Primary Chemical Elements 1

The Primary Chemical Elements

And Buffer System in the Body

Jason M Cooper

Polk Community College

 Primary Chemical Elements 2

The Primary Chemical Elements

And Buffer System in the Body

Jason M Cooper

Polk Community College

The human body is an amazing machine, which is able to perform millions of

multiple tasks simultaneously at the same time. It is over whelming to image all that

goes on in the human body on a daily process. We will be examining only a few the

chemical elements that are need to maintain homeostasis in the body.

Sodium is one of the most plentiful electrolytes in the extracellular fluid. Its

periodic table symbol is Na+, which is an abbreviation of the Latin word natrium.

Sodium is a silvery white metal that when it bonds to chlorine, which is a poisonous

green gas, they become NaCl, which is the common white table salt that we have

used for years (Marieb, 2001, p.35). Iodine has been added to the table salt to help in

the prevention of thyroid diseases. More then 95% of the body’s physiologically

active sodium is in the extracellular fluid (Metheny, 1996, p.65). Sodium is used

widely throughout the body in many different organs for many different reasons. In

the heart the sodium / potassium pump is used to conduct electrical impulses down

the intarcardiac pathway from the sinus node to the Bundle of His to the left and right

bundle braches and ending in the purkinje fibers. It is the exchange of sodium and

potassium in and out of the cell membrane that causes an electrical charge or gradient

change. Both electrolytes are positive in nature, however, because of the increase in

the level of potassium inside the cell. Due to the membrane’s permeability, the cell
 Primary Chemical Elements 3

becomes positively changed inside, in comparison to the extracellular fluid. This,

along with an influx of Ca into the cell, causes an electrical charge. This process will

continue down the nerve fiber until it reaches the myocardium and causes the heart to

contract.

Hyponatremia refers to a sodium level that is less then 135mEq/dl (Metheny,

1996, p.65). A low sodium level can occur for many different reasons; in kidney

failure, diabetic insipidus (polyuria due to a decrease of the hormone A.D.H.), excess

in body fluid as in congestive heart failure, cirrhosis of the liver, gastrointestinal and

adrenal insufficiency, use of diuretics, and in cancer. This decline in the intravascular

sodium level will cause a shift to occur. The intercellular and the extracellular spaces

will become swollen due to osmosis; this will result in intracellular edema. The Brain

is limited to the amount of space that it can expand, because of the cranium. The

resulting swelling will cause a brain stem herniation through the foramen magnum.

Patients can show signs of Cushing's triad (increased intracranial pressure) and induced

seizures as a complication of this condition. If the sodium level is between 120-

125mEq/dl nausea and malaise, between 115-120mEq/dl headache, lethargy,

obtundation, if <110-115mEq/dl seizures or coma.

Hypernatremia refers to a serum sodium level that is greater then 145mEq/dl.

Normally the body will keep from developing Hypernatremia by increasing the release

of A.D.H. (antidiuretic hormone), which will cause the kidneys to retain fluid and

stimulate thirst by the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus (Metheny, 1996, p.79). This

hypernatremic state can occur in individuals with profuse sweating, diarrhea, and

particularly in children, results in a hypertonic dehydration. Diabetes insipidus is a

 Primary Chemical Elements 4

water balance disorder that is associated either with a lack of ADH or with end-organ

(kidney) resistance to the effects of ADH, leading to water diuresis (Metheny, 1996,

p.81).

The patients will experience extreme thirst, elevated temperature, dry and sticky mucous

membranes, restlessness and weakness. Ultimately, the patient will become disorientated,

lethargic, and hallucinatory and will go in to a coma.

Chloride is the most abundant negative ion (anion) in the extracellular fluids. Its

periodic table symbol is Cl¯; the combining of Na+ and Cl¯ will result in NaCl. This is

sodium chloride, which is one of the most highly used fluids in modern medicine. This is

because, at a concentration of 0.9% it is an isotonic solution that can be used

intravenously or externally on wounds and can also be used to flush the eyes without

causing irritation to the tissues. Most ionic compounds fall in the chemical category

called salts. In the dry state, ionic compounds such as sodium chloride do not exist as

individual molecules. Instead, they form crystals, large arrays of cations and anions held

together by ionic bonds (Marieb, 2001, pg.35).

Hyperchloremic acidosis can occur with excessive infusion of chloride-containing

fluids, such as isotonic sodium chloride 0.9%NaCL (Metheny, 1996, pg. 164).

Hyperchloremia can occur in the state of acute diarrhea/dehydration. This could cause

direct loss of bicarbonate in the stool, extracellular fluid volume depletion, and

concentration of the remaining serum chloride, resulting in Hyperchloremic acidosis. The

symptoms for this condition would be noted as weakness, stupor, rapid deep breathing

and unconsciousness.
 Primary Chemical Elements 5

Hypochloremia: This is a condition that can occur if one or more of the following

events transpires, such as acute vomiting, over-hydration, Hypokalemia, excessive

ingestion of alkaline substances or aldosterone deficiency. The patient would suffer

metabolic alkalosis due to bicarbonate retention.

Calcium, which is a salt that is found predominantly in the bones and teeth, has a

periodic table symbol of Ca+. The body uses calcium in many different ways; it is needed

to strengthen people’s bones and teeth. Humans require the ionic form of calcium as

Ca2+ for muscle contraction, conduction of nerve impulses, and blood clotting.

Hypercalcemia is a condition that occurs with malignancy and primary

hyperparathyroidism, which accounts for most of the cases. In contrast, causes such as

thiazide diuretics, lithium use, and vitamin D and A intoxication account for only a small

percentage of the remaining cases. Malignancies most often associated with

Hypercalcemia include breast and lung cancer and multiple myeloma.

Hyperparathyroidism causes hypercalcemia due to the release of increased parathyroid

hormone. This condition will cause a wasting of the bones and pathological fractures,

flank and deep thigh pain, kidney stones along with nausea, and vomiting. If the calcium

levels continue to elevate, the patient can experience cardiac arrhythmias, respiratory

depression or coma.

Hypocalcemia can happen if a patient receives a severe burn, because the calcium

can become trapped in the damaged tissues. Increased renal excretion of calcium can

occur in response to stress, increased protein intake, diarrhea, and vitamin D deficiency.

The patient will experience tingling of the fingers, tremors, tetany, convulsions;

depressed excitability of the heart, and bleeder’s disease (Marieb, 2001, pg. 10148)
 Primary Chemical Elements 6

Potassium is the major positive ion (cation) in cells. It’s symbol on the periodic table

is K which comes from the Latin word Kalium. In the body the potassium symbol is

written as (K+) and is used by the body to help balance its negative charges. In fact, 98%

of it is found in the intercellular fluids and the remaining 2% is in the extracellular fluid.

This 2% is all-important in neuromuscular function. For example, alterations in plasma

potassium concentrations can cause significant effects on the myocardial conduction and

cause arrhythmias and even cardiac arrest. Potassium is necessary for the conduction of

nerve impulses and also with the contraction of muscles.

Hyperkalemia refers to a greater-then-normal level of potassium in the body’s blood

plasma. Any level that is greater then 5.0mEq/L in the body is Hyperkalemia and will

cause changes in the electrocardiogram and if allowed to climb greater then 8.0mEq/L the

patient will become bradycardic, the blood pressure will drop, and the patient will

become lethargic, or unconscious. These elevated levels are mostly found in the elderly

who take potassium pills, and in the dialysis patient who has missed his/her treatments.

Physicians counteract this condition with an infusion of regular insulin 10 units, dextrose

50% and calcium gluconate.

Hypokalemia refers to any level that is less them 3.5mEq/L in the blood plasma. This

condition can occur if a patient has severe diarrhea and vomiting, inadequate dietary

intake as in starvation, Cushing’s disease, and in diuretic therapy. As in the hyperkalemic

state the low potassium can also cause cardiac arrhythmias. flatten T waves, muscular

weakness, hypoventilation, and mental confusion.

5) Magnesium is found in the bones and is used by the body for muscular

contraction. Approximately two-thirds of the body’s magnesium is located in the skeleton

 Primary Chemical Elements 7

and one third is in the intracellular fluid; only 1% is in the extracellular fluid, and of that

1%, about one-third of the magnesium which is in the serum, is bound to proteins; the

rest is ionized (Metheny, 1996, pg.133). Magnesium has a critical role in intercellular

metabolism. It participates in more than 300 enzymatic reactions, especially those

processes involving the production and utilization of adenosine triphosphate. (Metheny,

1996, pg.133). Its high concentration in the bones relates magnesium closely to calcium

and phosphorus. However, because it is a major intracellular ion, it is also closely related

to potassium (Metheny, 1996, pg. 133). The body stores magnesium and calcium equally

and an over-abundance of one will cause a depletion of the other. Magnesium sulfate is

used in a condition called pre-ecalmpsia, which is a toxemia of pregnancy characterized

by increasing hypertension, headaches, albuminuria, and edema of the lower extremities.

If this condition is not treated then the patient will develop true eclampsia, which will

cause the patient to have seizures.

Hypermagnesemia is a rare condition; however, it can occur when the body does not

excrete magnesium normally, which can occur in the case of Aldosterone deficiency.

This condition can also happen when large qualities of antacids that have magnesium in

then (example: milk of magnesium) are ingested. The signs and symptoms are lethargy;

impaired CNS functioning, coma, respiratory depression (Marieb, 2001, pg .1048).

Hypomagnesemia can happen to a patient of alcoholism, loss of intestinal contents,

severe malnutrition, and diuretic therapy. The sins and symptoms are tremors, increased

neuromuscular excitability, and convulsions (Marieb, 2001, pg. 1048).

6) Phosphorus is a critical constituent of all tissues of the human body. It is essential

to the function of muscle, red blood cells, and the nervous system, and to the
 Primary Chemical Elements 8

intermediary metabolism of carbohydrate, protein, and fat. The symbol on the periodic

table is P. Phosphorus is primarily an intracellular ion and serum levels may not always

reflect the total body stores (Metheny, 1996, pg. 148). Phosphorus circulates in the

bloodstream in three major forms: protein bound (12%), complexed (33%), and ionized

(55%); it is the ionized form that is physiologically active.

Hyperphosphatemia is a condition that can occur when we have renal failure,

increased intestinal absorption, hypoparathyroidism, and major tissue trauma. There are

no clinical symptoms because an excess or deficit in phosphate is usually accompanied

by a decrease or an increase in Ca2+ levels.

Hypophosphatemia can happen when there is a decreased intestinal absorption,

increased urinary output, and hyperthyroidism. There are no clinical symptoms because

an excess or deficit in phosphate is usually accompanied by a decrease or increase in

Ca2+ levels.

The buffer system is what helps to control the acid-base balance in the human

body. The body needs to balance the pH in the plasma to within 0.05 degrees of 7.40pH,

which gives us a range of 7.35pH to 7.45pH to maintain homeostasis. The pH system was

devised by a Danish biochemist by the name of Soren Sorensen, in 1909, for the use in

the making of beer. The symbol pH stands for parts of hydrogen per liter of fluid. The

problem was that the beer was spoiling due to the growth of bacteria in the beer.

Sorensen discovered that by decreasing the pH balance, which would make the beer more

acidic, the bacteria would not be able to grow/live in this environment. We have found

through Sorensen’s work that the body’s cells, like the bacteria in the beer, are very

sensitive to slight changes in the Ph value.

 Primary Chemical Elements 9

The many cells of the body require that the pH stay within these perimeters to

maintain homeostasis. The three parts of the buffer system include, chemical buffering

mechanisms, which consist of (bicarbonate, phosphate, and protein buffer system), the

kidneys, and the lungs. The pH is defined as hydrogen ion concentration; the more free

hydrogen ions, the more acidic the solution will become.

Chemical buffers are substances that prevent major changes in the pH of the

body's fluids by removing or releasing hydrogen ions. They can act within a fraction of a

second to prevent excessive changes in the hydrogen ion concentration (Metheny, 1996,

pg. 159). The main buffering system is the sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)-carbonic acid

(H2CO3) buffer system. Although it also buffer’s the ICF, it is the only important ECF

buffer. The bicarbonate to hydrogen ratio is 20:1 it will take 20 parts of bicarbonate

molecules to neutralize 1 part hydrogen ion. If either bicarbonate or carbonic acid is

increased or decreased so that the 20:1 ratio is no longer valid, acid-base imbalance

results. If we combine hydrochloric acid (HCL) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) we

will have made carbonic acid (H2CO3) and sodium chloride (NaCl) salt. The bicarbonate

ions of the salt act as a weak bases to tie up the (H+) released by the stronger acid to form

carbonic acid (H2CO3). This weaker form of acid that has developed from this joining of

the two molecules we have lowered the pH balance some.

Now if we have an alkaline problem were there is too much of a base like sodium

hydroxide (NaOH). It will combine with the carbonic acid (H2CO3) and the end results

will be a shift to sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) and water (H2O). This will cause the pH

to drop back down hopefully to a normal range.

 Primary Chemical Elements 10

The phosphate buffer system is nearly identical to the bicarbonate system. Here

we will be using dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4-) as the weak base instead of sodium

bicarbonate (NaHCO3). If we our acidic then we will combine the molecules

hydrochloric acid (HCL) and the base sodium dihydrogen phosphate (Na2HPO4) we will

end up with a weak acid (NaH2PO4) and a salt (NaCl). If the pH is alkaline strong bases

sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and weak acid (NaH2PO4) we will end up with a weak base

(Na2HPO4) and water (H2O). This is a very go buffering system for the urine and the

intercellular fluid.

Intracellular buffers include proteins, organic and inorganic phosphates, and, in red

blood cells, hemoglobin (Metheny, 1996,pg. 160). The protein buffer system is the

body’s most plentiful and powerful source of buffering. This system handles almost three

quarters of the body’s intercellular buffering. When the pH begins to rise and become

alkaline the organic acid (carboxyl) groups that are expressed as such (R—COOH) will

shift to (R—COO) and free (H+) ion and the pH will drop. If on the over hand the pH is

acidic and the (R—NH2) will combine with the (H+) ion and form (R—NH3+) because

this removes free hydrogen ions from the solution, it will prevent the solution from

becoming too acidic.

The respiratory system under the influence of the respiratory center (chemo-

receptors) in the aortic arch and in the carotid body, controls the lungs carbon dioxide

(CO2), (and thus the carbonic acid) content of the extracellular fluid by adjusting

ventilation in response to the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and, to lesser extent,

oxygen in the blood (Metheny, 1996, pg. 160).

 Primary Chemical Elements 11

As the carbon dioxide (CO2) levels rise in the blood due to respiratory

insufficiencies like COPD, asthma and acute respiratory infection they will combine with

water (H2O) and form carbonic acid (H2CO3) which will form hydrogen (H+) and

bicarbonate (HCO3-) and the result will be a drop in the pH or acidic. The oppsit will

happen also free hydrogen ion will combine with bicarbonate and form water and carbon

dioxide. Conclusion when the body become acidic we breath faster and if the body

become alkaline we breath slower.

The kidneys regulate the bicarbonate level in the extracellular fluid; they are able

to regulate bicarbonate ions as well as reabsorb them from the renal tubular cells. In the

case of respiratory and metabolic acidosis, the kidneys will excrete hydrogen ions in the

urine and conserve bicarbonate ions to help restore balance; in the case of respiratory and

metabolic alkalosis, the kidneys will excrete bicarbonate in the urine and conserve the

hydrogen ions to help restore balance. This is a slower process and will take hours to

days instead of seconds as with the chemical (carbonic acid) buffer system.

The production of acid in the body happens in many different ways 1) break down

of phosphorus-containing proteins release phosphoric acid in to the extracellular fluid, 2)

End result of anaerobic respiratory of glucose produces lactic acid, 3) fat metabolism

yields other organic acids, and ketone bodies, and 4) The loading and transportation of

carbon dioxide in the blood from respiratory insufficiency, with bicarbonate will release

hydrogen ions and cause respiratory acidosis (Marieb, 2001, pg1055).

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References

Marieb, E. N. (2001). Human Anatomy & Physiology. New York: Darly Fox.

Metheny, N. M. (1996). Fluid and Electrolyte Balance, Philadelphia, New York:

Lippincott.