MAIIV novrn 3
111nr1 tl11111 i111 ordi1111ry virtue, 1111d i111pr11tA f{reut phyijicul power. 'tiiithor rne,
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HAOMA, PRIES'l' OF THE SJ\CJHF1CE -. ,,
by MAltY UOYCE
Haoma is not one of the thirty yazatas of Zoroastrian_ism who protect
the months and days. There is no festival in his honour, and no shrines are
built to him. Yet he holds a unique place in the religion not only in its ritual
acts of high worship, but also in its mythology and in the daily lives of men;1
and he has varied aspects, not all of which have yet been fully considered in
western studies of this divinity.
All aspects of Haoma derive, demonstrably, from the sacred plant
from which he is named. The plant itself, now everywhere identified as an
ephedra, grows freely on the mountains of Central Asia and of Persia;2 and
it is held to be strengthening and healing for man and beast even in its
natural state.3 When pressed and consecrated in the yasna service, it gains
1 Although Haoma has no day dedicated to him, he is nevertheless duly honoured
in invocations regulated by the calendar. Together with Burz and Dahm Yazad, he is
invoked with Sahrevar, Xwar, Mihr, Asman and Anagran on their respective days;
and he is honoured in all ceremonies connected with the Sir6ze.
2 See G. Watt, Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, III, 246-7: 'In India
one species only can be said to occur throughout the Himalaya, viz. E. vulgaris, Rich.
( = E. Gerardiana, Wall.); but this is also distributed to Central and Western Asia and
to Europe. The other two Indian species have a more easterly distribution, the one
extending from Garhwal to Afghanistan and Persia (E. Pachyclada, Boiss.) and the
other being met with in the Punjab, Rajputana, Sind, and distributed to Afghanistan
and Syria (E. peduncularis, Boiss.).' It is E. Pachyclada, Boiss., which in the Hari-Rud
valley bears the names hum, huma, yehma (see ibid., 247); and a dried specimen of the
ham-plant of Yazd, gathered by the writer in 1964 near the mountain-shrine of Pir-i
sabz, was identified by the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, as either E. intermedia,
Schrenk and C. A. Meyer, var. persica Stapf, cir as E. Pachyclada, Boiss. itself.
3 In Yazd an infusion of Mm-twigs is considered good for heart trouble and health in
general; and herdsmen there regard the plant as wholesome browsing for their flocks,
just as soma is said to have been eaten by goats. This fact may weigh against one alterna
tive identification suggested for the ancient haoma, namely wild rhubarb (see Aurel
Stein, BSOS, VI, 1931, 501-14; G. Morgenstierne, Sariipa-Bharati, Dr. Lakshman
Sarup Mem. Vol., Hoshiarpur, 1954, 30-3). For, as it is sought to establish in the
following pages, the god Haoma is venerated as lord of grazing animals; and the leaves
of at least the cultivated rhubarb are toxic, and never fed to stock. However, in Poisonous
Plants of India, by R. N. Chopra, R. L. Badhwas and S. Gosh, 2nd edn., II, 1.965, 735
(a reference I owe to the kindness of Dr. Desmond Meikle of Kew), the authors state that
leaves of wild rhubarb are regularly cooked and eaten by humans in parts of N. India,
so that possibly the leaves of the wild plant contain less oxalic acid. The only use given,
however, for wild rhubarb leaves in Watt's Dictionary, VI, 487, is that in certain places
those of Rheum nobile and one other smaller rhubarb are dried and used as a substitute
for tobacco. It remains difficult to suppose that rhubarb was ever venerated as lord of
Continuetl 011 next page
62
() Rp'ir1111111, Jll'l"l'III 111<; for drink, prni11c.; rnc.; for titn.:ngth I' the yai:rata 11rgc11
Zoro1111t1.;r. Jn llw J\veHtu Hnun'iil i!l invoked fo( 'strength nn<l vietory',li and
lor 'power for the whole, budy'.o Jlc is besought to give victory over all
101:11;7 un<l in later Zoroastrianism it is enjoined that a yasna should be
1mle11111izctl in hi!! honour to repel an enemy.B
The plant haoma is chief of medicinal herbs ; 9 and the yazata is there
lorc i11vuked as 'giver of healing'.10 According to the Dinkard, Zoroaster
hi111Helf gave consecrated lzaoma to be drunk by the bull of a righteous man,
wlinehy the animal was cured of sickness. 11 Prayers properly uttered to
I l110111a bring health; 12 and if pestilence threatens, a yasna should be
1mle111nized in his honour, with a special intention for the soul of Faredon
('l'lirnl;taona}, so that yazata and hero-physician may_join in helping the ,1
uppliants.13
Through the sacred plant, Haoma has a link with plants in general, and
tto gives good harvests. A yasna should therefore again be celebrated in his
honour to avert famine.14 Moreover, since plants need moisture to nourish
I lirm, lfi consecrated lzaoma is used in libation to the waters; and the yazata
, '111t1l,11frd from previous page
tlw pl1111ts which nurture cattle. The same difficulty exists with the most recent
1,lt-111 ific11tion of soma with the hallucinogenic fungus amanita muscaria, see R. G. Was
""" ,",'11111a: divine mushroom of immortality, New York, 1969.
< l11c f1rgument put forward by Stein in support of the identification with rhubarb
(11/1. rit., 504) is that the bitter taste of the green ephedra accords ill with the praise of
11111111 IIH 'sweetness' self' (RV VIII.48.1); but if H. W. Bailey (BSOAS, XX, 1957,
., ti) iH right in interpreting the standing epithet of haoma, namely diiraofa, as 'pun-
111111 in lusfll' (parallel to the Rigvedic epithets tivra and tigma 'sharp' for soma), then
1hi 11rg111ncnt loses its cogency. As Watt pointed out (op. cit.; II, 24,), it is perfectly
1111t11oil,ll' t.hut cphedra 'afforded a bitter principle which might have been employed
111111'11 11f'ter the same manner as hops are used in Europe ... e.g. as a bitter adjunct in
1111 pr1p11rotion of an alcoholic beverage similar to beer.' But against this see Wasson,
,,,,... ,,.. p. 15.
d \I. IX. 2, as translated by W. B.'Henning, who interpreted the hapax staomaine
11 d11tiv1 g. of a subst. staoman 'strength', comparing Pahl. Ps. stwmnyhy 'strength'
(r, A11dn'11s-Barr, 143), Man. Pth. 'stwmnyft (unpub.) 'defiance', both of which, he
I liu11h1, huvc probably redundant abstract endings.
v. rx. ,7.
II lfiirf.
11. IX.. , R.
"R,, M. H. Unvala, Darab Hormazyar's Rivayat, Bombay, 1922, I, 284.15
I it,d l11'1'111f'tcr as MU); transl. by B. N. Dhabhar, The Persian Rivayats of Hor
,,,,,._,rr, H,a111aror and vlhers, Bombay, 1932, 278 (cited as Dhabhar, Riv.).
11 (:rMI /J1mtlnhifo (Ed. T. D. Anklesaria, transl. B. T. Anklesaria), XVII.20:
/,n1111 /117,/ */,i:;:i{l11fn urwariin rad.
I\! \'. X, 11 (/11liJ.fozaoa).
11 /JI,. V 11. -2') f. (Sanjana, Vol. XIV).
1 \', X. , ti. (nd11.,oa vdcu ddsmanif); cf. Saddar Bundahifn (Ed. Dhabhar), 44.29.
'" Ml! I, 2R4,, 11111rginnl addition; Dhabhar, Riv., 278.
1,1 M ll I, 8,1. 1,1,; Dhubhar, Riv. 278.
1h I), \', X. 3, 1111(1 further Yt. VIII. 33.
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