STRATEGY
16. Top-Down Listening Activities putting a series of pictures or sequence of events in order. Listening to
conversation and identify where they take place Reading information about a topic then listening to find
whether or not the same points are mentioned. Inferring the relationship between the people involved.
17. Bottom up Listening Strategies They are text based. The listener relies on the language in the
message (sounds, words, and grammar that creates meaning) Bottom-up strategies include: listening for
specific details Recognizing cognates Recognizing word-order patterns>>CONDUCT AN ACTIVITY USING
THE BOTTOM UP LISTENING STRATEGY
18. Bottom up Listening Strategies Bottom up strategy is to know about details and segments. It
concentrates on forms and structure. Thus, this activity is more related with academic study. English learning
students use this activity to enhance their listening ability. Dictation and listening tests are included in this. In
class, fill in the blank/s activity can increase students awareness of forms. However, bottom-up strategy
doesnt mean that it excludes all authentic things. When we need deep concentration on details, we use this
activity. For example, weather forecast, phone number and advertisement having implied meaning need
special focus on details to understand. Besides, tongue twists can be a good exercise for students to notice
subtle difference in various English forms and pronunciation. >>CONDUCT AN ACTIVITY USING THE
BOTTOM UP LISTENING STRATEGY
19. Tongue Twister How much dew does a dewdrop drop If dewdrops do drop dew? They do drop, they do As
do dewdrops drop If dewdrops do drop dew. Can you imagine an imaginary menagerie manager imagining
managing an imaginary menagerie?
20. Successful listening depends on the ability to combine top-down and bottom-up processing. Activities
which work separately should help students to combine top- down and bottom-up processes to become more
effective listeners in real-life or longer classroom listening.
21. Meta cognitive Listening Strategies In general, metacognition is thinking about thinking. More specifically,
Taylor (1999) defines metacognition as an appreciation of what one already knows, together with a correct
apprehension of the learning task and what knowledge and skills it requires, combined with the agility to make
correct inferences about how to apply ones strategic knowledge to a particular situation, and to do
so>>CONDUCT AN ACTIVITY USING THE META COGNITIVE LISTENING STRATEGY Metacognition is
defined as "cognition about cognition", or "knowing about knowing."[1] It can take many forms; it includes
knowledge about when and how to use particular strategies for learning or for problem solving. There are
generally two components of metacognition: knowledge about cognition, and regulation of cognition.
22. Meta cognitive Listening Strategies Used to plan, monitor, and evaluate their listening. They plan
deciding which listening strategies will serve best in particular situation They monitor their comprehension and
the effectiveness of the selected strategies They evaluate by determining whether they have achieved their
listening comprehension goals and whether the>>CONDUCT AN ACTIVITY USING THE META COGNITIVE
LISTENING STRATEGY Metacognition is defined as "cognition about cognition", or "knowing about
knowing."[1] It can take many forms; it includes knowledge about when and how to use particular strategies for
learning or for problem solving. There are generally two components of metacognition: knowledge about
cognition, and regulation of cognition.
23. Meta cognitive Listening Strategies Actions that the learner deliberately takes to enhance
comprehension and oversee and regulate the listening process. They include actions such as: planning,
monitoring, evaluation and problem solving. >>CONDUCT AN ACTIVITY USING THE META COGNITIVE
LISTENING STRATEGY Metacognition is defined as "cognition about cognition", or "knowing about
knowing."[1] It can take many forms; it includes knowledge about when and how to use particular strategies for
learning or for problem solving. There are generally two components of metacognition: knowledge about
cognition, and regulation of cognition.
24. Meta cognitive Listening Strategies
25. Meta cognitive Listening Strategies My Predictions Vocabulary diets rules at home overweight
strict meals table The topic: What may parents do to prevent their children from gaining weight?
26. Meta cognitive Listening Strategies
27. Meta cognitive Listening Strategies Monitoring comprehension I have understood the stricter parents
are at table, the more likely are to become overweight. I need to listen harder something about highly
demanding that I couldnt understand in the first listening.
28. Meta cognitive Listening Strategies
29. Meta cognitive Listening Strategies
30. Tips for Helping our Students Become Active Listeners Activate your students prior knowledge before
any listening activity in order to predict or anticipate content. Assess your students' background knowledge
on the topic and linguistic content of the text.
31. Tips for Helping our Students Become Active Listeners If students are to complete a written task during
or immediately after listening, allow them to read through it before listening. Use questions to focus students'
attention on the elements of the text crucial to comprehension of the whole.
32. Use predicting to encourage students to monitor their comprehension as they listen Remind students
to review what they are hearing to see if it makes sense in the context of their prior knowledge and what they
already know of the topic or events of the passage. Use visual aids such as maps, diagrams, pictures, or the
images on the video to help contextualize the input and>>NEXT SLIDE-SUMMARY
33. To sum it up. The three strategies for developing Listening Skills Top down -refers to the use of
background knowledge in understanding the meaning of the message. putting a series of pictures or
sequence of events in order. Listening to conversation and identify where they take place Reading
information about a topic then listening
34. To sum it up. The three strategies for developing Listening Skills Bottom up - know about details and
segments. It concentrates on forms and structure. Thus, this strategy is more related with academic study.
English learning students use this activity to enhance their listening ability. Dictation and listening tests are
included in this. In class, fill in the blank/s activity can increase students awareness of forms.

Teaching Listening
Listening is the language modality that is used most frequently. It has been estimated that adults spend almost
half their communication time listening, and students may receive as much as 90% of their in-school
information through listening to instructors and to one another. Often, however, language learners do not
recognize the level of effort that goes into developing listening ability.

Far from passively receiving and recording aural input, listeners actively involve themselves in the
interpretation of what they hear, bringing their own background knowledge and linguistic knowledge to bear
on the information contained in the aural text. Not all listening is the same; casual greetings, for example,
require a different sort of listening capability than do academic lectures. Language learning requires
intentional listening that employs strategies for identifying sounds and making meaning from them.
Listening involves a sender (a person, radio, television), a message, and a receiver (the listener). Listeners often
must process messages as they come, even if they are still processing what they have just heard, without
backtracking or looking ahead. In addition, listeners must cope with the sender's choice of vocabulary,
structure, and rate of delivery. The complexity of the listening process is magnified in second language
contexts, where the receiver also has incomplete control of the language.

Given the importance of listening in language learning and teaching, it is essential for language teachers to help
their students become effective listeners. In the communicative approach to language teaching, this means
modeling listening strategies and providing listening practice in authentic situations: those that learners are
likely to encounter when they use the language outside the classroom.