SRI LANKA ENERGY

MANAGERS ASSOCIATION

BOARD OF DIRECTORS
Contents
Mr. TF Nimal Perera
President Page

Prof. Rahula Attalage A Renewable Energy based Power Supply System for
Snr, Vice President Water Pumping and Lighting in a Rural Village 1-11
Mr JACKJ Bandara, Dr NS Senanayake and
Mr. Ronald Comester Mr Ruchira Abeyweera
Vice President
Supported Enzymes as Catalysts for Biodiesel
Mr. Harsha Wickramasinghe Production 12-18
Mr. Eranga Jayaratne Mr JHSK Jayamaha, Prof Francisco Lemos, Prof Luis Fonseca,
Joint Secretaries Prof Joaquim Cabral

Mr. Chamila Jayasekara Minimizing Energy Loss by Optimizing Pipe Diameter

Treasurer and Insulation Thickness in Steam Distribution
Pipelines 19-27
Mr. Kasun Premathilake Mr JACKJ Bandara, Mr Ruchira Abeyweera and Dr NS
Seminar Secretary Senanayake

Mr. DD Ananda Namal

Immediate Past President The Editorial Board invites papers on energy related issues for
publication in the SLEMA Journal.
Dr. Tilak Siyambalapitiya
Elected Past President Editorial Board

BOARD MEMBERS Mr. DBJ Ranatunga

Prof. HY Ranjit Perera
Mr. Kamal Illeperuma Dr. Tilak Siyambalapitiya (Editor)
Mr. Namiz Musafer Ms. MTAP Wickramarathna (Deputy Editor)
Mr. Swetha Perera
Mr. Ariyadasa Lekamlage Secretarial Assistance: Ms. Buddhika Rukshanthi
Ms. Tharanga Wickramarathna
Mr. Ravi Rupasinghe
Ms. Thushara De Silva
Ms. Ramani Nissanka

Cover Page: "Selecting optimum pipe size and insulation thickness in steam distribution system, save
money."
Cover page designed by Chathuraka Senevirathna, Elpitiya Plantation PLC.

Copyright 2015 Sri Lanka Energy Managers Association

www.slema.org.lk

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ISSN 2386 - 1304

 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015
A Renewable Energy based Power Supply System for Water Pumping
and Lighting in a Rural Village
JACKJ Bandara, NS Senanayake and Ruchira Abeyweera
The Open University of Sri Lanka, Nawala, Nugegoda
Abstract
This paper presents the design and
development of a renewable energy based
integrated power system for a community in a
village in the district of Monaragala, Sri Lanka,
recognized as a rural area. Agriculture is still
the source of income of more than half the
working population in the area. The area is
heavily water stressed, and water
requirements for agriculture are fulfilled by
pumping water from a nearby reservoir, using
gasoline-fueled engine driven pumps. Further,
no national grid electricity is available, because
the village is situated far away from the main
grid. In order to address these difficulties, this
study formulated a low cost water pumping
system, together with an electricity generation
system running on renewable energy, for the
benefit of the community living in the village.
Introduction
Sri Lankas power generation was previously
dominated by large hydropower plants. In
2014, the construction of Sri Lankas first coal-
fired power plant (900MW) was completed.
The national energy policy of Sri Lanka (2008)
states the following goals with regard to
renewable energy development and household
electrification [1].
1. Generation of 10% of electricity demand
using non-conventional renewable energies
sources by 2015.
2. Twenty percent share of bio diesel in
transport sector by 2020.
3. Increase of household electrification up to
100% by 2016 (The present electrification
rate is 98%).
As Sri Lankas electricity supply had been
hydropower driven until recent times, there
was no incentive to explore other renewable
energy options. However, with the full
exploitation of large scale hydropower
potential in the country, the country was left
with no other alternative, but to develop other
1
renewable sources of energy that are abundant
in the country. Presently there are 11 wind
power plants in the range of 1 to 10MW with a
total capacity about 120 MW installed in the
coastal and central hill region of the country,
supplying the main grid.
From the beginning of the written history of
Sri Lanka, its people have sustained their
livelihood with agriculture, mainly paddy and
other food crops. From about the 3rd century to
12thcentury, they had been constructing lakes
(tanks) for the purpose of collecting excess
water in the rainy season and save for the dry
season, as the majority of the country had been
living in water stressed areas called the dry
zone. The dry zone covers about two thirds of
the country.
During the periods of Kotte and Kandy
kingdoms, the majority of people moved from
dry zone to south west and central regions,
which were water rich areas. Main reasons for
such movement were frequent epidemics and
the neglect of many irrigation tanks, resulting
in scarcity of water.
At present, water in the Monaragala district,
where the village considered for this study is
situated, is pumped from the lakes to the
paddy fields by means of pumps driven by
gasoline fueled engines. If electricity is
available, people could opt to use pumps
powered by electricity. The country heavily
relies on imported fossil fuels for electricity
generation.
At present 2% of the countrys population lives
without electricity. Even though the main grid
is available for some rural areas, it is only for
households and is does not, in general, extend
to farming areas. On the other hand Ceylon
Electricity Board (CEB) does not provide
electricity without a permanent consumer unit
(building, industrial/residential or
commercial) which farming lands do not
possess. Even though a temporary electricity
supply could be obtained, the charges are
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015
higher, which is not affordable to the farming
community. Moreover, the government does
not have a plan for providing electricity for
these remote farms in the foreseeable future. In
this back drop, the people in farming
communities have to arrange required water
from irrigation tanks or any other means using
engine driven pumps, which increases the
overhead cost heavily and some may not be
able to afford. Further, it has been observed
that many people use less efficient gasoline
fueled small engines.
A turbo charged, intercooled medium sized
engine consumes about 2.5 to 3 liters of diesel
to produce one kilowatt hour of electricity. The
generation cost is too high compared with the
present electricity tariffs.
Exploitation of renewable energy sources to
provide a solution to the problem is the best
option. Further, considering the need for
rural electrification (in order to achieve 100%
target) and reducing use of low efficiency
gasoline engines in irrigation work, it is
required to develop an off-grid power
generation system with renewable energy
sources. Therefore, this study focuses on the
development of a renewable energy based
power generation system for the purpose of
water pumping and household lighting in a
selected rural village. The concept could be
adopted for similar areas.
Methodology
The basic information such as population,
number of families, approximate extent of land
area of the village, and the land area utilized
for farming were obtained through a site
survey. Selected area lies approximately
between the Latitudes of 6.7714 to 6.778665
and Longitudes 81.374808 to 81.362000. The
selected village is Kahambana close to Ambagolla
in the district of Monaragala in Uva Province. A
suitable location for installing the wind power
plant was selected considering the topography
and the proximity to the available water
resource. Data on wind speed and monthly
average rainfall required for designing the
system was collected by referring to relevant
resources, and from the local agencies
responsible for agriculture. Data required for
determining the water demand in paddy
cultivation accounting for seepage losses,
evapo-transpiration, evaporation etc., under
Page 2
the environmental conditions in Sri Lanka, was
obtained from the Department of Agriculture.
After calculating the water demand, the
possibility of developing a water pumping
system with direct use of wind energy was
studied and concluded that the available
systems were not sufficient to deliver the
required amount of water flow. Subsequently,
it was decided to use electricity driven water
pumps. A suitable pump and other
components were selected and then the energy
demand for the water pumping system was
determined. Seven pump types with different
specification such as horsepower, inlet/outlet
diameter, flow rate and head were taken for
calculation. The Hazen Williams Equation was
used for calculating the system head[2].
System head varies with the each pump size
and by plotting the system head Vs water flow
rate for a particular pump on the pump
performance curve, the duty point of each
pump was obtained. Out of the considered
seven pumps, the one giving the best efficiency
was selected. This was the pump that would
consume the lowest amount of electricity for
pumping the required amount of water.
Further, the energy required for household
electrification was calculated. Low energy
consuming LED bulbs were proposed to be
used.
The wind turbine that matches the system
requirements was selected by considering
several sizes and makes. Total energy
delivered by each wind turbine was estimated.
Turbine manufacturers power curve was used
for selecting the optimum turbine. A battery
bank was proposed as the energy storage
system, assuming three consecutive zero wind
days. The size of the battery bank was
determined accordingly.
Agricultural Water Requirement
Basic data of the village are:
Population: 211
No. of Households: 47
Land Area: 1.92 km2 (Approximately)
Agricultural lands: 30ha (Approximately)
The Table 1 shows the average rainfall of the
Monaragala district [3] where the selected
village is situated. Water level required to be
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

maintained at different growing stage is illustrated in Figure 1.

Table 1 - Average Rainfall of Monaragala District

Average Rainfall (mm)

September

November

December
Month

February

October
January

August
March

April

June
May

July
Monthly 58 47 101 143 91 59 48 55 71 151 188 118
Daily 1.93 1.57 3.37 4.77 3.03 1.97 1.6 1.83 2.37 5.03 6.27 3.93

Figure 1 - Water Level required at each Crop Growing Stage [4]

According to Figure 1, the paddy cultivation In general, farmers of Sri Lanka cultivate
season is divided into four stages, as pre paddy in two seasons in a year. The main
saturation, vegetative, reproductive, and season (Maha) starts in March and ends in
ripening, during which the water demand by August. The minor season (Yala) is from
the plant considerable varies. The Table 2 September to February. The cultivation (from
shows the water requirement by crop during seeding to harvesting) usually spreads over a
each crop growing stage. period of two months, preceded by a pre-
saturation and land preparation period of
Table 2 - Required Water Level at each Crop approximately four months. However, this
Growing Stage (Extracted from Figure 1) time periods could change depending on the
timing of the rainfall.
Water
Crop Age of
Duration Level Water demand in each month was calculated
Growing Crop
(Days) Required
Stage ( Days) by taking into account water requirement of all
(mm)
crops and possible losses. In the calculations,
Pre Saturation - 60 200
maximum water amounts were considered.
Vegetative 0-15 15 100
Vegetative 16-45 30 20-50 For example, seepage losses were taken as
Reproductive 46-85 40 100
2mm, the highest value in the range 1 2mm.
The calculation below shows the irrigation
Ripening 86-115 25 0 requirement for paddy cultivation at different
stages of growth in the main season (March to
Water loss in paddy fields depends on the August).
atmospheric and soil condition and lies in the
following ranges [4]. IRo, the irrigation requirement during pre-
saturation stage (60 days, from the 1st of March
Seepage losses: 1-2mm to the 30th of April) was calculated as follows.
Evaporation losses: 1.5-2mm
Evapo-transpiration losses: 3-6mm

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 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

IR0 = S +WD + E + SP-EFR IRi, the irrigation requirement during growing

where,
S = Saturation water = 150mm
WD= Initial depth of flooding = 100mm
E = Evaporation rate = 2mm/dayx 60 days
SP = Seepage and percolation
=2mm/dayx 60 days
EFR = Effective rainfall = 101 +143 [since the
rain fall is not high, no spilling or
flooding can be expected; therefore, the
total rainfall is taken as the Effective
Rainfall]
stage (the crop age of 0-15 days; From 1st May
to 15th May) was calculated as follows.
IRi= ET + SP+ (RP-WD) EFR
where,
ET = Evapo-transpiration = 6mm/day
SP = Seepage losses = 2mm/day
RP= Required pond depth = 100mm
WD = Initial depth of water = 100mm
EFR =Effective Rainfall = 2.97mm/day
IRi= (6 x 15) +(2x15) +(100-100) - (3.03x15)
= 74.45mm

IR0= 150+ 100+2x60+2 x60 (101+143) Table 3 shows the average irrigation
= 296mm requirement per day for each cultivation stage
in Maha and Yala seasons.

Table 3 - Average Irrigation Required at each Time Period of the Year

Age of Irrigation Average Irrigation
Crop Growing Duration
Period Crop Required -IR Required per day
Stage (days)
(days) (mm) (mm/day)
Main Season (Maha)
1st March to 30th April Pre- Saturation - 296 60 4.93
1st May to 15th May Vegetative 0-15 74.45 15 4.96
16th May to 15th June Vegetative 16-45 166.9 30 5.56
16th June to 25th July Reproductive 46-85 300.45 40 7.51
25th July to 20th August Ripening 86-110 155.40 25 6.22
Minor Season (Yala)
1st Sept to 30th Oct Pre- Saturation - 268 60 4.47
1st Nov to 15th Nov Vegetative 0-15 25.95 15 1.73
16th Nov to 15th Dec Vegetative 16-45 57 30 1.90
16th Dec to 25th Jan Reproductive 46-85 262.8 40 6.57
25th Jan to 20th Feb Ripening 86-110 158.5 25 6.34

Calculation of Required Pump Capacity
Daily water pumping requirement and hence
the minimum pump flow rates were calculated
as follows;
For pre-saturation period (1st March to 30th
April);
Irrigation required per day= 4.93mm
It means 4.93 liters of water is required per
square meter agricultural land.
The required flow rate varies for each month
depending on the rain fall and age of the crop,
thus the period 16thMay to 15thJulyrequires the
maximum water flow rate. It would be
2.5m3/min. Therefore, the pump should be
capable of discharging this amount of water
and selected accordingly.
EnergyRequirementforWaterPumping
Calculation of Required Pump Head

For 30 hectares, Water Requirement As shown in the Figure 2, water has to be

= 4.93x 104 x 30 = 1479m3/ day pumped from the water source to the higher
Assuming pump operating time to be 15 hours elevation where the storage tank is proposed
per day, to be constructed. From this higher location,
Minimum pump flow rate required water flows to the paddy fields by gravity.
= 1479/ (15 X 60) m3/min= 1.64 m3/min

Page 4
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015
Figure 2 - Location of Water Source and Piping System Arrangement
To deliver the required water flow rate
(maximum of 2.5m3/min), one duty pump of
above capacity and parallel standby pumps
(two pumps with capacity 2.5m3/min) could
be installed. In deciding on a suitable pump, as
the first step, the specifications of seven pump
sizes were considered, referring to the
catalogue of a worlds leading pump
manufacturer [5].
The following information was considered as
per the site location and the measurements
taken.
Level difference between water source and
highest Suction = 4m
Discharge height= 14m
Therefore, total level difference= 18m
Horizontal distances (referring to Figure 2);
Suction= 6m
Discharge= 3+26+4.5=33.5m
Therefore, Total horizontal distance = 39.5m
Pipe Lengths (referring to Figure 2);
Suction = 6+4 =10m
Discharge = 6+ (262+142)0.5+4.5 =40.03m
Therefore, Total pipe length = 50.03m
5
Total Head, H = H1+ H2+ H3 + H4
Where,
H1= Head loss due to friction of pipe and
fittings
H2 = Static head of water column
H3 = Velocity head required at the end of pipe
H4 = Pump internal head loss
To calculate H1,Hazen William equation[2]
was used.
6.05 10 .
. .
Where,
P = Pressure loss due to friction
Q = Flow rate
L = Total pipe length (L1) + Sum of equivalent
lengths of fittings (L2)
The pressure loss was then converted to
equivalent head loss.
The equivalent lengths of fittings for different
pipe sizes are available[6] and for each pump
type, the sum of equivalent lengths were
determined. For pumpType4, the equivalent
length of fittings, L2was calculated as shown in
Table 4. Since suction and discharge diameters
are not the same, H1 for both suction and
discharge sides were calculated separately.
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

Table 4 - Equivalent Length of Suction and Discharge Pipes[6]

Suction Side (6 "/150mm) Discharge Side (5 "/125mm)
Total Total
Fitting No of Equivalent No of Equivalent
Equivalent Equivalent
Fittings Length (m) Fittings Length (m)
Length (m) Length (m)
Gate valves 1 1.1 1.1 3 1.1 3.3
Tees 1 8.6 8.6 1 8.6 8.6
450 Elbows 3 2.3 6.9
90 Elbows
0 3 2 6 4 2 8
Sum of Equivalent
15.7 26.8
Lengths
Note Since the table has not provided the equivalent lengths for 5 pipe size, the values of 6 were taken for
calculations.

Sample Calculation for Q= 2.5 m3/min

The calculations are based on pipe lengths 6.05 10 66.9 2500 .
given Figure 2. Suffixes S and D are used to
120 . 125 .
denote the suction side and the delivery side,
0.684
respectively.
For suction side (referring to Figure 2); H1D= 6.84m
L2S= 15.7m, L1S= 10m H2D= Level difference (14 m) + height of tank
LS= 15.7 +10m= 25.7m (6m) = 20m
Q= 2500 l/min
H3D= 2m
C= 120 for Galvanized Steel
D= 150mm H4D= 2m (varies slightly with different
brands/models and
Applying in Hazen William equation for constructions of pump)
suction side, friction loss was estimated as
follows. So, Total delivery head,
.
HD=H1D+ H2D+ H3D+ H4D
6.05 10 25.7 2500 =6.84+20+2+2 =30.84m

120 . 150 .
0.108 The pipe friction head loss, hence the total
Therefore, relevant head; H1S= 1.08m head required varies with the pipe size and
H2S= 4m therefore, total head required for different pipe
H3S= 0(for suction side) sizes were calculated accordingly.
H4S= 0 (for suction side)
Selection of Pump
So, Total suction head, Hs= H1S + H2S
= 1.08 + 4= 5.08m With the above calculated values, for a
particular pipe diameter, the required head (H)
For Discharge side (referring to Figure 2); for different flow rates (Q) were calculated.
L2D= 26.8m The variation of H Vs Q was plotted
L1D= 40.1m accordingly. This is the system curve for each
LD= L1D+L2D= 26.8 + 40.1 = 66.9m pump. Table 5 shows the variation of system
head with flow rate.
Applying the same equation (Hazen Williams)
to calculate H1,

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 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

Table 5 - Variation of System Head with Flow Rate

System Head (m)
Flow Rate (m3/h)
Type1 Type2 Type3 Type4 Type5 Type6 Type7
0 22.00 22.00 22.00 22.00 22.00 22.00 22.00
25 27.27 24.03 22.75 22.29 22.11 22.03 22.01
50 41.01 29.32 24.69 23.04 22.41 22.12 22.05
75 62.25 37.50 27.69 24.20 22.87 22.25 22.10
100 90.53 48.39 31.69 25.74 23.48 22.43 22.17
125 125.56 61.88 36.64 27.65 24.23 22.65 22.25
150 167.10 77.88 42.51 29.92 25.13 22.91 22.35
175 214.99 96.32 49.28 32.53 26.16 23.21 22.47
Discharge Pipe
2 1/2 3 4 5 6 8 10
Size (inch)
Suction Pipe
3 4 5 6 8 10 12
Diameter (inch)

The pump type 4 was selected as the best, cost is high. Large pumps operating at partial
comparing the Performance Curves provided loads cause lower overall efficiency due to the
by the manufacturers and system low percentage of full load of motor, although
characteristic curves. the pump may operate at BEP.

The main criterion considered in the selection
was the pump to operate at its best efficiency
point (BEP). However, it can be seen that the
head is higher for smaller pumps due to pipe
losses and losses at bends. That means, if
smaller pumps are used, the system head gets
higher and more energy is required for
pumping. On the other hand, large pumps
need effectively less head to pump water
because of the lower friction head loss, but the
When the optimum pump is used, the system
draws 29 kW of electric power to pump the
required flow rate (2.5m3/min).The electricity
requirement varies in each time period because
of the variation of irrigation requirement as
mentioned earlier. Table 6 shows the energy
requirement for each time period. The pump is
operated at rated load and the pumping time
varies depending on the requirement.

Table 6 - Energy Requirement for each Time Period for Water Pumping
Time
Irrigation Energy
Taken for
Time Period of the Year Requirement Required for
Pumping
(m3/day) Pumping (kWh)
(h)
1st March to 30th April 1,479 9.86 295.80
1st May to 15th May 1,489 9.93 297.80
16th May to 15th June 1,669 11.13 333.80
16th June to 25th July 2,253 15.00 450.68
25th July to 20th August 2,260 15.00 452.02
1st September to 30th October 1,341 8.94 268.20
1st November to 15th November 519 3.46 103.80
16th November to 15th December 570 3.80 114.00
16th December to 25th January 1,971 13.14 394.20
25th January to 20th February 1,902 12.68 380.40

Household Electricity Demand such as schools, hospitals, temples and church.

The energy demand of this small village was
estimated assuming that energy efficient
lighting and other appliances are used. Only
household electrification will be provided and
with no provision for industrial applications.
Further, except the number of houses, there are
no other commercial or institutional buildings
Such buildings are located about 4 to 6 km
away from the village. The electricity demand
by individual household consisting 10 LED
bulbs of 10W each, a refrigerator, two fans, a
TV and a radio is about 250W, and the total
coincident electricity demand is 11.75kW for47
households. The peak demand exists

7
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

around19:00 hours, and
requirement is 145 kWh.
Wind Turbine
Wind Data
daily energy each month is given in above document. Data
given for Hambantota was used which is
closest to the village under study.
Table 6 gives the average wind speed at each
four hour period.

Wind speed data were extracted from the

Wind Energy Resource Atlas of Sri Lanka and
Maldives published by National Renewable
Energy Laboratory [7]. The average wind
speed and power variation during the day in

Table 6 - Average Wind Speed of Hambantota Site

Hour of the Day

Month
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
January 6 5 5 8 9 7 6
February 5 4 4 6 10 8 4
March 4 4 4 7 9 7 4
April 4 3 2 6 7 6 3
May 4 4 4 8 10 7 5
June 7 7 7 10 10 8 4
July 7 7 7 10 10 8 7
August 7 7 6 10 11 8 7
September 6 5 5 10 12 8 6
October 6 5 5 10 10 7 6
November 5 4 4 7 7 5 4
December 6 5 4 7 8 7 6
Wind speed is given in m/s

Turbine Selection of wind speed, but in Sri Lanka, the average

The turbine output should be 29 kW in the
period of 16th June to 25th July as mentioned
above.
Based on this average wind speed and the
power requirement in each month, the
required turbine was selected. Most of the
wind turbine manufacturers in the world have
designed and developed their products to suit
the range 10-15m/s, the most expected range
wind speed lies between 6-8m/s.
Table 7 gives the considered turbines including
their prices. The turbines WT1 to WT4 are
manufactured by Aeolos Wind Energy
Limited, a UK company and the WT 5 is a
vertical axis turbine manufactured by a
Chinese company.

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 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

Table 7 - Wind Turbines with Specifications and Prices[8]

Turbine
WT 1 WT 2 WT 3 WT 4 WT 5 WT 6 WT 7
JBS
Manufacturer Aeolos Wind Energy, Ltd Energy Polaris
LLC
Country UK China USA USA
Aeolo- Aeolo- Aeolo- Aeolo- RCVA
Model No. PGE20/35 P1539.9
H20kW H30kW H50kW H60kW 60kW
Axis direction Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Horizontal Vertical Horizontal Horizontal
Rated Power
20 30 50 60 60 35 39.9
(kW)
Rated Wind
10 10 9.5 9 12 11 9.5
Speed (m/s)
Price (USD) 43,010 62,680 143,400 159,040 102,100 - 104,000

For the period, January 1st to 25th, energy Table 8. These are based on the power curves
delivered by each turbine is given in below provided by each turbine manufacturer.

Table 8 - Energy Generated by each Type of Turbine

Time Energy Total energy expected from the wind turbine
Taken for Required for (kWh/day)
Period
Pumping Pumping
WT1 WT2 WT3 WT4 WT5 WT6 WT7
(h) (kWh)
1st March to 31st March 9.9 296 163 252 461 655 529 399 482
1st April to 30th April 9.9 298 150 232 426 620 501 384 463
1st May to 15th May 9.9 298 171 263 469 669 545 422 498
16th May to 31st May 11.1 334 171 263 469 669 545 422 498
1st June to 15th June 11.1 334 283 442 772 1074 877 647 753
16th June to 30th June 15.0 451 283 442 772 1074 877 647 753
1st July to 25th July 15.0 451 283 442 776 1074 883 648 753
26th July to 31st July 15.0 452 283 442 776 1074 883 648 753
1st August to 20th August 15.0 452 282 435 767 1033 866 635 726
1st September to 30th
8.9 268 258 392 690 919 797 576 656
September
1st October to 31st October 8.9 268 230 349 625 833 683 518 602
1st November to 15th
3.5 104 89 126 203 327 306 248 263
November
16th November to 30th
3.8 114 89 126 203 327 306 248 263
November
1st December to 15th
3.8 114 184 287 534 805 634 501 604
December
16th December to 31st
13.1 394 184 287 534 805 634 501 604
December
1stJanuary to 25th January 13.1 394 209 335 631 905 699 538 656
25th January to 31st January 12.7 380 209 335 631 905 699 538 656
1st February to 20th
12.7 380 208 316 534 767 644 485 558
February

9
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015
The wind turbine WT7 was selected because
the average energy output per day is higher
than the energy requirement for water
pumping.
The excess energy from WT7 can be used for
household electrification through the off-grid
network.
If the wind speed is assumed to be the same as
in this study, the excess wind energy can be
used to serve the household electricity demand
calculated to be 145kWh/day, with a battery
bank for energy storage.
Battery Bank Selection
Storage system should be capable of fulfilling
the requirement of energy storing for
uninterrupted service. The idea is to store
excess energy available at higher wind speeds
and discharge the stored energy to the system
at lower wind speeds.
The calculations were done based on the
average wind speed [7], but consecutive low or
zero wind days can be expected that would
make the system more dependent on storage
batteries. Then the capacity of storage will have
to be increased.
Three consecutive days of zero or low wind
speed was assumed to determine the size of the
battery bank. The battery bank was sized only
to cater to household electrification.
Battery bank capacity is given by the following
formula[9].
. . . present gasoline engine for the purpose of
Where,
Aha: Amp- hours adjusted
Ahd: Amp-hours day
DA: Days of Autonomy
DM: Design Margin
DOD: Depth of Discharge
TC: Temperature Correction Factor
The amp-hour day is given as;
Battery bank voltage =12 V (common voltage)
Page 10
Total load = 145 kWh
This gives;
Ahd= 12,833 Ah
DA = 3 days
DOD = 80%
DM = 1.25
TC = 1.08
Substituting in the above equation;
Aha= 65 X 103Ah
From the product catalogue of Trojan Battery
Company, Trojan 12AGM (capacity 140Ah at
20h rated) was selected for the battery bank.
Required number of batteries (N) is given by,
N= 65 X 103/ 140= 464
The cost of one battery (140Ah, 20h) is58USD
and total cost of battery bank is then 26,912
USD.
Conclusions
Total estimated cost of the system is 276,088
USD, (the price of turbine is 104,000 USD) and
it includes the cost of pumping system, pump
house, storage tank, wind turbine & auxiliaries.
The estimated generation cost of this system
was calculated as Rs. 33.58 per kWh by
assuming 5% operation & maintenance (O&M)
cost and 10,20, 20 & 10 year of life times for the
pumping system, pump house, storage tank
and the turbine, respectively.
The estimated generation cost for household
supply was calculated as Rs. 45 per kWh by
assuming 5% O&M cost and 5 years of life time
for the battery bank.
The generation cost is Rs. 53 per kWh with the
pumping water even without considering the o
& m cost and depreciation. Therefore, the
proposed system is financially favorable and
environment friendly.
As per the electricity tariffs of Ceylon
Electricity Board (CEB) for domestic purposes,
total electricity bill of a single user will be
calculated as follows
0-60 units @7.85 LKR: 471 LKR
61- 90 units @10LKR: 300LKR
91-93 units @27.75 LKR: 83.25 LKR
Total bill (for 93 units): 1334.25 LKR
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015
The proposed system costs 45LKR to produce
an electricity unit and for 93 units its cost is
4155. At a glance, the above comparison shows
that it is not worth to generate power using this
technology because of the very high generation
cost. However, cost effectiveness should be
evaluated by considering all relevant factors.
The CEB supplies electricity to households at a
subsidized rate up to 90 units and the actual
generation cost is 18 LKR. However, still the
cost of unit generated by the proposed system
is higher than the average CEB cost.
In conclusion, the proposed system certainly
provides a viable alternative to the present
inefficient gasoline engine powered water
pumping system for the irrigation of
agricultural lands in the selected village.
Moreover, the system would meet household
electricity needs.
Furthermore, the proposed system has the
capacity to supply a large amount of water
compared to that of individual pumps. Hence
in addition to the present agricultural lands,
unutilized land could be brought under
cultivation.
The system can generate 39.9kW of electricity
at the rated wind speed (9.5 m/s) and it is
sufficient (even the power generated at lower
wind speeds than the rated one) to fulfill the
demand of household electrification (11.75 kW
peak, and 145 kWh per day) and the electricity
required to drive the electric irrigation pumps.
Most importantly, the proposed alternative
energy system utilizes renewable energy
sources, and it helps reduce GHG emission.
From the economic point of view, supply of
electricity for household lighting through the
proposed system may not be attractive.
However, the governments policy of
providing electricity to the rural community
and hence achieving 100% household
electrification will diminish the importance of
this cost factor. Other option for household
electrification in this region is the solar PV
installation as extending the national grid to
this area is costly.
Page 11
References
[1] National Energy Policy and Strategies of
Sri Lanka, October 2006. Ministry of Power
and Energy, Sri Lanka. Available at
http://worldfuturecouncil.org/fileadmin
/user_upload/PACT/Laws/Sri_Lanka_E
nergy_Policy_2006.pdf (Accessed on 23
November 2014)
[2] Hazen-Williams Equation calculating
Friction Head Loss in Water Pipes. The
Engineering Tool Box. Available at
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/haz
en-williams-water-d_797.html (Accessed
on 10 November 2014)
[3] Department Meteorology, Sri Lanka, 2014.
[4] Zawawi, M. A. M., Mustapha, S., and
Puasa, Z. (2010). Determination of Water
Requirement in a Paddy Field at Seberang
Perak Rice Cultivation Area. Available at
http://dspace.unimap.edu.my/dspace/bi
tstream/123456789/13717/1/032-
041Determination%20of%20Water%206pp.
pdf (Accessed on 10 November 2014)
[5] Berkeley Centrifugal pumps. Available at
http://www.berkeleypumps.com
(Accessed 14 December 2014)
[6] PVC - Equivalent Length Friction Loss in
Fittings.
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/pvc
-pipes-equivalent-length-fittings-
d_801.html Accessed on 10 November
2014)
[7] Elliott, D., Schwartz, M., Scott, G.,
Haymes, S., Heimiller, D., George, R.
(2003). Wind Energy Resource Atlas of Sri
Lanka and the Maldives, National
Renewable Energy Laboratory (August
2003). Available at
http://www.nrel.gov/wind/pdfs/34518.
pdf (Accessed on 5 November 2014)
[8] Aeolos Wind Turbine. Available at
http://www.windturbinestar.com
(Accessed 12 December 2014)
[9] Trojan battery company. Available at
http://www.trojanbattery.com/pdf/TRJN
0168_BattSizeGuideFL.pdf (Accessed 26th
November 2015)
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015
Supported Enzymes as Catalysts for Biodiesel Production
JHSK Jayamaha, Francisco Lemos, Luis Fonseca, Joaquim Cabral
Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Institution Superior Tecnico, University of Lisbon
Abstract
Biodiesel is emerging as a significant replacement
for petroleum based automotive fuels. When the
present level of the production of biodiesel from
both edible and non-edible oil is considered, we
see that it will not be able to cater to the demand
required to replace conventional petroleum fuels,
without producing biodiesel in mass scale at a
competitive price. It has been shown in the recent
past, that biocatalysts have tremendous potential
in the production of biodiesel, and thus,
enzymatic catalysis is getting more attention over
the past decades. The advantages of enzymatic
catalysis with reference to traditional alkaline
catalysts are based on substrate and product
specificity, activity and the ability of catalyzing
the desired reactions efficiently in very mild
conditions such as temperature, pressure,
aqueous medium, and neutral pH, with reference
to their native environment.
Zeolite (NaY-LZY-52 is the type of the zeolite
used in this experiment) supported lipases have
been shown to catalyze the transesterification of
triglycerides efficiently, providing very stable
catalysts. It has shown in the past, from the
research by various people, that lipase itself is a
promising catalyst for the production of
biodiesel. This research study covers the study
of assessing the possibility of using
immobilized enzyme on zeolites as catalysts for
the production of biodiesel by
transesterification of triglycerides with butanol.
A set of zeolite supported immobilized enzyme
catalysts has been prepared and kinetically
characterized by the hydrolysis of a synthetic
substrate (p-nitrophenyl butyrate) reaction. This
allowed us to check for supported enzyme
activity. The catalysts, which were found active,
were used to produce biodiesel in a small scale
using a triglyceride and butanol.
KEYWORDS: transesterfication, biodiesel,
Zeolite supported lipases, immobilized enzyme
Biofuels can play a vital role in transportation
sector in the future. Fossil based oil is depleting
but yet no large-scale replacement for oil-based
Page 12
transportation has emerged, except for a limited
number of electric vehicles. Due to growing
demand for fuels and high rate of increase in
the number of cars, from 1 billion in 2010 to an
expected 2.5 billion on the road by 2050, it is the
duty of researchers and engineers to find an
alternative fuel for vehicles. The biggest
challenge is the production of biofuels in mass
scale to cater to the demand. A variety of feed
stocks with different technologies have been
tested and tried over the past two to
threedecades to achieve this objective. Much
research is being done all over the world on
biofuels to produce them in large scale as well
as to improve the quality needed to replace
fossil fuels. Biofuels as a renewable energy
source would be essential elements of the
worlds energy system. Biofuels are important
because they help in solving some of the most
important challenges associated with energy
use, the overwhelming dependency and
increase in demand of fossil fuels, and the
emissions associated with their use. A lot of
research has already been carried out on this
and it has been observed that by using a variety
of biomass resources with recent technological
developments, it is possible to produce biofuels
in mass scale.
Lignocellulostic biomass derived from non-food
sources such as grasses and trees can also be
used to produce bioethanol, using enzyme
catalysts. It can be used to produce other forms
of biofuels by a variety of processes including
liquefaction, pyrolysis or gasification. Non-
edible seeds such as Jatropha can also be used to
produce biodiesel using transesterfication.
However all these processes require an
uninterrupted supply of feedstock in large
quantities to produce biofuels in mass scale.
Materials and Methods
Reversed Micelles for Biodiesel Production
Cutinase is dissolved in 400 mM phosphate or
Tris buffer of pH 8.0. It is further
microencapsulated in 150 mM of AOT[(bis (2-
ethylhexyl) sodium sulfosuccinate)]in isooctane
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015
with molar ratio of water: surfactant (Wo) as 2.7
by the injection method. This method consisted
of adding the aqueous solution drop wise with
cutinase to the AOT /isooctane solution mixing
with strong vortex for 15 s.
For biodiesel production in the reversed
micelles, the solution was previously dried with
molecular sieve and then a total reaction
volume of 5 ml enclosed in a glass reactor of 10
ml volume with magnetic stirrer was used. The
conditions buffer molarity, pH, AOT
concentration and Wo were chosen, taking into
account the desired optimization. The biodiesel
production starts by adding the alcohol and
triolein substrates into the reversed micelles.
The initial concentration of alcohol is
maintained at 390 mM, and the substrates molar
ratio of alcohol to fatty acid chains of 1.6 has
been used. The reaction started by adding
alcohol with strong vortex mixing for 15 s.
Immobilization
A volume of 50ml of cutinase has been washed
and purified using phosphate buffer solution of
pH 8.5, 50mM using a dialysis membrane
(UHP-43, 50 ml). Two reactors; one at room
temperature (RT) and the other at 4oC were
used. 0.1g of Zeolite NAY-LZY-52 (from Union
Carbide) was added to 5 ml of free enzyme
solution and kept stirring at 300 rpm for 24 hrs.
After immobilization, the product was
centrifuged for 10 minutes at 5300 rpm
(Eppendorf Centrifuge 5810R) to separate the
solid and supernatant.
Inoculum
Sterile petri dish with LB media supplemented
with sterile ampicillin (150 g ml-1) in agar solid
cultures were inoculated with E. coli WK-6
frozen cells, the storage stocks at -80oC and
incubated at 37 oC.
Pre-fermentation
The composition of the medium for pre-
fermentation was 20 g L-1 of LB medium (from
Becton and Dickson) with initial pH of 7.5. The
medium and shake flasks were previously
sterilized by autoclaving at 121oC for 20 min.
250 ml shake flask with a volume of 50 ml of the
corresponding pre-fermentation media,
supplemented with sterile ampicillin (150 g
ml -1), was inoculated with cells of inoculum
Page 13
and left at 37oC in an orbital shaker (Agitorb
200) at 250 rpm for 3 hrs.
Fermentation
The culture medium was composed of 250 ml of
TB medium by dissolving the chemical
compounds: 12 gL-1 BactoTM Triptone and 24 gL -
1 BactoTM Yeast Extract from Becton Dickinson, 5
ml L-1 Glycerol (from Acros), 3.81 gL-1 KH2PO4
(from Merck) and 12.51 gL-1 K2HPO4 (from
Panreac), necessary to adjust and keep the pH at
7.1. The medium and shake flasks were
previously sterilized by autoclaving at 121 oC,
for 20 min. 1 M MgSO4.6H2O (from Riedel-de
Haen) solution was prepared and autoclaved
separately to avoid the formation of
precipitates, and then were added aseptically
after cooling, to obtain a concentration of 20
mM in the fermentation medium. The
fermentation medium was used for the
production of cutinase when the cells achieve
high saturation density. ln order to start
fermentation with an optical density (ODat
600 nm) of 0.2, a certain volume of the cells
cultured in pre-fermentation medium were
transferred to 2 l shake flask with an initial
volume of 250 ml of the fermentation culture
medium, supplemented with ampicillin to a
final concentration of 150 g/ml. The
fermentations have been performed in the
orbital shaker at 25 oC and 250 rpm. At OD (600
nm) approximately of 1.0, the sterile inducer
IPTG (isopropyl--D-thiogalactopyranoside)
(from Bioline) was added to a final
concentration of 0.1 mM, with a reinforcement
of ampicillin (125 l of a solution of 100 mg/ml
to 250 ml of fermentation media). The
sterilization of the thermolabile IPTG and
ampicillin were perfomed by filtration using
sterile Milex-Gp filter unit (0.22 m pore
diameter from Millipore).
Cutinase Activity Assay
The activity of cutinase can be determined
through a spectrophotometric method followed
by the hydrolysis of p-nitrophenylbutyrate (p-
NPB) at 400 nm. This ester is hydrolyzed by
cutinase following a Michaelis-Menten kinetics,
and one unit of enzyme activity (U) corresponds
to the amount of enzyme required for the
production of 1 mol of p-Nitrophenol (p-NP)
per minute. As the p-NPB is temperature
sensitive, it is necessary to keep the substrate in
freezer before use, in order to prevent naturally
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015
occurring degradation. This assay is used in
order to determine the activity of the cutinase
obtained throughout the enzyme production
process. Enzyme activity assay is determined
using p-NPB in a 70 mM concentrated stock
solution in pure acetronitrile. 15 l of enzyme
extract, previously diluted in Tris buffer, is
added to reaction mixtures composed by 1470
l of 20 mM Tris. HCl with pH 8 and 15 l of p-
NPB 70 mM solution inside the glass optical cell
(3 ml) mixed by a small magnetic stirrer
subjected to magnetic agitation of 700 rpm
(Electronic Stirrer Model 300 Rank Brothers
Ltd). The cell holder is kept at temperature of
30oC by circulating warm water from a
thermostatic bath (Thermomix MM,B.BRAUN)
also at 30 oC. The reaction rate is determined by
monitoring spectrophotometrically the
hydrolysis of p-NPB and formation of p-NP at
400 nm ( = 15,400M-1cm-1) at 30oC for one
minute. Dilutions of the enzyme samples in Tris
Buffer were made in order to work in linear
variation of the concentration of p-NP, i.e.,
intensity of its yellow colour (Hitachi U-2000
Spectrometer) using a software program
(Hitachi Hyper Terminal software) to record the
variation of absorption at 400 nm against time
with respect to the amount of enzyme in this
reaction mixture.
Transesterification Procedure
The transestrification is performed in a batch
stirred reactor at 35oC maintained by an
incubator from AGITOR B 160 E, ARALAB
while the magnetic stirring is kept at 900 rpm
using Thermo Scientific VAR 10 MAG Tele
system. All biodiesel production reactions was
performed over 48hrs.
Transesterification Reactions
Reaction 1 (R1):
Control of buffer This was prepared adding 72
l of Tris. HCl buffer (400mM, pH8), 0.74g of
Triolein and 566 l of n-Butanol to 10 ml of AOT
/ isooctane during 15 s in vortex.
Biocatalyst Free Enzyme [Ext1] - This was
prepared adding 72 l of enzyme solution
(Protein 4 g/ l, Activity of 706 U/ml ), 0.77g
of Triolein and 566 l of n-Butanol to 10 ml of
AOT / isooctane during 15 s in vortex.
Reaction 2 (R2):
Control of Buffer- This was prepared adding 25
l of Tris. HCl buffer (400mM, pH8), 0.36g of
Page 14
Triolein Control of buffer This was prepared
adding 72 l of Tris. HCl buffer (400mM, pH8),
0.74g of Triolein and 566 l of n-Butanol to 10
ml of AOT / isooctane during 15 s in vortex.
Biocatalyst Free Enzyme [Ext1] - This was
prepared adding 72 l of enzyme solution
(Protein 4 g/ l, Activity of 706 U/ml ), 0.77g
of Triolein and 566 l of n-Butanol to 10 ml of
AOT / isooctane during 15 s in vortex and 283
l of n-Butanol to 5 ml of AOT/ isooctane
during 15 s in vortex.
Control of Zeolite This was prepared adding
25 l of Tris buffer (400mM, pH8), 0.36g of
Triolein, 10mg of Zeolite(NaY,LZY,52) and 283
l of n-Butanol to 5 ml of AOT/ isooctane
during 15 s in vortex.
Biocatalyst IME1[Ext2] - This is prepared
adding 25 l of buffer (400mM, pH8), 0.36g of
Triolein, 25 l Immobilized suspension of
enzyme at 40C (Protein 3.9 mg/ml, Activity
17.2U/ml),and 283 l of n-Butanol to 5 ml of
AOT/ isooctane during 15 s in vortex.
Reaction 3 (R3):
Control Zeolite - This was prepared adding 25
l of buffer (400mM, pH8), 0.36g of Triolein ,
20mg of Zeolite (NaY,LZY,52) and 283 l of n-
Butanol to 5 ml of AOT /isooctane during 15 s
in vortex.
Biocatalyst IME2 [Ext3] This was prepared
adding 25 l of buffer (400mM, pH8), 0.36g of
Triolein , 80mg of Immobilized Enzyme Zeolite
(NaY,LZY,52) support(Protein 3.6mg/ml,
Activity 55.7 U/ml ) and 283 l of n-Butanol to 5
ml of AOT /isooctane during 15 s in vortex.
Biocatalyst IME3 [Ext4] This was prepared
adding 25 l of buffer (400mM, pH8), 0.36g of
Triolein , 80mg of Immobilized Enzyme Zeolite
(NaY,LZY,52) support(Lyophilized enzyme of
1.6mg/ml, Activity 20.2 U/ml) and 283 l of n-
Butanol to 5 ml of AOT /isooctane during 15 s
in vortex.
Reaction 4 (R4):
Biocatalyst IME4[Ext5] - This was prepared
adding 25 l of buffer (400mM, pH8), 0.36g of
Triolein, 190mg of Immobilized enzyme Zeolite
support (NaY,LZY,52) (Protein 9.5mg/ml,
Activity 213 U/ml) and 283 l of n-Butanol to 5
ml of AOT /isooctane during 15 s in vortex.
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

Results and Discussion

Calibration of High Performance Liquid The baseline changes present 4 characteristics

Chromatography (HPLC) for analysis of alkyl
glycerides and Biodiesel ProductionFigure1
shows the HPLC chromatograms obtained in
the identification of substrates, alcohol, and
products involved on the biodiesel production.
plateaus, first one between 3-4 min, the second
one between 5.5 and 9 min, the third one
between 12 and 15 min, and fourth one between
18 and 21 min and they are in agreement with
the different phases of the effluent gradient.

Figure 1 - Typical Chromatogram for the Injection of a Sample of Triolein in Reversed Micelles
Reaction Media.

Page 15
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

Figure 2 - Resume of Typical Chromatogram and the Time Zone of Substrates, Intermediates and
products.

Note: Blue rectangle time zone of MG detection, White rectangle time zone of Alkyl Esters detection, Yellow
rectangle time zone of DG detection, Red rectangle time zone of TG detection.

The blue rectangle represents the usual
retention time zone where the peaks
corresponding to the monoglycerides (MG) are
detected, the white rectangle time zone for alkyl
esters (AE) detection, the yellow rectangle the
time zone for diglycerides (DG) detection and
the red rectangle the zone for triglycerides (TG)
detection. It is expected that in the beginning of
the reaction, (time zero) there exists a high
concentration of TG, a low concentration of DG
and MG and no alkyl esters present.
Biodiesel Reactions
The transesterification of triglycerides were
performed in closed small scale reactors with
total volume of 10 ml. Control experiments
were performed in four different ways with:
just buffer, pure zeolite, free enzyme,
lyophilized enzyme; all experiments, including
the ones with immobilized enzyme were
carried-out using optimal conditions previously
defined. The control experiments of R1, R2 and
R3 performed with buffer and zeolite alone do
not show any significant alteration of the
chromatograms for zero and 48 hours reaction
and consequently, indicate that no degradation
occurs of the triolein neither has there been any
partial hydrolysis of triolein with formation of
DGs or MGs and transesterification as there is
no peak corresponding to the alkyl esters
resulting from the reaction of one of the
triglycerides of the triolein with butanol. From
the analysis of the different reactions and
chromatograms it is possible to conclude the
following: In R1, the production of biodiesel
with free enzyme with very high activity (Ext1)
no significant consumption of the triglycerides
occurred even after 48 hrs and neither
significant amount of butyl esters (<10%) and
diglycerides (<5%). The reason for this low
transesterification yield is due to the high
amount of water Wo> 4 present in the reversed
micellar system. In R2, the cutinase from Ext2
was immobilized in the zeolite but also in this
case there is not significant consumption of the
triglycerides after 48 hours and neither butyl
esters or diglyerides formation. The reason for
this apparent failure on biodiesel production is
due to low activity of the immobilized enzyme
preparation (IME1) and the high amount of
water Wo> 5.4 present in the reversed micellar
system. In R3, two cutinase preparations (80
mg) previously lyophilized were used, the first
one powder of free enzyme (IME 2) and the
second one immobilized on zeolite (IME3) to
control the amount of water in the reversed
micellar system. Both enzyme preparations IME
2 and IME 3 gave an interesting
transesterification yield (50 and 10%) and

Page 16
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

simultaneously formation of diglycerides (15 References

and 5%), respectively. The interesting results
are amount of water in micellar system Wo = 2.7 [1] A review on microwave-assisted
already optimized by Badenes, 2010. These production of biodiesel,
results can be improved by using cutinase .Motasemi,F.N.AninFaculty,MechanicalEng
extracts with higher activity. In R4, the IME4 ineering,UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia,UT
was obtained from cutinase extract Ext5 with M81310,Skudai,JohorBahru,Malaysia,
very high activity. After immobilization the Renewable and Sustainable Energy
IME4 the enzyme solution was removed by Reviews 16 (2012) 47194733.
centrifugation and then completely dried at
300C before use in biodiesel production and [2] Balat, M., 2011. Potential alternatives to
kept with Wo at 2.7. By comparison of the all edible oils for biodiesel production A
previous immobilized samples it is possible to review of current work. Energy Convers.
conclude that the final immobilized sample Manage. 52, 14791492.
IME4 transesterification yield is almost 100% as
there was total consumption of triolein and [3] Badenes, S. M. (2010). Enzymatic
more important without mono and diglycerides transesterification of triglycerides by
formation. With this work it is possible to cutinase for biodiesel production.
conclude that reversed micellar system based PhD.Thesis, BioEngineering Research
on AOT and Isooctane and cutinase Group. lnstituto Superior Tecnico,
immobilized in zeolite can be an interesting Universidade Tecnico de Lisboa, Lisboa,pg
biocatalyst on the biodiesel production. 14.

Conclusions [4] Badenes, S. M., Lemos, F. and Cabral, J. M.

From the results presented we can conclude
that cutinase immobilized on zeolite NaY-LZY-
52 is a promising catalyst for the production of
biodiesel from triglycerides. Enzymatic
biodiesel production offers many advantages
over the chemical catalysis that has been used
over a years in practice. It has shown that it is
more efficient due to enzyme specificity and
selectivity. It greatly helps to consume less
energy as it works under very mild conditions
such as low temperature and pressure. It also
helps to reduce water waste and produce more
environmentally friendly product. Repeated use
of the enzymes, enhancement of their thermal
and operational stability, effective control of the
reaction parameters, etc. are the benefits of the
use of catalytic transesterification using
immobilization of lipases. It also greatly helps
to reduce the production cost of biodiesel. The
possibility of using continuous reactors, packed
and fluidized bed reactors, membrane reactors
and stirred tanks with catalyst recycling are
added advantages of using immobilized
cutinase in biodiesel production.
S. (2011b). Stability of cutinase, wild type
and mutants, in AOT reversed micellar
system-effect of mixture components of
alkyl esters production. Journal of Chemical
Technology & Biotechnology 85 (1): 34-41
[5] Brissos, V., Eggert, T, Cabral, J. M. S. and
Jaeger, K.-E. (2008a). Improving activity and
stability of cutinase towards the anionic
detergent AOT by complete saturation
mutagenesis. Protein Engineering Design
and Selection 21(6):397-393.
[6] Carvalho, C. M. 1., Aires-Barros, M. R. and
Cabral, J. M. S. (1999a). Cutinase stability in
AOT reversed micelles: system
optimization using the factorial design
methodology. Enzyme and Microbial
Technology 2a (8-9): 569-57G.
[7] Creveld, L. D., Amadei, A., van Schaik, R.
c., pepermans, H. n. rvr., ue Vlieg, j. and
Berendsen, H.J. C.(1998). Identification of
functional and unfolding motions of
cutinase as obtained from molecular
dynamics computers imulations. Proteins:
Structure, Function, and Bioinformatics 33
(2): 253-264.

[8] Current Status and Potential for Algal

Biofuels Production A REPORT TO IEA
BIOENEGY TASK 39 AUTHORS: Al
Page 17
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

Darzins (NREL) Philip Pienkos (NREL)Les

Edye (Bio Industry Partners) Report T39.

[9] Egmond, M' R' and de Vlieg, J. (2000).

Fusarium solani pisi cutinase. Biochimie 82
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[10] Eijsink, v. G. H., Gaseidnes, s., Borchert, T.

V. and van den Burg, B. (2005). Directed
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[11] Fukuda, H., Kondo, A., Noda, H., 2001.

Biodiesel fuel production by
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[12] Fusarium solani pisi cutinase, Maarten R.

Egmond*, Jacob de Vlieg Unilever Research
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3133 ATV laardingen, the Netherlands
(Received 15 May 2000; accepted 14
September2000).

[13] Kolattukudy P.E., Cutinases from fungi and

pollen, in: Borgstrm B., Brockman H.
(Eds.), Lipases, Elsevier, Amsterdam,1984,
pp. 471504

[14] Ollis D.L., Cheah E., Cygler M., Dijkstra

B.M., Frolow F.,Franken S.M., Harel M.,
Remington S.J., Silman I., Schrag J.,Sussman
J.L., Verschueren K.H.G., Goldman A.,
Thealpha/betahydrolasefold, Prot. Engin. 5
(1992) 197211.

[15] Pocalyko, D. J. and Tallman, M. (1998).

Effects of amphipaths on the activity and
stability of Fusarium solani pisi cutinase.
Enzyme and Microbial Technology 22
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[16] Vras, I.C., Silva, F.A.L., Ferro-Gonzales,

A.D., Moreau, V.H., 2011. One-step
enzymatic production of fatty acid ethyl
ester from high-acidity waste feed stocks in
solvent-free media. Bioresour. Technol. 102,
96539658

Page 18
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

Minimizing Energy Loss by Optimizing Pipe Diameter and Insulation

Thickness in Steam Distribution Pipelines
JACKJ Bandara, Ruchira Abeyweera and NS Senanayake
The Open University of Sri Lanka, Nawala, Nugegoda

Abstract releases more energy as the heat of

This paper presents the analysis of heat losses
in steam conveying pipes together with a
selection procedure of correct pipe diameters
and insulation to meet a given requirement.
Selection of proper pipe size helps, prevent or
reduceerosion of pipes, improve the system
performance, and avoid the risk of steam
starving. Not using optimum pipe sizes often
leads to energy losses that will cause higher
fuel consumption, hence higher costs. Apart
from the pipe diameter, insulation plays a
major role in reducing the heat loss along the
pipe and hence the fuel cost. However,
increasing the insulation unnecessarily causes
higher costs that cannot be justified by fuel
savings. Therefore, selection of the optimum
insulation thickness is very important in steam
distribution systems. This paper, therefore,
also presents a detailed procedure for
estimating heat losses in steam pipes for
different insulation thickness values, together
with costs involved. This would allow the
designer to select the best insulation thickness
for a given requirement in order for it to be
economical.
Introduction
Use of steam for the purpose of generating
process heat is common in the industry. As
team distribution system consists mainly of
boilers for steam generation, distribution
pipelines, and the utilization point accessories,
depending on the type of end use.
The industry norm for generation, distribution
and utilization is that steam should be
generated and distributed at the highest
possible pressure and utilized at lowest
possible pressure.
Generating steam at high pressure helps to
add more energy to the limited amount of
water circulating in the system. Distributing at
high pressure lowers the required pipe
diameter, as the specific volume of steam
decreases with the increase in pressure. At the
utilization equipment, steam at lower pressure
vaporization hfg is the higher at lower
pressure.
Most of the processes in industry use wet
steam, while a few use high quality dry steam.
Superheated steam is used in cogeneration.
Proper designing of the distribution system is
very important as it determines the system
reliability and energy efficiency. The design
task includes selection of material, fittings,
design of pipe thickness and selection of
diameter, and the thickness of insulation.
Insulation of different thermal systems
provides safety and benefits in terms of energy
and cost savings. It reduces the heat loss from
different subsystems such as connecting pipes
and heat recovery equipment surfaces, which
can make the working environment more
comfortable. Reducing the heat loss can also
reduce the burden on cooling systems used at
workspaces. In terms of safety, insulation
reduces the outer surface temperature of the
piping, which reduces the risk of burns [1].
The design of piping system in which material
selection, pipe thickness calculation, stress
analysis and support design etc. require to
comply with the standard ASME B31.1, power
piping.
Two principal factors determine pipe sizing in
a steam system. Firstly, initial pressure at the
boiler and the allowable pressure drop of the
total system. The total pressure drop in the
system should not exceed 20% of the total
maximum pressure at the boiler [2]. This
includes all drops: line loss, elbows, valves,
etc. The second factor is the steam velocity.
The flow through a pipe should be between
certain velocity limits, and pipes should be
sized accordingly. Higher velocity leads to
erosion of pipes, while lower velocity does not
show a considerable impact on the system.
However, lower velocities increase the
condensate amount and hence energy losses..
Undersized pipes cause erosion of pipe,
insufficient pressure at utilization point due to

19
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

higher pressure drop, and steam starvation. The pressure drops owing to pipe friction
On the other hand, oversized pipes lead to along the pipe length at minimum and
higher installation cost and higher heat loss maximum recommended velocities were
due to the heat transfer through larger surface calculated next, using Darcy Weisbach
area. Further, the higher heat loss causes Equation (2) [3].
increased condensate that increases the size of
4
fittings needed such as steam traps and ... 2
condensate recovery pipe lines. 2

With regard to insulation, proper thickness of The equation (2) can be rearranged in the form
insulation needs to be established in a given of pressure drop as follows.
situation that would save money. The higher
the insulation is, the lower is the heat loss,
hence saving energy. However, in economic 2
... 3
terms, insulation costs money and need to be
optimized so that investment on insulation is
recovered through energy savings. Where,
Therefore, there should be an optimization
when deciding on both pipe diameter as well
as insulation thickness. In this paper, savings
of energy as a result of using proper thickness
of insulation and the pipe sizes are
investigated.

The pressure range from 2 bar to 30 bar and
An unknown parameter in the Darcy equation,
pipe bore diameter from 50 mm to 150 mm,
the friction factor (f) was obtained from the
which are the most frequently used in the
Moody Chart [4] or for accurate figure (when
industry, are considered in this paper for
the flow is turbulent) f was calculated using
analysis.
the equation (4).
Selection of Pipe Size for a Given Steam
Flow Rate 1 2 9.3
3.48 1.74 .. 4
Methodology
Where
As mentioned above, pipes for steam

distribution networks are sized based on two

methods, called velocity method and the
pressure drop method. For wet steam, the
recommended velocity range is between 15 The Reynolds number that is to be substituted
and 30 m/s. into equation (3) was calculated using
equation (5).
Then the minimum and maximum mass flow
rates the pipe can deliver are calculated using .. 5
the equation (1).
Where
1
4

Where,


Calculations were performed for different pipe
sizes (50 mm to 150 mm) at different
pressures, from 2bar to 30bar, while the flow
For different pipe sizes (50 mm to 150 mm) at velocity is at lowest and highest recommended
different pressures in the range of 2 bar to 30 values.
bar, the steam mass flow rate through the
pipes were calculated (Table 1).

Page 20
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

Sample Calculation steam, and was taken from steam tables

corresponding to the pressure of 10bar.
Calculation of mass flow rate:
The upper and lower values for mass flow
= 5.65 kg/m3
u = 15m/s
rates through the pipe were calculated based
D = 102.26mm
on the minimum and maximum
recommended velocities(15 ms-1 and 30ms-1) The dynamic viscosity () of steam was taken
using equation (1). as (corresponding to the pressure 10bar and at
saturation temperature) 1.5x 10-4 Nsm-2 [5].
Steam at 10bar flowing in a 100 mm (nominal)
pipe was considered. Substituting in equation (5), for lower velocity
value;
Minimum Velocity (VS15) = 15ms-1
5.65 15 0.10226
Diameter of pipe of 100mm pipe (Di) = 5.78 10
1.5 10
102.26mm
For higher velocity, the Reynolds Number was
Specific volume of steam (vg) = 0.177m3kg-1
calculated as;
0.10226 15
3600 5.65 30 0.10226
4 0.177 1.55 10
2506 1.5 10
The maximum mass flow rate that satisfies the
maximum velocity requirement was The pipe material was assumed to be of
calculated by substituting the higher velocity carbon steel and its absolute roughness (ks) is
value (30 ms-1) in the same equation. in the range 0.02 to 0.05 mm, and in the
calculations the higher value (0.05 mm) was
This gave the maximum permissible steam used.
flow rate (mS30) as 5011kgh-1.
As the flow is in the turbulent range, equation
The selection of proper pipe size for a (4)was used to calculate the friction coefficient
particular application, however, cannot be (f). Iteration method was used with MS Excel
simplified as calculated above. The main software to determine the value of f, which
concern is the pressure drop along the pipe. was calculated as 0.0055.
Even though the pipes selected based on the
velocity method fulfil the velocity Substituting the following values in equation
requirement, they may or may not satisfy the (3), the pressure loss due to friction was
system requirement. The velocity method does estimated as given below.
not address the length of the piping and the
pressure drop in the system. Long pipe 102.26 (Standard pipe chart-[6])
lengths for example, will cause an increase in 0.0055
5.65
the friction loss, hence the pressure drop.
100
Pressure drop method considers the pipe
30
diameter as well as length and the pressure
drop. 2 0.0055 5.65 100 15

Calculation of pressure drop: 0.10226 10
0.1367
Considering the steam flowing at lower
velocity (15 ms-1) at 10bar along a 100 m long
pipe line, the pressure drop was estimated as The same procedure gave the pressure drop at
follows, using equation (3). maximum velocity (30 ms-1) as 0.4938 bar.
The friction factor was taken from the Moody For different pressure values and pipe
Chart or for a turbulent flow from equation diameters, the pressure drop corresponding to
(4). minimum and maximum recommended
velocities were calculated and tabulated as
Equation (5) was used to determine the given in Table 2.
Reynolds Number. The density, is the
inverse of the specific volume (m3kg-1) of

21
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

Results 1,and the flow rates corresponding to

minimum and maximum velocities are given.
Table 1 shows the steam flow rate
If the required steam flow rate and the line
corresponding to minimum and maximum
pressure for a particular application are
velocities that can be distributed through
known, the designer can select the pipe
different pipe sizes under different pressures.
diameter directly from the Table 1.
The permissible velocity through the pipe as
mentioned earlier is in the range 15 to 30 ms-

Table 1 - Steam Flow Rate Corresponding to Maximum and Minimum Velocities

Pressure Pipe Nominal Diameter (mm)
Velocity
(bar) 50 65 80 100 125 150
(ms-1)
Steam flow rate (kg/h)
30 387 553 854 1,471 2,314 3,340
2
15 194 276 427 735 1,157 1,670
30 507 723 1,117 1,924 3,027 4,368
3
15 253 361 559 962 1,513 2,184
30 625 891 1,377 2,372 3,731 5,384
4
15 312 446 689 1,186 1,865 2,692
30 742 1,058 1,635 2,816 4,430 6,393
5
15 371 529 817 1,408 2,215 3,196
30 1,320 1,883 2,910 5,011 7,884 11,377
10
15 660 941 1,455 2,506 3,942 5,689
30 1,547 2,207 3,411 5,874 9,241 13,336
12
15 774 1,103 1,705 2,937 4,621 6,668
30 1,884 2,688 4,153 7,153 11,253 16,240
15
15 942 1,344 2,077 3,577 5,627 8,120
30 2,459 3,508 5,421 9,337 14,688 21,197
20
15 1,230 1,754 2,711 4,668 7,344 10,599
30 3,337 4,761 7,357 12,671 19,934 28,768
25
15 1,669 2,380 3,679 6336 9,967 14,384
30 3,650 5,207 8,047 13,859 21,803 31,465
30
15 1,825 2,604 4,023 6,930 10,901 15,732

Table 2 - Pressure Drop at Maximum and Minimum Flow Rates at Different Pressures
Pipe Nominal Diameter (mm)
Pressure Velocity
50 65 80 100 125 150
(bar) (ms-1)
in barper 100m pipe length
30 0.3888 0.3110 0.2368 0.1689 0.1276 0.1018
2
15 0.1124 0.0897 0.0681 0.0484 0.0365 0.0290
30 0.4912 0.3931 0.2995 0.2137 0.1616 0.1289
3
15 0.1410 0.1126 0.0856 0.0609 0.0459 0.0365
30 0.5840 0.4675 0.3565 0.2545 0.1926 0.1537
4
15 0.1662 0.1328 0.1010 0.0719 0.0543 0.0433
30 0.6824 0.5464 0.4167 0.2976 0.2253 0.1798
5
15 0.1934 0.1546 0.1177 0.0838 0.0633 0.0504
30 1.1284 0.9044 0.6905 0.4938 0.3741 0.2988
10
15 0.3131 0.2506 0.1911 0.1364 0.1032 0.0823
30 1.2969 1.0397 0.7939 0.5679 0.4304 0.3439
12
15 0.3574 0.2862 0.2183 0.1559 0.1180 0.0942
30 1.5445 1.2384 0.9459 0.6768 0.5131 0.4100
15
15 0.4221 0.3381 0.2580 0.1843 0.1396 0.1114
30 1.9633 1.7006 1.2982 0.9282 0.7032 0.5616
20
15 0.5305 0.4252 0.3245 0.2320 0.1758 0.1404
30 2.6104 2.0938 1.6000 1.1455 0.8688 0.6944
25
15 0.6985 0.5599 0.4276 0.3059 0.2318 0.1852
30 2.8487 2.2850 1.7461 1.2501 0.9482 0.7579
30
15 0.6585 0.6102 0.4661 0.3334 0.2527 0.2019

Page 22
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015
The Tables 1 and 2 are useful for the industry
in selecting pipes in the distribution system. If
the required flow rate, for example is
4000kgh -1 at 10bar, then the required pipe size
can be selected from Table 1. In this case, pipes
with diameters 100 mm and 125 mm can be
used as the required flow rate could be
achieved within the recommended velocity
range. From the pressure drop in bar per 100m
can be extracted from Table 2. At 10 bar, the
pressure drop along 100 mm pipe is between
0.1364 and 0.4938 bar. For 125 mm pipe, it is
between 0.1032 and 0.3741bar. A general
industry norm is that the pressure drop along
the steam pipeline should not exceed 20% of
boiler pressure. Based on this, the optimum
pipe can be selected. In Table 2, the pressure
drop values are given per 100m pipe length
and when calculating the total pressure drop
the total length of the pipe should be
considered and also equivalent length should
be added to compensate for the fittings (This is
normally obtained by multiplying the length
by a factor varying from 1.1 to 1.15).
Selection of Insulation Thickness
Methodology
The optimum insulation thickness was
calculated using the heat transfer theories.
Figure 1 - Pipe and Insulation Diameters
Heat loss through the radial direction is given
by the equation (6).
.. 6
Where
23
U is expressed as given in equation (7).
1 1
7
2 2
Where
Suffixes, i, o, in and p refer to inner, outer,
insulation, and pipe respectively.
The reduction in heat loss with different
insulation thickness values, compared to non-
insulated pipe, were computed, hence the
savings in terms of energy, mass of steam,
fuel for the boiler, and money for a period of
10 years.
The cost of insulation (including installation)
was also determined for different insulation
thickness values, to establish the economic
feasibility, hence to select the optimum
insulation thickness.
The heat loss through pipe wall causes the
steam to condensate and therefore the amount
of steam lost was determined dividing the lost
heat by the enthalpy of vaporization,
corresponding to the given pressure.
Savings in terms of energy and money for
different insulation thickness values are
presented in Table 3.
Sample Calculation
For the calculation, 100 mm pipe with steam at
10bar pressure was considered. The
temperature of steam was taken as saturation
temperature and equal to 184.2oC.
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Overall heat transfer coefficient was estimated
using equation (7) with the following data.
The convective heat transfer coefficient of pipe
inner surface carrying steam lies in the range
1000-3000 W/m2K [7]. The highest value was
selected in the calculation.
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

The convective heat transfer coefficient from system operating about 5 hours a day and 250
outer insulation surface to the surrounding air days a year, for a period of 10 years.
was assumed as 10Wm-2K-1.

The insulation material selected was Rockwool 55.78 12500 3600
and its thermal conductivity was taken as 2510
0.045Wm-1K-1[8] and the thermal conductivity
of carbon steel (pipe) was taken as 21 Wm-1K-1
[9]. 10.56 12500 3600
475
From the standard pipe chart [6], the inner and
the outer diameters of 100 mm pipe were Energy saving due to insulation = 2510 475
taken as 102.26 and 114.3 mm respectively. =2035GJ
The heat loss through the pipe wall causes
102.26
some amount of steam in the pipe to condense.
114.3
Hence, the energy saving in terms of the
3000
10 amount of steam can be computed by dividing
21 the heat loss, by the enthalpy of vaporization
0.045 of water at 10bar pressure (1999. 67 kJkg-1).
Therefore,
Assuming an initial value for insulation
thickness of 25mm, Steam saved = 2035 GJ/1999.67 kJ kg-1
=1017.67 tons
2 114.3 2 25 164.3
Equivalent savings in fuels can be computed
From equation (7), assuming the fuel consumption to produce
one ton of steam is equal to 75 liters.
1.310
Fuel saving = 1017.67x 75
Heat Loss in an Insulated Pipe = 76,325 liters
The heat loss through insulated pipe was then Price of one 1liter furnace oil = 82 LKR
estimated from the equation (6) with the
following data. Fuel cost saving = 76,325 x 82 = 6,258,650 LKR

164.3 Cost of Insulation

100 The average cost of 25mm thick pipe
184.2 insulation including the thin aluminum
28 cladding and the installation charges is
1.310
about3200 LKR per square meter.

0.1643 100 1.31 184.2 28
10.56
Heat Loss in a Non-Insulated Pipe
For non-insulated pipes, the overall heat
transfer coefficient can be calculated by
equating kins to zero in equation (7). Then U
value of non-insulated 100mm pipe was
obtained as 9.945 W/m-2K-1.
The heat loss rate through non-insulated pipe
was then calculated as 55.78kW.
Savings due to Insulation
The total heat energy saving from a pipe with
25mm thick insulation compared with a non-
insulated pipe was determined assuming a
Then the total cost of insulation for100m long
pipe segment was calculated as given below.
Amount of insulation for 100m pipe length is
51.6m2.
Insulation cost of pipe = 51.6 x 3200
= 165,120LKR
Above calculation shows that providing 25
mm thick insulation for 100mm diameter pipe
and over a 100m length costs only 165,120
LKR. Assuming the life time of the insulation
to be 10 years, the net saving would be (6,258,
650 165, 120) 6,093,530LKR.
The calculation was repeated for the other
thickness values of insulation and the results
are presented in Table 3 and Table 4.

Page 24
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

Results maximum net savings could be obtained with

80mm insulation thickness. Therefore, the
Total heat loss, energy savings, and savings in
optimum insulation thickness for the 100 mm
steam, fuel saved and finally savings in costs
pipe at 10 bars can be considered as 80mm.
as result of using different insulation thickness
values are shown in Table 3. Table 5 gives the optimum insulation
thickness derived for different pipe diameters
The net cost savings (difference between the
at different line pressures based on the given
total cost saving and the cost of insulation) are
prices of insulation material following the
presented in the last column of Table 4. Figure
procedure explained above.
2 gives the net savings as a function of
insulation thickness which gives that

Table 3 - Variation of Fuel Savings with the Insulation Thickness

Total
Thickness Heat Total Energy Saved
Saved Fuel
of U Loss Heat saving Steam Cost Saving
Equivalent
Insulation (W/m2K) rate Loss due to Equivalent (LKR)
(l)
(mm) (kW) (GJ) Insulation (ton)
(GJ)
0 9.946 55.780 2,510 - - - -
25 1.310 10.560 475 2,035 1017.67 76,325 6,258,650
30 1.089 9.320 419 2,091 1045.67 78,425 6,430,850
40 0.802 7.650 344 2,166 1083.18 81,239 6,661,598
50 0.626 6.580 296 2,214 1107.18 83,039 6,809,198
60 0.508 5.840 263 2,247 1123.69 84,277 6,910,714
70 0.424 5.290 238 2,272 1136.19 85,214 6,987,548
80 0.361 4.860 219 2,291 1145.69 85,927 7,046,014
90 0.313 4.520 203 2,307 1153.69 86,527 7,095,214
100 0.275 4.240 191 2,319 1159.69 86,977 7,132,114
110 0.245 4.010 180 2,330 1165.19 87,389 7,165,898
120 0.220 3.820 172 2,338 1169.19 87,689 7,190,498

Table 4 - Variation of Cost of Insulation and net Savings with the Insulation Thickness
Thickness Circumferen
Quantity of Unit rate of Cost of
of ce of Net Cost
insulation insulation insulation
Insulation insulated Saving (LKR)
(m2) (LKR/m2) (LKR)
(mm) pipe (m)
25 0.516 51.6 3,200 165,120 6,093,530
30 0.548 54.8 3,600 197,280 6,233,570
40 0.610 61.0 4,100 250,100 6,411,498
50 0.673 67.3 4,500 302,850 6,506,348
60 0.736 73.6 4,800 353,280 6,557,434
70 0.799 79.9 5,050 403,495 6,584,053
80 0.862 86.2 5,300 456,860 6,589,154
90 0.925 92.5 5,500 508,750 6,586,464
100 0.987 98.7 5,700 562,590 6,569,524
110 1.050 105.0 5,850 614,250 6,551,648
120 1.113 111.3 6,000 667,800 6,522,698

25
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

Figure 2 Variation of Net Savings with Insulation Thickness

6,700,000

6,600,000

NetSaving(LKR) 6,500,000

6,400,000

6,300,000

6,200,000

6,100,000

6,000,000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

InsulationThickness(mm)

Table 5 - Optimum Insulation Thickness for Different Pipe Diameters at Different Pressures
Pipe size Optimum Insulation Thickness at Different Pressure (mm)
(mm) 5 bar 10 bar 12 bar 15 bar 20 bar 25 bar 30 bar
50 60 60 70 70 70 70 70
65 60 70 70 70 70 80 80
80 60 70 80 80 80 90 90
100 70 80 80 90 90 90 100
125 80 90 90 90 100 110 110
150 80 90 90 100 110 110 110

Discussion and Conclusion performance and save energy. Tables 3 and 4

give the expected cost savings when different
Sizing of pipe diameters and selection of
values of insulation thickness are used with
optimum level of insulation are very important
100mm pipe diameter and 10bar line
aspects in the design of steam distribution pipe
pressure. It was proven that optimum
networks in order to save energy. Improper
insulation thickness should be 80mm, which
piping and insulation lead to heavy losses in
gives a net saving of 6,589,154 LKR for a 10
terms of steam generated, and finally additional
year period. Table 5 presents optimum
fuel and associated high costs as demonstrated
insulation thickness when different pipe sizes
in this paper.
and pressure are used.
The analysis related to the selection of optimum
pipe diameters and insulation thickness for a
given application with known steam mass flow Reference
rate and line pressure requirements is presented
[1] S. Anand , N.K. Bansal, S.R. Park and
in this paper, and these provide guidelines in
S.K. Tyagi ( 2011). Comparative study of
sizing steam distribution systems. Table 1 gives
different insulating materials for
information on possible pipe sizes to match the
reducing the heat losses in steam pipes: a
pressure and mass flow requirements in a given
technical study. International Journal of
application. Further, expected pressure drops
Sustainable Energy, Vol. 31, Issue 2, 2012,
per 100m length for different pipe sizes and line
133 141.
pressure are given in Table 5.
The pipes selected need to be insulated properly [2] Pipe Sizing Steam Supply and
with optimum thickness to obtain the maximum Condensate Return Lines, Available at
https://www.armstronginternational.co

Page 26
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

m/files/products/traps/pdf/N1_4550.p
df ( Accessed on 14 November 2014)

[3] DarcyWelsbach equation- for pipe

pressure drop calculation. Available at
http://www2.spiraxsarco.com/resource
s/steam-engineering-tutorials/steam-
distribution/pipes-and-pipe-sizing.asp(
Accessed on 15 November 2014)

[4] Moodys Chart- Calculation of pipe

friction factor. Available at
http://www2.spiraxsarco.com/resource
s/steam-engineering-tutorials/steam-
distribution/pipes-and-pipe-sizing.asp(
Accessed on 15 November 2014)

[5] Engineering tool box Viscosity of steam

at different pressures and temperatures.
Available at

[6] http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/st
eam-viscosity-d_770.html( Accessed on
20 November 2014)

[7] Standard pipe Chart. Available at

www.tiogapipe.com/assets/files/pipe-
chart.pdf( Accessed on 22 November
2014)

[8] H & C Heat transfer solutions- Heat

transfer coefficients. A
http://www.hcheattransfer.com/coeffici
ents.html( Accessed on 15 January 2015)

[9] Engineering tool box - Thermal

conductivity of Rockwool. Available at
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/th
ermal-conductivity-d_429.html( Accessed
on 15 January 2014)

[10] Engineering tool box Thermal

conductivity of carbon steel. Available at
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/th
ermal-conductivity-metals-d_858.html(
Accessed on 20 January 2014)

27
 SLEMA Journal, Volume 18, No. 1, March 2015

SLEMA JOURNAL
Call for Papers and Subscription

SLEMA Journal is dedicated to energy sector professionals of Sri Lanka. Published twice a year since 1984, the SLEMA Journal
carries research papers, articles, reviews and news about the status and new developments in the energy sector of Sri
Lanka.

The Journal is circulated free to over 300 members of SLEMA and is also available in libraries in universities and energy
sector institutions.

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For more information for authors, please contact:

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email: tilak.rma@gmail.com

or contact SLEMA office:

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Coordinator
SLEMA Office
Phone: 011 266 5737
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