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Tree species as indicators of ground water recharge and discharge
indicate the presence of ground water in many localities in the Chintamani is located in Karnataka, India about 74 kms from
arid regions. Both cottonwood and mesquite roots are highly Bengaluru and the College of Sericulture (COS) is about 7
developed below the water table, and roots of alfalfa kms from Chintamani town. A survey was carried out at the
extending somewhat below the water table [9]. The water College of Sericulture in two different plots of 5 acre each (10
table everywhere fluctuates. In most places within the areas acres). A complete Geophysical survey of this area was
occupied by ground-water plants the seasonal fluctuation carried out using electrical resistivity instrument and the
amounts to 2 or 3 feet and in some places it is as much as 25 to existing flora and identification of tree species to their
50 feet. This fluctuation is probably beneficial because on the respective families documented. The probable aquifer points
whole it produces a thicker belt of aerated soil that is were located using geophysical survey by performing
moistened by ground water. The study has made use of electrical resistivity values obtained in the field for both the
potential and usefulness of ecohydrological groundwater plots. The identified tree species have been planted by the
indicators to the hydrogeological community along with soil college in 1990s. The existing species is given in Table III,
studies in arid regions. with the list of all the identified species in 10 acres plot. The
The study also indicates specific tree species identified to number of tree species present has also been indicated. The
their respective families near existing potential ground water area near to the yielding aquifer (existing bore) and the other
regions, yielding ground water for drinking purpose. These regions were studied for the tree species prevalent in the
regions indicate specific trees as well as trees growing close to region. Specific families of tree species present near ground
well and inside water bodies. Tree species and soil quality water zones were identified and recorded. Apart from these
have been linked with existing bore wells and well regions in two important surveys, the soil samples were carried from the
the study area. aquifer identified spots using geophysical survey and the
other sampled point, where the electrical resistivity was
recorded.
II. MATERIAL AND METHODS
Figure 1. Location of the College of Sericulture at Kurboor, Chintamani. Chintamani (A) to Kolar, Chintamani to Devanahalli,
Bengaluru to International Airport.
Keens cup experiment for the determination of bulk density,
The soil samples were analysed for moisture content, pH, particle density, maximum water holding capacity, percentage
electrical conductivity, bulk density, particle density, pore space and volume of expansion were carried out using
maximum water holding capacity, pore space and volume standard procedures. The other parameters analysed included
expansion of soil. Soil analysis was carried out to give the pH, conductivity and moisture content.
status of the soil type existing in the given location (aquifer The field survey was also carried out from College of
and non-aquifer points). Sericulture (COS) heading towards Kolar including villages
Soil samples were taken from both the 5 acre plots. In the first in and around Chintamani and Kolar. An attempt is also made
5 acre plots about 4 sampling locations were identified. One to identify trees species existing near bore well point/tanks of
near the existing bore well, one near the open well, other from some of the villages surrounding Chintamani, Kolar regions.
region showing high electrical resistivity. The last point was The other field survey was carried out on the way to
close to the soak pit region. In the second 5 acre plot, the soil Bangalore via H cross and Devanahalli including few villages
samples were collected from 3 failed bore well points and 1 and finally from Bangalore up till the International Airport,
from existing and yielding aquifer. (Fig, 1) Bangalore for tree identification near bores and
existing ponds and water bodies. This data gives a complete
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International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR)
ISSN: 2321-0869 (O) 2454-4698 (P), Volume-3, Issue-11, November 2015
picture of the existing tree species of the regions into their density of Jamun was maximum in the 1st five acre plot, these
respective family. Details of rainfall trend have been listed in regions indicated high electrical resistivity values. The total
the table over the last few years from (2004 to 2013). number of trees observed and recorded in this region was
about 40 Jamun trees. Jamun is a drought tolerant tree.
III. RESULTS Sources of ground water identification can be made using tree
In the first plot of 5 acres the trees identified as per the indicator species. Areas having tree population on its 2 to 3
following families has been listed in the Table I. The region sides prove to be useful for locating the points using
surrounded by specific trees showed a very low electrical hydrogeological survey, electrical resistivity. On the other 5
resistivity in comparison to the other regions which indicated acre plot the following trees (Table II) were located near
higher electrical resistivity above 200 ohms showing trees of regions, which once yielded ground water from confined
different families. The tree species identified were Jamun aquifer and unconfined aquifer had stopped yielding (450ft
(Myrtaceae) and Fern tree (Sapindaceae) in large number as and 800ft respectively).
well as mulberry (Moraceae) plants on the other side. The
Table I. Tree species located near existing aquifer point and remaining in the first five acres of land.
Family Number of Name of the tree species Water Indicator
Species Species
Near yielding bore
Caesalpinaceae 7 Camel foot tree ( few) Referred to as Indicators from literature
Leguminaceae Cassia spp (24) Seen near water
Pongamia (18)
Subabul (4)
Acacia mangium
Acacia spp (2)
Albizia lebbeck (3)
Fabaceae 2 Tamarind (10) Referred to as Indicators from literature
Gulmohar Few near water
Santalaceae 1 Sandal (16) Few near water
The remaining portion of the area under survey
Leguminaceae 3 Pongamia (18)
Acacia auriculiformis (20)
Acacia (20)
Amaryllidaceae 1 Agave (6)
Myrtaceae 2 Eucalyptus (2)
Jamun (62)
Moraceae 2 Fig Away from water
Mulberry (20) Near the well (unconfined aquifer)
Sapindaceae 1 Fern tree (24) No water/ rock area
Meliaceae 2 Mahogany (3) (24) Few near water (well)
Neem (40)
Euphorbiaceae 3 Tapioca (20)
Jatropa (3)
Amla
Moringaceae 1 Drumstick (3)
Poaceae 1 Bamboo (20)
Sapotaceae 1 Madhuca longifolia (20)
1 Hippae (3)
Combretaceae 4 Terminalia tomentosa (1)
Terminalia catappa (25)
Indian almond
Terminalia arjuna (1)
Verbenaceae 2 Casuarina equisetifolia
Teak (2)
Magnoliaceae 1 Michelia champaka
Apocynaceae 1 Temple tree (2)
1 Baghe mara
Table II. Lists of tree species identified in the second five acre plot and near existing bore
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Tree species as indicators of ground water recharge and discharge
The other side had bore points where water is being utilized. values were observed to be higher as compared to the other
Electrical resistivity recorded lower values in regions which soils where the bulk density was slightly lower suggesting
once had ground water availability and yielding bores. On the higher rain water infiltration rates. Thus leading to more of
same plot the other regions had higher values. recharge and discharge, the tree species present in this region
A complete list of the species growing has been indicated in included Leguminaceae and Casesalpinaceae.
Table III, giving complete taxonomical details including In the same plot the other soil sampled area showed high
common name, botanical name assigned to their respective electrical resistivity zone (200 ohms), higher bulk density
family. values of 1.41 and MWHC of 18%, pore space of 26.7% and
Soil analysis data reveals: Irrespective of the study carried out volume expansion of soil 3.46%. The geophysical survey
in the two locations, the soil characteristics/properties are all shows, the region has underground rocks and dykes, the soil
within the permissible limits. The quality of soil is within limit analysis too, clearly points out low water infiltration rates as
and possesses no adverse effect on the plant vegetation form compared to the previous soil analyzed area providing
an agricultural point of view. Bulk density recorded was 1.14 sufficient drinking water. At points outside the surveyed areas
g/cc for the first plot, while the ground water is utilized for dykes were seen near the rocky pond. Two strips of dykes
drinking with an electrical resistivity of 53 ohms. The same running parallel to each other were noticed.
sampling location showed values of maximum water holding
capacity (MWHC) being 34%, pore space 39.9% and volume In the second plot studied, a volume expansion study is
expansion of soil 15.50% respectively (Table, IV). These comparatively lesser than the soils analyzed from the previous
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International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR)
ISSN: 2321-0869 (O) 2454-4698 (P), Volume-3, Issue-11, November 2015
plot where ground water is utilized for drinking. The soil is gradual increase, but sudden decrease has been observed from
able to hold water but as there is presence of rocks / dykes the 2012 onward. In 2014 rainfall has been recorded below
water is not able to sustain (for longer availability) at that normal (Fig.2)
point and may lead to the possibility of flow in spaces
available away from the dyke.
Rainfall data from 2004 till date shows that there was a
CN: African Tulip Tree CN: Mango CN: Rose Apple CN: Custard Apple CN: Hebbevu CN: Agati
BN: Spathodia BN: Mangifera indica BN: Syzygium jambos BN: Annona BN: Melia dubia BN: Sesbania
companulata F: Anacardiaceae F: Myrtaceae squamosa F: Meliaceae grandiflora
F: Bignoniaceae F: Annonaceae F: Leguminaceae
CN: Champaka CN: Cashew CN: Jamun Tree CN: Lantana CN: Sisso (Sisham) CN: Rubber Tree
BN: Michelia champaka BN: Anacardium BN: Syzygium cumini BN: Lantana camara BN: Dalbergia sisso BN: Ficus elastica
F: Magnoliaceae occidentale F: Myrtaceae F: Verbenaceae F: Fabaceae F: Moraceae
F: Anacardiaceae
CN: Neem Tree CN: Sandal CN: Indian almond CN: Terminalia CN: Banyan Tree CN: Christmas
BN: Azadirechta indica BN: Santalum album BN: Terminalia (Asian) BN: Ficus bengalensis Tree
F: Meliaceae F: Santalaceae catappa BN: Terminalia F: Moraceae BN: Araucaria
F: Combretaceae tomentosa cooki
F: Combretaceae F: Pinnaceae
CN: Camel Foot Tree CN: Opuntia CN: Indian tulip CN: Terminalia CN: Bael CN: Guava
BN: Bauhinia purpurea BN: Opuntia BN: Thespesia BN: Terminalia BN: Aegle marmelos BN: Psidium
F: Caesalpinaceae microdasys populnea arjuna F: Rutaceae guajava
F: Cactaceae F: Malvaceae F: Combretaceae F:
Myrtaceae
CN: Silver Oak CN: Fern Tree CN: Gliricidia CN: Mahua CN: Drumstick CN: Sapota
BN: Greviliea robusta BN: Felicium decipiens BN: Gliricidia sepium BN: Madhuca BN: Moringa oleifera BN: Achras sapota
F: Proteaceae F: Sapindaceae F: Fabaceae longifolia F: Moringaceae F: Sapotaceae
F: Sapotaceae
CN: Eucalyptus Tree CN: Amla CN: Mahogany CN: Teak CN: Cassia CN: Acacia
BN: Eucalyptus grandis BN: Emblica officinalis BN: Swietenia BN: Tectona grandis BN: Cassia fistula BN: Acacia
F: Myrtaceae F: Euphorbiaceae mahogani F: Verbenaceae F: Caesalpinaceae auriculiformis
F: Meliaceae F: Leguminaceae
CN: Pongamia CN: Subabul CN: Lebbeck CN: Honne /Indian CN: Simaruba CN: Manjium Tree
BN: Pongamia pinnata BN: Leucaena BN: Albizia lebbeck kino tree BN: Simaruba glauca BN: Acacia
F: Leguminaceae leucocephala F: Fabaceae BN: Pterocarspus F: Malvaceae manjium
F: Leguminaceae marsupium F: Leguminaceae
F: Meliaceae
CN: Agave CN: Gulmohar CN: Temple Tree CN: Casuarina CN: Acacia /Kari Jaali CN: Peacock
BN: Agave americana BN: Delonix regia BN: Plumeria alba BN: Casuarina BN: Acacia nilotica Flower
F: Amaryllidaceae F: Fabaceae F: Apocynaceae equisetifolia F: Leguminaceae BN: Caesalpinia
F: Casuarinaceae pulcherrima
F: Caesalpiniaceae
CN: Tamarind CN: Jack Fruit CN: Japanese Cherry CN: Peepal Tree CN: Ashoka CN: Confiderate
BN: Tamarindus indica BN: Artocarpus BN: Muntingia BN: Ficus religiosa BN: Polyalthia Rose /Chinese
F: Fabaceae heterophyllus calabura F: Moraceae longifolia rose
F: Moraceae F: Tiliaceae F: Annonaceae BN: Hibiscus
mutabilis
F: Malvaceae
CN: Bamboo CN: Fig CN: Tapioca CN: Indian Cork Tree CN: Mulberry CN: Golden cane
BN: Bambusa vulgaris BN: Ficus carica BN: Manihot BN: Millingtonia BN: Morus alba palm
F: Poaceae F: Moraceae esculenta hortensis F: Moraceae BN:
F: Euphorbiaceae F: Bignoniaceae Chrysalidocarpus
lutescens
F: Palmae
CN: Coconut *CN: Common Name
BN: Cocos nucifera *BN: Botanical Name
F: Palmae *F: Family
Table IV. Soil characteristics study of the selected regions
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Tree species as indicators of ground water recharge and discharge
Table IV. Soil characteristics study of the selected regions during the electrical resistivity survey.
Moistu Volum
Electrical Particl
Conduct re Bulk e
resistivity e MWHC
ivity conten density Pore expans
Site values density
Sample t spac ion of
Si No characteris pH
location e Soil in
tics (ohm) (dS/m) (%) (g/cc) (g/cc) (%) (%) (%)
2 inches
Existing bore water from
2I 53 ohms 6.7 0.326 9.98 1.14 1.91 34 39.9 14.5
low ER existing
bore
Second 5 acre location (Krishi Vigyan Kendra and Farm, College of Sericulture, Chintamani)
Near failed bore
Higher ER
1II point/ dykes No water 6.53 0.172 9.95 1.25 2.06 25 30.4 4.09
values
present
Near suggested Vegetation
2II 63 ohms 6.12 0.209 9.92 1.04 1.7 37.3 38.8 8.93
bore point around
Vegetation Higher ER
3II Near failed bore 7.71 0.409 9.97 1.4 4.13 24 35 10.82
seen value
1 and half
Near Lower ER
4II inches of 6.01 0.42 9.91 1.4 1.95 20 28 3.72
operational bore value
bore water
Fig 2. Rainfall data of a decade from 2002 till 2013 at College of Sericulture/Chintamani, Karnataka, India.
Table V. List of villages and tree species seen in the 9 villages (Karnataka).
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International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR)
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Si Names of village Tree Species Near Borewell Near Pond
No
1 Chintamani, College of Cassia, Camel foot tree, Acacia, Albizia spp, Near bore
Sericuture, (1st 5 acres) Tamarind, Gulmohar, Pongamia, Subabul, Sandal
2 Chintamani, College of Mahogeny, Melia dubia, Neem, Subabul, Acacia Near bore
Sericuture, (2nd 5 acres) mangium,
A. auriculiformis Tamarind, Dalbergia
2 Kaiwara, Paramacha-nahalli, Neem, Melia duba, Coconut, Tamarind, Pongamia, Jamun, Tamarind -
Chintamani Teak, Eucalyptus, Cashew, Jamun, Jatropa, Thespesia, Conconut, Teak
Mango, Guava & Sopata. People tree
3 Konappalli Tamarind, Euclaptus, Melia duba, Coconut, Prosopis juliflora -
Pongamia, Prosopis juliflora Acacia spp
4 Eucalyptus, Tamarind, Pongamia, Silver Oak, Neem, Jamun, Jack, -
Yadahalli Banyan tree, People tree & Subabul Pongamia,
Coconut,
mulberry
5 Sugatur People tree, Neem, Pongamia, Eucalyptus, Silver oak, - -
Teak, Subabul, & Fig (wild)
Fig. 3. Indicates the presence of two families seen in the various sites
*Series 1 Leguminaceae and Series 2 Caesalpinaceae
The ponds present between Farm, College of Sericulture and
outskirts of Chintamani had Acacia spp and Pongamia spp
present near/close to the ponds. The similar situation was
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Tree species as indicators of ground water recharge and discharge
observed in all the ponds seen heading towards Kolar. Acacia Plant species need to be selected that relatively indicate
species identified belonged to A. nilotica and A. arabica. locations of ground water discharge. Species with a high
Maximum occurrence of the species in these regions included validity are those that grow only in ground water discharge
those belonging to family Leguminaceae, Casesalpinaceae, areas (Goslee et al 1997). Species can maintain themselves in
Meliaceae, Proteaceae and Santalaceae were predominant in drought.On the other hand are the phreatophytes, or well
the Agroclimatic zone 5, College of Sericuture. plants, which habitually grow where they can send their roots
Leguminaceae, Caesalpinaceae, and Meliaceae have been down to the water table, or to the capillary fringe immediately
reported to indicate water rather they are the water indicating overlying the water table; thus, they are able to obtain a
species in the studied plots. Through the mesquite "Prosopis perennial and secure supply of water (Meinzer, 1972).
juliflora of family Fabaceae was not recorded in the 10 acre Plants with deep roots that are able to tap into deep soil
plot, the species was identified in the villages found outside moisture or groundwater may show little moisture stress
the sampling area rather on the outside plots. The village compared with shallow rooted species (Midgley and
Konappalli, close to Chintamani indicated water availability Bosenberg, 1990).
above 600ft with presence of P. juliflora species (Table,V). Indigenous tree and shrub genera that often have deep roots
Fig. 3, shows that maximum occurrence of family include Acacia, Boschia, Olea, and Rhus and exotics include
Leguminaceae predominating in the semi-arid region of Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) and Prosopis (Leguminaceae). The
Karnataka, India, referred to as water indicators as well as its structure of the woody tissues of plants that are tolerant of
presence near bores and tanks. water shortages or water-stress differ from those that are not
(Tyree and Sperry, 1989, Tyree and Ewers, 1991, Jarbeau et
al., 1995). This is particularly true of phreatophytic species
IV. DISCUSSION and of tap and sinker roots which are specialized for
This study may aid to find out plants which may act as conducting large quantities of water (Pate et al., 1995).
indicators of ground water and better recharge points, thereby Outside the study area in a survey made towards Kolar and
increasing recharge efficiency. Families of plant species Bangalore, the characteristic tree species prevalent near bores
occurring near water regions have been identified belonging and ponds included Acacia species, A. nilotica, Pongamia spp
to Leguminaceae, Caesalpinaceae and Meliaceae in the and very few Tamarind trees, most of them belonging to the
studied plot of 10 acres at Agroclimatic zone 5, at College of family Leguminaceae. A. arabica & A. nilotica commonly
Sericulture, Chintamani, Karnataka. These regions also had grows close to waterways on secondary flooded river flats and
lower electrical resistivity values. The tree species from first tolerates salinity well. It also grows in areas receiving less
plot were not prevalent in regions having higher electrical than 350 mm of rainfall to 1500 mm per annum. Many of A.
resistivity values when hydrogeological studies were carried arabica plantings were recorded among bore drains, long
out in the surveyed plots. The average depth of bore well was open drains distributing artesian water (Gupta, 1970). In dry
below 1200ft. The region has presence of dykes passing at areas, presence of A. karroo indicates the sign of water, both
various points under study. above and underground (Barnes et al., 1996). Preservation of
Soil analysis reveals more recharge in the regions which had the tree species is very essential as urbanization has led to
predominant tree species present in this region like their loss including destroying species which act as ground
Leguminaceae & Casesalpinaceae. Further research study is water indicators, rechargers and dischargers. Identification of
very essential in these lines; the literature availability on these the species belonging to family Leguminaceae and
lines is very much limited. High porosity was recorded in the Caesalpinaceae are regarded as good ground water indicators
1st five acre plot in water yielding regions with lower bulk and may suggest ground water discharge sites. It has been
density. In an earlier study Acacia nilotica and Casuarina reported that, deep roots tend to improve the rates of
equisetifolia had higher influence on the bio-physical percolation of water from upper soil horizons into lower
properties such as porosity, infiltration rate, hydraulic substrates. Cassia was found to be better than Gliricidia and
conductivity and aggregate stability improved under different Grevillea in reducing both soil and water runoff losses
tree covers, while, bulk density and erodibility of soil (Omoro and Nair 1993). Our study clearly points out species
decreased (Nandagoudar etal 1997). like Leguminaceae and Cesalpinaceae have deeper roots
hence better the rate of percolation and discharge of rain
The species Prosopis juliflora has been identified in one of water there by helping in maintaining of the water table. Thus
the villages (Konappalli, Chintamani, Karnataka, India) and Leguminaceae and Cesalpinaceae are referred to as water
the depth of the bore recorded in this village ranged from 450 indicators tree families. Acacia, Cassia, Neem, Tamarind and
to 600ft and all were water yielding bores & wells as this belt Albizia are spotted near bores in this study and the others
is famous for vegetable cultivation, thus providing enough Acacia nilotica, A. arabica and P. juliflora are sotted in the
water to the village. Acacia nilotica, Dalbergia sissoo & villages close to water bodies and routes under the study
Prosopis juliflora are some of the trees which are also used (Chintamani, Kolar and moving towards Bangalore, via H
for soil improvements (Virendra et al., 2011). In another cross, Karnatka, India in the semiarid regions).
study A. nilotica D. sissoo, and P. juliflora were studied for Trees act as discharge points as may be evident from soil
root penetrations. P. juliflora showed maximum root spread analysis data and low electrical resistivity values. Right step
followed by A. nilotica and D. sissoo. All these species had in ground water conservation would also include the right tree
maximum distribution of root biomass. Deep roots tend to species planting and right family leading to the management
improve the rates of percolation of water from upper soil of ground water table in these ecologically water stressed
horizons into lower substrates (Virendra et al., 2011). regions.
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International Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR)
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