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Atmospheric Environment 40 (2006) 5586-5595

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Particulate emission characterization of a biodiesel vs diesel-fuelled

compression ignition transport engine:
A comparative study
Dipankar Dwivedia, Avinash Kumar Agarwalb'1, Mukesh Sharma^Department of Civil Engineering, IIT
a
Kanpur, Kanpur 208016, India
h
Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Kanpur, Kanpur 208016, India
Received 9 March 2006; received in revised form 1 May 2006; accepted 2 May 2006
Abstract
This study was set out to characterize particulate emissions from diesel engines fuelled by (i) mineral diesel and (ii) B20 (a blend
of 20% biodiesel with diesel); in terms of metals and benzene soluble organic fraction (BSOF), which is an indicator of toxicity
and carcinogenicity.
A medium duty, transport diesel engine (Mahindra MDI 3000) was operated at idling, 25%, 50%, 75% and rated load at
maximum torque speed (1800 rpm) and samples of particulate were collected using a partial flow dilution tunnel for both fuels.
Collected particulate samples were analyzed for their metal contents. In addition, metal contents in mineral diesel, biodiesel and
lubricating oil were also measured to examine and correlate their (metals present in fuel) impact on particulate characteristics.
Results indicated comparatively lower emission of particulate from B20-fuelled engine than diesel engine exhaust. Metals like
Cd, Pb, Na, and Ni in particulate of B20 exhaust were lower than those in the exhaust of mineral diesel. However, emissions of
Fe, Cr, Ni Zn, and Mg were higher in B20 exhaust. This reduction in particulate and metals in B20 exhaust was attributed to near
absence of aromatic compounds, sulphur and relatively low levels of metals in biodiesel. However, benzene soluble organic
fraction (BSOF) was found higher in B20 exhaust particulate compared to diesel exhaust particulate. 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All
rights reserved.
Keywords: Particulate; Biodiesel; Metals; Benzene soluble organic fraction; Toxicology
1. Introduction
Diesel engines are a major source of nitrogen oxides and particulate, which mainly consist of soot and metals. The
composition varies depending on engine type, operating conditions, fuel and lubricating oil composition and
whether an emission control system is present. Recent studies have focused on the composition and toxicity of diesel
exhaust (DE) and diesel particulate matter (DPM) (USEPA, 2002; Sharma et al., 2005). The USEPA and other
agencies, engine and vehicle manufacturers, emission control system manufacturers, and fuel refiners have been
working for the past few decades to substantially reduce emissions from diesel engines. The chemistry and
properties of
1352-2310/$ - see front matter 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.05.005

1author. Tel.: +91 5122597982; fax: +91 5122597982.

E-mail address: akag@iitk.ac.in (A.K. Agarwal).
D. Dwivedi et al. / Atmospheric Environment 40 (2006) 5586-5595
5587
diesel fuel have a direct effect on emissions and formation of pollutants from diesel engines (EPA, 2001).
Scientists are constantly working on alternative fuels, which are clean and efficient in combustion. These fuels
include compressed natural gas (CNG), biodiesel, alcohols, gas-to-liquid fuels (GTL), dimethyl-ether (DME), etc.
For example, CNG has been extensively used as a clean fuel in Delhi and several other cities of the world. There is a
need to study possible usage of other alternative fuels at large scale and their impact on human health and
environment. It is not feasible to replace diesel engines with CNG engines in cities all over the world. Other
alternative fuels need to be examined for engine performance and emission characteristics.
Biodiesel is one such fuel which is a carbonneutral fuel from bio-origin. B20 is a blend of 20% biodiesel and 80%
mineral diesel, which may partially replace mineral diesel and can be implemented without significant changes in
the existing engine hardware. Biodiesel has also shown potential to reduce the problem of CO2 emissions and can
partly meet energy needs in rural areas (Wedel, 1999). It needs to be recognized that biodiesel does provide an
effective alternative to diesel, but unless it is ensured that emissions from biodiesel (especially toxic pollutants) will
be lower, or same as diesel, acceptability of biodiesel as a fuel on a large scale may not be forthcoming.
Biodiesel for the present experimental study has been made from rice-bran oil using the process of
transesterification using methanol and basic catalyst (KOH). The physical properties of biodiesel (rice-bran oil
methyl ester), mineral diesel and B20 are shown in Table 1.
Out of metals studied in this research (Cr, Ni, Pb,
Cd, Na, Al, Mg and Fe) Cr, Ni, Pb, and Cd are
toxic metals having a limit of maximum allowable exposure. The acceptable ambient air concentration for Ni is
5ngm-3, Pb is 1000 ngm-3 and for Cd, it
Table 1
Physical properties of diesel and biodiesel
Fuel property Diesel B100 B20

Specific gravity at 30 C 0.839 3.18 44.8 0.877 0.847

Viscosity (cSt) at 40 C 48 500 5.30 42.2 3.48 44.1
Calorific value (MJkg-1) Flash 265 10 400
point (C) Sulfur content
(ppm)

is 20 ngm-3. Fe, Al, and Mg are generally present in soil in the form of crust metals but excess of these metals in
atmosphere is of concern. In addition, profiling of metal content in engine exhaust is necessary to identify and
apportion air-pollution sources.
The focus of this paper is on comparative assessment and characterization of emissions from traditional diesel and
B20 (20% biodiesel blend) fuel exhausts in terms of (i) particulate, (ii) metals in particulate, and (iii) benzene
soluble organic fraction (BSOF; a toxicity indicator) in particulate.
2. Materials and methods
To characterize the emissions from mineral diesel and B20, a typical medium duty transport engine
(Model: MDI 3000 A; Make: Mahindra and
Mahindra Ltd., India) was used in present experimental investigations (Fig. 1). This is a four-cylinder, four-stroke,
variable-speed, transport engine with direct-injection of fuel. Detailed specifications of the engine are given in Table
2.Thisengineisinstalled with an eddy-current dynamometer (Model: ASE-70; Make: Shenck-Avery India Ltd.). The
eddy-current dynamometer is equipped with a dynamometer controller capable of loading the engine at the desired
speed/load. For collection of particulate for characterization, the engine was operated at loads ranging from idling,
25%, 50%, 75%, to rated engine load at a constant speed of 1800 rpm (rated speed for maximum torque). Particulate
samples were collected iso-kinetically using a partial flow dilution tunnel, which was designed and fabricated
F l T I Eddy Fuel lank
Current
Exhaust Calorimeter
Fig. 1. Mahindra (MDI-3000 A) engine and dynamometer system.
5588
D. Dwivedi et al. / Atmospheric Environment 40 (2006) 5586-5595
Table 2
Engine specifications
Manufacturer Mahindra & Mahindra Ltd.,
India

Model MDI 3000 A

No. of cylinders, configuration Four, in-line
Combustion system Direct injection
Bore/stroke (mm) 88.9/101.6
Engine displacement (cc) 2520
Compression ratio 18:1
Maximum speed at full load (RPM) 2300
Rated power (RPM) 40 hp (2300)
Table 3

Sampling details
Samples collected for Load Sampling
analysis duration (min.)
Benzene soluble organic Idle 30
fraction (single sample)
25% 25
50% 25
75% 25
100% 25
Metals (duplicate sample) Idle 30
25% 25
50% 25
75% 25
100% 25

in-house for this purpose (Dwivedi, 2005), described later. The gaseous emissions were measured using a raw
exhaust gas emission analyzer (Model: EXSA-1500; Make: HORIBA Ltd., Japan) however this paper discusses the
results of particulate and BSOF only.
2.1. Diesel engine and dynamometer system
Particulate sample were collected on filter paper (GF/A, 47 mm. Make: Nupore Filtration System, Batch No.
1720704) for analyzing various metals and BSOF. Sampling details are given in Table 3.
2.2. Standard sampling method: dilution tunnel
The particulate leaving the exhaust pipe are at relatively high temperature. These particulate and gases which
contain hydrocarbons also cool down during the mixing and dilution process with the atmospheric air, and the
associated condensation of hydrocarbons takes place on the particulate surface layer, which changes the structure,
composition and density of the particulate. Partial flow dilution tunnel is used to simulate this near field (<3m)
mixing, condensation and adsorption process in the present study. When the diesel engine is operated, carbonaceous
soot particles and high boiling point hydrocarbons are emitted from the tailpipe. These hydrocarbons condense on
soot to form particulate matter (PM) after being diluted with preheated air inside the partial flow dilution tunnel. The
dilution ratio is typically kept at 10:1.
2.3. Test procedure
The first step in the sampling procedure is preparation of filter papers. The filter papers were desiccated for 12 h and
then weighed. One filter paper was placed in the filter holder and then the filter assembly was installed in the partial
flow dilution tunnel. After running the engine at desired load and speed condition and collecting the particulate
through partial flow dilution tunnel for a predetermined period of time, the filter papers were removed from the filter
assembly and again kept in desiccators for 12 h and then weighed. Particulate emission was found gravimetrically
by measuring difference in weights of filter paper, before and after the particulate sampling. These filter papers were
then analyzed for characterization of particulate for metals and BSOF.
2.4. Instruments and measurement systems
2.4.1. Extraction of samples for metal analysis in particulate
Extraction of samples for metals analysis was carried out using the hot plate method. In hot acid extraction (USEPA,
1995), the filter strips are placed in a beaker and extracted by refluxing on a hot plate, using 10 mL hydrochloric
acid (8%) nitric acid (3%) solution. The digested solution was filtered before analysis.
2.4.2. Sample preparation for analyzing metals in diesel and lubricating oil
Sample preparation for metals analysis was carried out using acid digestion of oils for metals analysis by atomic
absorption spectrometry (AAS). A representative 0.5 g sample was mixed with 0.5 g of finely ground potassium
permanganate and then 1.0 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid was added while stirring. A strong exothermic reaction
takes
D. Dwivedi et al. / Atmospheric Environment 40 (2006) 5586-5595
5589
place. The sample was then treated with 2 mL concentrated nitric acid. Ten mL of concentrated HCl was added and
the sample was heated until the reaction was complete and then the metal extract was filtered for further analysis
using AAS
(USEPA, 2002).
2.4.3. Estimation of BSOF in particulate
Analysis for BSOF of the particulate samples was carried out using ASTM test method D 4600-87 (ASTM, 2001).
This method is also recommended by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health, USA to represent the
toxic organic compounds in the particulate. This test method describes the sampling and gravimetric determination
of benzene-soluble PM.
2.5. Metal analysis using AAS
AAS (Model: GBC Avanta S , Australia) was used to carry out analysis of samples of diesel, biodiesel and
lubricating oil along with particulate samples collected on filter papers. Metals analyzed
included Fe, Mg, Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn, Cd, Al, and Na.
For analyzing these metals, first standard solutions of known concentration of salts containing these metals were
prepared and instrument was calibrated.
3. Results and discussion
Particulate samples were collected from the compression ignition engine using diesel and B20 and were analyzed for
metals and BSOF as per the sampling plan shown in Table 3. This section presents a summary and interpretations of
the experimental results for DE and 20% biodiesel
exhaust (BDE).
3.1. Particulate
One of the objectives of this study was to examine particulate emission in DE and BDE under varying engine load
conditions. Fig. 2 shows variations of particulate emission under varying engine loads for diesel and B20 fuel at
constant engine speed. Shobokshy (1984) and Sharma et al. (2005) have reported that particulate concentration
increases with increased engine load; the same trend is obtained in present study for both the fuels (Fig. 2).
However, it is noteworthy that particulate emission is higher in DE

3
O
Q.
55
45
35
25
15

0% 25% 50% 75%

Engine Load (%)
100%
Fig. 2. Variation in particulate emission with engine load.
Table 4
Concentration of various metals in diesel, biodiesel and lubricating oil samples
Diesel Biodiesel Lubricating oil
(wgg-1)
Na 1393.75 247.5 1770
Zn 152.1 180.5 656.55
Fe 7 10.2 20.1
Mg 9.2 15.8 27.3
Ni ND ND ND
Pb 0.93 ND ND
Cd 0.52 ND ND
Al 1.55 2.2 35.1
Cr 1.3 1.85 1.45
(22-59mgm-3) than B20 exhaust (17-48mgm-3). Studies by Sharp (1996) and Wedel (1999) established that a B20
blend (approximately 2% oxygen for RME-20) reduces particulate by approximately 30% compared to particulate in
the DE. Fig. 2 shows that rate of increase (with increasing load) of particulate emission is lower for B20 exhaust.
This lower increase in particulate concentration in B20 exhaust can be attributed to (i) higher oxygen content in B20
and (ii) lower C/H ratio; in B20 C/H ratio 6.53 compared to diesel 6.82 (Turrio-Baldas-sarri et al., 2004; Canakci
and Van Gerpen, 2001), and (iii) near absence of sulphur and aromatic content of biodiesel.
3.2. Metals in mineral diesel, biodiesel and lubricating oil
Table 4 shows measured levels of Fe, Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn, Cd, Na, and Al in diesel, biodiesel (before blending with
mineral diesel) and lubricating oil.
5590
D. Dwivedi et al. / Atmospheric Environment 40 (2006) 5586-5595
The basic metal content in the fuels and lubricating oil are variable e.g. iron is found to be higher in biodiesel,
whereas lead and cadmium is not detected. The variable metal contents will have an impact on the metal in the parti-
culate exhaust of diesel and biodiesel. There are other factors like lubricity of the fuel, which affects the wear of fuel
injection system and presence of wear metals in particulate to a minor degree.
3.3. Metals in particulate collected from DE and
BDE
The experimental study showed that concentrations of Fe, Mg, and Na (crust elements) were much higher than those
of Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn, Al and Cd (anthropogenic elements) in both the fuels. The similar trend has also been reported by
Wang et al. (2000). The results of present experimental investigation for metals in particulate are divided in two
sections based on (i) relatively higher concentration in DE and (ii) relatively higher concentration
in BDE.
3.4. Metals present in higher concentration in DE
Four metals namely lead, cadmium, sodium and nickel are present in higher concentration in the particulate
collected from DE compared to BDE (Fig. 3). Metal-wise emissions are discussed below.
3.4.1. Lead
It may be noted from Fig. 3 that there are lower emissions of lead in BDE than in DE (0.9-0.30 mgg-1 for DE, 0.7-
0.25 mgg-1 for BDE). The analysis of lead concentration in diesel, biodiesel and lubricating oil depicted that it was
present only in diesel and was not present in biodiesel and lubricating oil (Table 4). With B20 blend, the emission of
lead decreased because absence of lead in biodiesel.
3.4.2. Cadmium
There is a slight reduction in emissions of cadmium for BDE compared to DE (0.13-0.027mgg-1 for DE, 0.12-
0.024mgg-1 for BDE). The analysis of cadmium concentration in diesel, biodiesel and lubricating oil showed that it
was present in diesel but was non-detectable in
1 E
a
_l
1
0.9 -0.8 -0.7 0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2

1 E
3
O
0% 25% 50% 75%
Engine Load (%)
12 10 8 6 4 2 0
100%

0% 25% 50% 75%

Engine Load (%)
100%
1 E
E
3

d
a
O
0.09
0.05
0.01

0% 25% 50% 75%

Engine Load (%)
5" E
1
o
1.4 1.2 1
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0
100%

0% 25% 50% 75%

Engine Load (%)
100%
Fig. 3. Concentration of various metals present in higher concentration in particulate from diesel exhaust.
D. Dwivedi et al. / Atmospheric Environment 40 (2006) 5586-5595
5591
biodiesel and lubricating oil (Table 4). The source of cadmium in DE and BDE is possibly from fuel (mineral diesel)
and engine wear.
3.4.3. Sodium
It may be noted that sodium shows highest emissions (12-2mgg-1 for DE, 9-1 mgg-1 for BDE) amongst all crust
metals. This is due to the fact that sodium is present in abundance in diesel, biodiesel and lubricating oil (Table 4).
Presence of sodium was found highest in lubricating oil followed by diesel and biodiesel. With B20 fuel, the
emission of sodium decreased because biodiesel contains lower amount of sodium as compared to mineral diesel. It
is seen in Fig. 3 that there is significant difference in sodium content in particu-late from DE and BDE at idling.
In this study, a small bore (88.9 mm) engine is used. In smaller engines, there is always a possibility of fuel dilution
of lubricating oil because of fuel spray impingement on lubricated cylinder walls. This is an undesirable situation
however this invariably happens in smaller diesel engines. Fuel lubricity plays an important role in injection system
wear and additional lubricity properties of fuel (biodiesel) leads to lower injection system wear
(Bijwe et al., 2004).
3.4.4. Nickel
Nickel shows emissions in DE and was not detected in case of BDE (1.3-0.7mgg-1 for DE, Not detected for BDE).
As shown in Fig. 3, nickel was either absent or was below detection level in both the fuels and lubricating oil. It can
therefore be inferred that whatever nickel is coming out in DE may be from engine wear. With B20, the emission of
nickel in particulate is not observed possibly due to self-lubricity property of biodiesel, which results in reduced
engine and fuel injection system wear.
3.5. Metals present in higher concentration in BDE
Other metals such as iron, aluminum, zinc, chromium and magnesium are found in higher concentration in the
particulate collected from BDE compared to DE (Fig. 4).
3.5.1. Iron
Fig. 4 presents iron content in particulate drawn from DE and BDE at different engine loads. It may be noted that
iron shows highest emission (7-2mgg-1 for DE, 8-3 mgg-1 for BDE) amongst all anthropogenic metals. This is due to
the fact that iron is present in abundance in diesel, biodiesel and lubricating oil. In addition, iron may also be
contributed from engine wear (Agarwal et al., 2003). With B20, the emission of iron is found to be higher because
biodiesel contains higher amount of iron compared to mineral diesel (Table 4).
3.5.2. Aluminum
It may be noted that aluminum shows higher emissions for biodiesel operation (2.2-0.9mgg-1 for DE, 2.3-1.5mgg-1
for BDE; Fig. 4). Aluminum content is higher in biodiesel compared to mineral diesel (Table 4); hence it is reflected
in higher content in particulate from BDE.
3.5.3. Zinc
It may be noted that zinc concentrations vary from 7.8 to 2.3mgg-1 for DE and 8.2-3.1 mgg-1 for BDE (Fig. 4). With
B20, the emission of zinc increased because biodiesel contains more zinc compared to mineral diesel. There is no
significant difference in zinc concentration in particulate from DE and BDE at idling. As load increases the
difference seems to be more pronounced because at idling, consumption of lubricating oil is lower for biodiesel due
to self-lubricity property of biodiesel.
3.5.4. Chromium
It may be noted that chromium shows higher emissions for BDE compared to DE (1.2-0.4mgg-1 for DE, 1.5-0.6mgg-1
for BDE; Fig. 4). The analysis of chromium concentration in diesel, biodiesel and lubricating oil shows that its
presence in biodiesel is higher than mineral diesel (Table 4). With B20, the emission of chromium increased as
compared to diesel because of its higher concentration in fuel itself (Table 4). Difference between the concentration
of lubricating oil and biodiesel is not very high so lubricating oil does not play any signiicant role in emission of
chromium.
3.5.5. Magnesium
Magnesium concentration varies from 8.7 to 5mgg-1 for DE and 9.12-6.2mgg-1 for BDE (Fig. 4). This is due to the
fact that magnesium is present in abundance in diesel, biodiesel and lubricating oil (Table 4). It is clear from Fig. 4
that there is not much difference in magnesium content for DE and BDE at idling. As load increases this difference
gets pronounced. As load further in-
5592
D. Dwivedi et al. / Atmospheric Environment 40 (2006) 5586-5595
TO
8765
4
I

321
g)
E
o _c
N

0% 25% 50% 75%

Engine Load (%)
0%
100%

25%
50%
Engine Load(%)
75%
100%
g)
,
E
in
2.8 2.4 2 1.6 1.2 0.8

0% 25% 50% 75%

Engine Load (%)
EE
o
i_ .c
O
1.6 1.4 1.2 1
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
100%
 Diesel

I B20

0% 25% 50%
Engine load (%)
75%
100%

creases, the consumption of lubricating oil also increases. Lubricating oil has a large content of magnesium in
organo-metallic additives, which are responsible for the increase in magnesium content in
DE and BDE.
3.6. Source of metals in DE and BDE: overall characterization ofmetal emissions
Fig. 5 presents metal levels in particulate from DE and BDE and metals present in fuels. Fe, Mg, Cr, Pb, Al and Cd
show a good association between metals in fuels and metals in exhaust particulate. In B20 fuel, concentration of
metals is calculated by mass balance (80% metal content in diesel added with 20% metal content of biodiesel). Zn
and Na do not show any such association, it can be inferred from this investigation that sources of Zn and Na in
exhaust particulate may be from sources other than fuel.
The metal concentration results presented in Figs. 3 and 4 reflect that as load increases, the metal content in
particulate gradually decreases. This can be explained by the fact that at higher engine load, combustion takes place
at higher
D. Dwivedi et al. / Atmospheric Environment 40 (2006) 5586-5595
5593
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a
3O
'3 i_ (S
O.
4-<
(D
O

o
(D a>
E
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
10

6543210
"S. 3
"S

(0 (D
4-< _(
3 O '13 1_
(D
a.
4- 40 0
4- 4-

oo
1
E
12 10 8 6 4 2 0

. i
3 "3

Fe Mg Cr Ni Pb Al Cd Metals
Fe Mg Cr Ni Pb Al Cd
Metals
Fig. 5. Sources of metals in diesel and biodiesel exhaust.
temperature; leading to improved thermal efficiency. In other words, it is known that the emission of particulate
matter is strongly affected by the operating conditions of the engine. In particular, lower engine load/ speed might
result in lower thermal efficiency and hence lead to higher particle formation and emission. Brake specific fuel con-
sumption of diesel engine decreases with increasing load/ speed and this is reflected in reduced emission of metals
with increasing engine load. It is also reported by Sharma et al. (2005) that overall particulate formation increases in
the form of elemental carbon with increase in engine load. Particulate matter emission is higher for higher engine
loads because higher amount of fuel is being injected and burnt in the engine. For this reason, the particulate
emission from the diesel engine is higher but the corresponding metal content is lower for higher engine load as
evident for almost all metals. It must be recognized that at higher engine loads, particulate emission is more in terms
of elemental carbon; thereby reducing metal content (mggi
-1
)in particulate (Ullman, 2004). This is noteworthy that the thermal efficiency of the engine increases with
increasing engine load and after a threshold limit (in present study it corresponds to approximately 75-85% of rated
load), efficiency starts decreasing. Emission of metals increases at 100% load (compared to 75% load) for almost all
metals, due to higher specific brake fuel consumption at full load (Figs. 3 and 4).
In view of the above discussions, this can be concluded that metal content in diesel, biodiesel and lubricating oil
play an important role in the emission of metals in the engine exhaust and
LL

ow
00
60 50 40 30 20 10

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Load(%)
Fig. 6. Variation of BSOF with engine load.
blending with biodiesel is likely to result in lower emissions of metals.
3.7. BSOF in particulate
BSOF has been taken as indicator of organic fraction of particulate which represents the toxic compounds. It can be
observed from Fig. 6 that at
idling, BSOF was about 48% in DE and 55% in
BDE and BSOF gets lowered with increase in engine load. At idling condition, the mineral diesel and lubricating oil
undergo partial combustion (pyro-lysis) due to low temperature conditions prevailing in the combustion chamber.
This leads to higher unburnt hydrocarbon species formation and emissions, which is detected as BSOF (Sharma
et al., 2005).
Although the exact mechanism for presence of BSOF varies depending on the engine's operating
0
5594
D. Dwivedi et al. / Atmospheric Environment 40 (2006) 5586-5595
condition, generally accepted explanation for BSOF in exhaust is that soot particles that are formed in fuel-rich
portions of the diesel (spray) collect hydrocarbons through condensation and adsorption (Finch et al., 2002). Higher
molecular weight compounds will form small liquid droplets and get adsorbed and deposited on the carbonaceous
soot particles. These small droplets may be adsorbed by soot particles or simply be trapped on the filters used to
collect particulate. Operating conditions which increase the fraction of the fuel and lubricating oil that remains
unburned or partially burned; will increase the BSOF of the particulate. For B20 particulate, this value of BSOF is
higher than that of diesel particulate. This is primarily because of lower volatility of constituents of biodiesel;
biodiesel can be expected to increase the amount of soluble organic fraction emitted by a compression ignition
engine. However, the increased mass consists mostly of unburned esters from the fuel itself (Sharp et al., 2000).
Since biodiesel is nontoxic, the increased level of soluble organic fraction may not be hazardous (Finch et al., 2002).
However in order to clearly establish the organic toxicity of BDE, more investigations are required through further
speciation of exhaust.
4. Conclusions
Oxygenated fuel B20 (biodiesel blend) showed superior engine performance in reducing particulate emissions at all
operating conditions compared to mineral diesel (particulate in DE; 22-59 mg m-3 and in BDE; 17-48 mg m-3) at
constant speed. This may be due to lower sulphur and aromatic content of biodiesel. Along with reduction in
particulate matter, there is an overall reduction in metal emissions from the biodiesel exhaust. It was also found that
metals in particulate mainly originate from fuel and lubricating oil and in addition some of the metals can originate
from engine wear. The reduced metal emissions in BDE are because of (i) inherent lubricity property of biodiesel
leading to reduction of emissions of certain metals in BDE due to lower fuel injection system wear and (ii) lower
metal levels (Pb and Cd) in biodiesel compared to mineral diesel.
There is a net increase in BSOF for B20 fuel as compared to mineral diesel, however biodiesel is nontoxic, hence
the increased level of soluble organic fraction may not be viewed as hazardous (Finch et al., 2002). However
hazardous nature of biodiesel exhaust needs further investigations by speciating organic species in biodiesel exhaust.
This necessitates that speciation of organic compounds is done for both the fuel exhausts to clearly establish
comparative organic toxicity. Nonetheless, this research suggests that overall toxicity of emissions in terms of metals
reduces in BDE compared to DE.
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