Curvature and Torsion of Curves

Lesson: Curvature and Torsion of Curves

Course Developer: Vivek N Sharma
Department/College: Assistant Professor, Department of
Mathematics, S.G.T.B. Khalsa College, University of Delhi

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 Curvature and Torsion of Curves

Table of Contents

1. Learning Outcomes

2. Introduction

3. Curvature of a Plane Curve

4. The Principal Unit Normal for a Plane Curve

5. Circle of Curvature of a Plane Curve

6. Curves in Space: Curvature & Normal Vectors

7. Unit Binormal Vector for a Space Curve

8. Torsion of a Space Curve

9. Functions of Several Variables: Introduction

10. Graphs & Level Curves

11. Summary and Important Formulae

12. Exercises

13. Glossary and Further Reading

14. Solutions for Exercises

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 Curvature and Torsion of Curves

1. Learning Outcomes
After studying this unit, you will be able to

state the concept of curvature of a plane curve.

calculate the curvature of various curves in plane and space.
explain the concept of torsion and binormal vectors for space
curves.
calculate torsion & binormal vectors of various space curves.
describe the meaning of a function of more than one variable.
analyse visually a function of two or three variables.
explain the concept of a level curve of a function of two or more
variables.

2. Introduction:
Geometric understanding of mathematics holds high importance in scientific
analysis. It enables us to dig deeply about the question at hand. In this unit,
we shall be studying the geometric properties of various plane and space
curves.
A very important aspect of drawing any curve is the amount of bending or
twisting of the curve around any point. This is a very basic question
regarding any curve we aim to draw on a plane or in space. And
mathematicians have answered this question quite comfortably using
calculus. They have formulated the notion of curvature of a plane curve and
torsion of a space curve. These are the properties that we shall be learning
in this unit.
Curvature of a plane curve tells us how much does the curve bend or turn
around a point. Torsion of a space curve reveals the tendency of the curve to
move away from the plane. Since a plane curve always remains in the
plane (that is it never escapes the plane to enter the space, its torsion is

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 Curvature and Torsion of Curves

zero. Both these properties help us visualize a curve clearly and explain its
various properties.
Curvature and torsion, both, are the local properties of a curve. A local
property of a curve is the one which explains the geometry of the curve only
around a point. For instance, a curve may bend too much around a point
but just too little around another point. Therefore, the curvature of the
curve can be zero around one point, but may be very large around another
point. This explains why the curvature of a curve is a local property of the
curve. These geometric considerations forced mathematicians to use calculus
to understand the notion of curvature. Its further development led to the
fascinating branch of mathematics called Differential Geometry.
We shall first study curvature of plane curves and shall then extend this
concept to space curves.

3. Curvature of a Plane Curve:

Intuitively, curvature explains how much does a curve bend (or turn) around
a point. But whenever a curve turns, the tangent vector at that point
changes its direction. And if a curve does not turn around a point, the
tangent vector at that point will not change its direction around that point.
In other words, as a particle moves along a smooth curve in a plane, the
vector

=
= Unit Tangent Vector of the curve

turns as the curve bends. This is revealed in the figure overleaf.

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Figure 1: The unit tangent vector = at the point turns along the curve

as the point proceeds along the curve.

Since is a unit vector, its length remains constant and only its direction
changes as the particle moves along the curve. Now we are in a position to
define the curvature of the smooth curve.

3.1 Definition of Curvature: The rate at which turns per unit of length
along the curve is called the curvature of the curve. Thus, if is the unit
tangent vector of a smooth curve (), the curvature function () of the
curve is

() =| ()|.

Value Addition : Remarks

| | 0

If | | = 0, the curve does not turn at all as the particle passes through

the point & the curvature of the curve at is zero.

If | | is large, turns sharply as the particle passes through the point .

If | | is close to zero, turns more slowly as the particle passes through

the point and the curvature of the curve at is smaller.

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Usually, the curve () is given in terms of a parameter and it may not be

easy to calculate the arc length . To overcome this hurdle, mathematicians
derived the following formula for calculating the curvature.

3.2 Formula for calculating curvature: If () is a smooth curve, then the

curvature is () given by

() = |()| | | ,

where, = ||
is the unit tangent vector.

Proof: The formula is simply a consequence of chain rule for differentiation.

() = | | (Definition)

= | .
| (Chain Rule)
1
= | . |

1
= |()|
. | | (Since,
=|()|)

Let us now go through some examples

Example 1: Show that the curvature of a straight line is zero.

Solution: A straight line in Cartesian form is given by = + .
In vector form we can write this as:
() = + ( + ).
Hence, the unit tangent vector is

=
||

1 (1, ) (1, ) 1
= = = =( , )
| | |(1, )| 1+ 2 1+ 2 1+ 2

1
= + ;
1+ 2 1+ 2

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and, therefore, the curvature of the straight line is given by

1
() = |()|
. | ()|
1 1
= .|( (1+ 2 ), (1+ 2 )) ()|
| |

=0

(Observe that there was no need to calculate |()| = | ()| here as
= .)

Hence, the curvature of a straight line is zero. Geometrically speaking, we

see that the unit tangent vector always points in the same direction,
therefore its components remain constant. (See figure 2)

Figure 2: Curvature of a straight line is zero.

1
Example 2: Show that the curvature of a circle of radius is .

Solution: We know that the equation of a circle of radius with centre at

(0,0) in Cartesian form is given by
2 + 2 = 2
which can be parameterized as
() = ( cos , sin ) = cos + .
This gives us,

( ) =


= [ cos + ]

= ( ) + ( cos )
and, hence we may see that
|()| = ( sin ) 2 + ( cos )2 = 2 = || = ,
since, = radius of the circle is positive.
Therefore, the unit tangent vector is

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 Curvature and Torsion of Curves

()
= |()|
1
=
[( ) + ( cos )]

= ( sin ) + (cos ).
This gives

|
|= |( cos ) + ( ) | = 1.

Hence, we finally obtain the curvature of the circle as

1 1 1
() = . = (1) = .
|()|

Intuitively also, a circle bends uniformly all through. The amount of bending
is the reciprocal of its radius.

4. The Principal Unit Normal for a Plane Curve:

So far, we have seen how important is the unit tangent vector of a smooth
plane curve () is. points in the direction in which the curve is turning.

Since has constant length, the derivative
remains orthogonal to .

Therefore, the vector
points in the direction in which turns (as the curve

bends). This vector
is called the Principal Normal of the curve () and if

we make its magnitude one, it becomes the Principal Unit Normal. Thus,
we led to the following definition of the principal unit normal.

4.1 Definition (Principal Unit Normal): At a point where () 0, the

principal unit normal vector for a smooth curve in the plane is
1
= .


So, if we move from to , the vector turns clockwise and the vector

points to the right. And from to , the vector turns anti-clockwise and

the vector
points to the left.

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Figure 3: The Principal Unit Normal Vector remains orthogonal to the tangent
vector at any point on the curve.

We now compute an easy formula for .

4.2 Formula for Calculating : If () is a smooth curve, then the principal

unit normal is

= | |

where, = ||
is the unit tangent vector.

Proof: We use chain rule. We have

1
= (Definition)
1
= . , since, =

1
= ( . ) (Chain Rule)
| . |

1 1
= ( ).
| || |


1 1
=
. 1
.

1
=
| | (Because,
0 and hence,
. = 1)
| |

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Value Addition : Remark

1
Since, = | |, therefore, . = [ . ] = 0.
| |

Example 3: Calculate for () = 2 + 2 .

Solution: We first calculate . We have
() = cos 2 + sin 2 ,
so that,

=
= (2 sin 2) + (2cos 2)

and hence,
|| = (2 sin 2)2 + (2 cos 2)2 = 2.
Therefore,

= ||
= ( sin 2) + (cos 2) .

Hence,


= (2 cos 2) + (2 sin 2)

which gives

| | = (2 cos 2)2 + (2 sin 2)2 = 2.

Hence,
= ( cos 2) + ( sin 2) .

5. Circle of Curvature of a Plane Curve:

Usually to detect the shape of a curve around a point, we study the tangent
to the curve at that point. But tangent is only a first order approximation to
the curve. This is because when we calculate the equation of the tangent, we
need to find out the slope of the tangent which requires differentiating ()
only once. Simply knowing the slope of the tangent does not reveal the

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increasing-decreasing nature of the curve. For that we require the higher

order derivatives.

To get a better description of the geometry of the curve around any point ,
we consider a circle passing through such that the circle follows three basic
rules:
1) Circle is tangent to the curve at . This means that the tangent
to the circle passing through the point coincides with the
tangent to the curve at .
2) Circle has the same curvature as the curve has at the point .
3) The circle lies towards inner side of the curve.

All this can be observed in the following figure.

Figure 4: The osculating circle of a given curve at a point .

Looking at the condition (2), we reason as follows. Suppose the curvature of

the curve at the point is . Then the curvature of the circle at is also .
1 1
Hence, the radius of the circle is . But
is well defined, if and only if, 0.

Hence, we can define the circle of curvature at any point on the curve
provided 0 where = curvature of the curve at the point . The centre

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of circle of curvature at a point P is known as Centre of Curvature of the

curve at the point P. The centre lies on line along .

Example 4: Find & graph the osculating circle of the parabola = 2 at the
origin.
Solution: The parabola
= 2
can be parameterized as
() = + 2 .
We first find the curvature at origin, that is (0).
We have,

=
= + 2

| |= 1 + 4 2

so that,
1 1 2
= = (1+4 2 ) + (1+4 2 ).
| |

Hence,
4 2 8 2

= 3 + [1+4 2 - 3 ]. (A)
(1+4 2 )2 (1+4 2 )2

Therefore,

16 2 2 8 2
| ()|= 1+4 2 )3 + [1+4 2 3 ]2 .
(1+4 2 )2

Since,
1
() = |()| | ()|,

therefore, the curvature at origin is

1 1
(0) = |(0)| | (0)|= . 22 = 2.
1
1
Hence, the radius of curvature at origin is 2
unit.

Now to locate the centre, we compute (0).

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We know that

() =
()

(0) =
(0)

By (A), we get,
(0) = 0 + 2
Hence, the centre of the radius of curvature lies on = 0 , that is the axis
1
and therefore, has the co-ordinates (0, )for some a . Since radius is 2,
1 1
that is, = 2, therefore, the centre of the radius of curvature is (0, 2). Hence,

the equation of the circle of curvature at (0,0) is

1 1
( 0)2 + ( 2)2 = (2)2
1 1
2 + ( 2)2 = 4

Figure 4: The osculating circle of the parabola = 2 at the origin.

The above figure exhibits the circle of curvature at the origin.

6. Curves in Space: Curvature & Normal Vectors
The analysis carried out for planes curves remains completely unchanged for
curves in space. That is, if a smooth curve is (), then we have the following
formulae:
1
Unit Tangent Vector: = =
| | ||

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1
Curvature Function: () = | | = ||
. | |
1 1
Principal Unit Normal: =
=
.
| |

Example 5: Find curvature & principal unit normal of the helix

() = cos + sin + ,
where, , 0, 2 + 2 0.
Solution: We have

= = ( sin ) + ( cos ) + ()


| |= | | = ( sin )2 + ( cos )2 + 2 = 2 + 2 .

Hence,
a sin a cos
= = ( 2 ) + ( 2 ) + ( 2 ).
|| + 2 + 2 + 2

Therefore,
a cos a sin
= ( 2 ) + ( 2 )
+ 2 + 2

2 2
| | =( 2 ) + ( 2 ) = 2
+ 2 + 2 + 2

Hence,
1 1
() = . | | = . =
|()| 2 + 2 2 + 2 2 + 2

Therefore, the curvature of helix is the constant 2 + 2 .

Thus, if b increases for any fixed value of a, the curvature decreases. But
increasing b means physically stretching it. This explains why stretching the
string straightens it, because while stretching the string, b increases and,
hence, curvature decreases, so that, the string looks more like a straight
line.
For principal unit normal, we have,

= | |
1 a cos a sin
= [( 2 ) + ( 2 )]
+ 2 + 2
2 + 2

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so that
() = ( cos ) + ( sin ) .

7. Unit Binormal Vector for a Space Curve:

Travelling along a space curve, the forward direction of motion () and the
direction in which our path is turning () and the direction of motion to
move away from the plane of and describe the motion even more clearly
than the usual description in terms of unit vectors , , . That is, the vectors
, and describe the geometry of the space curve quite completely.
This leads us to formulate the definition of the binormal vector () of a curve
in space.

7.1 Definition (Unit Binormal Vector of a Space Curve): The unit

binormal vector of a space curve is a unit vector in the plane perpendicular
to the plane containing and and is, therefore, defined by

= ||,

where, = Binormal Vector = .

Sometimes, and are used interchangeably.

Value Addition: Remarks

Together , and define a moving right handed vector frame .
This frame is also called Frenet Frame (fre-nay) (named
after Jean-Frederic Frenet (1816-1900)).

8. Torsion of a Space Curve:

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The plane containing and is called osculating plane. Torsion describes

how this plane turns about as the body moves along the curve. Torsion is
a scalar quantity.
Let = unit binormal vector of the space curve.
Then,

= ( ) = +


Since, is the unit vector along , therefore,

x = .

Hence,

=


Thus, is orthogonal to as well as to .

(This is because | | = 1, that is, has constant length).

Hence, is orthogonal to the plane of and .


In other words is parallel to and is, therefore, a scalar multiple of .

That is,

= .

The scalar is called torsion along the curve. The negative sign in this
equation is simply for convention. (It simplifies matters in differential
geometry.)
We may see that

. = (). = (. ) = (1) =

Hence,

= .

Hence, we may now give the definition of torsion of a space curve.

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8.1 Definition (Torsion of a smooth curve): Let () be a smooth curve

in space & let = .The torsion of the curve is = .

Value Addition: Remarks

can be positive, negative or zero.

If = 0, then = because . Hence, there is no change in

along the arc-length and therefore, for plane curves, = 0.

Example 6: Find & for the helix () = ( cos ) + ( sin ) + ().

Solution: We have, from example 5,
a sin a cos
= ( 2 ) + ( 2 ) + ( 2 )
+ 2 + 2 + 2

and
= ( cos ) + ( sin ) .
Hence,

i j k
a sin t a cos t b
= =
a 2 + b2 a 2 + b2 a 2 + b2
cos t sin t 0

which gives
b cos
= ( 2 ) + ( 2 ) + ( 2 )
+ 2 + 2 + 2

Now,
b sin
= ( 2 ) + ( 2 )
+ 2 + 2

and
|| = 2 + 2 , by example (5).
Hence,
1

= ||

1 b sin
= [
2 + 2 2 + 2
+ 2 + 2
]

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cos sin
= 2 + 2
+ 2 + 2

Therefore,

= .
cos sin
= [ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
]. [( ) + ( ) ]

= 2 + 2

The given helix is shown below.

Figure 5: The helix for example 6.

In the general setting of space curves, often given in parameterized form,

we have some formulae for calculation of curvature and torsion. The
derivations are cumbersome and therefore, omitted.

8.2 Formulae for calculating the Torsion and Curvature: We state the
formulae for calculating the torsion and curvature of the space curve
() = ((), (), ()).

For curvature, we have the following formula:

||
() = .
||3

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For torsion, we have the following formula:

x ' x '' x '''

y ' y '' y '''
z ' z '' z '''
= ||2 .

Of course, we assume that and . Further, () =
, and so on.

Value Addition: Remarks

The tuple (, , , , ) is known as Frenet Apparatus.

9. Functions of Several Variables: Introduction

In practical life, we encounter various problems whose solutions are
influenced by various factors. For instance, in transportation, stock-
markets, economics, finance, psychology, statistics, physics, geometry one
is very naturally led to consider functions of more than one variable. As an
elementary instance, the volume of a cylinder = 2 is a function of the
radius & height of the cylinder. In atmospheric sciences, the speed of the
wind at any place on earth is a function of the latitude & longitude of that
place. As a first introduction, we shall learn how to graph these functions.
We begin with the following definitions.
9.1 Definition (Function of n independent variables): Suppose is a
set of -tuples of real numbers (1 , 2 , , ). A real-valued function on is
a rule that assigns a unique (single) real number
= (1 , 2 , , )
to each element in . The set is the functions domain. The set of -
values taken on by is the functions range. The symbol is the
dependent variable of , and is said to be a function of the
independent variables 1 to . We also call the s the functions input
variables and call the functions output variable.

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10. Graphs & Level Curves:

We shall study the graphing of only two and three variable functions. We
begin with the two-variable case. There are two standard ways to view the
values of a function (, ). One way is to draw the curve (, ) = in the
plane where is any point in the range of . This is called the level-
curve technique. The other way is to draw the surface = (, ) in space.
This surface = (, ) is called the graph of the function (, ).

Example 7: Graph
(, ) = 100 2 2 ,
and plot the level curves
(, ) = 0, 51, 75
in the domain of in the plane.
Solution: The function (, ) = 100 2 2 is continuous (, ) 2 .
Therefore domain of is the entire plane. We first analyse the level curves.

For the level curve

(, ) = 0,
we see that,
(, ) = 0
100 = 2 + 2 .
Hence, the level curve (, ) = 0 is the circle of radius 10 centred at (0,0).
Similarly, the level curve
(, ) = 51
is the circle
2 + 2 = 49;
and the level curve

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(, ) = 75
is the circle
2 + 2 = 25.
The graph and the level curves are shown below.

Figure 6: The graph and level curves for example 7.

Let us now take up the 3-variable case.

Example 8: Describe the level surfaces of the function

(, , ) = 2 + 2 + 2 .
Solution: The value of at any point (, , ) is the distance of the point

(, , ) from the origin (0,0,0). A level surface is given by 2 + 2 + 2 = ,

where is a real number. Clearly, cannot be negative. For positive values

of , each level surface 2 + 2 + 2 = , is a sphere of radius centered at

origin. For = 0 the level surface 2 + 2 + 2 = 0 reduces to the point

(0,0,0).
The figure is given below.

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Figure 7: The graph and level curves for example 8.

11. Summary and Important Formulae for curves in plane and

space

1
Unit Tangent Vector: = =
| | ||

Curvature Function: () = |()| | |
1
Principal Unit Normal Vector: = | | = =

Binormal Vector: =

Torsion of a Space Curve: =
||
Formula for the Curvature: () = ||3

x ' x '' x '''

y ' y '' y '''
z ' z '' z '''
Formula for the Torsion: = ||2

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Exercises

Find , and for the Plane Curves in Exercises 1-3 and Space Curves

in Exercises 4 to 6. Find and for the Space Curves in Exercises 4 to

6.

1. () = + ( )

2. () = (2 + 3) + (5 2 )

3. () = ( 3 ) + (3 )

4. () = (3 sin ) + (3 cos ) + 4

5. () = (cos + ) + (sin ) + 3

6. () = ( cos ) + ( sin ) + 2

Plot the typical (a) level curves and (b) graphs for the functions in

exercises 7 to 9.

7. (, ) = 2

8. (, ) = 4 2

9. (, ) = 2 + 2

Plot a typical level surface for the functions in exercises 10 to 12.

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10. (, , ) = 2 + 2 + 2

11. (, , ) =

12. (, , ) = 2 + 2

13. Determine the curvature and torsion along the curve

() = ( , 1 cos , ).

1+ 1 2
14. Show that the curve () = (,
,
) lies in a plane.

15. Find the principle unit normal and unit binormal along the space

curve () = (3 3 , 3 2 , 3 + 3 ). Further, prove that the curvature

and the torsion along the curve are same.

Glossary
Curvature, unit tangent, normal, unit binormal, torsion

Further Reading
It is always welcome to practice more exercises from various books available
in libraries and elsewhere.

1. Calculus and Analytic Geometry (11th Edition) by George B. Thomas

and Ross L. Finney; ISBN: 13: 978-0201531749
2. Calculus by Howard Anton and Irl C. Bivens (10th Edition); ISBN: 13:
978-0470647691

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Solutions For Exercises

, and for Exercises 1-3

1.

2.

3.

and for Exercises 4-6

4.

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5.

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6.

Level Curves and Graphs for Exercises 7 to 9

7.

8.

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9.

Level Surfaces for Exercises 10 to 12

10.

11.

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12.

13. The given curve

() = ( , 1 cos , )

is a space curve and hence we use the formula:

||
() = ||3

Now, we see that,

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() = = (1 cos , sin , 1)

and hence,

2
() =
= 2 = (sin , cos , 0).

Curvature:

i j k
We have, = 1 cos t sin t 1
sin t cos t 0

= ( cos ) + (sin ) + (cos 1).

Hence,

| | = ( ) + (sin ) + (cos 1)

= 1 + 44 (2);

and

|| = (1 cos )2 + (sin ) 2 + 1

= 1 + 42 (2).

Thus, the curvature along the given curve is

|| 1+4 4 ( )
2
() = ||3
=
3 .
(1+4 2 ( ))2
2

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Torsion:

We have,

x ' x '' x ''' 1 cos t sin t cos t

y ' y '' y ''' = sin t cos t sin t
z ' z '' z ''' 1 0 0

= 1.

Hence, torsion along the given curve is

x ' x '' x '''

y ' y '' y '''
z ' z '' z ''' 1
= = .
||2 1+4 4 ( )
2

14. To show that the given curve

1+ 1 2
() = (,
, )

lies in a plane, it is enough to show that the torsion of the curve

is zero. So, we calculate the torsion of the curve. We have,

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1 0 0
x ' x '' x '''
1 2 6
y ' y '' y ''' = 1 2 4 = 0.
t t3 t
z ' z '' z '''
1 2 6
1 2 4
t t3 t

Therefore,

x ' x '' x '''

y ' y '' y '''
z ' z '' z '''
= = 0.
||2

Hence, the given curve is a plane curve.

15. The space curve given to us is

() = (3 3 , 3 2 , 3 + 3 ).

Hence, the velocity vector () along the curve is

() = = (3 3 2 , 6, 3 + 3 2 ),

and hence, the speed |()| along the curve is

|()| = (3 3 2 )2 + 36 2 + (3 + 3 2 )2 = 32(1 + 2 ).

Hence, the unit tangent vector along the curve is

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1 1
= = || = 32(1+ 2 ) (3 3 2 , 6, 3 + 3 2 )
| |

which simplifies to

1
= (1 2 , 2, 1 + 2 ).
2(1+ 2 )

Principal Unit Normal:

We have,

22 1 2

= ( (1+ 2 )2 , 2 (1+ 2 )2 , 0)

and therefore,

22 (1 2 ) 2 2
= ( (1+ 2 )2 )2 + (2 (1+ 2 )2 )2 = (1+ 2 )2 = (1+ 2 ).

Hence, the principal unit normal along the curve is

1 22 1 2
= | | = ( (1+ 2 )2 , 2 (1+ 2 )2 , 0)

(1+ 2 )

and this simplifies to

2 1 2
= ( 1+ 2 , 1+ 2 , 0).

Principal Unit Binormal:

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The principal unit binormal along the curve is the cross-

product of the vectors and and is given by

i j k
(1 t 2 ) 2t (1 + t 2 )
= =
(
2 1+ t2 ) (
2 1+ t2 ) (
2 1+ t2 )
2t 1 t2
0
1+ t2 1+ t2

and this simplifies to

1 2
= (1+ 2 ) (
1, 2, 2 + 1).
2

Curvature:

The acceleration vector () of the given curve is

() =
= (6, 6, 6).

Hence, we have

i j k
= 3 3t 2 6t 3 + 3t 2 = 18( 2 1) 36 + 18( 2 + 1)
6t 6 6t

Hence, the curvature () of the given curve is

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi

 Curvature and Torsion of Curves

|| |18 2 136 +18 2 +1| 2

() = ||3
= = 3(1+ 2 )2 .
|33 2 + 6+ 3+3 2 |3

Torsion:

We now see that

x ' x '' x ''' 3 3t 2 6t 6

y ' y '' y ''' = 6t 6 0 = 216,
z ' z '' z ''' 3 + 3t 2 6t 6

and
i j k
= 3 3t 2 6t 3 + 3t 2 = 18( 2 1) 36 + 18( 2 + 1)
6t 6 6t

and hence, the torsion of the given curve is

x ' x '' x '''

y ' y '' y '''
z ' z '' z ''' 216 2
= = |18( 2 1)36 +18( 2 +1)|2 = 3(1+ 2 )2
||2

and therefore,

= .

Institute of Lifelong Learning, University of Delhi