SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes

Chapter 1

ICE PICK HEADACHE

ICD-9 CODE 784.0 Testing

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain provides the best
information regarding the cranial vault and its contents. MRI is
ICD-10 CODE R51 highly accurate and helps identify abnormalities that may put the
patient at risk for neurological disasters secondary to intracranial
and brainstem pathological conditions, including tumors and
The Clinical Syndrome demyelinating disease (Figure 1-2). Magnetic resonance angiog-
raphy (MRA) also may be useful in helping identify aneurysms,
Ice pick headache is a constellation of symptoms consisting of which may be responsible for the patients neurological findings.
paroxysms of stabbing jabs and jolts that occur primarily in In patients who cannot undergo MRI, such as a patient with a
the first division of the trigeminal nerve. These paroxysms of pacemaker, computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable second
pain may occur as a single jab or a series of jabs that last for a choice. Radionuclide bone scanning and plain radiography are
fraction of a second followed by relatively pain-free episodes. indicated if fracture or bony abnormality, such as metastatic dis-
The pain of ice pick headache occurs in irregular intervals of ease, is considered in the differential diagnosis.
hours to days. Similar to cluster headache, ice pick headache is
an episodic disorder that is characterized by clusters of pain-
ful attacks followed by pain-free periods. Episodes of ice pick
headache usually occur on the same side, but in rare patients,
the pain may move to the same anatomical region on the con-
tralateral side. Ice pick headache occurs more commonly in
women and is generally not seen before the fourth decade of
life, but rare reports of children suffering from ice pick head-
ache sporadically appear in the literature. Synonyms for ice
pick headache include jabs and jolts headache and idiopathic
stabbing headache.

Signs and Symptoms

A patient suffering from ice pick headache complains of jolts or
jabs of pain in the orbit, temple, or parietal region (Figure 1-1).
Some patients describe the pain of ice pick headache as a sudden
smack or slap on the side of the head. Similar to patients suffer-
ing from trigeminal neuralgia, a patient suffering from ice pick
headache may exhibit involuntary muscle spasms of the affected
area in response to the paroxysms of pain. In contrast to tri-
geminal neuralgia, involving the first division of the trigeminal
nerve, there are no trigger areas that induce the pain of ice pick
headache. The neurological examination of a patient suffering
from ice pick headache is normal. Some patients exhibit anxiety
and depression because the intensity of pain associated with ice
pick headache leads many patients to believe they have a brain Figure 1-1 Ice pick headache is characterized by jabs or jolts in the
tumor. orbit, temple, or parietal region.

1
2 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes
Figure 1-2 Diffuse pachymeningeal and calvarial metastasis from car-
cinoma of the breast. Axial T1-weighted postgadolinium MRI shows
diffuse nodular and bandlike contrast-enhanced thickening of the dura
over the high right frontoparietal convexity. (From Haaga JR, Lanzieri
CF, Gilkeson RC, editors: CT and MR imaging of the whole body, 4th ed,
Philadelphia, 2003, Mosby, p 198.)
Screening laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and automated blood
chemistry should be performed if the diagnosis of ice pick head-
ache is in question. Intraocular pressure should be measured if
glaucoma is suspected.
Differential Diagnosis
Ice pick headache is a clinical diagnosis supported by a combi-
nation of clinical history, normal physical examination, radiogra-
phy, and MRI. Pain syndromes that may mimic ice pick headache
include trigeminal neuralgia involving the first division of the
trigeminal nerve, demyelinating disease, and chronic paroxysmal
hemicrania. Trigeminal neuralgia involving the first division of
the trigeminal nerve is uncommon and is characterized by trig-
ger areas and tic-like movements. Demyelinating disease is gener-
ally associated with other neurological findings, including optic
neuritis and other motor and sensory abnormalities. The pain of
chronic paroxysmal hemicrania lasts much longer than the pain of
ice pick headache and is associated with redness and watering of
the ipsilateral eye.
Treatment
Ice pick headache uniformly responds to treatment with indo-
methacin. Failure to respond to indomethacin puts the diagnosis
of ice pick headache in question. A starting dosage of 25 mg daily
for 2 days and titrating to 25 mg three times per day is a reason-
able treatment approach. This dose may be carefully increased
to 150 mg per day. Indomethacin must be used carefully, if at
all, in patients with peptic ulcer disease or impaired renal func-
tion. Anecdotal reports of a positive response to cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors in the treatment of ice pick headache have
been noted in the headache literature. Underlying sleep distur-
bance and depression are best treated with a tricyclic antidepres-
sant compound, such as nortriptyline, which can be started at a
single bedtime dose of 25 mg.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to correctly diagnose ice pick headache may put the patient
at risk if intracranial pathological conditions or demyelinating dis-
ease, which may mimic the clinical presentation of chronic parox-
ysmal hemicrania, is overlooked. MRI is indicated in all patients
thought to be suffering from ice pick headache. Failure to diag-
nose glaucoma, which also may cause intermittent ocular pain,
may result in permanent loss of sight.
Clinical Pearls
The diagnosis of ice pick headache is made by obtaining
a thorough, targeted headache history. Patients suffering
from ice pick headache should have a normal neurological
examination. If the results of the neurological examination
are abnormal, the diagnosis of ice pick headache should be
discarded and a careful search for the cause of the neurologi-
cal findings should be undertaken.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Cutrer FM, Boes CJ: Cough, exertional, and sex headaches, Neurol Clin 22:
133149, 2004.
Dafer RM: Neurostimulation in headache disorders, Neurol Clin 28:835841,
2010.
Mathew NT: Indomethacin responsive headache syndromes: headache, J Head
Face Pain 21:147150, 1981.
Pascual J: Other primary headaches, Neurol Clin 27:557571, 2009.
Tuba T, Serap , Esra O, etal: Features of stabbing, cough, exertional and sex-
ual headaches in a Turkish population of headache patients, J Clin Neurosci
15:774777, 2008.
Chapter 2

SUPRAORBITAL NEURALGIA

and brainstem pathological conditions, including tumors and

ICD-9 CODE 350.1
ICD-10 CODE G50.0
The Clinical Syndrome
The pain of supraorbital neuralgia is characterized as persistent
pain in the supraorbital region and forehead with occasional sud-
den, shocklike paresthesias in the distribution of the supraorbital
nerves. Sinus headache involving the frontal sinuses, which is
much more common than supraorbital neuralgia, can mimic the
pain of supraorbital neuralgia. Supraorbital neuralgia is the result
of compression or trauma of the supraorbital nerves as the nerves
exit the supraorbital foramen. Such trauma can be in the form of
blunt trauma directly to the nerve, such as when the forehead hits
the steering wheel during a motor vehicle accident, or repetitive
microtrauma resulting from wearing welding or swim goggles that
are too tight. This clinical syndrome also is known as swimmers
headache.
demyelinating disease (Figure 2-3). Magnetic resonance angiog-
raphy (MRA) also may be useful in helping identify aneurysms,
which may be responsible for the patients neurological findings.
In patients who cannot undergo MRI, such as a patient with a
pacemaker, computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable second
choice. Radionuclide bone scan, CT, and plain radiography are
indicated if sinus disease, fracture, or bony abnormality such as
metastatic disease is considered in the differential diagnosis.
Screening laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and automated blood
chemistry testing should be performed if the diagnosis of supraor-
bital neuralgia is in question. Intraocular pressure should be mea-
sured if glaucoma is suspected (Figure 2-4).
Differential Diagnosis
Supraorbital neuralgia is a clinical diagnosis supported by a combi-
nation of clinical history, normal physical examination, radiogra-
phy, CT, and MRI. Pain syndromes that may mimic supraorbital

Signs and Symptoms

The supraorbital nerve arises from fibers of the frontal nerve,
which is the largest branch of the ophthalmic nerve. The frontal
nerve enters the orbit via the superior orbital fissure and passes
anteriorly beneath the periosteum of the roof of the orbit. The
frontal nerve gives off a larger lateral branch, the supraorbital
nerve, and a smaller medial branch, the supratrochlear nerve. Both
exit the orbit anteriorly. The supraorbital nerve sends fibers all Inflamed
the way to the vertex of the scalp and provides sensory innerva- supraorbital n.
tion to the forehead, upper eyelid, and anterior scalp (Figure 2-1).
The pain of supraorbital neuralgia is characterized as persistent
pain in the supraorbital region and forehead with occasional sud-
den, shocklike paresthesias in the distribution of the supraorbital
nerves. Occasionally, a patient suffering from supraorbital neu-
ralgia complains that the hair on the front of the head hurts
(Figure 2-2). Supraorbital nerve block is useful in the diagnosis
and treatment of supraorbital neuralgia.

Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain provides the best
information regarding the cranial vault and its contents. MRI is
highly accurate and helps identify abnormalities that may put the
patient at risk for neurological disasters secondary to intracranial
Figure 2-1 The supraorbital nerve sends fibers all the way to the vertex
of the scalp and provides sensory innervation to the forehead, upper
eyelid, and anterior scalp. n, Nerve.

3
4 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes
Figure 2-2 Occasionally, a patient with supraorbital neuralgia com-
plains that the hair on the front of the head hurts. The supraorbital
nerve sends fibers all the way to the vertex of the scalp and provides
sensory innervation to the forehead, upper eyelid, and anterior scalp.
neuralgia include ice pick headache, trigeminal neuralgia involv-
ing the first division of the trigeminal nerve, demyelinating dis-
ease, and chronic paroxysmal hemicrania. Trigeminal neuralgia
involving the first division of the trigeminal nerve is uncommon
and is characterized by trigger areas and tic-like movements.
Demyelinating disease is generally associated with other neurolog-
ical findings, including optic neuritis and other motor and sensory
abnormalities. The pain of chronic paroxysmal hemicrania lasts
much longer than the paroxysmal pain of supraorbital neuralgia
and is associated with redness and watering of the ipsilateral eye.
Treatment
The primary treatment intervention for supraorbital neuralgia is
the identification and removal of anything causing compression
of the supraorbital nerves (e.g., tight welding or swim goggles).
A brief trial of simple analgesics alone or in combination with
gabapentin also should be considered. For patients who do not
respond to these treatments, supraorbital nerve block with local
anesthetic and a steroid is a reasonable next step.
To perform supraorbital nerve block, the patient is placed in
the supine position. Using a 10-mL sterile syringe, 3 mL of local
anesthetic is drawn up. When treating supraorbital neuralgia with
supraorbital nerve block, 80 mg of depot steroid is added to the
local anesthetic with the first block, and 40 mg of depot steroid is
added with subsequent blocks.
The supraorbital notch on the affected side is identified by
palpation. The skin overlying the notch is prepared with anti-
septic solution, with care taken to avoid spillage into the eye. A
25-gauge, 1-inch needle is inserted at the level of the supraor-
bital notch and is advanced medially approximately 15 degrees
off the perpendicular to avoid entering the foramen. The needle
is advanced until it approaches the periosteum of the underlying
bone (Figure 2-5). A paresthesia may be elicited, and the patient
should be warned of such. The needle should not enter the supra-
orbital foramen; if this occurs, the needle should be withdrawn
and redirected slightly more medially.
Because of the loose alveolar tissue of the eyelid, a gauze sponge
should be used to apply gentle pressure on the upper eyelid and
supraorbital tissues before injection of solution to prevent the
injectate from dissecting inferiorly into these tissues. This pres-
sure should be maintained after the procedure to avoid periorbital
hematoma and ecchymosis.
After gentle aspiration, 3 mL of solution is injected in a fanlike
distribution. If blockade of the supratrochlear nerve also is desired,
the needle is redirected medially and, after careful aspiration, an
additional 3 mL of solution is injected in a fanlike manner.
Underlying sleep disturbance and depression associated with
the pain of supraorbital neuralgia are best treated with a tricy-
clic antidepressant compound, such as nortriptyline. The tricyclic
antidepressant can be started at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose supraorbital neuralgia correctly may put the
patient at risk if an intracranial pathological condition or demy-
elinating disease, which may mimic the clinical presentation of
supraorbital neuralgia, is overlooked. MRI is indicated in all
patients thought to have supraorbital neuralgia. Failure to diag-
nose glaucoma, which also may cause intermittent ocular pain,
may result in permanent loss of sight.
The forehead and scalp are highly vascular, and when per-
forming supraorbital nerve block the clinician should carefully
calculate the total milligram dosage of local anesthetic that may
be given safely, especially if bilateral nerve blocks are being per-
formed. This vascularity gives rise to an increased incidence of
postblock ecchymosis and hematoma formation. Despite the
vascularity of this anatomical region, this technique can be per-
formed safely in the presence of anticoagulation by using a 25-
or 27-gauge needle, albeit at increased risk for hematoma, if the
clinical situation dictates a favorable risk-to-benefit ratio. These
complications can be decreased if manual pressure is applied to
the area of the block immediately after injection. Application of
cold packs for 20-minute periods after the block also decreases the
amount of postprocedure pain and bleeding.
 2 Supraorbital Neuralgia 5

A B

C
Figure 2-3 Subdural empyema in a patient with sinusitis. A, T2-weighted MRI shows high-signal-intensity extraaxial fluid collection in the right fron-
tal convexity and along the falx on the right side. B and C, Gadolinium-enhanced MRI shows extraaxial fluid collections in the right frontal convexity
and along the falx with intense peripheral enhancement. The signal intensity of the fluid collection is slightly higher than that of cerebrospinal fluid.
(From Haaga JR, Lanzieri CF, Gilkeson RC, editors: CT and MR imaging of the whole body, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2003, Mosby, p 209.)
6 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes

Fixed
semidilated
Hazy corneal reflex pupil
signifying edema
Cataractous
lens

Opaque thickened
edematous cornea
Cataractous lens
Shallow anterior
chamber

Figure 2-4 Acute angle closure resulting from an intumescent cataractous lens. The eye is red with a hazy view of the anterior segment from corneal
edema, with a fixed, irregular, semidilated pupil from iris infarction. The slit image shows the corneal edema and a very shallow anterior chamber.
Some uveitis may be present because of ischemia, and this must be differentiated from the larger accumulations of lens material and macrophages
seen with phacolytic glaucoma. (From Spalton DJ, Hitchings RA, Hunter P: Atlas of clinical ophthalmology, 3rd ed, London, 2005, Mosby, p 225.)

Clinical Pearls
Supraorbital nerve block is especially useful in the diagnosis
and palliation of pain secondary to supraorbital neuralgia.
The first step in the management of this unusual cause of
Supraorbital n.
headache is the correct fitting of swimming goggles that
Supraorbital notch do not compress the supraorbital nerves. Coexistent fron-
tal sinusitis should be ruled out in patients who do not
respond rapidly to a change in swim goggles and a series of
the previously mentioned nerve blocks. Any patient with
headaches severe enough to require neural blockade as part
of the treatment plan should undergo MRI of the head to
rule out unsuspected intracranial pathological conditions.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Levin M: Nerve blocks and nerve stimulation in headache disorders, Tech Reg
Anesth Pain Manage 13:4249, 2009.
Levin M: Nerve blocks in the treatment of headache, Neurotherapeutics 7:197
203, 2010.
Waldman SD: The trigeminal nerve. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review, Phila-
delphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 1517.
Waldman SD: Swimmers headache. In Waldman SD, editor: Atlas of pain man-
agement injection techniques, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders, pp 710.

Figure 2-5 Injection technique for relieving the pain of supraorbital

neuralgia. (From Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management injection tech-
niques, 2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders.)
Chapter 3

CHRONIC PAROXYSMAL HEMICRANIA

As in cluster headache, the patient may become agitated during

ICD-9 CODE 784.0
ICD-10 CODE R51
The Clinical Syndrome
Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania shares many characteristics of its
more common analogue, cluster headache, but has several impor-
tant differences (Table 3-1). Similar to cluster headache, chronic
paroxysmal hemicrania is a severe, episodic, unilateral headache
that affects the periorbital and retroorbital regions. In contrast
to cluster headache, which occurs 10 times more commonly in
men, chronic paroxysmal hemicrania occurs primarily in women
(Figure 3-1). The duration of pain associated with chronic parox-
ysmal hemicrania is shorter than that of cluster headache, lasting 5
to 45 minutes. This pain does not follow the chronobiological pat-
tern seen in patients with cluster headache. Patients with chronic
paroxysmal hemicrania usually experience more than five attacks
per day. Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania uniformly responds to
indomethacin, whereas cluster headache does not.
Signs and Symptoms
During attacks of chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, patients exhibit
the following physical findings suggestive of Horners syndrome
on the ipsilateral side of the pain:
Conjunctival and scleral injection
Lacrimation
Nasal congestion
Rhinorrhea
Ptosis of the eyelid
attacks, rather than seeking dark and quiet as does the patient with
migraine. In contrast to cluster headache, alcohol consumption
does not seem to trigger attacks of chronic paroxysmal hemicra-
nia. Between attacks, the neurological examination of a patient
with chronic paroxysmal hemicrania should be normal.
Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain provides the best
information regarding the cranial vault and its contents. MRI is
highly accurate and helps identify abnormalities that may put the
patient at risk for neurological disasters secondary to intracranial
and brainstem pathological conditions, including tumors and
demyelinating disease (Figure 3-2). Magnetic resonance angiog-
raphy (MRA) also may be useful in identifying aneurysms, which
may be responsible for the patients neurological findings. In
patients who cannot undergo MRI, such as a patient with a pace-
maker, computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable second choice.
Radionuclide bone scanning and plain radiography are indicated
if fracture or bony abnormality such as metastatic disease is con-
sidered in the differential diagnosis.
Screening laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and automated blood
chemistry testing should be performed if the diagnosis of chronic

TABLE 3-1
Comparison of Cluster Headache and Chronic
Paroxysmal Hemicrania
Chronic
Cluster Paroxysmal
Comparison Factors Headache Hemicrania
Gender predominance Male Female
Response to indomethacin Negative Positive
Chronobiological pattern Positive Negative
Alcohol trigger Positive Negative
Length of attacks Longer Shorter
Figure 3-1 In contrast to cluster headache, which occurs primarily in
Horners syndrome Present Present men, chronic paroxysmal hemicrania occurs primarily in women.

7
8 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes
A impaired renal function. Anecdotal reports of a positive response
B discarded and a careful search for the cause of the patients
Figure 3-2 Sagittal (A) and semiaxial (B) T2-weighted images of a mas-
sive prolactinoma in a 41-year-old man with chronic daily headache.
(From Benitez-Rosario MA, McDarby G, Doyle R, Fabby G. Chronic cluster-
like headache secondary to prolactinoma: uncommon cephalalgia in asso-
ciation with brain tumors, J Pain Symptom Manage 37:271276, 2009.
paroxysmal hemicrania is in question. Intraocular pressure should
be measured if glaucoma is suspected.
Differential Diagnosis
Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania is a clinical diagnosis supported by
a combination of clinical history, abnormal physical examination
during attacks, radiography, and MRI. Pain syndromes that may
mimic chronic paroxysmal hemicrania include cluster headache,
trigeminal neuralgia involving the first division of the trigeminal
nerve, demyelinating disease, and ice pick headache. Trigeminal
neuralgia involving the first division of the trigeminal nerve is
uncommon and is characterized by trigger areas and tic-like move-
ments. Demyelinating disease is generally associated with other
neurological findings, including optic neuritis and other motor
and sensory abnormalities. The pain of cluster headache lasts much
longer than the pain of chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, and cluster
headache has a male predominance, a chronobiological pattern of
attacks, and a lack of response to treatment with indomethacin.
Treatment
Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania uniformly responds to treatment
with indomethacin. Failure to respond to indomethacin puts the
diagnosis of chronic paroxysmal hemicrania in question. A start-
ing dose of 25 mg daily for 2 days and titrating to 25 mg three
times per day is a reasonable treatment approach. This dose may
be carefully increased up to 150 mg per day. Indomethacin must
be used carefully, if at all, in patients with peptic ulcer disease or
to cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors in the treatment of
chronic paroxysmal hemicrania have been noted in the headache
literature. Underlying sleep disturbance and depression are best
treated with a tricyclic antidepressant compound, such as nortrip-
tyline, which can be started at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose chronic paroxysmal hemicrania correctly may
put the patient at risk if intracranial pathological conditions or
demyelinating disease that may mimic the clinical presentation of
chronic paroxysmal hemicrania is overlooked. MRI is indicated in
all patients thought to have chronic paroxysmal hemicrania. Fail-
ure to diagnose glaucoma, which may cause intermittent ocular
pain, may result in permanent loss of sight.
Clinical Pearls
The diagnosis of chronic paroxysmal hemicrania is made
by obtaining a thorough, targeted headache history.
Between attacks, patients with chronic paroxysmal hemi-
crania should have a normal neurological examination. If
the neurological examination is abnormal between attacks,
the diagnosis of chronic paroxysmal hemicrania should be
neurological findings should be undertaken.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Benitez-Rosario MA, McDarby G, Doyle R, Fabby C: Chronic cluster-like head-
ache secondary to prolactinoma: uncommon cephalalgia in association with
brain tumors, J Pain Symptom Manage 37:271276, 2009.
Benoliel R, Sharav Y: Paroxysmal hemicrania: case studies and review of the lit-
erature, Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontol 85:285292,
1998.
Camarda C, Camarda R, Monastero R: Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania and
hemicrania continua responding to topiramate: two case reports, Clin Neurol
Neurosurg 110:8891, 2008.
Klasser GD, Balasubramaniam R: Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias. II. Par-
oxysmal hemicrania, Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontol
104:640646, 2007.
Sjaastad O: Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania: clinical aspects and controversies. In
Blau JN, editor: Migraine: clinical, therapeutic, conceptual and research aspects,
London, 1987, Chapman & Hall, pp 135152.
Talvik I, Koch K, Kolk A, Talvik T: Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania in a 3-year,
10-month-old female, Pediatr Neurol 34:225227, 2006.
Chapter 4
CHARLINS SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 350.1
ICD-10 CODE G50.0
The Clinical Syndrome
Charlins syndrome, also known as nasociliary neuralgia, is an
uncommon cause of head and face pain. As with most headache
syndromes, the exact cause of the pain of Charlins syndrome is
unknown. However, the pathogenesis of this uncommon cause
of head and face pain is thought to be dysfunction of the naso-
ciliary ganglion in a manner analogous to the dysfunction of the
sphenopalatine ganglion thought to be the source of cluster head-
ache. The pain of Charlins syndrome has a rapid onset to peak,
with attacks lasting 45 to 60 minutes. In some patients, these
attacks can be triggered by sensory stimulation of the affected
areas. Although in many ways similar to cluster headache (e.g.,
retroorbital location of pain, profuse unilateral rhinorrhea, rapid
onset to peak, and short duration of attacks), many dissimilarities
also exist. In contrast to cluster headache, alcohol consumption
does not appear to trigger attacks of Charlins syndrome and the
seasonal and chronobiological patterns so characteristic of cluster
headache do not seem to be a factor (Table 4-1). Blockade of the
sphenopalatine ganglion, which is so effective in the treatment of
cluster headache, is of little value in the treatment of Charlins
syndrome. Patients suffering from Charlins syndrome uniformly
respond to daily nasociliary nerve blocks with local anesthetic, as
described subsequently.
Signs and Symptoms
Patients suffering from Charlins syndrome present with the com-
plaint of severe paroxysms of ocular or retroorbital pain that radi-
ates into the ipsilateral forehead, nose, and maxillary region. This
pain is associated with voluminous ipsilateral rhinorrhea and con-
gestion of the nasal mucosa and significant inflammation of the
affected eye (Figure 4-1).
Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain provides the best
information regarding the cranial vault and its contents. MRI is
highly accurate and helps identify abnormalities that may put the
patient at risk for neurological disasters secondary to intracranial
and brainstem pathological conditions, including tumors and
demyelinating disease (Figure 4-2). Magnetic resonance angiog-
raphy (MRA) also may be useful in helping identify aneurysms,
which may be responsible for the patients neurological findings.
In patients who cannot undergo MRI, such as a patient with a
pacemaker, computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable second
choice. Radionuclide bone scanning and plain radiography are
indicated if fracture or bony abnormality such as metastatic dis-
ease is considered in the differential diagnosis.
Screening laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and automated blood
chemistry testing should be performed if the diagnosis of Char-
lins syndrome is in question. Intraocular pressure should be mea-
sured if glaucoma is suspected.
Differential Diagnosis
Charlins syndrome is a clinical diagnosis supported by a com-
bination of clinical history, normal physical examination, radi-
ography, and MRI. Pain syndromes that may mimic Charlins
syndrome include cluster headache, temporal arteritis, trigemi-
nal neuralgia involving the first division of the trigeminal nerve,
demyelinating disease, and chronic paroxysmal hemicrania (see
Table 4-1). Trigeminal neuralgia involving the first division of
the trigeminal nerve is uncommon and is characterized by trig-
ger areas and tic-like movements. Demyelinating disease is gener-
ally associated with other neurological findings, including optic
neuritis and other motor and sensory abnormalities. The pain of
chronic paroxysmal hemicrania lasts much longer than the pain of
Charlins syndrome.
Treatment
The treatment of Charlins syndrome is analogous to the treat-
ment of trigeminal neuralgia. The use of anticonvulsants such as
carbamazepine and gabapentin represents a reasonable starting
point. High-dose steroids tapered over 10 days also have been
anecdotally reported to provide relief. For patients who do not
respond to the previously mentioned treatments, daily nasociliary
ganglion block with local anesthetic and steroid is a reasonable
next step. Underlying sleep disturbance and depression associated
with the pain of supraorbital neuralgia are best treated with a tri-
cyclic antidepressant compound, such as nortriptyline, which can
be started at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose Charlins syndrome correctly may put
the patient at risk if an intracranial pathological condition or
9
10 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes

TABLE 4-1
Comparison of Cluster Headache
and Charlins Syndrome
Cluster Charlins
Comparison Factors Headache Syndrome
Ocular and retroorbital location Yes Yes
Unilateral Yes Yes
Rapid onset to peak Yes Yes
Severe intensity Yes Yes
Attacks occur in paroxysms Yes Yes
Duration of attacks short Yes Yes
Pain free between attacks Yes Yes
Significant rhinorrhea during attacks Yes Yes
Alcohol triggers attacks Yes No
Tactile trigger areas No Yes
Seasonal pattern of attacks Yes No
Figure 4-2 Multiple sclerosis. Fluid-attenuated inversion recovery (FLAIR)
Chronobiological pattern of attacks Yes No parasagittal MR image depicts the extensive demyelinated plaques of
Significant eye inflammation No Yes progressive multiple sclerosis. (From Haaga JR, Lanzieri CF, Gilkeson RC,
editors: CT and MR imaging of the whole body, 4th ed, Philadelphia,
Responds to sphenopalatine Yes No
2003, Mosby, p 466.)
ganglion block
Responds to nasociliary block No Yes
demyelinating disease, which may mimic the clinical presenta-
tion of Charlins syndrome, is overlooked. MRI is indicated in all
patients thought to have Charlins syndrome. Failure to diagnose
glaucoma or temporal arteritis, which also may cause intermittent
ocular pain, may result in permanent loss of sight.

Clinical Pearls
Nasociliary nerve block via the medial orbital approach
is especially useful in the diagnosis and palliation of pain
secondary to Charlins syndrome. Given the uncommon
nature of this headache syndrome and its overlap with the
symptoms of cluster headache and other neurological prob-
lems, including cavernous sinus thrombosis and intracranial
and retroorbital tumors, Charlins syndrome must remain a
diagnosis of exclusion. All patients suspected to have Char-
lins syndrome require MRI of the brain with and without
gadolinium contrast material and thorough ophthalmologi-
cal and neurological evaluation. Nasociliary nerve block via
the medial orbital approach should be performed only by
clinicians familiar with the regional anatomy.

Figure 4-1 Patients suffering from Charlins syndrome present with the
complaint of severe paroxysms of ocular or retroorbital pain that radi-
ates into the ipsilateral forehead, nose, and maxillary region. The pain is
associated with voluminous ipsilateral rhinorrhea and congestion of the
nasal mucosa and significant inflammation of the affected eye.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Becker M, Kohler R, Vargas MI, Viallon M, Delavelle J: Pathology of the trigeminal
nerve, Neuroimaging Clin N Am 18:283307, 2008.
Craven J: Anatomy of the cranial nerves, Anaesth Intensive Care Med 11:529534,
2010.
Lewis DW, Gozzo YF, Avner MT: The other primary headaches in children and
adolescents [review], Pediatr Neurol 33:303313, 2005.
Waldman SD: The trigeminal nerve. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review, Phila-
delphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 1517.
Waldman SD: Charlins syndrome. In Waldman SD, editor: Atlas of pain manage-
ment injection techniques, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders, pp 2024.
Chapter 5

SEXUAL HEADACHE

reported. The pain usually remains intense for 10 to 15 minutes

ICD-9 CODE 784.0
ICD-10 CODE R51
The Clinical Syndrome
Sexual headache is a term used to describe a group of headaches
associated with sexual activity. Clinicians have identified the fol-
lowing three general types of headache associated with sexual
activity:
Explosive type
Dull type
Postural type
Each of these sexual headache types was previously called benign
coital headache, but this term has been replaced by sexual head-
ache because each may occur with sexual activity other than coitus
(Figure 5-1). In general, sexual headache includes a benign group
of disorders, but a rare patient may have acute subarachnoid hem-
orrhage during sexual activity, which may be erroneously diag-
nosed as the benign explosive type of sexual headache. There is
no gender predilection for sexual headache, and the occurrence of
all types of sexual headache may be episodic rather than chronic.
Rarely, more than one type of sexual headache occurs in the same
patient.
and then gradually abates. Some patients note some residual head-
ache pain for 2 days.
Dull Type of Sexual Headache
The dull type of sexual headache begins during the early por-
tion of sexual activity. This headache type has an aching char-
acter and begins in the occipital region. The headache becomes
holocranial as sexual activity progresses toward orgasm. It may
peak at orgasm, but in contrast to the explosive type of sexual
headache, the dull type disappears rapidly after orgasm. Ceasing
sexual activity usually aborts the dull type of sexual headache.
Some headache specialists think the dull type of sexual head-
ache is simply a milder version of the explosive type of sexual
headache.
Postural Type of Sexual Headache
The postural type of sexual headache is similar to the explosive
type of sexual headache in that it occurs just before or during
orgasm. Its rapid onset to peak and severe intensity also are similar
to that of the explosive type. It differs from the explosive type of
headache in that the headache symptoms recur when the patient
stands up, in a manner analogous to postdural puncture head-
ache. The postural component of this type of sexual headache is
thought to be due to minute tears in the dura that may occur dur-
ing intense sexual activity.

Signs and Symptoms

Patients with sexual headache present differently depending on
the type of sexual headache experienced. Each clinical presenta-
tion is discussed subsequently.
Explosive Type of Sexual Headache
The explosive type of sexual headache is the most common type
of sexual headache encountered in clinical practice. The patient
usually fears he or she has had a stroke. The patient may be less
forthcoming about the circumstances surrounding the onset of
headache, and tactful questioning may be required to ascertain
the actual clinical history. The explosive type of sexual headache
occurs suddenly, with an almost instantaneous onset to peak just
before or during orgasm. The intensity of the explosive type of
sexual headache is severe and has been likened to the pain of acute
subarachnoid hemorrhage. The location of pain is usually occipi-
tal, but some patients volunteer that the pain felt like the top of
my head was going to blow off. The pain is usually bilateral, but Figure 5-1 Sexual headaches show no gender predilection and are gen-
isolated cases of unilateral explosive sexual headache have been erally benign.

11
12 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes
Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain provides the best
information regarding the cranial vault and its contents. MRI is
highly accurate and helps identify abnormalities that may put the
patient at risk for neurological disasters secondary to intracranial
and brainstem pathological conditions, including tumors, demy-
elinating disease, and hemorrhage. More important, MRI helps
identify bleeding associated with leaking intracranial aneurysms.
Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) may be useful in help-
ing identify aneurysms responsible for the patients neurological
symptoms. In patients who cannot undergo MRI, such as patients
with pacemakers, computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable
second choice. Even if blood is not present on MRI or CT, if
intracranial hemorrhage is suspected, lumbar puncture should be
performed.
Screening laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and automated blood
chemistry testing should be performed if the diagnosis of sexual
headache is in question. Intraocular pressure should be measured
if glaucoma is suspected.
Differential Diagnosis
Sexual headache is a clinical diagnosis supported by a combina-
tion of clinical history, normal physical examination, radiogra-
phy, MRI, and MRA. Pain syndromes that may mimic sexual
headache include trigeminal neuralgia involving the first divi-
sion of the trigeminal nerve, demyelinating disease, cluster head-
ache, migraine, and chronic paroxysmal hemicrania. Trigeminal
neuralgia involving the first division of the trigeminal nerve is
uncommon and is characterized by trigger areas and tic-like
movements. Demyelinating disease is generally associated with
other neurological findings, including optic neuritis and other
motor and sensory abnormalities. The pain of chronic paroxys-
mal hemicrania and cluster headache is associated with redness
and watering of the ipsilateral eye, nasal congestion, and rhinor-
rhea during the headache. These findings are absent in all types
of sexual headache. Migraine headache may or may not be associ-
ated with nonpainful neurological findings known as aura, but
the patient almost always reports some systemic symptoms, such
as nausea or photophobia, not typically associated with sexual
headache.
Treatment
It is generally thought that avoiding the inciting activity for a few
weeks decreases the propensity to trigger sexual headaches. If this
avoidance technique fails or is impractical because of patient pref-
erence, a trial of propranolol is a reasonable next step. A low dose
of 20 to 40 mg as a daily dose and titrating in 20-mg increments
to 200 mg as a divided daily dose until prophylaxis occurs treats
most patients suffering from sexual headache. Propranolol should
be used with caution in patients with asthma or cardiac failure and
patients with brittle diabetes.
If propranolol is ineffective, indomethacin may be tried. A
starting dose of 25 mg daily for 2 days and titrating to 25 mg
three times per day is a reasonable treatment approach. This dose
may be carefully increased to 150 mg per day. Indomethacin must
be used carefully, if at all, in patients with peptic ulcer disease or
impaired renal function. Anecdotal reports of a positive response
to cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors in the treatment of sexual
headache have been noted in the headache literature. Underlying
sleep disturbance and depression are best treated with a tricyclic
antidepressant compound, such as nortriptyline, which can be
started at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose sexual headache correctly may put the patient
at risk if intracranial pathology or demyelinating disease (which
may mimic the clinical presentation of sexual headache) is over-
looked. MRI and MRA are indicated in all patients thought to
have sexual headache. Failure to diagnose glaucoma, which also
may cause intermittent ocular pain, may result in permanent loss
of sight.
Clinical Pearls
The diagnosis of sexual headache is made by obtaining a
thorough, targeted headache history. As mentioned earlier,
patients may not be forthcoming about the events surround-
ing the onset of their headache, and the clinician should be
sensitive to this fact. Patients suffering from sexual head-
ache should have a normal neurological examination. If
the neurological examination is abnormal, the diagnosis of
sexual headache should be discarded and a careful search
for the cause of the patients neurological findings should
be undertaken.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Evans RW: Diagnostic testing for migraine and other primary headaches, Neurol
Clin 27:393415, 2009.
Hu CM, Lin YJ, Fan YK, etal: Isolated thunderclap headache during sex: orgas-
mic headache or reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome? J Clin Neurosci
17:13491351, 2010.
Jolobe OMP: The differential diagnosis includes reversible cerebral vasoconstrictor
syndrome, Am J Emerg Med 28:637, 2010.
Kim HJ, Seo SY: Recurrent emotion-triggered headache following primary head-
ache associated with sexual activity, J Neurol Sci 273:142143, 2008.
Tuba T, Serap , Esra O, etal: Features of stabbing, cough, exertional and sex-
ual headaches in a Turkish population of headache patients, J Clin Neurosci
15:774777, 2008.
Chapter 6
COUGH HEADACHE
ICD-9 CODE 784.0
ICD-10 CODE R51
The Clinical Syndrome
Cough headache is a term used to describe headaches triggered by
coughing and other activities associated with a Valsalva maneuver,
such as laughing, straining at stool, lifting, and bending the head
toward the ground (Figure 6-1). Clinicians have identified the fol-
lowing two types of cough headache:
Benign
Symptomatic
Initially, both types of cough headache were thought to be
related to sexual and exertional headaches, but they are now con-
sidered distinct clinical entities. A strong male predilection is seen
for benign cough headache and no gender predilection for symp-
tomatic cough headache.
Signs and Symptoms
Patients suffering from cough headache present differently
depending on the type of cough headache experienced. Each clini-
cal presentation is discussed.
Benign Cough Headache
Benign cough headache is not associated with obvious neurologi-
cal or musculoskeletal disease. More than 80% of patients with
benign cough headache are males, in contradistinction to symp-
tomatic cough headache, in which no gender predilection is seen.
The onset of benign cough headache is abrupt, occurring immedi-
ately after coughing or other activities that cause a Valsalva maneu-
ver. Although the intensity of pain is severe and peaks rapidly, it
lasts only seconds to minutes. The character of the pain associated
with benign cough headache is splitting or sharp, and the pain is
located in the occipital region bilaterally and occasionally the ver-
tex of the skull. No accompanying neurological or systemic symp-
toms are seen, as with cluster and migraine headaches. The age of
onset of benign cough headache is generally in the late fifth or sixth
decade of life. If such headaches occur before age 50, there should
be strong clinical suspicion that the patient either has symptom-
atic cough headache or a pathological condition in the posterior
fossa, such as Arnold-Chiari malformation or tumor. Tumors of
the foramen magnum also may mimic the presentation of benign
cough headache even if no neurological symptoms are present.
Symptomatic Cough Headache
Symptomatic cough headache is almost always associated with
structural abnormalities of the cranium, such as Arnold-Chiari
malformation I and II or intracranial tumors (Figure 6-2). The
symptoms associated with symptomatic cough headache are
thought to be due to herniation of the cerebellar tonsil through
the foramen magnum into the space normally occupied by the
upper portion of the cervical spinal cord. Similar to benign cough
headache, the onset of pain associated with symptomatic cough
headache is abrupt, occurring immediately after coughing or other
activities that cause a Valsalva maneuver. Although the intensity
of pain is severe and peaks rapidly, it lasts only seconds to min-
utes. In contrast to benign cough headache, associated neurologi-
cal symptoms may be present, including difficulty swallowing,
faintness, and numbness in the face and upper extremities. These
associated symptoms should be taken very seriously because they
are indicative of increased intracranial pressure and herniation of
the intracranial contents.
The character of the pain associated with symptomatic cough
headache is splitting or sharp, and pain is located in the occipital
region bilaterally and occasionally the vertex of the skull. The
age of onset of symptomatic cough headache is generally in the
third decade of life, although, depending on the amount of neu-
rological compromise, it may occur at any age. In contrast to
benign cough headache, which occurs predominantly in men,
symptomatic cough headache occurs with equal prevalence in
both genders.
Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain provides the best
information regarding the cranial vault and its contents. MRI is
highly accurate and helps identify abnormalities that may put
the patient at risk for neurological disasters secondary to intra-
cranial and brainstem pathological conditions, including tumors
and demyelinating disease. Special attention to the foramen mag-
num may help identify more subtle abnormalities responsible
for posterior fossa neurological signs and symptoms. MRI helps
identify bleeding associated with leaking intracranial aneurysms,
which may mimic the symptoms of both types of cough head-
ache. Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) may be useful in
helping identify aneurysms responsible for the patients neuro-
logical symptoms. In patients who cannot undergo MRI, such as
patients with pacemakers, computed tomography (CT) is a rea-
sonable second choice. Lumbar puncture should be performed if
intracranial hemorrhage is suspected, even if blood is not present
on MRI or CT. Plain radiographs of the cervical spine also may
be useful in the evaluation of Arnold-Chiari malformations and
13
14 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes
Figure 6-1 Symptomatic cough headache is often
associated with structural abnormalities, such as
Arnold-Chiari malformation, and usually occurs in the
third decade of life.
Figure 6-2 Low-lying cerebellar tonsils (straight arrows) of a Chiari mal-
formation are shown deforming the medulla (curved arrow) in a sagittal
T1-weighted spin echo image. 4, Fourth ventricle. (From Stark DD, Brad-
ley WG Jr, editors: Magnetic resonance imaging, 3rd ed, St Louis, 1999,
Mosby, p 1841.)
should be included in the evaluation of all patients with cough
headache.
Screening laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and automated blood
chemistry testing should be performed if the diagnosis of cough
Herniation of
cerebellar tonsil
Spinal cord
headache is in question. Intraocular pressure should be measured
if glaucoma is suspected.
Differential Diagnosis
Cough headache is a clinical diagnosis supported by a combination
of clinical history, physical examination, radiography, MRI, and
MRA. Pain syndromes that may mimic cough headache include
benign exertional headache, ice pick headache, sexual headache,
trigeminal neuralgia involving the first division of the trigeminal
nerve, demyelinating disease, cluster headache, and chronic par-
oxysmal hemicrania. Trigeminal neuralgia involving the first divi-
sion of the trigeminal nerve is uncommon and is characterized
by trigger areas and tic-like movements. Demyelinating disease
is generally associated with other neurological findings, including
optic neuritis and other motor and sensory abnormalities. The
pain of chronic paroxysmal hemicrania and cluster headache is
associated with redness and watering of the ipsilateral eye, nasal
congestion, and rhinorrhea during the headache. These findings
are absent in all types of cough headache. Migraine headache
may or may not be associated with painless neurological find-
ings known as aura, but the patient almost always reports some
systemic symptoms, such as nausea or photophobia, not typically
associated with cough headache.
Treatment
Indomethacin is the treatment of choice for benign cough head-
ache. A starting dose of 25 mg daily for 2 days and titrating to
25 mg three times per day is a reasonable treatment approach.
This dose may be carefully increased up to 150 mg per day. Indo-
methacin must be used carefully, if at all, in patients with peptic
ulcer disease or impaired renal function. Headache specialists have
noted anecdotal reports of a positive response to cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors in the treatment of benign cough headache.
Underlying sleep disturbance and depression are best treated with
a tricyclic antidepressant compound, such as nortriptyline, which
can be started at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg.
The only uniformly effective treatment for symptomatic cough
headache is surgical decompression of the foramen magnum.
 6 Cough Headache 15

This surgery is usually done via suboccipital craniectomy. Surgi-
cal decompression prevents the low-lying cerebellar tonsils from
obstructing the flow of spinal fluid from the cranium to the spinal
subarachnoid space during a Valsalva maneuver.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose cough headache correctly may put the patient
at risk if intracranial pathology or demyelinating disease (which
may mimic the clinical presentation of cough headache) is over-
looked. MRI and MRA are indicated in all patients thought to
have cough headache. Failure to diagnose glaucoma, which also
may cause intermittent ocular pain, may result in permanent loss
of sight.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Berciano J, Poca M-A, Garca A, Sahuquillo J: Paroxysmal cervicobrachial cough-
induced pain in a patient with syringomyelia extending into spinal cord poste-
rior gray horns, J Neurol 54:678681, 2007.
Chen YY, Lirng JF, Fuh JL, etal: Primary cough headache is associated with pos-
terior fossa crowdedness: a morphometric MRI study, Cephalalgia 24:694699,
2004.
Pascual J: Primary cough headache, Curr Pain Headache Rep 9:272276, 2005.
Pascual J, Rubn Martn A, Oterino A: Headaches precipitated by cough, pro-
longed exercise or sexual activity: a prospective etiological and clinical study,
JHeadache Pain 9:259266, 2008.
Waldman SD: Arnold Chiari malformation type I. In Waldman SD, Campbell
RS, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 2728.
Waldman SD: Arnold Chiari malformation type II. In Waldman SD, Campbell
RS, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 2930.

Clinical Pearls
Any patient presenting with headaches associated with
exertion or Valsalva maneuver should be taken very seri-
ously. Although statistically most of these headaches ulti-
mately are proved to be of benign cause, a few patients have
potentially life-threatening disease. The diagnosis of cough
headache is made by obtaining a thorough, targeted head-
ache history and performing a careful physical examination.
The clinician must separate patients suffering from benign
cough headache from patients suffering from symptom-
atic cough headache. Patients with benign cough headache
should have a normal neurological examination. If the neu-
rological examination is abnormal, the diagnosis of benign
cough headache should be discarded and a careful search
for the cause of the patients neurological findings should
be undertaken.
Chapter 7
SUDDEN UNILATERAL
NEURALGIFORM CONJUNCTIVAL
INJECTION TEARING HEADACHE
ICD-9 CODE 350.1
ICD-10 CODE G50.0
The Clinical Syndrome
Sudden unilateral neuralgiform conjunctival injection tearing
(SUNCT) headache is an uncommon primary headache disorder
that is one of a group of three headache syndromes known as the
trigeminal autonomic cephalgias (Table 7-1). Whether SUNCT
headache is in fact a distinct headache entity or simply a con-
stellation of symptoms that occurs on a continuum along with
the other trigeminal autonomic cephalgias is a point of ongoing
debate among headache and pain management specialists (Figure
7-1). As with most headache syndromes, the exact cause of the
pain of SUNCT headache is unknown; however, the pathogenesis
of this uncommon cause of head and face pain is thought to be
dysfunction of the trigeminal autonomic reflex.
The pain of SUNCT headache has a rapid onset to peak, with
attacks lasting 5 seconds to 4 minutes and the frequency of attacks
ranging from 20 to 200 attacks per day. In some patients, these
attacks can be triggered by sensory stimulation of the affected
areas, such as when washing the face, brushing the teeth, and so
forth. Although in many ways similar to cluster headache (e.g.,
unilateral, periorbital and frontal location of pain, sclera injec-
tion, rapid onset to peak, short duration of attacks, and pain-free
periods between attacks), SUNCT exhibits many dissimilarities as
well. In contrast to cluster headache, alcohol consumption does
not seem to trigger attacks of SUNCT headache, and there do not
seem to be the seasonal and chronobiological patterns so charac-
teristic of cluster headache, although SUNCT headache occurs
most frequently in the morning and afternoon (Table 7-2).
Blockade of the sphenopalatine ganglion, which is so effec-
tive in the treatment of cluster headache, is of little value in the
treatment of SUNCT headache. Patients suffering from SUNCT
headache may respond to daily trigeminal nerve blocks with local
anesthetic, as described subsequently.
Signs and Symptoms
Patients with SUNCT headache present with the complaint of
severe paroxysms of ocular or periorbital pain that radiate into
the ipsilateral temple, forehead, nose, cheek, throat, and maxillary
region. This pain is associated with significant inflammation of the
affected eye (Figure 7-2). The pain is neuralgiform and severe to
16
excruciating in intensity (Table 7-3). SUNCT occurs on the right
side 70% of the time in a manner analogous to trigeminal neu-
ralgia. Like trigeminal neuralgia, rare cases of bilateral SUNCT
headache have been reported. Also like trigeminal neuralgia, the
pain of SUNCT headache rarely switches sides. SUNCT head-
ache occurs slightly more frequently in males. It can occur at any
age, with a peak incidence in the fifth decade.
Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain provides the cli-
nician with the best information regarding the cranial vault and
its contents. MRI is highly accurate and helps identify abnor-
malities that may put the patient at risk for neurological disasters
secondary to intracranial and brainstem pathological conditions,
including tumors and demyelinating disease. Magnetic resonance
angiography (MRA) also may be useful in helping identify aneu-
rysms, which may be responsible for the patients neurological
findings. In patients who cannot undergo MRI, such as patients
with pacemakers, computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable sec-
ond choice. Radionuclide bone scanning and plain radiography
are indicated if fracture or bony abnormality such as metastatic
disease is considered in the differential diagnosis.
Screening laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and automated blood
chemistry testing should be performed if the diagnosis of SUNCT
TABLE 7-1
Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalgias
Cluster headache
Chronic paroxysm hemicrania
SUNCT headache
SUNCT, Sudden unilateral neuralgiform conjunctival injection tearing.
Paroxysmal Cluster
SUNCT hemicrania headache
5 s4 min 230 min 15180 min Time
Overlap Overlap
between duration between duration
Figure 7-1 Overlap between attack duration in trigeminal autonomic
cephalalgias. SUNCT, Sudden unilateral neuralgiform conjunctival
injection tearing. (From Leone M, Bussone G: Pathophysiology of trigemi-
nal autonomic cephalalgias, Lancet Neurol 8:755774, 2009.)
 7 Sudden Unilateral Neuralgiform Conjunctival Injection Tearing Headache 17

headache is in question. Intraocular pressure should be measured involving the first division of the trigeminal nerve, demyelinating
if glaucoma is suspected. disease, primary stabbing headache, hypnic headache, and chronic
paroxysmal hemicranias, although because of the overlapping fea-
tures of all headache and facial pain syndromes, SUNCT head-
Differential Diagnosis ache can be easily mistaken for another type of headache or facial
SUNCT headache is a clinical diagnosis supported by a combina- pain (Figure 7-3; Table 7-4). Trigeminal neuralgia involving the
tion of clinical history, normal physical examination, radiography, first division of the trigeminal nerve is uncommon and is charac-
and MRI. Pain syndromes that may mimic SUNCT headache terized by trigger areas and tic-like movements. Demyelinating
include cluster headache, temporal arteritis, trigeminal neuralgia disease is generally associated with other neurological findings,
including optic neuritis and other motor and sensory abnormali-
ties. The pain of chronic paroxysmal hemicrania lasts much longer
TABLE 7-2 than the pain of SUNCT headache.
Comparison of Cluster Headache and Sudden Unilateral
Neuralgiform Conjunctival Injection Tearing Headache Treatment
Comparison Factors Cluster SUNCT
Headache Headache The treatment of SUNCT headache is analogous to the treatment
Ocular and retroorbital location Yes Yes
of trigeminal neuralgia, although the pharmacological manage-
ment of this uncommon headache disorder is disappointing. The
Unilateral Yes Yes use of anticonvulsants such as lamotrigine and gabapentin repre-
Rapid onset to peak Yes Yes sents a reasonable starting point. High-dose steroids tapered over
Severe intensity Yes Yes 10 days also have been anecdotally reported to provide relief. For
Attacks occur in paroxysms Yes Yes patients who do not respond to the previously mentioned treat-
Duration of attacks short Yes Yes
ments, daily trigeminal nerve block with a local anesthetic and
steroid is a reasonable next step.
Pain free between attacks Yes Yes Occasionally, retrogasserian injection of glycerol, balloon com-
Significant rhinorrhea during attacks Yes No pression of the Gasserian ganglion, and microvascular decompres-
Alcohol triggers attacks Yes No sion of the trigeminal nerve root are required to provide palliation
Tactile trigger areas No Yes of pain. Underlying sleep disturbance and depression associated
Seasonal pattern of attacks Yes No
with the pain of SUNCT headache are best treated with a tricy-
clic antidepressant compound, such as nortriptyline, which can be
Chronobiological pattern of attacks Yes No started at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg.
Significant eye inflammation No Yes
Responds to sphenopalatine ganglion
block
Yes No
Complications and Pitfalls
Responds to trigeminal nerve block No Yes Failure to diagnose SUNCT headache correctly may put the
SUNCT, Sudden unilateral neuralgiform conjunctival injection tearing. patient at risk if an intracranial pathological condition or demy-
elinating disease, which may mimic the clinical presentation of
SUNCT headache, is overlooked. MRI is indicated in all patients
thought to have SUNCT headache. Failure to diagnose glaucoma
or temporal arteritis, which also may cause intermittent ocular
pain, may result in permanent loss of sight.

TABLE 7-3
Descriptors of Pain Associated with Sudden Unilateral
Neuralgiform Conjunctival Injection Tearing Headache
Stabbing
Shooting
Lancinating
Shocklike
Sharp
Piercing
Pricking
Staccato-like
Figure 7-2 Patients with SUNCT headache present with severe parox-
ysms of ocular or periorbital pain that radiates into the ipsilateral temple,
forehead, nose, cheek, throat, and maxillary region that is associated
with significant inflammation of the affected eye.
18 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes

Cluster headache Figure 7-3 Pain location in the trigeminal autonomic cephalgias (TACs)
and neurovascular orofacial pain. The TACs are characterized by orbital
and periorbital pain. In paroxysmal hemicrania and hemicrania conti-
nua, large adjacent areas are affected. Migraine is largely unilateral but
may be bilateral in up to 30% of cases (this has been marked by a lighter
shaded area contralaterally). Neurovascular orofacial pain is character-
ized by its location in the lower two thirds of the face with intraoral and
perioral areas frequently involved as primary sites. Two-headed arrow
above diagram indicates the side shift that occurs in specific headache.
NVOP, Neurovascular orofacial pain. (Modified from Benoliel R, Sharav Y:
Neck The trigeminal autonomic cephalgias (TACs). In: Sharav Y, editor: Orofacial
Paroxysmal hemicrania pain and headache, Edinburgh, 2008, Elsevier, pp 225254.)

TABLE 7-4
Differential Diagnosis: Sudden Unilateral Neuralgiform
Conjunctival Injection Tearing Headache
Shoulder, Cluster headache
neck, arm Temporal arteritis
SUNCT Trigeminal neuralgia
Demyelinating disease
Primary stabbing headache
Hypnic headache
Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania

Clinical Pearls
Hemicrania continua Trigeminal nerve block with local anesthetic is especially
useful in the diagnosis and palliation of pain secondary to
SUNCT headache. Given the uncommon nature of this
headache syndrome and its overlap with the symptoms of
cluster headache and other neurological problems, includ-
ing cavernous sinus thrombosis and intracranial and retroor-
bital tumors, SUNCT headache must remain a diagnosis of
exclusion. All patients suspected to have SUNCT headache
require MRI of the brain with and without gadolinium con-
Migraine trast material and thorough ophthalmological and neurolog-
ical evaluation. Trigeminal nerve block should be performed
only by clinicians familiar with the regional anatomy.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Leone M, Bussone G: Pathophysiology of trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias, Lan-
cet Neurol 8:755774, 2009.
Levin M: Nerve blocks and nerve stimulation in headache disorders, Tech Reg
Anesth Pain Manage 13:4249, 2009.
Levin M: Nerve blocks in the treatment of headache, Neurotherapeutics 7:197
NVOP 203, 2010.
Klasser GD, Balasubramaniam R: Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias. III. Short-
lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache attacks with conjunctival injection and
tearing, Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endodontol 104: 773771.
2007.
Rozen TD: Trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias, Neurol Clin 27:537557, 2009.
Waldman SD: The trigeminal nerve. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain Review, Phila-
delphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 1517.
Waldman SD: Gasserian ganglion block. In Waldman SD, editor: Atlas of inter-
ventional pain management, ed 3, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 3238.
Waldman SD: Gasserian ganglion block: balloon compression technique. In
Waldman SD, editor: Atlas of interventional pain management, ed 3, Philadel-
phia, 2009, Saunders, pp 4347.
Waldman SD: Trigeminal nerve block: coronoid approach. In Waldman SD, edi-
tor: Atlas of interventional pain management, ed 3, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders,
pp 4750.
Williams MH, Broadley SA: SUNCT and SUNA: clinical features and medical
treatment, J Clin Neurosci 15:527534, 2008.
Chapter 8

PRIMARY THUNDERCLAP
HEADACHE

focal neurological signs often associated with acute subarachnoid

ICD-9 CODE 339.43 hemorrhage and other neurologically devastating syndromes in
which severe headache of acute onset are a prominent feature are
uniformly absent.
ICD-10 CODE G 44.53
Testing
The Clinical Syndrome Testing in patients suspected of having primary thunderclap
headache has two immediate goals: (1) to identify occult intra-
Thunderclap headache is an uncommon type of headache that cranial pathological conditions or other diseases that may mimic
may be the result of an underlying vascular or nonvascular intra- primary thunderclap headache and may require specific urgent
cranial abnormality or may represent a primary headache syn- treatment and (2) to identify the presence of subarachnoid
drome of unknown cause. Common and uncommon causes of hemorrhage. All patients with a recent onset of severe headache
thunderclap headache are listed in Table 8-1. The more benign, thought to be secondary to primary thunderclap headache should
though no less painful, primary thunderclap headache occurs over undergo emergent CT of the brain to rule out any pathological
three times more frequently than the serious secondary thunder- condition that could be responsible for the patients symptoms
clap headache. Because of the often-threatening causes of the less
common secondary thunderclap headache (e.g., subarachnoid
TABLE 8-1
hemorrhage, cerebral venous thrombosis), urgent evaluation
including computed tomography (CT) and/or magnetic resonance Main and Rare Causes of Thunderclap Headache
imaging of the brain and cerebrospinal fluid analysis are indicated Main Causes Rare Causes
in all patients suspected of having thunderclap headache.
Vascular disorders
One of the most severe headaches encountered in clinical
practice, thunderclap headache is characterized by a very rapid Subarachnoid hemorrhage Pituitary apoplexy, arteritis,
angiitis
onset to peak of less than 1 minute. The headache may last
from 1 to 10 days and, because of its intensity, almost always Intracerebral hemorrhage Unruptured vascular
malformation, aneurysm
provokes an urgent trip to the emergency department, where
the headache is invariably initially misdiagnosed as the sentinel Cerebral venous thrombosis Arterial hypertension
headache of acute subarachnoid hemorrhage or other potentially Spontaneous intracranial Cerebral segmental
catastrophic headache syndromes (Tables 8-2 and 8-3). This is hypotension vasoconstriction
not surprising in that primary thunderclap headache is virtually Cervical artery dissection
indistinguishable clinically from subarachnoid hemorrhage, one Nonvascular disorders
of the most neurologically devastating forms of cerebrovascular
Greater occipital neuralgia
accident. Thus, because of the serious consequences of misdiag-
nosis, by necessity primary thunderclap headache is a diagnosis Intermittent hydrocephalus by
colloid cyst
of exclusion.
Infections

Signs and Symptoms Meningitis, encephalitis Erve virus

Sinusitis
As mentioned earlier, primary thunderclap headache is char- Primary headache disorders
acterized by a very rapid onset to peak of less than 1 minute
without obvious inciting factors (e.g., sexual activity, cough- Migraine Cluster headache
ing, straining at stool). The patient with primary thunderclap Primary thunderclap headache Tension headache, new daily
headache is almost always convinced that he or she is having persistent headache
a stroke and often appears frightened and anxious. The head- Primary exertional headache
ache of primary thunderclap headache can be located anywhere Primary cough headache
in the head or neck. Nausea and vomiting is present approxi- Linn FHH: Primary thunderclap headache. In: Aminoff MJ, editor: Handbook of
mately 75% of the time. However, the nuchal rigidity and other clinical neurology, vol 97, New York, 2010, Elsevier, pp 473481.

19
20 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes

TABLE 8-2
Comparison of Primary Thunderclap Headache and
Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Primary Thunderclap Subarachnoid
Comparison Factors Headache Hemorrhage
Severe headache Yes Yes
Nausea and vomiting Yes Yes
Focal neurological signs No Yes
Nuchal rigidity No Yes
Photophobia No Yes A
Vertigo No Yes
Neck and back pain No Yes

TABLE 8-3
Diseases That May Mimic Primary Thunderclap
Headache
Hemorrhagic
Ischemic
Neoplasm
Infection B
Meningitis
Encephalitis
Abscess
Parasitic
Hypertensive crisis
Loss of spinal fluid
Postdural puncture headache
Spontaneous spinal fluid leak
Collagen-vascular disease
Lupus cerebritis
C
Vasculitis
Polymyositis Figure 8-1 Computed tomography scan showing subarachnoid hem-
Headache orrhage (SAH). Right middle cerebral artery aneurysm in a 58-year-old
man with SAH and intracranial hematoma (IH). A, Volume rendering
Cluster headache image from computed tomography angiography (CTA) clearly displays
Primary exertional headache the relationship of the aneurysm to bone structures, adjacent branch
vessels, and aneurysmal neck (arrow). B, Maximum intensity projec-
Primary cough headache tion (MIP) image from CTA clearly demonstrates the relationship of the
Migraine aneurysm (arrow). C, Thin-MIP image from CTA shows the relationship
of the aneurysm to IH (arrowhead), and the ruptured aneurysm has a
Ice pick headache small nipple (arrow). (From Chen W, Yang Y, Xing W, etal: Applications
Primary sexual headache of multislice CT angiography in the surgical clipping and endovascular coil-
ing of intracranial aneurysms, J Biomed Res 24:467473, 2010.)

(Figure 8-1). Modern multidetector CT scanners have a diagnos-
tic accuracy approaching 100% for subarachnoid hemorrhage if
CT angiography of the cerebral vessels is part of the scanning
protocol. Cerebral angiography may also be required if surgical
intervention is being considered and the site of bleeding cannot
be accurately identified.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and magnetic
resonance angiography may be useful if an aneurysm is not identi-
fied on CT studies and may be more accurate in the diagnosis of
arteriovenous malformations (Figure 8-2). Screening laboratory
tests, including an erythrocyte sedimentation rate, complete blood
count, coagulation studies, and automated blood chemistry,
should be performed in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage.
Blood typing and crossmatching should be considered in any
patient in whom surgery is being contemplated or who has pre-
existing anemia. Careful serial ophthalmological examination
should be performed on all patients with subarachnoid hemor-
rhage to chart the course of papilledema.
Lumbar puncture is useful in revealing the presence or absence
of blood in the spinal fluid, but its utility may be limited by the
presence of increased intracranial pressure, making lumbar punc-
ture too dangerous. Electrocardiographic abnormalities are com-
mon in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage and are thought
to be due to abnormally high levels of circulating catecholamines
 8 Primary Thunderclap Headache 21

A B C

D E F
Figure 8-2 Magnetic resonance imaging showing arteriovenous malformation. Patient with aneurysm-related false aneurysm (FA) in right parietal
region. Preangiographic T1-weighted magnetic resonance axial image (A) and T2-weighted magnetic resonance coronal image (B) show round lesion
(arrow) with flow void and mixed signal in the center and mixed signal on the periphery. Fluid attenuated inversion recovery image (C) reveals small
area of surrounding edema (arrow). D, Flow in the center of FA (arrow) on two-dimensional time-of-flight magnetic resonance angiography. E, Preem-
bolization digital subtraction angiography image. F, Residual inflow to FA (arrow) on postembolization DSA image. (From Brzozowski K, Frankowska E,
Piasecki P, etal. The use of routine imaging data in diagnosis of cerebral pseudoaneurysm prior to angiography, Eur J Radiol. 80:e401e409, 2011.)

and hypothalamic dysfunction; however, they are rarely present in
patients with primary thunderclap headache.
Differential Diagnosis
The differential diagnosis of primary thunderclap headache gen-
erally can be thought of as the diagnosis of the lesser of two evils
because most of the diseases that mimic primary thunderclap
headache are also associated with significant mortality and mor-
bidity. Table 8-3 lists diseases that may be mistaken for primary
thunderclap headache. Prominent among them is subarachnoid
hemorrhage, stroke, collagen-vascular disease, infection, neo-
plasm, hypertensive crisis, spinal fluid leaks, and a variety of more
benign causes of headache.
Treatment
Although no generally accepted treatment for primary thunder-
clap headache has been defined, the following guidelines may be
useful for the clinician when faced with a patient thought to have
this uncommon headache syndrome. First and foremost, if test
results reveal no evidence of intracranial pathology or other seri-
ous, life-threatening diseases, constant reassurance that the patient
does not have a stroke or brain tumor is indicated. In general,
drugs used to treat headaches whose primary mechanism of action
is vasoconstriction (e.g., ergots, triptans) should be avoided. Anec-
dotal reports indicate that intravenous nimodipine may help abort
acute attacks and prevent recurrent headache episodes. Gabapen-
tin also has been advocated as a reasonable treatment for primary
thunderclap headache and given its favorable risk-to-benefit ratio
may be a reasonable therapeutic option.
Complications and Pitfalls
Complications and pitfalls in the diagnosis and treatment of pri-
mary thunderclap headache generally fall into three categories.
The first category involves the failure to recognize a sentinel bleed
associated with subarachnoid hemorrhage and evaluate and treat
the patient before significant morbidity or mortality occurs. The
second category involves misdiagnosis that results in unnecessary
testing, in particular, cerebral angiography, which itself is associ-
ated with significant morbidity and rarely death. The third cat-
egory involves iatrogenic morbidity and rarely mortality from the
use of medications to treat primary thunderclap headache (e.g.,
triptans, ergots) that not only do not treat this primary headache
syndrome but also have significant side effects.
22 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes
Clinical Pearls
Primary thunderclap headache is a diagnosis of exclusion.
It is frequently misdiagnosed as the sentinel headache of
subarachnoid hemorrhage, causing the treating physician
to order urgent diagnostic testing, which is associated with
its own significant mortality and morbidity. The lack of
focal neurological findings in a patient with acute head-
ache should point the clinician toward the diagnosis of
benign primary headaches including primary thunderclap
headache, cough headache, exertional headache atypical
migraine, and headache associated with sexual activity. This
does not mean that urgent computerized scanning of the
brain and analysis of the patients cerebrospinal fluid are
not indicated.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Anderson T: Current and evolving management of subarachnoid hemorrhage,
Crit Care Nurs Clin North Am 21:529539, 2009.
Chih-Ming H, Ya-Ju L, Yang-Kai F, Shih-Pin C, Tzu-Hsien L: Isolated thunder-
clap headache during sex: orgasmic headache or reversible cerebral vasoconstric-
tion syndrome? J Clin Neurosci 17:13491351, 2010.
de Bruijn SFTM, Stam J, Kappelle LJ: CVST Study Group: Thunderclap headache as
first symptom of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, Lancet 348:16231625, 1996.
Janardhan V, Biondi A, Riina HA, etal: Vasospasm in aneurysmal subarachnoid
hemorrhage: diagnosis, prevention, and management, Neuroimaging Clin N Am
6:483496, 2006.
Linn FHH: Primary thunderclap headache. In: Aminoff MJ, editor: Handbook of
clinical neurology, vol 97, New York, 2010, Elsevier, pp 473481.
Manno EM: Subarachnoid hemorrhage, Neurol Clin 22:347366, 2004.
Newfield P: Intracranial aneurysms: vasospasm and other issues. In Atlee JL, editor:
Complications in anesthesia, ed 2, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders, pp 719723.
Palestrant D, Connolly ES: Subarachnoid hemorrhage, Neurobiol Dis 265270,
2007.
Pouration N, Dumont AS, Kassell NF: Subarachnoid hemorrhage. In Alves W
and Skolnick B, editors: Handbook of neuroemergency clinical trials, New York,
2006, Elsevier, pp 1744.
Chapter 9

HYPNIC HEADACHE

ICD-9 CODE 339.81 Testing

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain provides the best
information regarding the cranial vault and its contents. MRI is
ICD-10 CODE G44.81 highly accurate and helps identify abnormalities that may put
the patient at risk for neurological disasters secondary to intra-
cranial and brainstem pathological conditions, including tumors
The Clinical Syndrome and demyelinating disease. MRI helps identify bleeding associ-
ated with leaking intracranial aneurysms, which may mimic the
Also known as alarm clock headache, hypnic headache is a term symptoms of both types of hypnic headache. Magnetic resonance
used to describe an uncommon headache syndrome character- angiography (MRA) may be useful in identifying aneurysms
ized by its propensity to wake the person at the same time each responsible for the patients neurological symptoms. In patients
night. Always occurring during sleep, hypnic headache is of who cannot undergo MRI, such as patients with pacemakers,
short duration and rarely lasts more than 15 minutes after the computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable second choice. Lum-
patient is awakened by the pain (Figure 9-1). Research suggests bar puncture should be performed if intracranial hemorrhage is
that hypnic headache occurs most commonly during rapid eye
movement (REM) sleep. Hypnic headache occurs frequently,
with a mean incidence of at least 15 attacks per month. The
location of the headache pain is variable and the intensity of
pain described as moderate with an aching character. Unlike
as in cluster headache, which also occurs after sleep, patients
with hypnic headache exhibit no autonomic signs or symptoms.
Hypnic headache is a disease of the late fifth and sixth decades,
with a mean age of onset of 63 years. It occurs more commonly
in females.
First night: 2:34 AM

Signs and Symptoms

Hypnic headache is associated with no obvious neurological or
musculoskeletal disease. Specifically, there are no autonomic
signs or symptoms as are often seen with cluster headache.
Furthermore, no accompanying focal neurological signs or sys-
temic symptoms occur as with cluster headache and migraine
headache, although rarely nausea can occur. The age of onset
of benign hypnic headache is generally in the late fifth or sixth
decade of life. Although no specific location is seen in hypnic Second night: 2:34 AM
headache, they are bilateral in 66% of patients. When the head-
aches are unilateral, they tend to occur on the same side night
after night. What is fascinating to the treating physician and
frustrating to the patient is the fact that hypnic headache wakes
the patient from a sound sleep at almost the same time each
night. Because the onset of hypnic headache occurs later in life,
it must be considered a diagnosis of exclusion as with the other
uncommon primary headache syndromes, for example, cough
headache and thunderclap headache. The clinician must assidu-
ously search for other explanations for the patients headache Third night: 2:34 AM
symptomatology, including intracranial pathological conditions Figure 9-1 Hypnic headache is also known as alarm clock headache due
and systemic disease. to its propensity to wake the person up at the same time each night.

23
24 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes
suspected even if blood is not present on MRI or CT. Plain radio-
graphs of the cervical spine also may be useful in the evaluation
of Arnold-Chiari malformations and should be included in the
evaluation of all patients with hypnic headache.
Screening laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and automated blood
chemistry testing should be performed if the diagnosis of hypnic
headache is in question. Intraocular pressure should be measured
if glaucoma is suspected.
Differential Diagnosis
Hypnic headache is a clinical diagnosis supported by a combina-
tion of clinical history, physical examination, radiography, MRI,
and MRA. Pain syndromes that may mimic hypnic headache
include the uncommon primary headaches benign exertional
headache, ice pick headache, and sexual headache, although the
unique same-time nocturnal occurrence should help the clinician
easily identify the patients symptoms as hypnic headache. The
clinician must consider other types of headache that occur more
frequently at night, including cluster headache and headaches
associated with sleep apnea, nocturnal arterial hypertension, anal-
gesic rebound, and increased intracranial pressure (Table 9-1).
Less commonly, hypnic headache may be confused with trigem-
inal neuralgia involving the first division of the trigeminal nerve or
demyelinating disease. Trigeminal neuralgia involving the first divi-
sion of the trigeminal nerve is uncommon and is characterized by
trigger areas and tic-like movements. Demyelinating disease is gen-
erally associated with other neurological findings, including optic
neuritis and other motor and sensory abnormalities. The pain of
chronic paroxysmal hemicrania and cluster headache is associated
with redness and watering of the ipsilateral eye, nasal congestion,
and rhinorrhea during the headache. These findings are absent in
hypnic headache. Migraine headache may or may not be associ-
ated with painless neurological findings known as aura, but patients
almost always report some systemic symptoms, such as nausea or
photophobia, not typically associated with hypnic headache.
Treatment
Indomethacin and lithium carbonate are the treatments of choice
for hypnic headache, with indomethacin being slightly more
effective for the unilateral form of the syndrome. Indomethacin
at a starting dose of 25 mg daily for 2 days and titrating to 25 mg
three times per day is a reasonable treatment approach. This dose
may be carefully increased up to 150 mg per day. Indometha-
cin must be used carefully, if at all, in patients with peptic ulcer
disease or impaired renal function. Headache specialists have
noted anecdotal reports of a positive response to cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors in the treatment of benign hypnic headache.
TABLE 9-1
Nocturnal Headaches That May Be Confused with
Hypnic Headache
Cluster headache
Headache associated with sleep apnea
Headache associated with nocturnal arterial hypertension
Headache associated with increased intracranial pressure
Analgesic rebound headache
Lithium carbonate is used in the same manner as in the treatment
of cluster headache and has its basis in use in its proven efficacy in
the treatment of other diseases thought to have a chronobiological
basis, such as cluster headache and bipolar disorders. However,
the therapeutic window of lithium carbonate is small and this
drug should be used with caution. A starting dose of 300 mg at
bedtime may be increased after 48 hours to 300 mg twice per
day. If no side effects are noted after 48 hours, the dose may be
increased again to 300 mg three times per day. Anecdotal reports
exist that gabapentin and pregabalin also may be useful in decreas-
ing the frequency and intensity of attacks of hypnic headache.
Unlike with cluster headache, oxygen inhalation has been ineffec-
tive in aborting attacks of hypnic headache once the patient has
been awakened by the pain.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose hypnic headache correctly may put the
patient at risk if an intracranial pathological condition or demye-
linating disease (which may rarely mimic the clinical presentation
of hypnic headache) is overlooked. MRI and MRA are indicated
in all patients thought to have hypnic headache. Failure to diag-
nose glaucoma, which also may cause intermittent ocular pain,
may result in permanent loss of sight.
Clinical Pearls
Any patient presenting with nocturnal headaches should
be taken very seriously. Although statistically most of these
headaches ultimately are proved to be of benign cause, a
few patients have potentially life-threatening disease. The
diagnosis of hypnic headache is made by obtaining a thor-
ough, targeted headache history and performing a careful
physical examination. The clinician must separate patients
with hypnic headache from patients with headaches caused
by an intracranial pathological condition such as tumors
or systemic disease such as nocturnal arterial hyperten-
sion. Patients with hypnic headache should have a normal
neurological examination. If the neurological examina-
tion is abnormal, the diagnosis of benign hypnic headache
should be discarded and a careful search for the cause of the
patients neurological findings should be undertaken.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Alberti A: Headache and sleep, Sleep Med Rev 10:431437, 2006.
Berciano J, Poca M-A, Garca A, Sahuquillo J: Paroxysmal cervicobrachial hypnic-
induced pain in a patient with syringomyelia extending into spinal cord poste-
rior gray horns, J Neurol 254:678681, 2007.
Chen Y-Y, Lirng J-F, Fuh J-L, etal: Primary hypnic headache is associated with
posterior fossa crowdedness: a morphometric MRI study, Cephalalgia 24:
694699, 2004.
Fowler MV, Capobianco DJ, Dodick DW: Headache in the elderly, Semin Pain
Med 2:123128, 2004.
Manni R, Ghiotto N: In Aminoff M, editor: Handbook of clinical neurology, New
York, 2010, Elsevier, pp 469472.
Pascual J: Primary hypnic headache, Curr Pain Headache Rep 9:272276, 2005.
Pascual J, Gonzlez-Mandly A, Martn R, Oterino A: Headaches precipitated by
cough, prolonged exercise or sexual activity: a prospective etiological and clini-
cal study, J Headache Pain 9:259266, 2008.
Waldman SD: Arnold Chiari malformation type I. In Waldman SD, Campbell
RS, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 2728.
Waldman SD: Arnold Chiari malformation type II. In Waldman SD, Campbell
RS, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 2930.
Chapter 10

NUMMULAR HEADACHE

tomography (CT) is a reasonable second choice. Radionuclide

ICD-9 CODE 784.0 bone scanning and plain radiography are indicated if fracture or
bony abnormality, such as metastatic disease, is considered in the
differential diagnosis.
ICD-10 CODE R51 Screening laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and automated blood
chemistry should be performed if the diagnosis of nummular
The Clinical Syndrome headache is in question.

Nummular headache is an uncommon chronic headache syn-

drome characterized by constant localized pain with superim-
Differential Diagnosis
posed paroxysms of stabbing jabs and jolts of mild to moderate Nummular headache is a clinical diagnosis supported by a com-
intensity that occur in a coin-shaped localized area of the scalp. bination of clinical history, normal physical examination, radi-
Most commonly located in the parietal region, the pain of num- ography, and MRI. Pain syndromes that may mimic nummular
mular headache is unilateral and localized to a single area. It rarely headache include chronic paroxysmal hemicranias and jolts and
if ever switches sides. The scalp overlying the area may be tender jabs headache. Trigeminal neuralgia involving the first division
to touch and stimulation of the area; for example, the brushing of of the trigeminal nerve is uncommon and is characterized by trig-
hair may exacerbate the pain. Nummular headache occurs slightly ger areas and tic-like movements. Demyelinating disease is gener-
more commonly in women and is generally not seen before the ally associated with other neurological findings, including optic
fourth decade of life, but rare reports of children suffering from neuritis and other motor and sensory abnormalities. The pain of
nummular headache sporadically appear in the literature. Num- chronic paroxysmal hemicrania lasts much longer than the pain of
mular headache is also known as coin-shaped headache. nummular headache and is associated with redness and watering
of the ipsilateral eye.
Signs and Symptoms
A patient with nummular headache complains of a unifocal region
of pain and sensitivity most commonly occurring in the vertex
of the parietal region (Figure 10-1). The pain is almost always
unilateral and does not switch sides, although rare reports exist of
bilateral nummular headache. Some patients describe the pain of
nummular headache as a constant dull ache or sensitivity in the
affected area with superimposed paroxysms of lancinating pain.
The pain is chronic, although spontaneous remissions have been
rarely reported. Some patients with nummular headache exhibit
anxiety and depression because the intensity of the associated pain
leads many patients to believe they have a brain tumor.

Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain provides the best
information regarding the cranial vault and its contents. MRI is
highly accurate and helps identify abnormalities that may put the
patient at risk for neurological disasters secondary to intracranial
and brainstem pathological conditions, including tumors and
calvarial lesions (Figure 10-2). Magnetic resonance angiography
(MRA) also may be useful in helping identify aneurysms, which
may be responsible for the patients pain. In patients who can- Figure 10-1 Patients suffering from nummular headache complain of
not undergo MRI, such as patients with pacemakers, computed unifocal area of pain and scalp sensitivity.

25
26 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes

A B
Figure 10-2 Calvarial metastases. A, Abnormal enhancement (arrows) is present within the diplo on this gadolinium-enhanced T1-weighted image.
Expansion of the left parietal bone occurs, affecting the inner table more than the outer table. B, Heterogeneous hyperintensity (arrows) persists within
the calvaria on this T2-weighted image. The right parietal lesion is no longer imaged on this more superior section. (From Edelman RR, Hesselink JR,
Zlatkin MB, Crues JV III, editors: Clinical magnetic resonance imaging, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2005, Saunders.)

Treatment Clinical Pearls

Nummular headache uniformly responds to treatment with indo-
methacin. Failure to respond to indomethacin puts the diagnosis
of nummular headache in question. A starting dosage of 25 mg
daily for 2 days and titrating to 25 mg three times a day is a rea-
sonable treatment approach. This dose may be carefully increased
to 150 mg/day. Indomethacin must be used carefully, if at all,
in patients with peptic ulcer disease or impaired renal function.
Anecdotal reports of a positive response to cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors in the treatment of nummular headache have
been noted in the headache literature, as well as a successful treat-
ment with gabapentin. Underlying sleep disturbance and depres-
sion are best treated with a tricyclic antidepressant compound,
such as nortriptyline, which can be started at a single bedtime
dose of 25 mg.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose nummular headache correctly may put the
patient at risk if an intracranial pathological condition or calvarial
disease, which may mimic the clinical presentation of nummular
headache, is overlooked. MRI is indicated in all patients thought
to have nummular headache.
The diagnosis of nummular headache is made by taking a
careful, targeted headache history. Patients with nummular
headache should have a normal neurological examination.
If the results of the neurological examination are abnormal,
the diagnosis of nummular headache should be discarded
and a careful search for the cause of the patients neurologi-
cal findings should be undertaken.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Cohen GL: Nummular headache: what denomination? Headache 10:14171418,
2005.
Evens RW, Pareja JA: Nummular headache, Headache 45:164165, 2005.
Mathew NT: Indomethacin responsive headache syndromes, Headache J Head
Face Pain 21:147150, 1981.
Pareja JA, Caminero AB, Serra J, etal: Nummular headache: a coin-shaped ceph-
algia, Neurology 58:16781679, 2002.
Pareja JA, Pareja J, Barriga FJ, etal: Nummular headache: a prospective series of
14 new cases, Headache 44:611614, 2004.
Pareja JA, Pareja J, Yangela J: Nummular headache, trochleitis, supraorbital neu-
ralgia, and other epicranial headaches and neuralgias: the epicranias, J Headache
Pain 4:125131, 2003.
Chapter 11
HEADACHE ASSOCIATED
WITHTEMPORAL ARTERITIS
ICD-9 CODE 446.5
ICD-10 CODE M31.6
The Clinical Syndrome
As the name suggests, headache associated with temporal arteri-
tis is located primarily in the temples, with secondary pain often
located in the frontal and occipital regions. A disease of the sixth
decade and beyond, temporal arteritis affects whites almost exclu-
sively, and there is a 3:1 female gender predominance. Temporal
arteritis is also known as giant cell arteritis because of the find-
ing of giant multinucleated cells that infiltrate arteries containing
elastin, including the temporal, ophthalmic, and external carotid
arteries (Figure 11-1, A). Approximately half of patients with tem-
poral arteritis also have polymyalgia rheumatica.
Ophthalmic
artery
Figure 11-1 A, Temporal arteritis is a disease of the sixth decade that occurs almost exclusively in whites, with a predilection of 3:1 for women.
B, The sine qua non of temporal arteritis is jaw claudication.
Signs and Symptoms
Headache is seen in most patients with temporal arteritis. The
headache is located in the temples and is usually continuous. The
character of the headache pain associated with temporal arteritis
is aching and has a mild to moderate level of intensity. A patient
with temporal arteritis also may complain of soreness of the scalp,
making the combing of hair or resting the head on a firm pillow
extremely uncomfortable.
Although temporal headache is present in almost all patients
with temporal arteritis, the finding of intermittent jaw claudica-
tion is pathognomonic for the disease (see Figure 11-1, B). In an
elderly patient, jaw pain while chewing should be considered to
be secondary to temporal arteritis until proved otherwise. In the
presence of strong clinical suspicion that the patient has tempo-
ral arteritis, immediate treatment with corticosteroids is indicated
(see discussion of treatment). The reason immediate treatment is
needed is the potential for sudden painless deterioration of vision
in one eye secondary to ischemia of the optic nerve.
Temporal artery
External
carotid artery
27
28 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes
In addition to the signs and symptoms mentioned previously,
patients with temporal arteritis experience myalgia and morning
stiffness. Muscle weakness associated with inflammatory muscle
disease and many other collagen-vascular diseases is absent in tem-
poral arteritis, unless the patient has been treated with prolonged
doses of corticosteroids for other systemic disease, such as poly-
myalgia rheumatica. The patient also may experience nonspecific
systemic symptoms, including malaise, weight loss, night sweats,
and depression.
On physical examination, a swollen, indurated, nodular tem-
poral artery is present. Diminished pulses are often noted, as is
tenderness to palpation. Scalp tenderness to palpation is often
seen. Funduscopic examination may reveal a pale, edematous
optic disc. The patient with temporal arteritis often appears
chronically ill, depressed, or both.
Testing
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate should be obtained in all patients
suspected to have temporal arteritis. In temporal arteritis, the
erythrocyte sedimentation rate is greater than 50 mm/hr in more
than 90% of patients. Less than 2% of patients with biopsy-proved
temporal arteritis have normal erythrocyte sedimentation rates.
Ideally, the blood for the erythrocyte sedimentation rate should
be obtained before beginning corticosteroid therapy because the
initial level of elevation of this test is useful not only to help diag-
nose the disease but also as a mechanism to establish the efficacy of
therapy. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate is a nonspecific test,
and other diseases that may manifest clinically in a manner similar
to that of temporal arteritis, such as malignancy or infection, also
may markedly elevate the erythrocyte sedimentation rate. Con-
firmation of the clinical diagnosis of temporal arteritis requires a
temporal artery biopsy.
Given the simplicity and safety of temporal artery biopsy, it
probably should be performed on all patients suspected of hav-
ing temporal arteritis. The presence of an inflammatory infiltrate
with giant cells in the biopsied artery is characteristic of the dis-
ease. Edema of the intima and disruption of the internal elastic
lamina strengthen the diagnosis. A small percentage of patients
with clinical signs and symptoms strongly suggestive of tempo-
ral arteritis who also exhibit a significantly elevated erythrocyte
sedimentation rate have a negative temporal artery biopsy result.
As mentioned, in the presence of a strong clinical impression that
the patient has temporal arteritis, an immediate blood sample for
erythrocyte sedimentation rate testing should be obtained and the
patient started on corticosteroids. Complete blood cell count and
automated chemistries, including thyroid testing, are indicated in
all patients with suspected temporal arteritis to help rule out other
systemic disease that may mimic the clinical presentation of tem-
poral arteritis.
If the diagnosis of temporal arteritis is in doubt, magnetic reso-
nance imaging (MRI) of the brain provides the best information
regarding the cranial vault and its contents. MRI is highly accurate
and helps identify abnormalities that may put the patient at risk
for neurological disasters secondary to intracranial and brainstem
pathological conditions, including tumors and demyelinating dis-
ease. More important, MRI helps identify bleeding associated with
leaking intracranial aneurysms. Magnetic resonance angiography
(MRA) may be useful to help identify aneurysms responsible for
neurological symptoms. In patients who cannot undergo MRI,
such as patients with pacemakers, computed tomography (CT)
is a reasonable second choice. If intracranial hemorrhage is sus-
pected, lumbar puncture should be performed, even if blood is
not present on MRI or CT. Intraocular pressure should be mea-
sured if glaucoma is suspected.
Differential Diagnosis
Headache associated with temporal arteritis is a clinical diagnosis
supported by a combination of clinical history, abnormal find-
ings on physical examination of the temporal artery, normal radi-
ography, MRI findings, an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and a positive temporal artery biopsy result. Pain syndromes
that may mimic temporal arteritis include tension type of head-
ache, brain tumor, other forms of arteritis, trigeminal neuralgia
involving the first division of the trigeminal nerve, demyelinating
disease, migraine headache, cluster headache, and chronic parox-
ysmal hemicrania. Trigeminal neuralgia involving the first division
of the trigeminal nerve is uncommon and is characterized by trig-
ger areas and tic-like movements. Demyelinating disease is gener-
ally associated with other neurological findings, including optic
neuritis and other motor and sensory abnormalities. The pain of
chronic paroxysmal hemicrania and cluster headache is associated
with redness and watering of the ipsilateral eye, nasal congestion,
and rhinorrhea during the headache. These findings are absent in
all types of sexual headache. Migraine headache may or may not
be associated with painless neurological findings known as aura,
but the patient almost always reports some systemic symptoms,
such as nausea or photophobia, not typically associated with the
headache of temporal arteritis.
Treatment
The mainstay of treatment for temporal arteritis and its associ-
ated headaches and other systemic symptoms is the immediate use
of corticosteroids. If visual symptoms are present, an initial dose
of 80 mg of prednisone is indicated. This dose should be con-
tinued until the symptoms of temporal arteritis have completely
abated. At this point, the dose may be decreased by 5 mg/wk as
long as the symptoms remain quiescent and the erythrocyte sedi-
mentation rate does not increase. Cytoprotection of the stomach
mucosa should be considered because ulceration and gastrointes-
tinal bleeding are possible. If the patient cannot tolerate cortico-
steroids, or the maintenance dose of steroids remains so high as to
produce adverse effects, azathioprine is a reasonable next choice.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to recognize, diagnose, and treat temporal arteritis
promptly may result in the permanent loss of vision. Failure to
diagnose the headache associated with temporal arteritis correctly
may put the patient at risk if an intracranial pathological con-
dition or demyelinating disease (which may mimic the clinical
presentation of temporal arteritis) is overlooked. MRI of the brain
is indicated in all patients thought to have headaches associated
with temporal arteritis. Failure to diagnose glaucoma, which also
may cause intermittent ocular pain, may result in permanent loss
of sight.

Clinical Pearls
The diagnosis of headache associated with temporal arteritis
is made by obtaining a thorough, targeted headache his-
tory. As mentioned, jaw claudication is pathognomonic for
temporal arteritis, and its presence should be sought in all
elderly patients presenting with headache. Failure to recog-
nize, diagnose, and treat temporal arteritis promptly may
result in the permanent loss of vision.
11 Headache Associated with Temporal Arteritis 29
SUGGESTED READINGS
Hazelman BL: Polymyalgia rheumatica. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain manage-
ment, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 449454.
Paget SA, Spiera RF: Polymyalgia rheumatica and temporal arteritis. In Goldman L,
Ausiello D, editors: Cecil medicine, 23rd ed, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders, pp
11231127.
Waldman SD: Connective tissue diseases. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review,
Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 431448.
Waldman SD: Temporal arteritis. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review, Philadel-
phia, 2009, Saunders, pp 222223.
Chapter 12
POSTDURAL PUNCTURE
HEADACHE
ICD-9 CODE 349.0
ICD-10 CODE G97.1
The Clinical Syndrome
When the dura is intentionally or accidentally punctured, the
potential for headache exists. The clinical presentation of post
dural puncture headache is classic and makes the diagnosis
straightforward if considering this diagnostic category of head-
ache. The diagnosis may be obscured if the clinician is unaware
that dural puncture may have occurred or in the rare instance
when this type of headache occurs spontaneously after a bout of
sneezing or coughing. The symptoms and rare physical findings
associated with postdural puncture headache are due to low cere-
brospinal fluid pressure resulting from continued leakage of spinal
fluid out of the subarachnoid space.
The symptoms of postdural puncture headache begin almost
immediately after the patient moves from a horizontal to an
upright position. The intensity peaks within 1 or 2 minutes and
abates within several minutes of the patient again assuming the
horizontal position. The headache is pounding in character, and
its intensity is severe, with the intensity increasing the longer the
patient remains upright. The headache is almost always bilateral
and located in the frontal, temporal, and occipital regions. Nausea
and vomiting and dizziness frequently accompany the headache
pain, especially if the patient remains upright for long periods. If
cranial nerve palsy occurs, visual disturbance may occur.
Signs and Symptoms
The diagnosis of postdural puncture headache is most often
made on the basis of clinical history rather than physical findings
on examination. The neurological examination in most patients
suffering from postdural puncture headache is normal. If the
spinal fluid leak is allowed to persist, or if the patient remains in
the upright position for long periods despite the headache, cranial
nerve palsies may occur, with the sixth cranial nerve affected most
commonly. This complication may be transient, but may become
permanent, especially in patients with vulnerable nerves, such as
those with diabetes. If the neurological examination is abnormal,
other causes of headache should be considered, including sub-
arachnoid hemorrhage.
The onset of headache pain and other associated symptoms
such as nausea and vomiting that occurs when the patient moves
30
from the horizontal to the upright position and then abates when
the patient resumes a horizontal position is the sine qua non of
postdural puncture headache (Figure 12-1). A history of inten-
tional dural puncture, such as lumbar puncture, spinal anesthe-
sia, or myelography, or accidental dural puncture, such as failed
epidural block or dural injury during spinal surgery, strongly
points to the diagnosis of postdural puncture headache. As men-
tioned, a spontaneous postural headache that manifests identically
to headache after dural puncture can occur after bouts of heavy
sneezing or coughing and is thought to be due to traumatic rents
in the dura. In this setting, a diagnosis of postdural puncture
headache is one of exclusion.
Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with and without gadolinium
is highly accurate in helping confirm the diagnosis of postdural
puncture headache. Enhancement of the dura with low-lying
cerebellar tonsils invariably is present. Poor visualization of the
cisterns and subdural and epidural fluid collections also may be
identified.
No additional testing is indicated for a patient who has under-
gone dural puncture and then develops a classic postural head-
ache, unless infection or subarachnoid hemorrhage is suspected.
In this setting, lumbar puncture, complete blood cell count, and
erythrocyte sedimentation rate are indicated on an emergent basis.
Differential Diagnosis
If the clinician is aware that the patient has undergone dural
puncture, the diagnosis of postdural puncture headache is usu-
ally made. Delayed diagnosis most often occurs in settings in
which dural puncture is not suspected. Occasionally, postdural
puncture headache is misdiagnosed as migraine headache because
of the associated nausea and vomiting coupled with visual dis-
turbance. In any patient with dural puncture, infection remains
an ever-present possibility. If fever is present, immediate lumbar
puncture and blood cultures should be obtained and the patient
started on antibiotics that cover resistant strains of Staphylococ-
cus. MRI to rule out epidural abscess also should be considered
if fever is present. Subarachnoid hemorrhage may mimic post
dural puncture headache, but should be identified on MRI of
the brain.
Treatment
The mainstay of treatment of postdural puncture headache is
the administration of autologous blood into the epidural space.

Cauda equina
Dura mater
Figure 12-1 The onset of headache that occurs when the patient moves from the horizontal to the upright position is the sine qua non of postdural
puncture headache.
This technique is known as epidural blood patch and is highly
successful in the treatment of postdural puncture headache. A
volume of 12 to 18 mL of autologous blood is injected slowly
into the epidural space at the level of dural puncture under
strict aseptic precautions. The patient should remain in the
horizontal position for the next 12 to 24 hours. Relief occurs
within 2 to 3 hours in more than 90% of patients. Approxi-
mately 10% of patients experience temporary relief and then a
recurrence of symptoms when assuming the upright position.
These patients should undergo a second epidural blood patch
within 24 hours.
If the patient has experienced significant nausea and vomiting,
antiemetics combined with intravenous fluids help speed recov-
ery. Some clinicians have advocated the use of alcoholic beverages
to suppress the secretion of antidiuretic hormone and increase
cerebrospinal fluid production. Caffeine also has been reported to
be helpful in treating the headache pain.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to recognize, diagnose, and treat postdural puncture
headache promptly may result in considerable pain and suffering
for the patient. If the low cerebrospinal fluid pressure is allowed
to persist, cranial nerve deficits may occur. In most instances, the
cranial nerve deficits are temporary, but in rare instances, these
deficits may become permanent, especially in patients with vul-
nerable nerves, such as those with diabetes. MRI of the brain is
indicated in all patients thought to be suffering from headaches
12 PostDural Puncture Headache 31
associated with dural puncture. Failure to diagnose central ner-
vous system infection correctly can result in significant mortality
and morbidity.
Clinical Pearls
The diagnosis of postdural puncture headache is made by
obtaining a thorough, targeted headache history and per-
forming a careful physical examination. The postural nature
is pathognomonic for postdural puncture headache, and
its presence should lead the clinician to strongly consider
the diagnosis of postdural puncture headache. The inci-
dence of postdural puncture headache after lumbar punc-
ture, myelography, or spinal anesthesia can be decreased
by using needles with a smaller diameter and placing the
needle bevel parallel to the dural fibers. Special noncutting
needles may decrease further the incidence of postdural
puncture headache.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Ghaleb A, Pablo C, Mandoff VL, Albataniah J, Candido K: Postdural puncture
cephalgia, Semin Pain Med 2:215219, 2004.
Harrington BE: Postdural puncture headache, Adv Anesth 28:121146, 2010.
Neal JM: Update on postdural puncture headache, Tech Reg Anesth Pain Manage
2:202210, 1998.
Waldman SD, Feldstein GS, Allen ML: Cervical epidural blood patch for treatment
of cervical dural puncture headache, Anesth Rev 14:2325, 1987.
Chapter 13

RAMSAY HUNT SYNDROME

of the geniculate ganglion. This pain may be accompanied by flu-

ICD-9 CODE 053.11 like symptoms and generally progresses from a dull, aching sensa-
tion to dysesthetic neuritic pain in the distribution of the geniculate
ganglion. In most patients, the pain of acute herpes zoster precedes
ICD-10 CODE B02.21 the eruption of rash by 3 to 7 days, often leading to erroneous diag-
nosis (see discussion of differential diagnosis). The clinical diag-
nosis of shingles is readily made, however, in most patients when
the characteristic rash appears. Similar to chickenpox, the rash of
The Clinical Syndrome herpes zoster appears in crops of macular lesions, which rapidly
Ramsay Hunt syndrome is the eponym given to acute herpes zos- progress to papules and then to vesicles (Figure 13-1).
ter involvement of the geniculate ganglion. The syndrome results As the disease progresses, the vesicles coalesce, and crusting
from reactivation of the varicella-zoster virus (VZV) within the occurs. The area affected by the disease can be extremely painful,
geniculate ganglion. VZV is also the causative agent of chicken- and the pain tends to be exacerbated by any movement or contact
pox (varicella). Primary infection in the nonimmune host mani- (e.g., with clothing or sheets). As healing occurs, the crusts fall
fests itself clinically as the childhood disease chickenpox. It is away, leaving pink scars in the distribution of the rash that gradu-
postulated that during the course of primary infection with VZV, ally become hypopigmented and atrophic.
the virus invades the geniculate ganglia. The virus remains dor-
mant in the ganglia, producing no clinically evident disease. In
some individuals, the dormant virus reactivates and travels along
the pathways of the geniculate ganglion, producing the pain and
skin lesions characteristic of shingles. The reason that reactivation
occurs in only some individuals is not fully understood, but it is
theorized that a decrease in cell-mediated immunity may play an
important role in the evolution of this disease by allowing the
virus to multiply in the ganglia and spread to the corresponding
sensory nerves, producing clinical disease. Patients with malignan-
cies (particularly lymphoma), patients who are receiving immu-
nosuppressive therapy (chemotherapy, steroids, radiation), and
patients with chronic diseases are generally debilitated and much
more likely than healthy individuals to develop acute herpes zos-
ter. These patients all have in common a decreased cell-mediated
immune response, which may be the reason for their propensity
to develop shingles. This decreased immune response may also
explain why the incidence of shingles increases dramatically in
Vesicles in ear
individuals older than 60 years and is uncommon in individuals
younger than age 20.
The first division of the trigeminal nerve is the second most
common site for the development of acute herpes zoster after the
thoracic dermatomes. Rarely, the virus may attack the geniculate
ganglion, resulting in facial pain, hearing loss, vertigo, vesicles in
the ear, and pain. This constellation of symptoms is called Ram-
say Hunt syndrome and must be distinguished from acute herpes
zoster involving the first division of the trigeminal nerve.

Signs and Symptoms

As viral reactivation occurs, ganglionitis and peripheral neuritis Figure 13-1 Ramsay Hunt syndrome results from infection of the genic-
cause pain, which is generally localized to the segmental distribution ulate ganglion by the varicella-zoster virus.

32

In most patients, the hyperesthesia and pain generally resolve as
the skin lesions heal. In some patients, pain and neurological find-
ings may persist beyond lesion healing (Figure 13-2). This most
common and feared complication of acute herpes zoster is posther-
petic neuralgia. Elderly patients are affected at a higher rate than
the general population suffering from acute herpes zoster. The
symptoms of postherpetic neuralgia can vary from a mild, self-
limited problem to a debilitating, constantly burning pain exacer-
bated by light touch, movement, anxiety, or temperature change.
This unremitting pain may be so severe that it completely devas-
tates the patients life, even leading ultimately to suicide. To avoid
these disastrous sequelae to a usually benign self-limited disease,
the clinician must use all possible therapeutic efforts for the patient
suffering from acute herpes zoster in the geniculate ganglion.
Testing
Although in most instances the diagnosis of acute herpes zos-
ter involving the geniculate ganglion is easily made on clini-
cal grounds, confirmatory testing is occasionally required. Such
testing may be desirable in patients with other skin lesions that
confuse the clinical picture, such as patients with acquired immu-
nodeficiency syndrome who have Kaposis sarcoma. In such
patients, the diagnosis of acute herpes zoster may be confirmed by
obtaining a Tzanck smear from the base of a fresh vesicle, which
reveals multinucleated giant cells and eosinophilic inclusions. To
differentiate acute herpes zoster from localized herpes simplex
infection, the clinician can obtain fluid from a fresh vesicle and
submit it for immunofluorescent testing.
Figure 13-2 Neurological examination revealed a flattened right nasola-
bial fold (black arrows) and ptosis of the right angle of the mouth (white
arrow). (From Taguchi T, Ueda S, Kudo T, etal: Ramsay-Hunt syndrome,
J Infect 62:180181, 2011.)
13 Ramsay Hunt Syndrome 33
Differential Diagnosis
Careful initial evaluation, including a thorough history and physi-
cal examination, is indicated in all patients suffering from acute
herpes zoster involving the geniculate ganglion to rule out occult
malignancy or systemic disease that may be responsible for the
patients immunocompromised state and allow early recognition
of changes in clinical status that may presage the development of
complications, including myelitis or dissemination of the disease.
Other causes of pain in the distribution of the geniculate ganglion
include trigeminal neuralgia, sinus disease, glaucoma, retroorbital
tumors, inflammatory diseases such as Tolosa-Hunt syndrome,
and intracranial pathology, including tumors.
Treatment
The therapeutic challenge of a patient with acute herpes zoster
involving the geniculate ganglion is twofold: (1) to provide imme-
diate relief of acute pain and symptoms and (2) to prevent com-
plications, including postherpetic neuralgia. It is the consensus
of most pain specialists that the earlier in the natural course of
the disease that treatment is initiated, the less likely it is that the
patient will develop postherpetic neuralgia. Because older patients
are at highest risk for developing postherpetic neuralgia, early
aggressive treatment of these patients is mandatory.
Nerve Blocks
Sympathetic neural blockade with local anesthetics and steroids
via stellate ganglion block seems to be the treatment of choice to
relieve the symptoms of acute herpes zoster involving the genicu-
late ganglion and to prevent the occurrence of postherpetic neu-
ralgia. Sympathetic nerve block is thought to achieve these goals
by blocking the profound sympathetic stimulation that results
from the viral inflammation of the nerve and geniculate ganglion.
If untreated, this sympathetic hyperactivity can cause ischemia
secondary to decreased blood flow of the intraneural capillary bed.
If this ischemia is allowed to persist, endoneural edema forms,
increasing endoneural pressure and causing a further reduction of
endoneural blood flow with irreversible nerve damage.
As vesicular crusting occurs, the addition of steroids to the
local anesthetic may decrease neural scarring and decrease further
the incidence of postherpetic neuralgia. These sympathetic blocks
should be continued aggressively until the patient is pain free and
should be reimplemented at the return of pain. Failure to use sym-
pathetic neural blockade immediately and aggressively, especially
in elderly patients, may sentence the patient to a lifetime of suffer-
ing from postherpetic neuralgia. Occasionally, some patients suf-
fering from acute herpes zoster involving the geniculate ganglion
may not experience pain relief from stellate ganglion block, but
they do respond to blockade of the trigeminal nerve.
Opioid Analgesics
Opioid analgesics may be useful in relieving the aching pain
that is often present during the acute stages of herpes zoster as
sympathetic nerve blocks are being implemented. They are less
effective in the relief of the neuritic pain that is often present.
Careful administration of potent, long-acting opioid analgesics
(e.g., oral morphine elixir or methadone) on a time-contingent
rather than as-needed basis may represent a beneficial adjunct to
the pain relief provided by sympathetic neural blockade. Because
many patients with acute herpes zoster are elderly or may have
severe multisystem disease, close monitoring for the potential
34 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes
side effects of potent opioid analgesics (e.g., confusion or diz-
ziness, which may cause a patient to fall) is warranted. Daily
dietary fiber supplementation and Milk of Magnesia should be
started, along with opioid analgesics to prevent the side effect of
constipation.
Adjuvant Analgesics
The anticonvulsant gabapentin represents a first-line treatment in
the palliation of neuritic pain of acute herpes zoster involving the
geniculate ganglion. Studies suggest that gabapentin also may help
prevent the development of postherpetic neuralgia. Treatment with
gabapentin should begin early in the course of the disease, and this
drug may be used concurrently with neural blockade, opioid anal-
gesics, and other adjuvant analgesics, including the antidepressant
compounds if care is taken to avoid central nervous system side
effects. Gabapentin is started at a bedtime dose of 300 mg and is
titrated in 300-mg increments to a maximum dose of 3600 mg
given in divided doses as side effects allow. Carbamazepine should
be considered in patients with severe neuritic pain who have failed
to respond to nerve blocks and gabapentin. If this drug is used, rigid
monitoring for hematological parameters is indicated, especially in
patients receiving chemotherapy or radiation therapy. Phenytoin
also may be beneficial to treat neuritic pain, but it should not be
used in patients with lymphoma because the drug may induce a
pseudolymphoma state that is difficult to distinguish from the
actual lymphoma itself.
Antidepressants also may be useful adjuncts in the initial treat-
ment of patients with acute herpes zoster. On an acute basis, these
drugs help alleviate the significant sleep disturbance that is com-
monly seen with acute herpes zoster. In addition, antidepressants
may be valuable in helping ameliorate the neuritic component of
the pain, which is treated less effectively with opioid analgesics.
After several weeks of treatment, the antidepressants may exert
a mood-elevating effect that may be desirable in some patients.
Patients must be observed closely for central nervous system side
effects. These drugs may cause urinary retention and constipation
that may be mistakenly attributed to herpes zoster myelitis.
Antiviral Agents
A few antiviral agents, including famciclovir and acyclovir, have
been shown to shorten the course of, and may help prevent the
development of, acute herpes zoster. They are probably useful
in attenuating the disease in patients with immunosuppression.
These antiviral agents can be used in conjunction with the treat-
ment modalities mentioned earlier. Careful monitoring for side
effects is mandatory with these drugs.
Adjunctive Treatments
The application of ice packs to the lesions of acute herpes zoster
may provide relief in some patients. Application of heat increases
pain in most patients, presumably because of increased conduc-
tion of small fibers, but it is beneficial occasionally and may be
worth trying if application of cold is ineffective. Transcutaneous
electrical nerve stimulation and vibration also may be effective in
a few patients. The favorable risk-to-benefit ratio of all of these
modalities makes them reasonable alternatives for patients who
cannot or will not undergo sympathetic neural blockade and do
not tolerate pharmacological interventions.
Topical application of aluminium sulfate as a tepid soak pro-
vides excellent drying of the crusting and weeping lesions of acute
herpes zoster, and most patients find these soaks soothing. Zinc
oxide ointment also may be used as a protective agent, especially
during the healing phase when temperature sensitivity is a prob-
lem. Disposable diapers can be used as an absorbent padding to
protect healing lesions from contact with clothing and sheets.
Complications and Pitfalls
In most patients, acute herpes zoster involving the geniculate gan-
glion is a self-limited disease. In elderly and immunosuppressed
patients, complications may occur, however. Cutaneous and vis-
ceral dissemination may range from a mild rash resembling chick-
enpox to an overwhelming, life-threatening infection in patients
already suffering from severe multisystem disease. Myelitis may
cause bowel, bladder, and lower extremity paresis. Ocular compli-
cations from trigeminal nerve involvement may range from severe
photophobia to keratitis with loss of sight.
Clinical Pearls
Because the pain of herpes zoster usually precedes the erup-
tion of skin lesions by 5 to 7 days, erroneous diagnosis of
other painful conditions (e.g., trigeminal neuralgia, glau-
coma) may be made. In this setting, the astute clinician
advises the patient to call immediately if a rash appears
because the diagnosis of acute herpes zoster is a possibility.
Some pain specialists believe that in a few immunocom-
petent patients, when reactivation of virus occurs, a rapid
immune response may attenuate the natural course of the
disease and the characteristic rash of acute herpes zoster may
not appear. This pain in the distribution of the geniculate
ganglion without associated rash is termed zoster sine herpete
and is, by necessity, a diagnosis of exclusion. Other causes
of head pain must be ruled out first before invoking this
diagnosis. Because of the potential for hearing loss in Ram-
say Hunt syndrome, patients should be warned of this pos-
sibility to avoid erroneously blaming this complication on
a therapeutic intervention, such as stellate ganglion block.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bhagra A, Stead LG: Ramsay Hunt syndrome: a rare entity, Ann Emerg Med
47:579, 2006.
Gantz BJ, Redleaf MI, Perry BP, Gubbels SP: Management of Bells palsy and
Ramsay Hunt syndrome. In Brackmann DE, etal: Otologic surgery, ed 3, Phila-
delphia, 2010, Saunders, pp 335346.
Persson A, Bergstrm T, Lindh M, Namvar L, Studahl M: Varicella-zoster virus
CNS disease: viral load, clinical manifestations and sequels, J Clin Virol 46:249
253, 2009.
Taguchi T, Ueda S, Kudo T, etal: Ramsay-Hunt syndrome, J Infect 62:180181,
2011.
Ulusoy , zkan G, Bekta D, etal: Ramsay Hunt syndrome in renal transplanta-
tion recipient: a case report, Transplant Proc 42:19861988, 2010.
Chapter 14
EAGLE SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 756.71
ICD-10 CODE M62.89
The Clinical Syndrome
An uncommon cause of facial pain, Eagle syndrome (also known
as stylohyoid syndrome) is caused by pressure on the internal
carotid artery and surrounding structures, including branches of
the glossopharyngeal nerve, by an abnormally elongated styloid
process, a calcified stylohyoid ligament, or both. The pain of Eagle
syndrome is sharp and stabbing and occurs with movement of the
mandible or turning of the neck. The pain starts below the angle
of the mandible and radiates into the tonsillar fossa, temporo-
mandibular joint, and base of the tongue. A trigger point may be
present in the tonsillar fossa. Injection of the attachment of the
stylohyoid ligament to the styloid process with local anesthetic
and steroid serves as a diagnostic maneuver and a therapeutic
maneuver.
Signs and Symptoms
Eagle syndrome is most often a diagnosis of exclusion. Patients
suffering from Eagle syndrome present with a history of sud-
den, sharp neuritic pain that begins below the angle of the
mandible and radiates into the tonsillar fossa, temporoman-
dibular joint, and base of the tongue. The pain is triggered by
swallowing, movement of the mandible, or turning of the neck
(Figure 14-1). The intensity of pain is moderate to severe and
unpleasant. The neurological examination is normal. The pain
of Eagle syndrome may be triggered by palpation of the tonsil-
lar fossa.
Testing
In patients with Eagle syndrome, radiographs and computed
tomography (CT) scans of the region of the styloid process show
an elongated styloid process that is often associated with a calci-
fied stylohyoid ligament. The diagnosis of Eagle syndrome may be
strengthened by a diagnostic injection of the attachment of the sty-
lohyoid ligament to the styloid process with local anesthetic. Pain
relief after this injection suggests a local cause for the pain rather
than a more distant cause, such as glossopharyngeal neuralgia or
retropharyngeal tumor (Figure 14-2).
Differential Diagnosis
Eagle syndrome can be distinguished from glossopharyngeal neu-
ralgia because the pain of glossopharyngeal neuralgia is charac-
terized by paroxysms of shocklike pain in a manner analogous
to trigeminal neuralgia, rather than the sharp, shooting pain on
movement that is associated with Eagle syndrome. Because glos-
sopharyngeal neuralgia may be associated with serious cardiac
bradyarrhythmias and syncope, the clinician must distinguish the
two syndromes.
The clinician should always evaluate a patient with pain in this
anatomical region for occult malignancy. Tumors of the larynx,
hypopharynx, and anterior triangle of the neck may manifest with
clinical symptoms identical to those of Eagle syndrome. Because
of the low incidence of Eagle syndrome relative to pain secondary
to malignancy in this anatomical region, Eagle syndrome must be
considered a diagnosis of exclusion.
Treatment
Many patients with Eagle syndrome respond to a series of therapeu-
tic injections of the attachment of the stylohyoid ligament to the
styloid process with local anesthetic and steroid. To perform this
procedure, an imaginary line is visualized running from the mas-
toid process to the angle of the mandible (Figure 14-3). The styloid
process should lie just below the midpoint of this line. The skin
is prepared with antiseptic solution. A 22-gauge, 1-inch needle
Temporo-
mandibular joint
Styloid process
Glossopharyngeal nerve
Tongue
Styloid ligament
Mandible
Internal carotid
Figure 14-1 The pain of Eagle syndrome is triggered by swallowing,
movement of the mandible, or turning of the neck.
35
36 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes
Figure 14-2 Tumor (T) of the piriform sinus. The lesion protrudes
through the thyroarytenoid gap between thyroid cartilage and aryte-
noid (arrow). The tumor invades the paraglottic space (arrowhead) of
the supraglottic larynx. Compare with the fat in the paraglottic space on
the normal side. C, Carotid artery. (From Haaga JR, Lanzieri CF, Gilkeson
RC, editors: CT and MR imaging of the whole body, 4th ed, Philadelphia,
2003, Mosby, p 611.)
attached to a 14-mL syringe is advanced at this midpoint location
in a plane perpendicular to the skin. The styloid process should be
encountered within 3 cm. After contact is made, the needle is with-
drawn slightly out of the periosteum or substance of the calcified liga-
ment. After careful aspiration reveals no blood or cerebrospinal fluid,
5 mL of 0.5% preservative-free lidocaine combined with 80 mg
of methylprednisolone is injected in incremental doses. Subsequent
daily nerve blocks are performed in a similar manner, substituting
40 mg of methylprednisolone for the initial 80-mg dose.
The sharp, shooting pain associated with Eagle syndrome also
may be treated with gabapentin. Gabapentin is started at a single
nighttime dose of 300 mg and titrated by 300-mg increments
every 2 days in divided doses until pain relief is achieved or a total
daily dose of 3600 mg is reached. Alternatively, carbamazepine or
phenytoin may be tried.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complications associated with this injection technique
are related to trauma to the internal jugular and carotid artery.
Hematoma formation and intravascular injection of local anes-
thetic with subsequent toxicity are common complications of this
technique. Inadvertent blockade of the motor portion of the glos-
sopharyngeal nerve can result in dysphagia secondary to weakness
of the stylopharyngeus muscle. If the vagus nerve is inadvertently
Figure 14-3 An imaginary line from the mastoid process to the angle
of the mandible is an aid in needle placement for injection in a patient
with Eagle syndrome.
blocked, dysphonia secondary to paralysis of the ipsilateral vocal
cord may occur. A reflex tachycardia secondary to vagal nerve
block also is observed in some patients. Inadvertent block of the
hypoglossal and spinal accessory nerves during glossopharyngeal
nerve block results in weakness of the tongue and trapezius muscle.
Clinical Pearls
Eagle syndrome is an uncommon cause of facial pain.
Because of the low incidence of Eagle syndrome relative
to pain secondary to malignancy in this anatomical region,
Eagle syndrome must be considered a diagnosis of exclu-
sion. The clinician should always evaluate a patient with
pain in this anatomical region for occult malignancy.
Tumors of the larynx, hypopharynx, and anterior triangle
of the neck may manifest with clinical symptoms identical
to those of Eagle syndrome.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Blythe JN, Matthews NS, Connor S: Eagles syndrome after fracture of the elon-
gated styloid process, Br J Oral Maxillofac Surg 47:233235, 2009.
Callahan B, Kang J, Dudekula A, Eusterman V, Rabb CH: New Eagles syndrome
variant complicating management of intracranial pressure after traumatic brain
injury, Injury Extra 41:4144, 2010.
Johnson GM, Rosdy NM, Horton SJ: Manual therapy assessment findings in patients
diagnosed with Eagles syndrome: a case series, Man Ther 16:199202, 2011.
Klcha A, Hafian H, Devauchelle B, Lefvre B: A report of post-traumatic Eagles
syndrome, Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 37:970972, 2008.
Chapter 15

ATYPICAL ODONTALGIA

ICD-9 CODE 525.9 to identify a tumor or bony abnormality. Magnetic resonance

ICD-10 CODE K08.9
The Clinical Syndrome
Atypical odontalgia (also known as persistent orodental pain syn-
drome) describes a heterogeneous group of pain syndromes that
share in common the fact that the odontalgia cannot be classified
as classic trigeminal neuralgia. The pain is continuous but may
vary in intensity. It is almost always unilateral and may be char-
acterized as aching or cramping rather than the shocklike neuritic
pain typical of trigeminal neuralgia. The vast majority of patients
suffering from atypical odontalgia are female. Atypical odontalgia
can occur at any age, but has a peak incidence in the fifth decade
of life. The pain is felt in a single tooth or its surrounding area
and occurs most commonly in the maxillary region (Figure 15-1).
Headache may occur with atypical odontalgia and is clinically
indistinguishable from the tension type of headache. Stress is often
the precipitating, or an exacerbating, factor in the development
of atypical odontalgia. Depression and sleep disturbance are also
present in a significant number of patients. A history of dental or
facial trauma, including dental extractions, root canal treatment,
infection, or tumor of the head and neck may be elicited in some
patients with atypical odontalgia, but in many cases no precipitat-
ing event can be identified.
imaging (MRI) of the brain and sinuses can help the clinician
identify intracranial pathology such as tumor, sinus disease, and
infection (Figure 15-2). A complete blood count, erythrocyte sed-
imentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing are indicated if
inflammatory arthritis or temporal arteritis is suspected. Injection
of the painful tooth with small amounts of local anesthetic can
serve as a diagnostic maneuver to determine whether the tooth or
adjacent structures are the source of the patients pain. Differen-
tial neural blockade can help distinguish primary tooth pathology
from atypical odontalgia and reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the
face (Table 15-2). Complete relief of pain after injection of the
painful tooth with local anesthetic suggests a local pathological
process, whereas incomplete pain relief suggests the pathological
process is more central. Thus the diagnosis of atypical odontalgia
is a strong possibility of underlying pathological condition of the
trigeminal nerve, adjacent bone, brain, or brainstem. Complete
relief of pain after ipsilateral stellate ganglion block is highly sug-
gestive of reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the face. Psychological

Signs and Symptoms

Table 15-1 compares atypical odontalgia with trigeminal neuralgia.
Unlike trigeminal neuralgia, which is characterized by sudden par-
oxysms of neuritic shocklike pain, atypical odontalgia is constant
and has a dull, aching quality but may vary in intensity. The pain of
trigeminal neuralgia is almost always within the distribution of one
division of the trigeminal nerve, whereas atypical odontalgia invari-
ably involves just a single tooth, its surrounding gingival tissue, or
underlying bone. The trigger areas characteristic of trigeminal neu-
ralgia are absent in patients with atypical odontalgia. Most impor-
tant, no findings of pathological condition of the painful tooth or
adjacent gingival tissues are seen on physical examination.

Testing
Radiographs of the head are usually within normal limits in Figure 15-1 Patients with atypical odontalgia often rub the affected
patients suffering from atypical odontalgia, but they may be useful area; those with trigeminal neuralgia do not.

37
38 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes

TABLE 15-1 evaluation should be considered if significant coexistent depres-

sion or sleep disturbance is present.
Comparison of Trigeminal Neuralgia and Atypical
Odontalgia
Atypical
Differential Diagnosis
Pain Factor Trigeminal Neuralgia Odontalgia The clinical symptoms of atypical odontalgia may be confused
Temporal pattern Sudden and Constant with pain of dental or sinus origin or may be erroneously char-
of pain intermittent acterized as trigeminal neuralgia. Careful questioning and physi-
Character of pain Shocklike and neuritic Dull, aching, cal examination usually allow the clinician to distinguish these
cramping overlapping pain syndromes. Tumors of the zygoma, maxilla, and
Pain-free interval Usual Rare mandible, as well as posterior fossa and retropharyngeal tumors,
Distribution One division of the One tooth and may produce ill-defined pain that is attributed to atypical odontal-
of pain trigeminal nerve surrounding area gia. These potentially life-threatening diseases must be excluded in
Trigger areas Present Uncommon any patient with odontalgia (see Figure 15-2). Reflex sympathetic
Underlying Rare Common
dystrophy of the face should also be considered in any patient with
psychopathology ill-defined odontalgia after trauma, infection, or central nervous

A B

C D
Figure 15-2 Computed tomography (CT) scan and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the lesion. CT shows a well-defined expansile lesion with
thin cortical margin and high-density area (A). MRI of the lesion revealed the well-circumscribed lesion (B) to be homogeneously and relatively
hypointense on T2-weighted imaging (C). The lesion was weakly enhanced by gadolinium (D). (From Nozaki S, Yamazaki M, Koyama T, etal: Primary
extracranial meningioma of the maxillary sinus presenting as buccal swelling, Asian J Oral Maxillofac Surg 23:134137, 2011.)

TABLE 15-2
Differential Nerve Block in the Diagnosis of Atypical
Odontalgia
1. Record the patients pain level on a visual analogue scale of 0 to 10.
2. Isolate the painful area with cotton rolls and cheek retractor.
3. Dry the painful area with gauze.
4. Apply 20% topical benzocaine gel to the painful area.
5. Record the patients pain level on a visual analogue scale of
0 to 10 every 3 minutes for 15 minutes.
6. If the patient experiences incomplete pain relief, perform local-
ized block of the painful tooth with 1% lidocaine 1.5 mL.
7. Record the patients pain level on a visual analogue scale of
0 to 10 every 3 minutes for 15 minutes.
8. If the patient experiences incomplete relief, perform ipsilateral
stellate ganglion block with 0.5% preservative-free lidocaine
7 to 10 mL.
9. Record the patients pain level on a visual analogue scale of
0 to 10 every 3 minutes for 15 minutes.
10. Repeat this sequence on a separate visit to confirm the results.
system injury. As noted, atypical odontalgia is dull and aching,
whereas reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the face causes burning
pain and significant allodynia is often present. Stellate ganglion
block may help distinguish these two pain syndromes; the pain of
reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the face readily responds to this
sympathetic nerve block, whereas atypical odontalgia does not.
Atypical odontalgia must also be distinguished from the pain of
jaw claudication associated with temporal arteritis.
Treatment
The mainstay of therapy is a combination of drug treatment with
tricyclic antidepressants and physical modalities such as oral orthotic
devices and physical therapy. Trigeminal nerve block and intraartic-
ular injection of the temporomandibular joint with small amounts
of local anesthetic and steroid also may be of value. Antidepressants
such as nortriptyline at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg can help
alleviate sleep disturbance and treat any underlying myofascial pain
syndrome. Orthotic devices help the patient avoid jaw clenching
and bruxism, which may exacerbate the clinical syndrome. Man-
agement of underlying depression and anxiety is also mandatory.
15 Atypical Odontalgia 39
Complications and Pitfalls
The major pitfall in caring for patients thought to have atypi-
cal odontalgia is failure to diagnose underlying pathology that
may be responsible for the patients pain. Atypical odontalgia is
essentially a diagnosis of exclusion. If trigeminal nerve block or
intraarticular injection of the temporomandibular joint is being
considered as part of the treatment plan, it must be remembered
that the regions vascularity and proximity to major blood vessels
can lead to an increased incidence of postblock ecchymosis and
hematoma formation, and the patient should be warned of this
potential complication.
Clinical Pearls
Atypical odontalgia requires careful evaluation to design
an appropriate treatment plan. Infection and inflammatory
causes, including collagen-vascular diseases, must be ruled
out. Stress and anxiety often accompany atypical odontal-
gia, and these factors must be addressed and treated. The
myofascial pain component of atypical odontalgia is best
treated with tricyclic antidepressants such as amitriptyline.
Dental malocclusion and nighttime bruxism should be
treated with an acrylic bite appliance. Opioid analgesics and
benzodiazepines should be avoided in patients with atypical
odontalgia.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Clark GT: Persistent orodental pain, atypical odontalgia, and phantom tooth pain:
when are they neuropathic disorders? J Calif Dent Assoc 34:599609, 2006.
Marbach JJ: Is phantom tooth pain a deafferentation (neuropathic) pain syn-
drome? Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pahtol 75:95-105, 1993.
Marbach JJ: Orofacial phantom pain: theory and phenomenology, JADA
127:221229, 1996.
Marbach JJ, Raphael KG: Phantom tooth pain: a new look at an old dilemma,
Pain Med 1:6877, 2000.
Matwychuk MJ: Diagnostic challenges of neuropathic tooth pain, J Can Dent
Assoc 70:542546, 2004.
McQuay HJ, Tramr M, Nye BA, etal: A systematic review of antidepressants in
neuropathic pain, Pain 68:217227, 1996.
Melis M, Lobo SL, Ceneviz C, etal: Atypical odontalgia: a review of the litera-
ture, Headache 43:10601074, 2003.
Pertes RA, Bailey DR, Milone AS: Atypical odontalgia: a nondental toothache,
J N J Dent Assoc 66:2931, 33, 1995.
Chapter 16

BURNING MOUTH SYNDROME

ICD-9 CODE 529.6 Testing

ICD-10 CODE K14.6
The Clinical Syndrome
Burning mouth syndrome is an infrequent but serious cause
of oral pain. Although mouth pain has many causes with read-
ily demonstrable pathological conditions, such as herpes simplex
infections and aphthous ulcers, burning mouth syndrome is the
diagnosis given to patients who complain of mouth and tongue
pain in the presence of a completely normal physical examination.
Therefore burning mouth syndrome is by definition a diagnosis of
exclusion. Included in the diagnosis of burning mouth syndrome
are the clinical syndromes of burning tongue syndrome, glossal-
gia, glossodynia, stomatodynia, and oral dysesthesia syndrome.
Affecting females 7 to 8 times more frequently than men, burning
mouth syndrome is a disease of the fifth decade and beyond. The
pain of burning mouth syndrome is characterized as a burning,
hot, or scalded sensation of the mouth and tongue that may be
accompanied by tingling. Most commonly the anterior two thirds
of the tongue, palate, gingiva of the upper and lower alveolar
region, and lips are involved, with the sublingual region less com-
monly affected. The exact pathophysiology responsible for burning
mouth syndrome remains elusive, and the putative causes in most
cases are multifactorial. Underlying nutritional disorders, psychiat-
ric illness, allergic stomatitis, xerostomia, diabetes mellitus, meno-
pause, and other endocrinopathies are often identified in patients
with burning mouth syndrome, even though the oral examination
is completely negative.
No specific test exists for burning mouth syndrome, and a presump-
tive diagnosis can be made only if (1) the clinical examination is nor-
mal and (2) a workup for all underlying pathological findings fails
to identify a specific cause for the patients pain symptomatology. A
suggested workup based on the experience at the Mayo Clinic is out-
lined in Table 16-1 and should always include laboratory testing for
vitamin deficiencies and diabetes and a culture for candida infection.
Differential Diagnosis
Myriad causes of burning mouth and tongue pain have been
identified, many of which are readily treatable (Table 16-2). It is
therefore imperative that the clinician faced with a patient with
burning mouth and tongue pain obtain an extremely thorough
history and perform an oral examination with these diseases in
mind. It should be kept in mind that more often than not the
patient with burning mouth syndrome has more than one patho-
logical condition contributing to the pain, and the possibility of
multiple diagnosis should always be considered.
Treatment
The successful treatment of burning mouth syndrome requires
the clinician to endeavor to identify the underlying pathology

Signs and Symptoms

The hallmark of burning mouth syndrome is mouth and tongue
burning pain in the absence of clinically demonstrable oral pathol-
ogy. Depressive affect or a phobic preoccupation with occult cancer
is often present, as is xerostomia. The classic oral findings of nutri-
tional deficiencies such as iron and zinc deficiency, pernicious ane-
mia, and vitamin B complex deficiency may be absent in patients
with burning mouth syndrome and must be confirmed with appro-
priate laboratory testing. The clinician should observe the patient
closely for abnormal tongue and mouth movements, such as brux-
ism, tongue thrusting, repetitive running of the tongue against the Figure 16-1 The hallmark of burning mouth syndrome is mouth and
teeth, because these are suggestive of behavioral abnormalities that tongue burning pain in the absence of clinically demonstrable oral
may contribute to the patients pain symptomatology (Figure 16-1). pathology.

40
 16 Burning Mouth Syndrome 41

responsible for the patients pain. All underlying medical condi- a single bedtime dose of 300 mg, titrating the dosage upward in
tions (e.g., diabetes, deficiency syndromes) must be treated, along divided doses to a maximum dose of 3600 mg per day. Pregabalin
with the removal of any local irritants such as mouth washes, is a reasonable alternative to gabapentin and is better tolerated in
spicy foods, and cinnamon and mint products. Providing the some patients. Pregabalin is started at 50 mg three times per day
patient with a supportive and positive emotional environment and may be titrated upward to 100 mg three times per day as dis-
and reassurance that cancer is not the cause of the pain is para- ease effects allow. Pregabalin is excreted primarily by the kidneys,
mount if symptom relief is to be achieved. Coexistent behavioral and the dosage should be decreased in patients with compromised
and psychiatric abnormalities also must be addressed in a positive renal function.
therapeutic milieu. Empirical treatments, including anticandiadal Opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines should be avoided to
agents, vitamin B complex supplementation, and low-dose antide- prevent iatrogenic chemical dependence.
pressants, are also worthy of consideration.
Treatment often involves some combination of elimination of
any local irritants, treatment of underlying medical conditions, TABLE 16-2
pharmacological therapy, and behavioral therapy. Causes of Burning Mouth and Tongue Pain
First, any nidus of tissue trauma that is contributing to the
ongoing sympathetic dysfunction responsible for the symptoms Psychogenic,
Psychiatric,
must be identified and removed. Second, interruption of the sym- Systemic Local and Idiopathic
pathetic innervation of the face by stellate ganglion block with
local anesthetic must be implemented. This may require daily stel- Deficiencies Denture factors Psychiatric
late ganglion block for a considerable period. Occupational ther- Iron Dental work Depression
apy consisting of tactile desensitization of the affected mucosa also Vitamin B12 Mechanical Anxiety
may be of value. Underlying depression and sleep disturbance are Folate Oral habit or parafunc- Obsessive-
best treated with a tricyclic antidepressant such as nortriptyline, tional behavior compulsive
given as a single 25-mg dose at bedtime. Gabapentin may help pal- disorder
liate any neuritic pain component and is best started slowly with Zinc Clenching Somatoform
disorder
B complex vitamins Bruxism Cancerphobia
TABLE 161 Endocrine Tongue thrusting Psychosocial
stressors
Workup of Burning Mouth Syndrome
Diabetes mellitus Myofasical pain
Thorough history and review of symptoms
Hypothyroidism Allergic contact stomatitis
Medications causing xerostomia
Menopause or Dental restoration or
Dental or denture work hormonal denture materials
Oral care, oral products Foods
Oral habits or parafunctional behavior Xerostomia Preservative, additives,
History of depression, anxiety, cancerphobia flavorings
Family history of oral cancer, psychiatric diagnoses, and connective Connective tissue Neurologic
tissue disease disease
Oral examination Sjgrens syndrome Referred from tonsils or
teeth
Erythema, candidiasis, xerostomia, or other mucosal abnormalities
Sicca syndrome Lingual nerve neuropathy
Tongue disorders, such as a geographic, fissured, or atrophic
tongue Drug related Glossopharyngeal
neuropathy
Dental work or dentures
Anxiety or stress Acoustic neuroma
Laboratory tests
Medication Infection
Complete blood count
Angiotensin- Candidiasis
Iron, total iron binding capacity, iron saturation, ferreting
converting enzyme
Vitamin B12, folate, zinc inhibitor
Glucose, glycosylated hemoglobin Esophageal reflux Antibiotic related
Culture for Candida Anemia Denture related
Patch testing Local trauma
Include standard series, metal series, oral flavors, and preservatives Corticosteroid
Further consultation if indicated by history and review of systems Diabetes mellitus
Psychometric testing and psychiatric consultation Fusospirochetal
Dentistry Xerostomia
Neurology Irradiation
Otorhinolaryngology Local disease
From Drage LA, Rogers RSR III: Burning mouth syndrome, Dermatol Clin From Drage LA, Rogers RSR III: Burning mouth syndrome, Dermatol Clin
21:135145, 2003. 21:135145, 2003.
42 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes

Complications and Pitfalls
The main complications surrounding the treatment of burn-
ing mouth syndrome are those associated with its misdiagnosis.
Chemical dependence, depression, and multiple failed therapeutic
procedures are the rule rather than the exception. A diagnosis of a
psychiatric basis for the patients pain should be made only after
all somatic causes of burning mouth syndrome have carefully been
ruled out.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Drage LA, Rogers RSR III: Burning mouth syndrome, Dermatol Clin 21:135145,
2003.
Miziara ID, Arajo Filho BC, Oliveira R, Rodrigues dos Santos RM: Group psy-
chotherapy: an additional approach to burning mouth syndrome, Psychosom Res
67:443448, 2009.
Mock D: Burning tongue/mouth syndrome, J Oral Maxillofac Surg 67(Suppl 1):5,
2009.
Moore PA, Guggenheimer J, Orchard T: Burning mouth syndrome and peripheral
neuropathy in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus, J Diabetes Complications
21:397402, 2007.

Clinical Pearls
The key to diagnosing burning mouth syndrome is a high
index of clinical suspicion. Once causes of burning mouth
and tongue that have clinically identifiable pathological
processes have been ruled out, a rational treatment plan
addressing the often multifactorial nature of the patients
pain can be initiated. A supportive therapeutic environment
is crucial if symptom reduction is to be achieved.
Chapter 17

NERVUS INTERMEDIUS NEURALGIA

Patients with nervus intermedius neuralgia go to great lengths

ICD-9 CODE 053.11 to avoid any contact with trigger areas. In contrast, persons with
other types of facial pain, such as temporomandibular joint dys-
function, tend to constantly rub the affected area or apply heat
ICD-10 CODE B02.21 or cold to it. Patients with uncontrolled nervus intermedius
neuralgia frequently require hospitalization for rapid control of
pain. Between attacks, patients are relatively pain free. A dull
The Clinical Syndrome ache remaining after the intense pain subsides may indicate
persistent compression of the nerve by a structural lesion. This
Nervus intermedius neuralgia is an uncommon cause of primary disease is almost never seen in persons younger than 30 years.
otalgia. Also known as geniculate neuralgia, nervus intermedius Patients with nervus intermedius neuralgia often have severe
neuralgia is believed to be caused by compression of the nervus depression (sometimes to the point of being suicidal), with high
intermedius portion of the cranial nerve VII (facial) by aberrant levels of superimposed anxiety during acute attacks. Both of these
blood vessels or tumor in a manner analogous to trigeminal and problems may be exacerbated by the sleep deprivation that often
glossopharyngeal neuralgia. Although cranial nerve VII is primar- accompanies painful episodes.
ily a motor nerve comprising special visceral efferent fibers that
innervate the facial muscles, a small number of sensory and para- Testing
sympathetic fibers are also present. These sensory fibers provide
sensory innervations to the skin of the external auditory meatus, All patients with a new diagnosis of nervus intermedius neuralgia
portions of the nasal and nasopharyngeal muscosa, and the ante- should undergo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain
rior two thirds of the tongue. When the nervus intermedius and and brainstem, with and without gadolinium contrast medium,
its associated geniculate ganglion are infected with herpes zoster to rule out posterior fossa or brainstem lesions and demyelin-
virus, a clinical syndrome known as Ramsey Hunt syndrome ating disease (Figure 17-2). Magnetic resonance angiography
occurs (see Chapter 13). is also useful to confirm vascular compression of the nervus
The pain of nervus intermedius neuralgia is severe and is
rivaled only by that of trigeminal and glossopharyngeal neural-
gia and cluster headache. The pain has been described as like
having an ice pick repeatedly jabbed into the ear. Uncontrolled
pain of this severity has been associated with suicide and should
therefore be treated as an emergency. Attacks can be triggered
by daily activities involving contact with the external acoustic
meatus or auricle. Patients have also noted that attacks of nervus
intermedius neuralgia can be triggered by lying on the affected
side (Figure 17-1). Pain can be controlled with medication in
some patients, but surgical resection of the nervus intermedius is
required in approximately 50% of cases. The association between
multiple sclerosis and trigeminal neuralgia does not to appear as
strong in patients with nervus intermedius neuralgia, but a single
case has been reported.

Signs and Symptoms

Nervus intermedius neuralgia causes severe, episodic pain afflict-
ing the area of the acoustic auditory meatus supplied by the nervus
intermedius. The pain is unilateral and characterized by parox-
ysms of electric shocklike pain lasting from several seconds to less Figure 17-1 Nervus intermedius neuralgia is characterized by
than 2 minutes. The progression from onset to peak is essentially severe episodic neuritic pain affecting the area of the acoustic
instantaneous. auditory meatus.
43
44 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes
Axial
Coronal
Figure 17-2 Gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
Images show a centrally enhancing lesion in the geniculate ganglion
(arrow), measuring 5 mm 10 mm in diameter. (From Miyashita T,
Hoshikawa H, Kagawa M, Mori N: A case report of facial nerve heman-
gioma, Auris Nasus Larynx 34:519522, 2007.)
intermedius or geniculate ganglion by aberrant blood vessels.
Additional imaging of the sinuses should be considered in the
case of any question of occult or coexisting sinus disease. If the
first division of the trigeminal nerve is affected, ophthalmologi-
cal evaluation to measure intraocular pressure and rule out intra-
ocular pathological conditions is indicated. Screening laboratory
tests consisting of a complete blood count, erythrocyte sedimen-
tation rate, and automated blood chemistry should be performed
if the diagnosis of trigeminal neuralgia is in question. A complete
blood count is required for baseline comparisons before starting
treatment with carbamazepine (see discussion of treatment).
Differential Diagnosis
Nervus intermedius neuralgia is generally a diagnosis of exclu-
sion, although the clinical presentation makes it a straightforward
clinical diagnosis that can be made on the basis of a targeted his-
tory and physical examination. Diseases of the eyes, ears, nose,
throat, and teeth may mimic nervus intermedius neuralgia or
may coexist and confuse the diagnosis. Atypical facial pain or
temporomandibular joint dysfunction is sometimes confused
with nervus intermedius neuralgia, but it can be distinguished by
the character of the painatypical facial pain is dull and aching,
whereas the pain of nervus intermedius neuralgia is sharp and
neuritic. Additionally, the pain of nervus intermedius neuralgia
occurs in the distribution of the nervus intermedius, whereas the
pain of atypical facial pain does not follow a specific nerve dis-
tribution. Multiple sclerosis should be considered in all patients
who present with nervus intermedius neuralgia before the fifth
decade of life.
Treatment
Drug Therapy
Carbamazepine
Carbamazepine is considered first-line treatment for nervus interme-
dius neuralgia. In fact, a rapid response to this drug helps confirms
the clinical diagnosis. Despite the safety and efficacy of carbamaze-
pine, some confusion and anxiety exist surrounding its use. This
medication, which may be the patients best chance for pain con-
trol, is sometimes discontinued because of laboratory abnormali-
ties erroneously attributed to it. Therefore baseline measurements
consisting of a complete blood count, urinalysis, and automated
blood chemistry profile should be obtained before starting the drug.
Carbamazepine should be initiated slowly if the pain is not
out of control, with a starting dose of 100 to 200 mg at bedtime
for 2 nights. The patient should be cautioned about side effects,
including dizziness, sedation, confusion, and rash. The drug is
increased in 100- to 200-mg increments given in equally divided
doses over 2 days, as side effects allow, until pain relief is obtained
or a total dose of 1200 mg per day is reached. Careful monitoring
of laboratory parameters is mandatory to avoid the rare possibil-
ity of a life-threatening blood dyscrasia. At the first sign of blood
count abnormality or rash, this drug should be discontinued. Failure
to monitor patients on carbamazepine can be disastrous, because
aplastic anemia can occur. When pain relief is obtained, the
patient should be kept at that dosage of carbamazepine for at least
6 months before tapering of the medication is considered. The
patient should be informed that under no circumstances should
the drug dosage be changed or the drug refilled or discontinued
without the physicians knowledge.
Gabapentin
In the uncommon event that carbamazepine does not adequately
control a patients pain, gabapentin may be considered. As with
carbamazepine, baseline blood tests should be obtained before
starting therapy and the patient should be cautioned about poten-
tial side effects, including dizziness, sedation, confusion, and rash.
The initial dose is 300 mg at bedtime for 2 nights. The drug is
then increased in 300-mg increments given in equally divided
doses over 2 days, as side effects allow, until pain relief is obtained
or a total dose of 2400 mg per day is reached. At this point, if the
patient has experienced only partial pain relief, blood values are
measured and the drug is carefully titrated upward using 100-mg
tablets. Rarely is a dosage greater than 3600 mg per day required.
Pregabalin
Pregablin represents a reasonable alternative to gabapentin and
is better tolerated in some patients. Pregablin is started at 50 mg
three times per day and may be titrated upward to 100 mg three
times per day as side effects allow. Pregablin is excreted primarily
by the kidneys, and thus the dosage should be decreased in patients
with compromised renal function.
Baclofen
Baclofen may be of value in some patients who fail to obtain relief
from carbamazepine, gabapentin, or pregabalin. As with those
drugs, baseline laboratory tests should be obtained before begin-
ning baclofen therapy and the patient should be warned about the
same potential adverse effects. Start with a 10-mg dose at bedtime
for 2 nights, then increase the drug in 10-mg increments given in
equally divided doses over 7 days, as side effects allow, until pain
relief is obtained or a total dose of 100 mg per day is reached. This

drug has significant hepatic and central nervous system side effects,
including weakness and sedation. As with carbamazepine, careful
monitoring of laboratory values is indicated when using baclofen.
When treating individuals with any of these drugs, the physi-
cian should make sure the patient knows that premature tapering
or discontinuation of the medication may lead to the recurrence
of pain, which will be more difficult to control.
Invasive Therapy
Section of the Nervus Intermedius
This neurosurgical technique is the invasive treatment of choice
for those patients with nervus intermedius neuralgia who have
failed to respond to conservative pharmacological management.
To perform this procedure, the nervus intermedius and geniculate
ganglion are identified and isolated and the nervus intermedius
is sectioned in two places. Some surgeons also advocate extirpa-
tion of the geniculate ganglion. Section of the nervus intermedius
alone provides excellent palliation of pain in 75% to 90% of cases.
Complications and Pitfalls
The pain of nervus intermedius neuralgia is severe and can lead
to suicide; therefore it must be considered a medical emergency,
and strong consideration should be given to hospitalizing such
patients. If a dull ache remains between the intense paroxysms of
pain, the clinician should have a high index of suspicion that the
nidus of the patients pain is persistent compression of the nerve
by a structural lesion such as a brainstem tumor or schwannoma.
17 Nervus Intermedius Neuralgia 45
Clinical Pearls
Nervus intermedius neuralgia is an uncommon cause of otal-
gia. Because of the potential for disastrous clinical outcome
should a more common cause of otic pain be overlooked
(e.g., tumor or the temporal bone, brainstem, or nasophar-
ynx), the diagnosis of nervus intermedius neuralgia must by
necessity be one of exclusion. Because of the severity of the
pain associated with this syndrome, aggressive pharmaco-
logical management in an inpatient setting may be required.
Surgical treatment consisting of the sectioning of the nervus
intermedius is often the patients best option for complete
and long-lasting pain relief.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Alcaraz N, King WA, Wackym PA: Endoscopy during neurotomy of the nervus
intermedius for geniculate neuralgia, Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 121:334336,
1999.
Bhagra A, Stead LG: Nervus intermedius neuralgia: a rare entity, Ann Emerg Med
47:579, 584, 2006.
Gantz BJ, Redleaf MI, Perry BP, Gubbels SP: Management of Bells palsy and
nervus intermedius neuralgia. In Brackmann DE, Shelton C, Arriaga MA,
editors:Otologic surgery, ed 3, Philadelphia, 2010, Elsevier, pp 335346.
Persson A, Bergstrm T, Lindh M, Namvar L, Studahl M: Varicella-zoster
virus CNS disease: viral load, clinical manifestations and sequels, J Clin Virol
46:249253, 2009.
Taguchi T, Ueda S, Kudo T, etal: Ramsay-Hunt syndrome, J Infect 62:180181,
2011.
Ulusoy , zkan G, Bekta D, etal: Nervus intermedius neuralgia in renal trans-
plantation recipient: a case report, Transplant Proc 42:19861988, 2010.
Chapter 18

RED EAR SYNDROME

ICD-9 CODE 350.1 Signs and Symptoms

Patients with red ear syndrome present with the complaint of
severe paroxysms of sudden onset of unilateral ear redness asso-
ICD-10 CODE G50.0 ciated with pain involving the ipsilateral ear. The pain is neu-
ralgiform in quality and severe to excruciating in intensity. Like
trigeminal neuralgia, the pain of red ear syndrome rarely switches
The Clinical Syndrome sides. Red ear syndrome occurs slightly more frequently in males.
It can occur at any age, with a peak incidence in the fifth decade.
Red ear syndrome is an uncommon primary pain disorder thought
to be a variant of one of a group of three headache syndromes known
as the trigeminal autonomic cephalgias (Table 18-1). Whether red
Testing
ear syndrome is in fact a distinct pain syndrome resulting from Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain provides the cli-
auriculo-autonomic dysfunction or simply a constellation of symp- nician with the best information regarding the cranial vault and its
toms that occurs on a continuum along with the other trigeminal contents. MRI is highly accurate and helps identify abnormalities
autonomic cephalgias is a point of ongoing debate among headache that may put the patient at risk for neurological disasters second-
and pain management specialists. As with most headache and facial ary to intracranial and brainstem pathology, including tumors and
pain syndromes, the exact cause of the pain of red ear syndrome is demyelinating disease. Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA)
unknown; however, the pathogenesis of this uncommon cause of also may be useful in helping identify aneurysms that may be
head and face pain is thought to be dysfunction of the trigeminal responsible for the patients neurological findings. In patients who
autonomic reflex. The rapid onset of ear redness and associated pain cannot undergo MRI, such as patients with pacemakers, com-
may be caused by an antidromic release of vasoactive peptides from puted tomography (CT) is a reasonable second choice. Radionu-
the terminal afferent fibers of the third cervical nerve root, which clide bone scan and plain radiography are indicated if a fracture or
provides sensory innervations to the pinna of the ear.
As its name implies, the pathognomonic finding of red ear syn-
drome is in fact a unilateral red ear (Figure 18-1). This redness
involves the entire ear, including the pinna, and is associated with
neuralgia-like pain reminiscent of sudden unilateral neuralgiform
conjunctival injection tearing (SUNCT) headache (see Chapter
7). The pain and erythema associated with red ear syndrome have
a rapid onset to peak, with attacks lasting 15 seconds to 5 minutes
and the frequency of attacks ranging from 20 to 200 attacks per
day. In some patients, these attacks can be triggered by sensory
stimulation of the affected area, such as when brushing the hair.
Although in many ways similar to SUNCT headache (i.e., uni-
lateral, rapid onset to peak, short duration of attacks, pain-free
periods between attacks), many dissimilarities also exist, including
the location and pronounced autonomic phenomenon manifested
by the red ear.

TABLE 18-1
The Trigeminal Autonomic Cephalgias
Cluster headache
Paroxysmal hemicranias
Figure 18-1 Red ear syndrome is characterized by the complaint of
Short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform headache with conjunctival severe paroxysms of sudden onset of unilateral ear redness associated
injection tearing (SUNCT) with ipsilateral ear pain.

46

bony abnormality such as metastatic disease is considered in the
differential diagnosis.
Screening laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and automated blood chem-
istry should be performed if the diagnosis of red ear syndrome is in
question. Additional testing to rule out collagen-vascular disease is
indicated if polychondritis is suspected.
Differential Diagnosis
Red ear syndrome is a clinical diagnosis supported by a combi-
nation of clinical history, normal physical examination, radiogra-
phy, and MRI. Pain syndromes that may mimic red ear syndrome
include erythromelalgia of the ear, polychondritis, cluster head-
ache, temporal arteritis, trigeminal neuralgia, demyelinating
disease, primary stabbing headache, SUNCT, and chronic parox-
ysmal hemicranias. However, because of the overlapping features
of all headache and facial pain syndromes, red ear syndrome easily
can be mistaken for another type of headache or facial pain. Tri-
geminal neuralgia is more common and is characterized by trigger
areas and tic-like movements. Demyelinating disease is gener-
ally associated with other neurological findings, including optic
neuritis and other motor and sensory abnormalities. The pain of
chronic paroxysmal hemicrania lasts much longer than the pain of
red ear syndrome.
Treatment
The treatment of red ear syndrome is analogous to the treatment of
trigeminal neuralgia, although the pharmacological management
of this uncommon headache disorder is disappointing. The use of
anticonvulsants such as lamotrigine and gabapentin represents a
reasonable starting point. High-dose steroids tapered over 10 days
also have been anecdotally reported to provide relief. For patients
who do not respond to these treatments, a few case reports suggest
that daily ipsilateral C2-C3 facet joint blocks with local anesthetic
and steroid may provide relief of both the pain and the autonomic
dysfunction. Underlying sleep disturbance and depression associ-
ated with the pain of red ear syndrome are best treated with a
tricyclic antidepressant compound, such as nortriptyline, which
can be started at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg.
18 Red Ear Syndrome 47
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose red ear syndrome correctly may put the
patient at risk if intracranial pathology or demyelinating disease,
which may mimic the clinical presentation of red ear syndrome,
is overlooked. MRI is indicated in all patients thought to have red
ear syndrome. A careful evaluation of the ear to rule out localized
pathological conditions is also indicated, as is laboratory testing
for collagen-vascular disease if polychondritis is suspected.
Clinical Pearls
Given the poor response to treatment with drugs tradi-
tionally used to treat trigeminal neuralgia, facet block of
the ipsilateral C2-C3 facet joints with local anesthetic and
steroids should be considered in patients thought to have
red ear syndrome. Given the uncommon nature of this
headache syndrome and its overlap with the other trigemi-
nal autonomic cephalgias and other more serious forms of
intracranial pathological conditions such as tumors and
vascular abnormalities, red ear syndrome must remain
a diagnosis of exclusion. All patients thought to have red
ear syndrome require MRI of the brain with and without
gadolinium contrast material and thorough otic and neuro-
logical evaluation. Cervical facet block should be performed
only by clinicians familiar with the regional anatomy.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Kumar N, Swanson JW: The red ear syndrome revisited: two cases and a review
of literature, Cephalalgia 24:305308, 2004.
Lance JW: The red ear syndrome, Neurology 47:617620, 1996.
Leone M, Bussone G: Pathophysiology of trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias, Lancet
Neurol 8:18551884, 2009.
Purdy RA, Dodick DW: Red ear syndrome, Curr Pain Headache Rep 11:313316,
2007.
Waldman SD: Cervical facet block. In Waldman SD, editor: Atlas of interventional
pain management, ed 3, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 165168.
Chapter 19

GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL NEURALGIA

at risk for neurological disasters secondary to intracranial and

ICD-9 CODE 352.1 brainstem pathology, including tumors and demyelinating disease
(see Figure 19-2). Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) may
be helpful in identifying aneurysms responsible for neurological
ICD-10 CODE G52.10 symptoms. In patients who cannot undergo MRI, such as patients
with pacemakers, computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable
second choice.
The Clinical Syndrome Clinical laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell count,
automated chemistry profile, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate
Glossopharyngeal neuralgia is a rare condition characterized by are indicated to rule out infection, temporal arteritis, and malig-
paroxysms of pain in the sensory division of the cranial nerve IX. nancy that may mimic glossopharyngeal neuralgia. Endoscopy of
Although the pain of glossopharyngeal neuralgia is similar to that the hypopharynx with special attention to the piriform sinuses
of trigeminal neuralgia, it occurs 100 times less frequently. Glos- also is indicated to rule out occult malignancy. Differential neural
sopharyngeal neuralgia occurs more commonly in patients older blockade of the glossopharyngeal nerve may help strengthen the
than 50 years. The pain is located in the tonsil, laryngeal region, diagnosis of glossopharyngeal neuralgia.
and posterior tongue. The pain is unilateral in most patients, but
can occur bilaterally 2% of the time. Rarely, the pain of glosso-
pharyngeal neuralgia is associated with bradyarrhythmias; in some
Differential Diagnosis
patients, it is associated with syncope. These cardiac symptoms are Glossopharyngeal neuralgia is generally a straightforward clinical
thought to be due to overflow of neural impulses from the glos- diagnosis that can be made on the basis of a targeted history and
sopharyngeal nerve to the vagus nerve. Although rare, this unusual physical examination. Diseases of the eye, ears, nose, throat, and
combination of pain and cardiac arrhythmia can be lethal. teeth may mimic trigeminal neuralgia or may coexist and confuse
the diagnosis. Tumors of the hypopharynx, including the tonsillar
Signs and Symptoms
The pain of glossopharyngeal neuralgia is in the distribution of cra-
nial nerve IX (Figure 19-1). In some patients, overflow pain may
occur in areas innervated by the trigeminal nerve, upper cervical
segments, or both. The pain is neuritic and is unilateral in 98% of
patients. It is often described as shooting or stabbing, with a severe
intensity level. The pain of glossopharyngeal neuralgia is often
triggered by swallowing, chewing, coughing, or talking. With the
exception of trigger areas in the distribution of cranial nerve IX,
the patients neurological examination should be normal. Because Palatine tonsil
tumors at the cerebellopontine angle may produce symptoms iden-
Posterior of
tical to those of glossopharyngeal neuralgia, an abnormal neurolog- tongue
ical examination is cause for serious concern (Figure 19-2). Dull,
aching pain that persists between the paroxysms of pain normally
associated with glossopharyngeal neuralgia is highly suggestive of a
space-occupying lesion and requires thorough evaluation.

Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and brainstem
should be performed in all patients thought to have glossopha-
ryngeal neuralgia. MRI of the brain provides the best informa-
tion regarding the cranial vault and its contents. MRI is highly Figure 19-1 The pain of glossopharyngeal neuralgia is in the distribution
accurate and helps identify abnormalities that may put the patient of cranial nerve IX.

48
 19 Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia 49

fossa and piriform sinuses, may mimic the pain of glossopharyn-
geal neuralgia, as may tumors at the cerebellopontine angle. Occa-
sionally, demyelinating disease may produce a clinical syndrome
identical to glossopharyngeal neuralgia. The jaw claudication asso-
ciated with temporal arteritis also sometimes confuses the clinical
picture, as does trigeminal neuralgia.
Treatment
Pharmacological Treatment
Carbamazepine
Carbamazepine is considered first-line treatment for glossopha-
ryngeal neuralgia. Rapid response to this drug essentially con-
firms a clinical diagnosis of glossopharyngeal neuralgia. Despite
the safety and efficacy of carbamazepine compared with other
treatments for glossopharyngeal neuralgia, much confusion and
unfounded anxiety surround its use. This medication, which may
be the patients best chance for pain control, is sometimes discon-
tinued because of laboratory abnormalities erroneously attributed
to it. Baseline screening laboratory tests, consisting of a complete
blood cell count, urinalysis, and automated chemistry profile,
should be obtained before starting the drug.
Carbamazepine should be started slowly, if the pain is not out
of control, at a starting dose of 100 to 200 mg at bedtime for
2 nights; the patient should be cautioned regarding side effects,
including dizziness, sedation, confusion, and rash. The drug is
increased in 100- to 200-mg increments, given in equally divided
doses over 2 days, as side effects allow, until pain relief is obtained
or a total dose of 1200 mg per day is reached. Careful monitoring
of laboratory parameters is mandatory to avoid the rare possibility
of life-threatening blood dyscrasia. At the first sign of blood count
abnormality or rash, this drug should be discontinued. Failure
to monitor patients started on carbamazepine can be disastrous
because aplastic anemia can occur. When pain relief is obtained,
the patient should be kept at that dosage of carbamazepine for at
least 6 months before considering tapering of this medication. The
patient should be informed that under no circumstances should
the dosage of drug be changed or the drug refilled or discontinued
without the physicians knowledge.
Gabapentin
In the uncommon event that carbamazepine does not control a
patients pain adequately, gabapentin may be considered. As with
carbamazepine, baseline blood tests should be obtained before
starting therapy. Gabapentin should be started with a 300-mg dose
at bedtime for 2 nights; the patient should be cautioned about
potential side effects, including dizziness, sedation, confusion, and
rash. The drug is increased in 300-mg increments, given in equally
divided doses over 2 days, as side effects allow, until pain relief is
obtained or a total dose of 2400 mg per day is reached. At this
point, if the patient has experienced partial pain relief, blood val-
ues are measured and the drug is carefully titrated using 100-mg
tablets. More than 3600 mg per day is rarely required.
Baclofen
Baclofen has been reported to be of value in some patients who
fail to obtain relief from carbamazepine and gabapentin. Baseline

B
Figure 19-2 Mixed cystic and solid acoustic nerve schwannoma in association with a solid schwannoma of the geniculate ganglion. A, Axial
enhanced image with fat saturation. A large mass with solid and cystic enhancing components is seen in the right cerebellopontine angle. A separate
solid erosive tumor is seen in the region of the right geniculate ganglion (arrowhead). B, Coronal enhanced image with fat saturation. The charac-
teristic mushroom appearance of an intracanalicular acoustic schwannoma with extension into the adjacent cerebellopontine angle is well seen. This
more anterior section through the internal auditory canal does not show the cystic portion of the tumor, but it does show the compression of the
adjacent brainstem. (From Stark DD, Bradley WG Jr, editors: Magnetic resonance imaging, 3rd ed, St Louis, 1999, Mosby, p 1219.)
50 SECTION 1 Headache and Facial Pain Syndromes

laboratory tests should be obtained before starting baclofen. The

drug is started with a 10-mg dose at bedtime for 2 nights; the
patient should be cautioned about potential adverse effects, which
are the same as those of carbamazepine and gabapentin. The drug
is increased in 10-mg increments, given in equally divided doses
over 7 days, as side effects allow, until pain relief is obtained or
a total dose of 80 mg daily is reached. This drug has significant
hepatic and central nervous system side effects, including weak-
ness and sedation. As with carbamazepine, careful monitoring of
laboratory values is indicated during the initial use of this drug.
When treating patients with any of the drugs mentioned, the
clinician should inform the patient that premature tapering or
discontinuation of the medication may lead to the recurrence of
pain. It becomes more difficult to control pain thereafter.
Styloid
Interventional Treatment process
Glossopharyngeal Nerve Block
The use of glossopharyngeal nerve block with local anesthetic and
a steroid serves as an excellent adjunct to drug treatment of glosso-
pharyngeal neuralgia (Figure 19-3). This technique rapidly relieves
pain while medications are being titrated to effective levels. The
initial block is performed with preservative-free bupivacaine com-
bined with methylprednisolone. Subsequent daily nerve blocks are
done in a similar manner, substituting a lower dose of methyl- Glossopharyngeal
prednisolone. This approach also may be used to obtain control of nerve
breakthrough pain. Figure 19-3 Proper needle placement for glossopharyngeal nerve
block. (From Waldman SD: In Waldman SD, editor: Atlas of interventional
Radiofrequency Destruction of the pain management techniques, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders.)
Glossopharyngeal Nerve
The destruction of the glossopharyngeal nerve can be carried out
by creating a radiofrequency lesion under biplanar fluoroscopic
guidance. This procedure is reserved for patients who have failed
to respond to all the treatments mentioned for intractable glos-
sopharyngeal neuralgia and who are not candidates for microvas-
cular decompression of the glossopharyngeal root. Gamma knife
ablation has also been used in this patient population.
Microvascular Decompression of the
Glossopharyngeal Root
Microvascular decompression of the glossopharyngeal root, also
referred to as the Jannetta procedure, is the major neurosurgical
procedure of choice for intractable glossopharyngeal neuralgia.
It is based on the theory that glossopharyngeal neuralgia is a
compressive mononeuropathy analogous to trigeminal neuralgia
(Figure 19-4). The operation consists of identifying the glosso-
pharyngeal root close to the brainstem and isolating the offending
compressing blood vessel. A sponge is interposed between the ves-
sel and nerve, relieving the compression and the pain.

Complications and Pitfalls
The pain of glossopharyngeal neuralgia is severe and can lead to
suicide; therefore it must be considered a medical emergency,
and strong consideration should be given to hospitalizing such
patients. If a dull ache remains after the intense, paroxysmal pain
of glossopharyngeal neuralgia subsides, this is highly suggestive of
persistent compression of the nerve by a structural lesion such as
a brainstem tumor or schwannoma. Glossopharyngeal neuralgia
is almost never seen in persons younger than 30 years unless it
is associated with multiple sclerosis, and all such patients should
undergo MRI to identify demyelinating disease.
Figure 19-4 Vascular relationship between trigeminal nerve and the
superior cerebellar artery in the cerebellopontine cistern. The distortion
of the trigeminal rootlets is evident from this intraoperative microscopic
photograph. (From Franzini A, Ferroli P, Messina G, Broggi G: Surgical
treatment of cranial neuralgias. In Bruyn G, Vinken P, editors: Handbook of
clinical neurology, vol 97, New York, 2010, Elsevier, pp 679692.)
The major complications associated with glossopharyngeal
nerve block are related to trauma to the internal jugular and
carotid artery. Hematoma formation and intravascular injec-
tion of local anesthetic with subsequent toxicity are significant
problems for the patient. Blockade of the motor portion of the
 19 Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia 51

glossopharyngeal nerve can result in dysphagia secondary to weak- SUGGESTED READINGS

ness of the stylopharyngeus muscle. If the vagus nerve is inadver-
tently blocked, as it often is during glossopharyngeal nerve block,
dysphonia secondary to paralysis of the ipsilateral vocal cord may
occur. Reflex tachycardia secondary to vagal nerve block is also
observed in some patients. Inadvertent block of the hypoglossal
and spinal accessory nerves during glossopharyngeal nerve block
will result in weakness of the tongue and trapezius muscle.
The glossopharyngeal nerve is susceptible to trauma from the
needle, hematoma, or compression during injection procedures.
Such complications, although usually transitory, can be quite
upsetting to the patient. Although uncommon, risk for infection
is ever present, especially in patients who have cancer and are
immunocompromised. Early detection of infection is crucial to
avoiding potentially life-threatening sequelae.
Benoliel R, Eliav E: Neuropathic orofacial pain, Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North
Am 20:237254, 2008.
Franzini A, Ferroli P, Messina G, Broggi G: Surgical treatment of cranial neu-
ralgias. In Bruyn G, Vinken P, editors: Handbook of clinical neurology, vol 97,
New York, 2010, Elsevier, pp 679692.
Khan NU, Iyer A: Glossopharyngeal neuralgia associated with anomalous glosso-
pharyngeal nerve, Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 136:502503, 2007.
Waldman SD: Glossopharyngeal nerve block. In Waldman SD, editor: Atlas of
interventional pain management, ed 3, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 9397.
The surgical treatment of microvascular compression syndromes, Operative Tech
Neurosurg 4:137141, 2001.

Clinical Pearls
The pain of glossopharyngeal neuralgia is among the most
severe pain that humans can experience and must be con-
sidered a medical emergency. The uncontrolled pain of
glossopharyngeal neuralgia has led to suicide, and hospi-
talization of such patients should be strongly considered.
Between attacks of glossopharyngeal neuralgia, the patient
is relatively pain free. If a dull ache remains after the intense
pain subsides, this is highly suggestive of a persistent com-
pression of the nerve by a structural lesion, such as a brain-
stem tumor or schwannoma. Glossopharyngeal neuralgia
is almost never seen in individuals younger than 30 years
unless it is associated with multiple sclerosis, and all such
patients should undergo MRI with sequences designed to
identify demyelinating disease.
SECTION 2 Neck and Brachial Plexus Pain Syndromes
Chapter 20
CLIVAL CHORDOMA SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 213.0
ICD-10 CODE D16.4
The Clinical Syndrome
Clival chordoma is a rare neoplasm that arises from embryologi-
cal remnants of the notochord along the spinal axis. Clival chor-
domas are usually benign, although aggressive clival chordomas
have been reported. Comprising one third of central nervous sys-
tem chordomas, clival chordomas tend to be slow growing and
produce symptoms by compression of the adjacent brainstem
and cranial nerves. In spite of this, the long-term outcome of
patients diagnosed with clival chordoma remains poor because of
the location of these tumors and their tendency to recur regard-
less of the treatment method chosen. Clival chordomas can occur
at any age, further complicating the diagnosis. These uncommon
tumors occur slightly more commonly in men. Early diagno-
sis of clival chordoma is important to avoid acute neurological
disasters; however, because of the slow growth of these tumors,
the average time from onset of symptoms to diagnosis averages
2 years.
Signs and Symptoms
Headache is the most common presenting complaint in patients
with clival chordoma. Other common symptoms associated with
clival chordoma reflect the propensity of this tumor to compress
adjacent neural structures, causing facial pain, facial numbness,
facial paresthesias, and diplopia (Table 20-1). Ataxia, dysphagia,
visual disturbance, hoarseness, and extremity weakness also com-
monly occur.
Findings on neurological examination (e.g., cranial nerve defi-
cits, pyramidal tract dysfunction, hemiparesis, hyperreflexia, clo-
nus, a positive Babinski sign, and cerebellar signs, including ataxia)
also reflect compression of neural structures by this slow-growing
tumor (Figure 20-1). Occasionally, papilledema and optic nerve
atrophy are identified.
52
Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and brainstem
should be performed in all patients thought to have clival chordoma
(see Figure 20-1). MRI of the brain provides the best information
regarding the cranial vault and its contents. MRI is highly accurate
and helps identify abnormalities that may put the patient at risk for
neurological disasters secondary to intracranial and brainstem path-
ological conditions, including tumors and demyelinating disease
(Figure 20-2). Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) may be help-
ful in identifying aneurysms responsible for neurological symptoms.
In patients who cannot undergo MRI, such as patients with pace-
makers, computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable second choice.
Clinical laboratory tests consisting of a complete blood cell
count, automated chemistry profile, and erythrocyte sedimenta-
tion rate are indicated to rule out infection, temporal arteritis, and
other malignancies that may mimic clival chordoma. Endoscopy
of the nasopharynx and hypopharynx with special attention to the
piriform sinuses also is indicated to rule out occult malignancy.
Differential Diagnosis
Clival chordoma is generally a straightforward clinical diag-
nosis in retrospect. Given that the time between the onset of
TABLE 20-1
Common Symptoms Associated with Clival Chordoma
Headache
Facial numbness
Facial pain
Facial paresthesias
Diplopia
Dysarthria
Dysphagia
Ataxia
Extremity weakness
Hoarseness
Visual disturbance
 20 Clival Chordoma Syndrome 53

neurological signs and symptoms and definitive diagnosis is an
average of 2 years, a high index of clinical suspicion is necessary
to avoid misdiagnosis. Obtaining a targeted history and per-
forming a careful physical examination are essential. Diseases of
the eye, ears, nose, throat, and teeth may mimic trigeminal neu-
ralgia or may coexist and confuse the diagnosis. Tumors of the
nasopharynyx and hypopharynx, including the tonsillar fossa
and piriform sinus, may mimic the pain of clival chordoma, as
may tumors at the cerebellopontine angle. Occasionally, demy-
elinating disease may produce a clinical syndrome identical to
clival chordoma. The jaw claudication associated with temporal
arteritis also sometimes confuses the clinical picture, as does
trigeminal neuralgia.
Treatment
Treatment of clival chordoma requires surgery, radiation ther-
apy, or both. Although clival chordomas are almost always
benign and rarely metastasize, the critical location of clival chor-
domas relative to adjacent neural structures makes both forms
of treatment challenging. Often, complete tumor resection is
impossible because of the location and postoperative radiation

Figure 20-1 Patients suffering from clival chordoma will often complain of headaches and associated facial pain, numbness, and diplopia.

A B
Figure 20-2 Sagittal (A) and axial (B) T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging of the clival chordoma showing significant compression of the
spinal cord and brainstem plus destruction of cervical vertebra. (From Chau T, Lazzaro A, Mobbs RJ, Teo C: Surgical treatment of cranial neuralgias:
combined endoscopic endonasal and posterior cervical approach to a clival chordoma, J Clin Neurosci 17:14631465, 2010.)
54 SECTION 2 Neck and Brachial Plexus Pain Syndromes

therapy, gamma knife stereotactic surgery, and implantation of SUGGESTED READINGS

radioactive seeds may be required.
Complications and Pitfalls
Because of the slow-growing nature of clival chordomas, delayed
diagnosis is an ever-present possibility complicating an already
difficult treatment regimen. Further confusing the clinical presen-
tation of this tumor of embryological origin is the fact that many
of the clinical syndromes that mimic the signs and symptoms of
clival chordoma are also difficult to diagnose.
Aminoff M, Boller F, Swaab D: Cytogenetic analysis of three variants of clival
chordoma, Cancer Genet Cytogenet 154:124130, 2004.
Chau T, Lazzaro A, Mobbs RJ, Teo C: Surgical treatment of cranial neuralgias:
combined endoscopic endonasal and posterior cervical approach to a clival chor-
doma, J Clin Neurosci 17:14631465, 2010.
Chugh R, Tawbi H, Lucas DR, etal: Chordoma: the nonsarcoma primary bone
tumor, Oncologist 12:13441350, 2007.
Feng K, Qiuhang Z, Qiuyi Q: Transclival cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea as the
initial presenting symptom of a tiny intradural chordoma, J Clin Neurosci
17:10831085, 2010.

Clinical Pearls
Clival chordoma is a rare neoplasm that is usually benign,
although aggressive clival chordomas have been reported.
Clival chordomas tend to be slow growing and produce
symptoms by compression of the adjacent brainstem and
cranial nerves. In spite of this fact, the long-term outcome
of patients diagnosed with clival chordoma remains poor
because of the location of these tumors and their tendency
to recur regardless of the treatment method chosen. Clival
chordomas can occur at any age.
Chapter 21
SPASMODIC TORTICOLLIS
ICD-9 CODE 33.83
ICD-10 CODE G24.8
The Clinical Syndrome
Spasmodic torticollis is a rare condition characterized by involun-
tary movement of the head. It is classified as a focal or segmen-
tal dystonia and occurs in approximately 3 in 10,000 people. It
begins in early adult life. The three varieties of spasmodic torticol-
lis are as follows:
Tonic, which involves involuntary turning of the head to
one side
Clonic, which involves involuntary shaking of the head
Tonic/clonic, which involves both types of involuntary
movement
Spasmodic torticollis also can be subclassified based on the
specific movement of the head: (1) rotation, which involves the
turning of the head to the side; (2) laterocollis, which involves
the leaning of the head against the shoulder; (3) retrocollis, which
involves the leaning of the head toward the back; and (4) antero-
collis, which involves the leaning of the head toward the chest.
The disease occurs more commonly in women and often is ini-
tially diagnosed as a hysterical reaction or tic.
Thought to be due to dysfunction centrally, rather than a dis-
ease of the affected muscles, spasmodic torticollis often begins as a
subtle involuntary movement of the head. Early in the disease, the
dystonia is often intermittent. As the disease progresses, the symp-
toms become more severe and harder for the patient to hide. The
dystonic movements may become more sustained and associated
with constant, aching pain in the affected muscles. The pain often
becomes the primary reason for the patient to seek medical atten-
tion, with the patient almost indifferent to the dystonic move-
ments. The dystonia often disappears with sleep and becomes less
pronounced on first awakening, with the dystonic movements
and pain worsening as the day progresses. Spontaneous recovery
has been reported, but, overall, treatment is difficult and of lim-
ited success.
Signs and Symptoms
A patient with spasmodic torticollis exhibits involuntary, dystonic
movements of the head. In extreme cases, the dystonia is continu-
ous and the laterocollis so marked that the patients ear rests on
the ipsilateral shoulder (Figure 21-1). Pain may be a predominant
feature of the syndrome, and spasms of the cervical paraspinous
musculature, the strap muscles of the neck, and the sternocleido-
mastoid are often present. Hypertrophy of the affected muscles
may occur occasionally. Other than the dystonic movements, the
neurological examination is normal. As mentioned previously, the
patient may seem indifferent to the abnormal head movements
or position. Touching the opposite side of the face or chin often
causes the dystonia to cease momentarily.
Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and brainstem
should be performed in all patients thought to have spasmodic
torticollis. MRI of the brain provides the best information regard-
ing the cranial vault and its contents. MRI is highly accurate and
helps identify abnormalities that may put the patient at risk for
neurological disasters secondary to intracranial and brainstem
pathological conditions, including tumors and demyelinating
disease. Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) may be use-
ful in identifying aneurysms responsible for neurological symp-
toms. In patients who cannot undergo MRI, such as patients with
pacemakers, computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable second
choice.
Clinical laboratory tests consisting of a complete blood cell
count, automated chemistry profile, and erythrocyte sedimenta-
tion rate are indicated to rule out infection and malignancy.
Differential Diagnosis
Spasmodic torticollis is generally a straightforward clinical diagno-
sis that can be made on the basis of a targeted history and physical
examination. The involuntary nature of this movement disorder
is the hallmark of the disease and helps distinguish it from tics
and habit spasms that are voluntary and worsen when the patient
is tense. Tics and habit spasms resemble volitional movement.
Behavioral abnormalities, such as hysterical conversion reactions,
also must be considered. Acute spasm and pain of the muscles
of the neck or wry neck can mimic spasmodic torticollis, but its
onset is acute, and the symptoms usually resolve within days to a
week. Occasionally, patients with clonic spasmodic torticollis are
initially diagnosed as having Parkinson disease.
Treatment
In general, the treatment of spasmodic torticollis is disappointing.
Pharmacological treatment with skeletal muscle relaxants, includ-
ing drugs that act at the spinal cord level, such as baclofen, and
centrally acting drugs, such as the anticonvulsants and levodopa,
55
56 SECTION 2 Neck and Brachial Plexus Pain Syndromes

Longus capitus
muscle

Scalene muscles:
Middle
Anterior
Posterior

Longus colli
muscle

Figure 21-1 The dystonia of spasmodic torticollis causes significant pain and functional disability.

may provide some symptomatic relief in mild cases. Trihexyphe-
nidyl and diazepam also have been advocated.
In patients for whom pharmacological treatment fails, injec-
tion of the affected muscles with botulinum toxin is a reasonable
next step. Frequent injections may result in the development of
antibodies against the toxin, which makes the toxin less effec-
tive. By changing to different subtypes of toxin, efficacy may be
restored. For intractable cases, bilateral thalamotomy has been
advocated. The results of this radical treatment are variable at best.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Maia FM, Kanashiro AK, Chien HF, Gonalves LR, Barbosa ER: Clinical changes
of cervical dystonia pattern in long-term botulinum toxin treated patients, Par-
kinsonism Relat Disord 16:811, 2010.
Ochudo S, Drzyzga K, Drzyzga LR, Opala G: Various patterns of gestes antago-
nistes in cervical dystonia, Parkinsonism Relat Disord 13:417420, 2007.
Takeuchi N, Chuma T, Mano Y: Phenol block for cervical dystonia: effects and
side effects, Arch Phys Med Rehabil 85:11171120, 2004.
Truong D, Brodsky M, Lew M, etal: Global Dysport Cervical Dystonia Study
Group: Long-term efficacy and safety of botulinum toxin type A (Dysport) in
cervical dystonia, Parkinsonism Relat Disord 16:316323, 2010.

Complications and Pitfalls

Although spasmodic torticollis is usually a straightforward clinical
diagnosis, the clinician must always rule out other pathological
processes involving the central nervous system. Treatment of this
syndrome is difficult, and treatment of concurrent depression is
often required.

Clinical Pearls
Spasmodic torticollis is a devastating disease that responds
poorly to treatment. Injection of the affected muscles with
botulinum toxin to effect chemodenervation is probably the
best therapeutic option for most patients. The diagnosis of
the disease is straightforward. MRI of the brain is indicated
in all patients thought to have spasmodic torticollis.
Chapter 22
CERVICOTHORACIC INTERSPINOUS
BURSITIS
ICD-9 CODE 727.3
ICD-10 CODE M71.50
The Clinical Syndrome
Cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis is an uncommon cause of
pain in the lower cervical and upper thoracic spine. The inter-
spinous ligaments of the lower cervical and upper thoracic spine
and their associated muscles are susceptible to the development
of acute and chronic pain symptoms after overuse. Bursitis is
believed to be responsible for this pain syndrome. Frequently, the
patient presents with midline pain after prolonged activity requir-
ing hyperextension of the neck, such as painting a ceiling or pro-
longed use of a computer monitor with too high of a focal point.
The pain is localized to the interspinous region between C7 and
T1 and does not radiate. It is constant, dull, and aching. The
patient may attempt to relieve the constant ache by assuming a
posture of dorsal kyphosis with a thrusting forward of the neck
(Figure 22-1). The pain of cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis
often improves with activity and worsens with rest and relaxation.
Signs and Symptoms
A patient with cervicothoracic bursitis presents with the com-
plaint of dull, poorly localized pain in the lower cervical and upper
thoracic region. The pain spreads from the midline to the adjacent
paraspinous area, but is nonradicular. The patient often holds the
cervical spine rigid, with the head thrust forward to splint the
affected ligament and bursae. Flexion and extension of the lower
cervical spine and upper thoracic spine tend to cause more pain
than rotation of the head.
The neurological examination of patients with cervicothoracic
bursitis should be normal. Focal or radicular neurological find-
ings suggest a central or spinal cord origin of pain symptoms and
should be followed with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of
the appropriate anatomical regions.
Testing
MRI of the lower cervical and upper thoracic spine should be
performed in all patients thought to have cervicothoracic bursi-
tis (Figure 22-2). Electromyography of the brachial plexus and
upper extremities is indicated if neurological findings or pain
that radiates into the arms are present. Clinical laboratory tests,
including a complete blood cell count, automated chemistry pro-
file, antinuclear antibody testing, and erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, are indicated to rule out infection; collagen-vascular disease,
including ankylosing spondylitis; and malignancy that may mimic
the clinical presentation of cervicothoracic bursitis. Injection of
the affected interspinous bursae with local anesthetic and steroid
may serve as a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver and may help
strengthen the diagnosis of cervicothoracic bursitis. Plain radiog-
raphy of the sacroiliac joints is indicated if ankylosing spondylitis
is being considered in the differential diagnosis.
Differential Diagnosis
The diagnosis of cervicothoracic bursitis is usually made on clini-
cal grounds as a diagnosis of exclusion. The clinician needs to rule
out intrinsic disease of the spinal cord, including syringomyelia
and tumor, which may mimic the clinical presentation of cervi-
cothoracic bursitis. Ankylosing spondylitis also may manifest in a
manner similar to that of cervicothoracic bursitis. Fibromyalgia
may coexist with cervicothoracic bursitis and should be identifi-
able by its characteristic trigger points and positive jump sign.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated with
cervicothoracic bursitis should include a combination of nonsteroidal
antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)
inhibitors and physical therapy. The local application of heat and
cold also may be beneficial. For patients who do not respond to
these treatment modalities, the following injection technique with a
local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step.
The skin overlying the C7-T1 interspace is prepared with
antiseptic solution. A syringe containing 20 mL of 0.25% pre-
servative-free bupivacaine and 40 mg of methylprednisolone is
attached to a 25-gauge, 1-inch needle. The needle is carefully
advanced through the supraspinal ligament into the interspinous
ligament (Figure 22-3). Care must be taken to keep the needle
in the midline and not to advance it too deeply, or inadvertent
epidural, subdural, or subarachnoid injection could occur. After
careful aspiration, a volume of 2 to 3 mL is gently injected into
the ligament. The patient should be informed that two to five
treatment sessions may be required to abolish the symptoms of
cervicothoracic bursitis completely.
Complications and Pitfalls
The proximity to the spinal cord and exiting nerve roots makes
it imperative that this procedure be performed only by clinicians
57
58 SECTION 2 Neck and Brachial Plexus Pain Syndromes
C7
T1
Figure 22-1 Patients with cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis attempt to relieve pain by assuming a position of dorsal kyphosis with a thrusting
forward of the neck.
well versed in the regional anatomy and experienced in perform-
ing injection techniques. The proximity to the vertebral artery
combined with the vascular nature of this anatomical region
makes the potential for intravascular injection high. Even small
amounts of a local anesthetic injected into the vertebral arteries
result in seizures. Given the proximity of the brain and brainstem,
ataxia after trigger point injection as a result of vascular uptake
of local anesthetic is common. Many patients also complain of a
transient increase in pain after injection in this anatomical area. If
long needles are used, pneumothorax also may occur.
Because of the proximity of the epidural, subdural, and sub-
arachnoid space, placement of a needle too deeply could result
in inadvertent neuraxial block. Failure to recognize inadvertent
epidural, subdural, or dural puncture can result in significant
motor and sensory block with the potential for associated loss of
consciousness, hypotension, and apnea. If subdural placement is
unrecognized, and the previously mentioned doses of local anes-
thetics are administered, the signs and symptoms are similar to
those of subarachnoid injection, although the resulting motor and
sensory block may be spotty.

HRP
AR
Figure 22-2 Magnetic resonance imaging (T2) of an interspinous bursa
measuring 2 2 2.5 cm between C6 and C7. (From Perka C, Schneider
SV, Buttgereit F, Matziolis G: Development of cervical interspinous bursitis
after prolonged sports trauma: a case report, Joint Bone Spine 73:118
120, 2006.)
Kyphosis
Figure 22-3 Proper needle placement for injection for treatment of cer-
vicothoracic interspinous bursitis pain. (From Waldman SD: Atlas of pain
management injection techniques, Philadelphia, 2000, Saunders, p 33.)
22 Cervicothoracic Interspinous Bursitis 59
Clinical Pearls
The aforementioned injection technique is extremely effec-
tive in the treatment of cervicothoracic bursitis. This tech-
nique is a safe procedure if careful attention is paid to the
clinically relevant anatomy in the areas to be injected. Care
must be taken to use sterile technique to avoid infection and
universal precautions to avoid risk to the operator. Most
side effects of the injection technique for cervicothoracic
bursitis are related to needle-induced trauma to the injec-
tion site and underlying tissues. The incidence of ecchymo-
sis and hematoma formation can be decreased if pressure
is placed on the injection site immediately after injection.
The avoidance of overly long needles helps decrease the
incidence of trauma to underlying structures. Special care
must be taken to avoid pneumothorax given the proximity
to the underlying pleural space.
The use of physical modalities, including local heat and
gentle stretching exercises, should be introduced several
days after the patient undergoes this injection technique
for cervicothoracic bursitis. Vigorous exercises should be
avoided because they would exacerbate the symptoms.
Simple analgesics, NSAIDs, and antimyotonic agents such
as tizanidine may be used concurrently with this injection
technique.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Hull JJ, Tomaski SM: Osteomyelitis of the cervical spine: case report and literature
review, Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 113:193, 1995.
Perka C, Schneider SV, Buttgereit F, Matziolis G: Development of cervical inter-
spinous bursitis after prolonged sports trauma: a case report, Joint Bone Spine
73:118120, 2006.
Reckelhoff KE, Green MN, Kettner NW: Cervical spine osteochondroma: rare
presentation of a common lesion, J Manipulative Physiol Ther 33:711715,
2010.
Waldman SD: Cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis. In Waldman SD, editor:
Pain review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 238239.
Chapter 23
SCAPULOCOSTAL SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 726.2
ICD-10 CODE M75.80
The Clinical Syndrome
Scapulocostal syndrome is a clinical syndrome characterized by
pain and paresthesias over the medial border of the scapula that
radiate into the neck, upper triceps, chest wall, and distal upper
extremity. The pain is burning and aching. The intensity level of
pain associated with scapulocostal syndrome is moderate.
Also known as traveling salesman shoulder, the scapulocostal
syndrome is thought to be an overuse syndrome resulting from
repetitive use of the shoulder stabilizing muscles, including the
serratus anterior, levator scapulae, pectoralis minor, and rhom-
boid, when carrying out activities such as reaching backward over
a car seat for samples and prolonged use of the telephone cradled
between the shoulder and neck (Figure 23-1). Racquet sports also
have been implicated in the evolution of scapulocostal syndrome.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical examination reveals myofascial trigger points in the
rhomboid, infraspinatus, and subscapularis muscles. These trig-
ger points are best shown by having the patient reach across the
chest and place his or her hand on the uninvolved shoulder. Pal-
pation of trigger points along the medial border of the scapula
produces a positive jump sign and causes pain to radiate into the
ipsilateral upper extremity. The neurological examination of the
upper extremity is normal in scapulocostal syndrome. Untreated,
patients with scapulocostal syndrome develop decreased range of
motion of the shoulder and scapula, resulting in functional dis-
ability and pain.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with scapulocos-
tal syndrome. Based on the clinical presentation, additional tests,
including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody level, may be indicated. Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) of the shoulder is indicated if rotator
cuff tear is suspected. Radionuclide bone scanning is indicated
if metastatic disease or primary tumor involving the shoulder is
60
being considered. Chest radiographs with apical lordotic views
should be obtained if superior sulcus tumor of the lung is a pos-
sibility. Electromyography and nerve conduction velocity testing
help rule out radiculopathy, brachial plexopathy, and entrapment
neuropathy.
Differential Diagnosis
Scapulocostal syndrome is most commonly misdiagnosed as cervi-
cal radiculopathy. In contrast to cervical radiculopathy, however,
which is associated with numbness and weakness in the affected
dermatomes, the upper extremity neurological examination in
scapulocostal syndrome is normal. Osteoarthritis, rheumatoid
arthritis, posttraumatic arthritis, and rotator cuff tear arthropathy
also are common causes of shoulder pain secondary to arthritis
that may be confused with scapulocostal syndrome. Less common
causes of arthritis-induced shoulder pain include the collagen-
vascular diseases, infection, villonodular synovitis, and Lyme
disease. Acute infectious arthritis usually is accompanied by signif-
icant systemic symptoms, including fever and malaise, and should
be easily recognized by an astute clinician and treated appropri-
ately with culture and antibiotics, rather than injection therapy.
The collagen-vascular diseases generally manifest as a polyarthrop-
athy rather than a monarthropathy limited to the shoulder joint,
and the pain does not radiate into the upper extremity. Pancoast
tumor and brachial plexopathy also may mimic the clinical pre-
sentation of scapulocostal syndrome.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with scapulocostal syndrome should include a combination of
nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygen-
ase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. The local applica-
tion of heat and cold also may be beneficial. Repetitive movements
that incite the syndrome should be avoided. For patients who do
not respond to these treatment modalities, injection of myofascial
trigger points with local anesthetic and steroid may be a reason-
able next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complication in the care of a patient thought to have
scapulocostal syndrome is misdiagnosis. Tumors of the superior
sulcus of the lung or primary or metastatic tumors of the shoulder
and scapula must be included in the differential diagnosis.
 23 Scapulocostal Syndrome 61

SUGGESTED READINGS
Bradley LA: Pathophysiology of fibromyalgia, Am J Med 122(Suppl 1):S22S30,
2009.
Ge HU, Nie H, Madeleine P: Contribution of the local and referred pain from
active myofascial trigger points in fibromyalgia syndrome, Pain 147:233240,
2009.
Monach PA: Shoulder pain. In Mushlin SB, Greene HL II, editors: Decision making
in medicine, 3rd ed, New York, 2010, Elsevier, pp 522523.
Waldman SD: Scapulocostal syndrome. In Waldman SD, editor: Atlas of pain
Levator Supraspinatus management injection techniques, 2nd ed, Philadelphia, Saunders, pp 123126.
scapulae
Infraspinatus

Rhomboids Serratus
anterior

Figure 23-1 Scapulocostal syndrome is due to repetitive use of the

shoulder stabilizing muscles.

Clinical Pearls
Scapulocostal syndrome is a less common cause of shoulder
and upper extremity pain encountered in clinical practice,
with cervical radiculopathy occurring much more com-
monly. This painful condition must be separated from
other causes of shoulder pain, including rotator cuff tears.
Coexistent bursitis and tendinitis also may contribute to
shoulder pain and may require additional treatment with
more localized injection of local anesthetic and depot ste-
roid. Trigger point injections are a safe procedure if care-
ful attention is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy in
the areas to be injected. Care must be taken to use sterile
technique to avoid infection and universal precautions to
avoid risk to the operator. The incidence of ecchymosis and
hematoma formation can be decreased if pressure is placed
on the injection site immediately after injection. The use
of physical modalities, including local heat and gentle
range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced several
days after the patient undergoes trigger point injections for
scapulocostal syndrome. Avoidance of activities responsible
for the evolution of the disease must be considered or the
syndrome will recur. Vigorous exercises should be avoided
because they would exacerbate symptoms. Simple analgesics
and NSAIDs or a COX-2 inhibitor may be used concur-
rently with an injection technique.
Chapter 24

PARSONAGE-TURNER SYNDROME

(e.g., Parsonage-Turner syndrome), and postradiation plexopa-

ICD-9 CODE 353.0 thy. Cervical radiculopathy is a much more common cause of
upper extremity pain and weakness relative to Parsonage-Turner
syndrome. Table 24-1 differentiates these two painful conditions.
ICD-10 CODE G54.0 In patients in whom Parsonage-Turner syndrome affects only an

The Clinical Syndrome

Parsonage and Turner described the painful condition of the
shoulder and upper extremity that bears their name and was
first identified as a distinct clinical entity in 1948. The pain of
Parsonage-Turner syndrome is of acute onset and is severe in
intensity. The pain is burning and involves the shoulder and
upper arm, preceding the onset of muscle weakness by hours to
days (Figure 24-1). Sleep disturbance is common, and weakness
of the muscles of the shoulder and upper extremity, including
the deltoid, infraspinatus, supraspinatus, and biceps, occurs as
Weakness in:
the syndrome progresses. In some patients, this weakness can be
severe, progressing to complete flaccidity. A viral cause of Parson- Supraspinatus
age-Turner syndrome has been suggested, as has the belief that
this painful condition is an immunological disease. Neither theory Deltoid
has been proved.
Infraspinatus

Signs and Symptoms

Patients with Parsonage-Turner syndrome first experience a sudden
onset of pain that begins in the shoulder and radiates down the arm.
The pain is severe and is followed by the development of weak-
ness. The skin examination is normal, with no evidence of acute
herpes zoster. Range of motion of the cervical spine generally does Biceps
not affect the pain or numbness, in contrast to cervical radiculopa-
thy. Weakness of the muscles of the shoulder and upper extrem-
ity, including the deltoid, infraspinatus, supraspinatus, and biceps,
increases as the syndrome progresses. Flaccidity of these muscles
may occur. Usually, more than one portion of the brachial plexus
is affected, although isolated single nerve involvement can occur.

Differential Diagnosis
Brachial plexopathy has many causes. In common to all of them is
the constellation of symptoms consisting of neurogenic pain and
associated weakness that radiates into the supraclavicular region
and upper extremity. More common causes of brachial plexopa-
thy include compression of the plexus by cervical ribs or abnor-
mal muscles (e.g., thoracic outlet syndrome), invasion of the Figure 24-1 The pain of Parsonage-Turner syndrome involves the
plexus by tumor (e.g., Pancoast syndrome), direct trauma to the shoulder and upper arm, preceding the onset of muscle weakness by
plexus (e.g., stretch injuries and avulsions), inflammatory causes hours to days.

62

isolated nerve, the syndrome may be misdiagnosed as entrapment
neuropathy. Electromyography is the cornerstone in sorting out
the differential diagnosis in patients with the acute onset of shoul-
der and upper extremity pain.
Diseases of the cervical spinal cord, bony cervical spine, and
disc can mimic Parsonage-Turner syndrome. Appropriate testing,
including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and electromyog-
raphy, helps sort out the myriad possibilities, but the clinician
also should be aware that more than one pathological process may
coexist and contribute to the patients symptoms. Syringomyelia,
tumors of the cervical spinal cord, and tumors of the cervical nerve
roots as they exit the spinal cord, such as schwannomas, can be of
insidious onset and quite difficult to diagnose. Pancoast tumor
should be high on the list of diagnostic possibilities in all patients
with brachial plexopathy in the absence of clear antecedent
trauma, especially in the presence of a history of tobacco abuse.
Lateral herniated cervical disc, metastatic tumor, or cervical spon-
dylosis that results in significant nerve root compression also may
manifest as a brachial plexopathy. Rarely, infection involving the
apex of the lung may compress and irritate the plexus.
Testing
All patients presenting with Parsonage-Turner syndrome must
undergo MRI of the cervical spine and the brachial plexus (Figure
24-2). Computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable second choice
if MRI is contraindicated. Electromyography and nerve conduc-
tion velocity testing are extremely sensitive, and a skilled electro-
myographer can help delineate the specific portion of the plexus
that is abnormal. If an inflammatory basis for the plexopathy is
suspected, serial electromyography is indicated. If Pancoast tumor
or other tumors of the brachial plexus are suspected, chest radio-
graphs with apical lordotic views may be helpful.
Screening laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, antinuclear antibody test-
ing, and automated blood chemistry testing should be performed
if the diagnosis of brachial plexopathy is in question, to help rule
out other causes of pain.
Treatment
Pharmacological Therapy
Gabapentin
Gabapentin is the first-line treatment for the neuritic pain of
Parsonage-Turner syndrome. The drug is started with a 300-mg
dose at bedtime for 2 nights; the patient should be cautioned about
potential side effects, including dizziness, sedation, confusion,
TABLE 24-1
Comparison of Parsonage-Turner Syndrome and Cervical Radiculopathy
Disease History
Parsonage-Turner Acute, intense burning pain that begins
syndrome spontaneously in shoulder and upper arm;
pain unaffected by neck movement
Cervical Pain begins in neck and radiates down
radiculopathy arm; the pain is increased by neck move- distribution of a single nerve root
ment; pain and muscle weakness occur
spontaneously
MRI, Magnetic resonance imaging.
24 Parsonage-Turner Syndrome 63
and rash. The drug is increased in 300-mg increments, given in
equally divided doses over 2 days, as side effects allow, until pain
relief is obtained or a total dose of 2400 mg per day is reached. At
this point, if the patient has experienced partial pain relief, blood
values are measured, and the drug is carefully titrated upward
using 100-mg tablets. More than 3600 mg daily rarely is required.
Carbamazepine
Carbamazepine is useful in patients with Parsonage-Turner syn-
drome who do not experience pain relief with gabapentin. Despite
the safety and efficacy of carbamazepine compared with other
treatments for Parsonage-Turner syndrome, much confusion and
unfounded anxiety surround its use. This medication, which may
be the best chance for pain control, is sometimes discontinued
because of laboratory abnormalities erroneously attributed to it.
Baseline screening laboratory tests, consisting of a complete blood
cell count, urinalysis, and automated chemistry profile, should be
obtained before starting the drug.
Carbamazepine should be started slowly if the pain is not out
of control. The drug is started with a 100- to 200-mg dose at bed-
time for 2 nights; the patient should be cautioned regarding side
effects, including dizziness, sedation, confusion, and rash. The
drug is increased in 100- to 200-mg increments, given in equally
divided doses over 2 days, as side effects allow, until pain relief
is obtained or a total dose of 1200 mg daily is reached. Careful
monitoring of laboratory parameters is mandatory to avoid the
rare possibility of life-threatening blood dyscrasia. At the first sign
of blood count abnormality or rash, carbamazepine should be dis-
continued. Failure to monitor patients started on carbamazepine
can be disastrous because aplastic anemia can occur. When pain
relief is obtained, the patient should be kept at that dosage of
carbamazepine for at least 6 months before considering tapering
of this medication. The patient should be informed that under no
circumstances should the dosage of drug be changed or the drug
refilled or discontinued without the physicians knowledge.
Baclofen
Baclofen has been reported to be valuable in some patients who
fail to obtain relief from gabapentin and carbamazepine. Baseline
laboratory tests should be obtained before starting baclofen. The
drug is started with a 10-mg dose at bedtime for 2 nights; the
patient should be cautioned about potential adverse effects, which
are the same as those of carbamazepine and gabapentin.
Baclofen is increased in 10-mg increments, given in equally
divided doses over 7 days, as side effects allow, until pain relief is
obtained or a total dose of 80 mg per day is reached. This drug
has significant hepatic and central nervous system side effects,
including weakness and sedation. As with carbamazepine, careful
Examination Test Results
Neurological deficits that suggest Electromyogram positive for
more than one nerve is involved; brachial plexopathy; MRI of
weakness that may progress to cervical spine noncontributory
flaccidity to diagnosis
Weakness and numbness in the MRI of cervical spine reveals
herniated disc or osteophyte
formation or both
64 SECTION 2 Neck and Brachial Plexus Pain Syndromes

A B
Figure 24-2 Pancoast tumor in a 46-year-old man. Sagittal T1-weighted (A) and sagittal T1-weighted gadolinium-enhanced with fat saturation (B)
sequences show left apical bronchogenic carcinoma (white arrow) invading the supraclavicular fossa, involving the brachial plexus, and encasing the
subclavian artery (black arrow). (From Knisely BL, Broderick LS, Kuhlman JE: MR imaging of the pleura and chest wall, MRI Clin North Am 8:125, 2000.)

monitoring of laboratory values is indicated during the initial use
of this drug.
When treating patients with any of the drugs mentioned, the
physician should inform the patient that premature tapering or
discontinuation of the medication may lead to the recurrence of
pain. The pain becomes more difficult to control thereafter.
Interventional Treatment
Brachial Plexus Block
The use of brachial plexus block with a local anesthetic and steroid
is an excellent adjunct to drug treatment of Parsonage-Turner
syndrome. This technique rapidly relieves pain while medications
are being titrated to effective levels. The initial block is performed
with preservative-free bupivacaine combined with methylprednis-
olone. Subsequent daily nerve blocks are done in a similar manner,
substituting a lower dose of methylprednisolone. This approach
also may be used to obtain control of breakthrough pain.
Physical Modalities
The use of physical and occupational therapy to maintain func-
tion and help palliate pain is a crucial part of the treatment plan
for patients with Parsonage-Turner syndrome. Shoulder abnor-
malities, including subluxation and adhesive capsulitis, must be
aggressively searched for and treated. Occupational therapy to
assist in activities of daily living also is important to avoid further
deterioration of function.
Complications and Pitfalls
The pain of Parsonage-Turner syndrome is difficult to treat. It
responds poorly to opioid analgesics and may respond poorly to
the previously mentioned medications. The uncontrolled pain
of Parsonage-Turner syndrome has led to suicide, and hospital-
ization of such patients should be strongly considered. Correct
diagnosis is crucial to successfully treat the pain and dysfunction
associated with brachial plexopathy because stretch injuries and
contusions of the plexus may respond with time, but plexopa-
thy secondary to tumor or avulsion of the cervical roots requires
aggressive treatment.
Clinical Pearls
Brachial plexus block with a local anesthetic and steroid
represents an excellent stop-gap measure for patients with
the uncontrolled pain of Parsonage-Turner syndrome while
waiting for pharmacological treatments to take effect. As
mentioned, correct diagnosis is paramount to allow the cli-
nician to design a logical treatment plan.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Marshall GB, McKenna E, Mahallati H: ParsonageTurner syndrome, Eur J
Radiol Extra 6:5153, 2005.
Mileto A, Gaeta M: Calcific tendonitis of supraspinatus simulating acute brachial
neuritis (Parsonage-Turner syndrome), Clin Radiol 66:578581, 2011.
24 Parsonage-Turner Syndrome 65
Stutz CM: Neuralgic amyotrophy: Parsonage-Turner syndrome, J Hand Surg
35:21042106, 2010.
Wendling D, Sevrin P, Bouchaud-Chabot A, etal: ParsonageTurner syndrome
revealing Lyme borreliosis, Joint Bone Spine 76:202204, 2009.
Chapter 25
HYOID SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 728.89
ICD-10 CODE M62.89
The Clinical Syndrome
Hyoid syndrome is caused by calcification and inflammation of
the attachment of the stylohyoid ligament to the hyoid bone. The
stylohyoid ligaments cephalad attachment is to the styloid pro-
cess, and its caudal attachment is to the hyoid bone. Tendinitis
of the other muscular attachments to the hyoid bone also may
contribute to this painful condition. Hyoid syndrome also may be
seen in conjunction with Eagles syndrome (see Chapter 14). The
pain of hyoid syndrome is sharp and stabbing and occurs with
movement of the mandible, turning of the neck, or swallowing.
Signs and Symptoms
The pain of hyoid syndrome starts below the angle of the mandi-
ble and radiates into the anterolateral neck. It is triggered or wors-
ened with chewing, rotation of the cervical spine, and swallowing
(Figure 25-1). The pain of hyoid syndrome is sharp and stabbing
and often is referred to the ipsilateral ear. Some patients also may
complain of a foreign body sensation in the pharynx. Injection of
the attachment of the stylohyoid ligament to the greater cornu of
hyoid bone with local anesthetic and steroid serves as a diagnostic
and therapeutic maneuver.
Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the soft tissues of the neck
may reveal calcification, inflammation, or both of the caudad
attachment of the stylohyoid ligament at the hyoid bone. Injec-
tion of the ligament with local anesthetic can serve as a diagnostic
maneuver to help strengthen the diagnosis.
Differential Diagnosis
Soft tissue injuries to the region may mimic styloid syndrome.
Because trauma is invariably involved in the evolution of the pain-
ful condition, the strain and sprain of other soft tissues, such as
omohyoid syndrome, often exist concurrently with hyoid syn-
drome (see Chapter 26). Primary or metastatic tumors of the neck
and hypopharynx and mass effect from thyroglossal duct cyst
also may mimic the clinical presentation of hyoid syndrome and
66
should be high on the list of diagnostic possibilities if the history
of trauma is weak or absent. Although clinically similar, glosso-
pharyngeal neuralgia can be distinguished from hyoid syndrome
in that the pain of glossopharyngeal neuralgia is characterized by
paroxysms of shocklike pain in a manner analogous to trigemi-
nal neuralgia, rather than the sharp, shooting pain that occurs on
movement associated with hyoid syndrome. Because glossopha-
ryngeal neuralgia may be associated with serious cardiac brady-
arrhythmias and syncope, the clinician must distinguish the two
syndromes.
Treatment
Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygen-
ase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors represent a reasonable first step in the
treatment of hyoid syndrome. The use of tricyclic antidepressants,
such as nortriptyline, at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg titrating
as side effects allow also is useful, especially if sleep disturbance is
present. If symptoms persist, injection of the caudad attachment
of the stylohyoid ligament is a reasonable next step.
To perform this injection, the patient is placed in the supine
position. The angle of the mandible on the affected side is identi-
fied. The greater cornu of the hyoid bone should lie approximately
1 inch inferior to the angle of the mandible. Gentle pressure at the
same point on the contralateral side of the neck steadies the hyoid
bone and makes identification of the greater cornu and subsequent
injection easier (Figure 25-2). The skin is prepared with antiseptic
solution. A 22-gauge, 112-inch needle attached to a 10-mL syringe
is advanced at this point 1 inch inferior to the angle of the man-
dible in a plane perpendicular to the skin. The greater cornu of
the hyoid bone should be encountered within 2.5 to 3 cm (Fig-
ure 25-3). After contact is made, the needle is withdrawn slightly
out of the periosteum or substance of the calcified ligament. After
careful aspiration reveals no blood or cerebrospinal fluid, 5 mL of
0.5% preservative-free lidocaine combined with 80 mg of meth-
ylprednisolone is injected in incremental doses. Subsequent daily
nerve blocks are done in a similar manner, substituting 40 mg of
methylprednisolone for the initial 80-mg dose.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complication in the treatment of patients thought to
have hyoid syndrome is wrong diagnosis. Occult cervical spine frac-
ture or instability after trauma remains an ever-present possibility.
Failure to diagnose such injuries can put the patient at significant
risk for permanent neurological sequelae. As mentioned earlier, if
the patient is thought to have a history of trauma, the diagnosis of
hyoid syndrome should become one of exclusion. A careful search
 25 Hyoid Syndrome 67

Styloid process

Inflamed and calcified

Hyoid bone stylohyoid ligament

Figure 25-1 The pain of hyoid syndrome starts below the angle of the mandible and radiates into the anterolateral neck. It is triggered or worsened
with chewing, rotation of the cervical spine, or swallowing.

Hyoid Trachea
bone
Gentle pressure
on greater cornu

Internal External Internal

carotid carotid jugular
artery artery vein
Carrico & Shavell

Figure 25-3 Injection technique for relieving the pain of hyoid syn-
drome. (From Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management injection tech-
niques, 2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders, p 17.)

Figure 25-2 Identification of the greater cornu of the hyoid bone. (From
Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management injection techniques, 2nd ed,
Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders, p 18.)
68 SECTION 2 Neck and Brachial Plexus Pain Syndromes

for tumors of the neck, apex of the lung, anterior triangle of the SUGGESTED READINGS
neck, and hypopharynx is indicated. If a significant history of vom- Auvenshine RC: Anatomy of the airway: an overview, Sleep Med Clin 5:4557,
iting is ascertained, esophageal tear should be considered. 2010.
Although the injection technique for hyoid syndrome is safe, Ernest EA III, Salter EG: Hyoid bone syndrome: a degenerative injury of the mid-
dle pharyngeal constrictor muscle with photomicroscopic evidence of insertion
complications can occur. In addition to the potential for com- tendinosis, J Prosthet Dentist 66:7883, 1991.
plications involving the vasculature, if the needle is placed too Nir D, Hefer T, Joachims HZ: Hyoid bone syndrome and its treatment with non-
laterally, the proximity of the brachial plexus, the central neuraxial steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, Am J Otolaryngol 19:296300, 1998.
structures, and the phrenic nerve can result in side effects and com- Waldman SD: Hyoid syndrome. In Atlas of pain management injection techniques,
plications. Although these complications should be rare if proper 2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders. pp 1619.
technique is observed, the potential for inadvertent epidural, sub-
dural, or subarachnoid injection remains. Phrenic nerve block also
can occur when using this injection technique to treat hyoid syn-
drome if the needle placement is too posterolateral. In the absence
of significant pulmonary disease, unilateral phrenic nerve block
should rarely create respiratory embarrassment. Blockade of the
recurrent laryngeal nerve with its attendant vocal cord paralysis
combined with paralysis of the diaphragm may make the clearing
of pulmonary and upper airway secretions difficult. Because of the
proximity of the apex of the lung, pneumothorax is a distinct pos-
sibility, and the patient should be informed of this.

Clinical Pearls
The clinician should always evaluate a patient who has pain
in this anatomical region for occult malignancy. Tumors of
the larynx, hypopharynx, and anterior triangle of the neck
may manifest clinical symptoms identical to those of hyoid
syndrome. Given the low incidence of hyoid syndrome
relative to pain secondary to malignancy in this anatomical
region, hyoid syndrome must be considered a diagnosis of
exclusion.
The injection technique described for hyoid syndrome
is a simple technique that can produce dramatic relief for
patients with the previously mentioned pain problems.
As discussed earlier, the proximity of the greater cornu
of the hyoid bone to major vasculature makes postblock
hematoma and ecchymosis a distinct possibility. Although
these complications are usually transitory, their dramatic
appearance can be quite upsetting to the patient; therefore
the patient should be warned of this possibility before the
procedure. The vascularity of this region also increases the
incidence of inadvertent intravascular injection. Even small
amounts of local anesthetic injected into the carotid artery
at this level can result in local anesthetic toxicity and sei-
zures. Incremental dosing while carefully monitoring the
patient for signs of local anesthetic toxicity helps avoid this
complication.
Chapter 26

OMOHYOID SYNDROME

ICD-9 CODE 726.2 Differential Diagnosis

Soft tissue injuries to the region may mimic omohyoid syndrome.
Because trauma is invariably involved in the evolution of the painful
ICD-10 CODE M79.7 condition, strain and sprain of other soft tissues often exist concur-
rently with omohyoid syndrome. Primary or metastatic tumors of
the neck and hypopharynx also may mimic the clinical presentation
The Clinical Syndrome of omohyoid syndrome and should be high on the list of diagnostic
possibilities if the history of trauma is weak or absent.
Trauma is the common denominator in patients with omohyoid
syndrome. The syndrome is most often seen in patients who have
recently experienced a bout of intense vomiting or sustained a flex-
Treatment
ion/extension injury to the cervical spine and the musculature of Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-
the anterior neck. The pain of omohyoid syndrome is the result of 2 (COX-2) inhibitors represent a reasonable first step in the treatment
damage to the fibers of the inferior belly of the omohyoid muscle. of omohyoid syndrome. The use of tricyclic antidepressants, such
This pain manifests as myofascial. It is constant and exacerbated as nortriptyline, at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg, titrating upward
with movement of the affected muscle. A trigger point in the infe- as side effects allow also is helpful, especially if sleep disturbance
rior belly of the omohyoid muscle is often present and provides
a basis for treatment. The pain of omohyoid syndrome starts just
above the clavicle at the lateral aspect of the clavicular attachment
of the sternocleidomastoid muscle. The pain may radiate into the
anterolateral neck. Injection of the trigger point in the inferior
muscle of the omohyoid muscle with local anesthetic and steroid
serves as a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver.

Signs and Symptoms

A patient with omohyoid syndrome presents with pain in the
supraclavicular region at a point just lateral and superior to the
attachment of the sternocleidomastoid muscle to the clavicle
(Figure 26-1). The pain often radiates into the anterolateral neck
and increases with movement of the omohyoid muscle. A base-
line level of pain is present even without movement of the mus-
cle. The pain intensity ranges from minor to moderate. A trigger
point in the belly of the omohyoid muscle is often present. The
pain of omohyoid syndrome is often exacerbated by swallowing.
The neurological examination of a patient with omohyoid syn-
drome is normal, unless trauma has occurred to the cervical nerve
roots or brachial plexus.

Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the soft tissues of the neck
may reveal hematoma formation of the omohyoid muscle acutely
and calcification, fibrosis, or both as the syndrome becomes more
chronic. Injection of the belly of the omohyoid muscle with local Figure 26-1 The pain of omohyoid syndrome is localized in the supra-
anesthetic can serve as a diagnostic maneuver to help strengthen clavicular region at a point just lateral and superior to the attachment of
the diagnosis. the sternocleidomastoid muscle to the clavicle.

69
70 SECTION 2 Neck and Brachial Plexus Pain Syndromes
Site of
injection
Omohyoid muscle
(superior belly)
Sternocleidomastoid
muscle:
Sternal head
1"
Clavicular head
Clavicle
Omohyoid muscle
(inferior belly)
Figure 26-2 Injection site for the treatment of omohyoid syndrome.
is present. The injection of trigger points in the inferior belly of
the omohyoid muscle often produces dramatic improvement in
pain symptoms.
The key landmark for injecting when treating omohyoid
syndrome is the lateral aspect of the clavicular head of the ster-
nocleidomastoid muscle (Figure 26-2). The omohyoid muscle
is located slightly lateral and deep to the clavicular head of the
sternocleidomastoid muscle approximately to 1 inch above the
superior margin of the clavicle. Given the relationship of the great
vessels of the neck to the omohyoid muscle, care must be taken
when placing needles in this anatomical area.
The patient is placed in the supine position, with the head
turned away from the side to be blocked. Using a 5-mL ster-
ile syringe, 3 mL of local anesthetic is drawn up. When treat-
ing omohyoid syndrome, 80 mg of depot steroid is added to the
local anesthetic with the first block and 40 mg of depot steroid
is added with subsequent blocks. The patient is asked to raise the
head against the resistance of the pain specialists hand to aid in
identification of the posterior border of the sternocleidomastoid
muscle. The point at which the lateral border of the sternocleido-
mastoid attaches to the clavicle is identified. At this point, slightly
lateral and approximately 1 inch above the clavicle, after prepa-
ration of the skin with antiseptic solution, a 1-inch needle is
inserted directly perpendicular to the table top (see Figure 26-2).
The needle should be advanced slowly because of proximity of the
great vessels and brachial plexus. A pop often is felt as the fascia
of the omohyoid muscle is pierced; this should occur at a depth
of to of an inch. If strict attention to technique is observed,
and the needle is not placed or directed too laterally, the brachial
plexus should not be encountered. Because of the proximity of
the brachial plexus, the patient should be warned that a pares-
thesia could occur, however; the patient should be instructed to
say There! if a paresthesia is felt. The needle should never be
directed in a more inferior medial trajectory because pneumotho-
rax is likely to occur.
After the muscle is identified, gentle aspiration is done to iden-
tify blood or cerebrospinal fluid. If the aspiration test is negative,
and no paresthesia into the distribution of the brachial plexus is
encountered, 3 mL of solution is slowly injected, with the patient
being monitored closely for signs of local anesthetic toxicity or
inadvertent neuraxial injection.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complication in the treatment of patients thought to
have omohyoid syndrome is wrong diagnosis. Occult cervical
spine fractures or instability after trauma remain an ever-present
possibility. Failure to diagnose such injuries can put the patient at
significant risk for permanent neurological sequelae. As mentioned
earlier, if the history of trauma is suspect, the diagnosis of omohy-
oid syndrome should become one of exclusion. A careful search for
tumors of the neck, apex of the lung, anterior triangle of the neck,
and hypopharynx is indicated. If a significant history of vomiting is
ascertained, esophageal tear also should be considered.
Although the injection technique for omohyoid syndrome is safe,
complications can occur. In addition to the potential for complica-
tions involving the vasculature, if the needle is placed too laterally,
the proximity of the brachial plexus, the central neuraxial structures,
and the phrenic nerve can result in side effects and complications.
Although these complications should be rare if proper technique is
observed, the potential for inadvertent epidural, subdural, or sub-
arachnoid injection remains a possibility. Phrenic nerve block also
can occur when using this injection technique to treat omohyoid
syndrome if the needle placement is too far posterolaterally. In the
absence of significant pulmonary disease, unilateral phrenic nerve
block should rarely create respiratory embarrassment. Blockade of
the recurrent laryngeal nerve with its attendant vocal cord paralysis
combined with paralysis of the diaphragm may make the clearing of
pulmonary and upper airway secretions difficult, however. Because
of the proximity of the apex of the lung, pneumothorax is a distinct
possibility and the patient should be informed of this.
Clinical Pearls
Although an uncommon cause of pain, omohyoid syndrome
is a clinically distinct and easily recognizable pain syndrome.
Because of its excellent response to the injection technique
described, the diagnosis of omohyoid syndrome should be
considered in the presence of a history of trauma or after
prolonged or forceful vomiting. If the patient has severe,
acute pain after vomiting, esophageal tear is a more likely
diagnosis. More chronic pain after a significant episode of
vomiting is more likely to indicate omohyoid syndrome.
The key to performing this injection technique safely is a
clear understanding of the anatomy and careful identification
of the anatomical landmarks necessary to perform the block.
The brachial plexus is quite superficial at the level at which
this block is performed. The needle should rarely be inserted
deeper than of an inch in all but the most obese patients.
If strict adherence to technique is observed, and the needle is
never advanced medially from the lateral border of the inser-
tion of the sternocleidomastoid muscle on the clavicle, the
incidence of pneumothorax should be less than 0.5%.
In the absence of well-documented trauma to the ante-
rior neck, omohyoid syndrome is a diagnosis of exclusion.
The clinician should always evaluate a patient with pain in
this anatomical region for occult malignancy. Tumors of
the larynx, hypopharynx, and anterior triangle of the neck
may manifest with clinical symptoms identical to omohy-
oid syndrome. In the setting of flexion/extension injuries or
other forceful trauma to the soft tissues of the neck, cervical
spine, or both, the clinician also should evaluate the patient
for trauma to the brachial plexus by careful physical exami-
nation and electromyography.
 26 Omohyoid Syndrome 71

SUGGESTED READINGS Waldman SD: Omohyoid syndrome. In Waldman SD, editor: Atlas of pain man-
agement injection techniques, ed 2, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders, pp 2931.
Bradley LA: Pathophysiology of fibromyalgia, Am J Med 122(Suppl 1):S22S30, Wong DSY, Li HJC: The omohyoid sling syndrome, Am J Otolaryngol 21:318322,
2009. 2000.
Ge HU, Nie H, Madeleine P, et al: Contribution of the local and referred
pain from active myofascial trigger points in fibromyalgia syndrome, Pain
147:233240, 2009.
Chapter 27
NECK-TONGUE SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 729.2
ICD-10 CODE M79.2
The Clinical Syndrome
Neck-tongue syndrome is a rare condition characterized by pain
in the neck associated with numbness of the ipsilateral half of the
tongue that is aggravated by movement of the upper cervical spine.
This unusual constellation of symptoms is thought to be due to
compression of the C2 nerve root by compromise of the atlan-
toaxial joint. This compression can be caused by joint instabil-
ity that allows subluxation of the lateral joint, bony abnormality
such as congenital fusions or stenosis, or tubercular infection. The
tongue numbness is thought to be due to damage or intermittent
compression of the lingual afferent fibers that pass via the hypo-
glossal nerve to innervate the tongue. The bulk of the fibers are
proprioceptive, and patients with neck-tongue syndrome also may
exhibit pseudoathetosis of the tongue. Neck-tongue syndrome
occurs most commonly in patients older than 50 years, although
the syndrome has been reported in a few pediatric patients.
Signs and Symptoms
The pain of neck-tongue syndrome is in the distribution of the C2
nerve root. It is intermittent, but is reproducible with certain neck
movements. The physical findings associated with this pain are ill
defined, with some patients with neck-tongue syndrome exhibit-
ing a decreased range of motion of the cervical spine or tenderness
of the upper paraspinous musculature. The main objective finding
in neck-tongue syndrome is decreased sensation of the ipsilateral
half of the tongue (Figure 27-1). Often associated with this find-
ing are pseudoathetoid movements of the tongue resulting from
an impairment of the proprioceptive fibers.
Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and brainstem
should be performed in all patients thought to have neck-tongue
syndrome. MRI of the brain provides the best information regard-
ing the cranial vault and its contents. MRI is highly accurate and
helps identify abnormalities that may put the patient at risk for
neurological disasters secondary to intracranial and brainstem
pathology, including tumors and demyelinating disease. Magnetic
resonance angiography (MRA) may be useful to help identify
72
aneurysms responsible for the patients neurological symptoms.
In patients who cannot undergo MRI, such as patients with
pacemakers, computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable second
choice.
Clinical laboratory tests consisting of a complete blood cell
count, automated chemistry profile, and erythrocyte sedimenta-
tion rate are indicated to rule out infection, temporal arteritis, and
malignancy that may mimic neck-tongue syndrome. Endoscopy
of the hypopharynx with special attention to the piriform sinuses
also is indicated to rule out occult malignancy. Differential neural
blockade of the C2 nerve may help strengthen the diagnosis of
neck-tongue syndrome.
Differential Diagnosis
Neck-tongue syndrome is a clinical diagnosis that can be made on
the basis of a targeted history and physical examination. Because
of the rarity of this syndrome, the clinician must consider neck-
tongue syndrome to be a diagnosis of exclusion. Diseases of the
eyes, ears, nose, throat, and teeth may coexist and confuse the
diagnosis. Tumors of the hypopharynx, including the tonsillar
fossa and piriform sinus, may mimic the pain of neck-tongue
syndrome, as may tumors at the cerebellopontine angle. Occa-
sionally, demyelinating disease may produce a clinical syndrome
identical to neck-tongue syndrome. The jaw claudication associ-
ated with temporal arteritis also may confuse the clinical picture,
as may glossopharyngeal neuralgia.
Treatment
The initial treatment of neck-tongue syndrome should consist
of immobilization of the cervical spine with a soft cervical col-
lar. A trial of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors represents a reasonable next
step. Blockade of the atlantoaxial joint and C2 nerve root with a
local anesthetic and steroid also should be considered. For refrac-
tory cases, cervical fusion of the upper cervical segments may be
required.
Complications and Pitfalls
Because of the rarity of neck-tongue syndrome, it is often mis-
diagnosed. Further complicating the confusion surrounding the
diagnosis of this painful condition is the fact that many of the
pathological processes that mimic neck-tongue syndrome are also
difficult to diagnose, especially diseases of the hypopharynx. For
these reasons, the diagnosis of neck-tongue syndrome should be
approached with extreme caution.
 27 Neck-Tongue Syndrome 73

C1 nerve root
C1 (Atlas)
Atlantoaxial joint
C2 nerve root

C2 (Axis)

Numbness

Hypoglossal nerve

Figure 27-1 The pain and numbness of the ipsilateral half of the tongue are aggravated by movement of the upper cervical spine.

Clinical Pearls
Neck-tongue syndrome is a unique and uncommon cause
of neck pain. The associated ipsilateral tongue numbness is
pathognomonic for the syndrome and is unusual in charac-
ter. An analogous type of proprioceptive numbness is seen
in patients with Bells palsy. Given the rarity of this pain-
ful condition, the clinician should search carefully for other
causes of the symptoms before attributing them to neck-
tongue syndrome.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bogduk N: An anatomical basis for the neck-tongue syndrome, J Neurol Neurosurg
Psychiatry 44:202208, 1981.
Borody C: Neck-tongue syndrome, J Manipulative Physiol Ther 27:367, 2004.
Chedrawi AK, Fishman MA, Miller G: Neck-tongue syndrome, Pediatr Neurol
22:397399, 2000.
Orrell RW, Marsden CD: The neck-tongue syndrome, J Neurol Neurosurg Psy-
chiatry 57:348352, 1994.
SECTION 3 Shoulder Pain Syndromes
Chapter 28
SUPRASPINATUS TENDINITIS
ICD-9 CODE 726.10
ICD-10 CODE M75.10
The Clinical Syndrome
Supraspinatus tendinitis can manifest as an acute or chronic pain-
ful condition of the shoulder. Acute supraspinatus tendinitis
usually occurs in younger patients after overuse or misuse of the
shoulder joint. Inciting factors may include carrying heavy loads
in front of and away from the body, throwing injuries, or the vig-
orous use of exercise equipment. Chronic supraspinatus tendinitis
tends to occur in older patients and to manifest in a more gradual
or insidious manner, without a single specific event of anteced-
ent trauma. The pain of supraspinatus tendinitis is constant and
severe, with sleep disturbance often reported. The pain of supra-
spinatus tendinitis is felt primarily in the deltoid region. It is mod-
erate to severe and may be associated with a gradual loss of range
of motion of the affected shoulder. The patient often awakens at
night when he or she rolls over onto the affected shoulder.
Signs and Symptoms
A patient with supraspinatus tendinitis may attempt to splint the
inflamed tendon by elevating the scapula to remove tension from
the ligament, giving the patient a shrugging appearance (Figure
28-1). Point tenderness is usually present over the greater tuberos-
ity. The patient exhibits a painful arc of abduction and complains
of a catch or sudden onset of pain in the midrange of the arc
resulting from impingement of the humeral head onto the supra-
spinatus tendon. A patient with supraspinatus tendinitis exhibits
a positive Dawbarns sign, which is pain to palpation over the
greater tuberosity of the humerus when the arm is hanging down
that disappears when the arm is fully abducted. Early in the course
of the disease, passive range of motion is full and without pain.
As the disease progresses, patients often experience a gradual
decrease in functional ability with decreasing shoulder range of
74
motion, making simple everyday tasks, such as combing hair, fasten-
ing a brassiere, or reaching overhead, quite difficult. With continued
disuse, muscle wasting may occur and a frozen shoulder may develop.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients who present with
shoulder pain. Based on the patients clinical presentation, addi-
tional testing, including complete blood cell count, sedimenta-
tion rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the shoulder is indicated
if rotator cuff tear is suspected and to confirm the diagnosis of
supraspinatus tendinitis (Figure 28-2). The injection technique
described here serves as a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
Because supraspinatus tendinitis may occur after seemingly minor
trauma or develop gradually over time, the diagnosis often is
delayed. Tendinitis of the musculotendinous unit of the shoulder
frequently coexists with bursitis of the associated bursae of the
shoulder joint, creating additional pain and functional disability.
This ongoing pain and functional disability can cause the patient
to splint the shoulder group with resultant abnormal movement
of the shoulder, which puts additional stress on the rotator cuff.
This stress can lead to further trauma to the entire rotator cuff.
With rotator cuff tears, passive range of motion is normal but
active range of motion is limited, in contrast to frozen shoulder,
in which passive and active range of motion are limited. Rotator
cuff tear rarely occurs before age 40 except in cases of severe acute
trauma to the shoulder. Cervical radiculopathy rarely may cause
pain limited to the shoulder, although in most instances, associ-
ated neck and upper extremity pain and numbness are present.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with supraspinatus tendinitis should include a combination of
nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxy-
genase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. The local

Supraspinatus
tendon
Figure 28-1 Patients with supraspinatus tendinitis exhibit point tenderness of the greater tuberosity and a painful arc of abduction.
Figure 28-2 Tendinosis or tendinopathy of the rotator cuff. Coronal
oblique protein densityweighted (TR/TE, 2000/25) spin echo magnetic
resonance imaging reveals increased signal intensity in the distal part of
the supraspinatus tendon (arrows). No further increase in signal inten-
sity in T2-weighted spin echo MRI was seen. The peribursal fat plane is
intact. (From Kjellin I, Ho CP, Cervilla V, etal: Alterations in the supraspi-
natus tendon at MR imaging: correlation with histopathologic findings in
cadavers, Radiology 181:837, 1991.)
application of heat and cold also may be beneficial. For patients
who do not respond to these treatment modalities, the follow-
ing injection technique may be a reasonable next step. The use
of physical therapy, including gentle range-of-motion exercises,
should be introduced several days after the patient undergoes this
injection technique for shoulder pain. Vigorous exercises should
be avoided because they would exacerbate the symptoms.
To inject the supraspinatus tendon, the patient is placed in
the supine position, with the forearm medially rotated behind the
back. This positioning of the upper extremity places the lateral
epicondyle of the elbow in an anterior position and makes its
identification easier. After identification of the lateral epicondyle
of the elbow, the humerus is traced superiorly to the anterior edge
of the acromion. A slight indentation just below the anterior edge
28 Supraspinatus Tendinitis 75
of the acromion marks the point of insertion of the supraspina-
tus tendon into the upper facet of the greater tuberosity of the
humerus. The point is marked with a sterile marker.
Proper preparation with antiseptic solution of the skin overly-
ing the shoulder, subacromial region, and joint space is carried
out. A sterile syringe containing 1 mL of 0.25% preservative-free
bupivacaine and 40 mg of methylprednisolone is attached to a
25-gauge, 1-inch needle using strict aseptic technique. With
strict aseptic technique, the previously marked point is palpated,
and the indentation indicating the insertion of the supraspinatus
tendon is identified again with the gloved finger. The needle is
carefully advanced perpendicularly at this point through the skin
and subcutaneous tissues and through the joint capsule until it
impinges on bone (Figure 28-3). The needle is withdrawn 1 to
2 mm out of the periosteum of the humerus, and the contents
of the syringe are gently injected. Slight resistance to injection
should be felt. If no resistance is encountered, either the needle tip
is in the joint space itself or the supraspinatus tendon is ruptured.
If significant resistance to injection is detected, the needle tip is
probably in the substance of a ligament or tendon and should
be advanced or withdrawn slightly until the injection proceeds
without significant resistance. The needle is removed, and a sterile
pressure dressing and ice pack are placed at the injection site.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complication of this injection technique is infection.
This complication should be exceedingly rare if strict aseptic tech-
nique is followed. The possibility of trauma to the supraspinatus
tendon from the injection itself remains an ever-present possibil-
ity. Tendons that are highly inflamed or previously damaged are
subject to rupture if they are directly injected. This complication
can be greatly decreased if the clinician uses gentle technique and
stops injecting immediately if significant resistance to injection
is encountered. Approximately 25% of patients complain of a
transient increase in pain after this injection technique; patients
should be warned of this possibility.
76 SECTION 3 Shoulder Pain Syndromes

SUGGESTED READINGS
Chen SK, Chou PH, Lue YL, Lu YM: Treatment for frozen shoulder combined
Subdeltoid Supraspinatus with calcific tendinitis of the supraspinatus, Kaohsiung J Med Sci 2880;24:
synovial bursa tendon 78-84.
Gimblett PA, Saville J, Ebrall E: A conservative management protocol for calcific
tendinitis of the shoulder, J Manipulative Physiol Ther 22:622627, 1999.
Hsu HC, Wu JJ, Jim YF, Chang CY, etal: Calcific tendinitis and rotator cuff
tearing: a clinical and radiographic study, J Shoulder Elbow Surg 3:159164,
1994.
Deltoid muscle Waldman SD: Supraspinatus tendinitis. In Waldman SD, editor: Atlas of
pain management injection techniques, ed 3, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders,
Head of humerus pp 6467.
Waldman SD: Functional anatomy of the shoulder joint. In Waldman SD, editor:
Periosteum
Pain review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 8081.

Posterior Anterior
Figure 28-3 Correct needle placement for injection into the supraspi-
natus tendon.

Clinical Pearls
The musculotendinous unit of the shoulder joint is suscep-
tible to the development of tendinitis for several reasons.
First, the joint is subjected to a wide range of repetitive
motions. Second, the space in which the musculotendi-
nous unit functions is restricted by the coracoacromial
arch, making impingement a likely possibility with extreme
movements of the joint. Third, the blood supply to the
musculotendinous unit is poor, making healing of micro-
trauma more difficult. All of these factors can contribute
to tendinitis of one or more of the tendons of the shoulder
joint. Calcium deposition around the tendon may occur if
the inflammation continues, making subsequent treatment
more difficult. Tendinitis of the musculotendinous unit of
the shoulder frequently coexists with bursitis of the associ-
ated bursae of the shoulder joint, creating additional pain
and functional disability.
The injection technique described is extremely effective
in the treatment of pain secondary to the causes of shoulder
pain mentioned earlier. Coexistent bursitis and arthritis also
may contribute to shoulder pain and may require additional
treatment with a more localized injection of local anesthetic
and depot steroid. This technique is a safe procedure if care-
ful attention is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy in
the areas to be injected. Care must be taken to use sterile
technique to avoid infection and universal precautions to
avoid risk to the operator. The incidence of ecchymosis and
hematoma formation can be decreased if pressure is placed
on the injection site immediately after injection.
Chapter 29
INFRASPINATUS TENDINITIS
ICD-9 CODE 726.10
ICD-10 CODE M75.10
The Clinical Syndrome
Infraspinatus tendinitis can manifest as an acute or chronic pain-
ful condition of the shoulder. Acute infraspinatus tendinitis usu-
ally occurs in a younger group of patients after overuse or misuse
of the shoulder joint. Inciting factors include activities that require
repeated abduction and lateral rotation of the humerus, such as
installing brake pads during assembly line work. The vigorous use
of exercise equipment also has been implicated. The pain of infra-
spinatus tendinitis is constant, severe, and localized to the deltoid
area. Significant sleep disturbance is often reported. Patients with
infraspinatus tendinitis exhibit pain with lateral rotation of the
humerus and on active abduction. Chronic infraspinatus tendi-
nitis tends to occur in older patients and to manifest in a more
gradual or insidious manner, without a single specific event of
antecedent trauma. The pain of infraspinatus tendinitis may be
associated with a gradual loss of range of motion of the affected
shoulder. The patient often awakens at night when he or she rolls
over onto the affected shoulder.
Signs and Symptoms
The patient may attempt to splint the inflamed infraspinatus ten-
don by rotating the scapula anteriorly to remove tension from the
tendon (Figure 29-1). Point tenderness is usually present over the
greater tuberosity. The patient exhibits a painful arc of abduction
and complains of a catch or sudden onset of pain in the mid-
range of the arc. Early in the course of the disease, passive range
of motion is full and painless. As the disease progresses, patients
with infraspinatus tendinitis often experience a gradual decrease
in functional ability with decreasing shoulder range of motion,
making simple everyday tasks, such as combing hair, fastening a
brassiere, or reaching overhead, quite difficult. With continued
disuse, muscle wasting may occur and a frozen shoulder may
develop.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with shoulder
pain. Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional
testing, including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte
sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be
indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the shoulder
is indicated if rotator cuff tear is suspected and to confirm the
diagnosis of infraspinatus tendinitis (Figure 29-2). The injec-
tion technique discussed here serves as a diagnostic and thera-
peutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
Because infraspinatus tendinitis may occur after seemingly
minor trauma or develop gradually over time, the diagnosis is
often delayed. Tendinitis of the musculotendinous unit of the
shoulder frequently coexists with bursitis of the associated bursae
of the shoulder joint, creating additional pain and functional
disability. This ongoing pain and functional disability can cause
the patient to splint the shoulder group, with resultant abnor-
mal movement of the shoulder that puts additional stress on the
rotator cuff. This stress can lead to further trauma to the entire
rotator cuff. With rotator cuff tears, passive range of motion is
normal, but active range of motion is limited, in contrast to fro-
zen shoulder, in which passive and active range of motion are
limited. Rotator cuff tear rarely occurs before age 40 except in
cases of severe acute trauma to the shoulder. Cervical radicu-
lopathy rarely may cause pain limited to the shoulder, although
in most instances, associated neck and upper extremity pain and
numbness are present.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with rotator cuff tear should include a combination of nonste-
roidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. The local application
of heat and cold also may be beneficial. For patients who do
not respond to these treatment modalities, the following injec-
tion technique may be a reasonable next step. The use of physi-
cal therapy, including gentle range-of-motion exercises, should be
introduced several days after the patient undergoes this injection
technique for shoulder pain. Vigorous exercises should be avoided
because they would exacerbate the symptoms.
To inject the infraspinatus tendon, the skin overlying the
posterior shoulder is prepared with antiseptic solution. A sterile
syringe containing 1 mL of 0.25% preservative-free bupivacaine
and 40 mg of methylprednisolone is attached to a 25-gauge,
1-inch needle using strict aseptic technique. With strict asep-
tic technique, the previously marked point is palpated, and the
insertion of the infraspinatus tendon is identified again with
the gloved finger. The needle is carefully advanced at this point
77
78 SECTION 3 Shoulder Pain Syndromes

Infraspinatus
tendon

Figure 29-1 Patients with infraspinatus tendinitis exhibit posterior point tenderness and a painful arc of abduction.

through the skin and subcutaneous tissues and the margin of
the deltoid muscle and underlying infraspinatus muscle until
it impinges on bone (Figure 29-3). The needle is withdrawn 1
to 2 mm out of the periosteum of the humerus, and the con-
tents of the syringe are gently injected. There should be slight
resistance to injection. If no resistance is encountered, either
the needle tip is in the joint space itself or the infraspinatus
tendon is ruptured. If significant resistance to injection is felt,
the needle tip is probably in the substance of a ligament or ten-
don and should be advanced or withdrawn slightly until the
injection proceeds without significant resistance. The needle is
removed, and a sterile pressure dressing and ice pack are placed
at the injection site.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complication of this injection technique is infection.
This complication should be exceedingly rare if strict aseptic tech-
nique is followed. The possibility of trauma to the infraspinatus
tendon from the injection itself remains an ever-present possibil-
ity. Tendons that are highly inflamed or previously damaged are
subject to rupture if they are directly injected. This complication
can be greatly decreased if the clinician uses gentle technique and
stops injecting immediately if significant resistance to injection
is encountered. Approximately 25% of patients complain of a
transient increase in pain after this injection technique; patients
should be warned of this possibility.
 29 Infraspinatus Tendinitis 79

B C
B
Figure 29-2 Periarticular crystal deposition: shoulderinfraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis tendon calcification. A, In internal rotation,
calcific deposits in the infraspinatus and teres minor tendons appear lateral to the humeral head (arrow) and deposits in the subscapularis tendon are
located near the lesser tuberosity, overlying the joint space (arrowhead). B and C, Radiograph and photograph of a section of the humeral head out-
line these same calcifications (arrows, arrowhead). (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders.)
80 SECTION 3 Shoulder Pain Syndromes

SUGGESTED READINGS
Gimblett PA, Saville J, Ebrall P: A conservative management protocol for calcific
tendinitis of the shoulder, J Manipulative Physiol Ther 22:622627, 1999.
Hsu HC, Wu JJ, Jim YF, etal: Calcific tendinitis and rotator cuff tearing: a clinical
and radiographic study, J Shoulder Elbow Surg 3:159164, 1994.
Toriyama K, Fukuda H, Hamada K, Noguchi T: Calcifying tendinitis of the infra-
Infraspinatus spinatus tendon simulating a bone tumor, J Shoulder Elbow Surg 3:165168,
tendon 1994.
Synovial bursa Waldman SD: Functional anatomy of the shoulder joint. In Waldman SD, editor:
Pain review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 8081.
Waldman SD: Infraspinatus tendinitis. In Waldman SD, editor: Atlas of pain man-
Deltoid muscle
agement injection techniques, ed 3, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders, pp 7175.
Head of humerus

Periosteum

Posterior Anterior
Figure 29-3 Correct needle placement for injection into the infraspina-
tus tendon.

Clinical Pearls
The musculotendinous unit of the shoulder joint is sus-
ceptible to the development of tendinitis for several rea-
sons. First, the joint is subjected to a wide range of often
repetitive motions. Second, the space in which the mus-
culotendinous unit functions is restricted by the coracoac-
romial arch, making impingement a likely possibility with
extreme movements of the joint. Third, the blood supply
to the musculotendinous unit is poor, making healing of
microtrauma more difficult. These factors can contribute
to tendinitis of one or more of the tendons of the shoulder
joint. Calcium deposition around the tendon may occur if
the inflammation continues, making subsequent treatment
more difficult. Tendinitis of the musculotendinous unit of
the shoulder frequently coexists with bursitis of the associ-
ated bursae of the shoulder joint, creating additional pain
and functional disability.
The injection technique described is extremely effective
in the treatment of pain secondary to the causes of shoul-
der pain mentioned. Coexistent bursitis and arthritis also
may contribute to shoulder pain and may require additional
treatment with a more localized injection of a local anes-
thetic and depot steroid. This technique is a safe procedure
if careful attention is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy
in the areas to be injected. Care must be taken to use sterile
technique to avoid infection and universal precautions to
avoid risk to the operator. The incidence of ecchymosis and
hematoma formation can be decreased if pressure is placed
on the injection site immediately after injection.
Chapter 30
SUBACROMIAL IMPINGEMENT
SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 719.41
ICD-10 CODE M25.519
The Clinical Syndrome
The subacromial space lies directly inferior to the acromion,
coracoid process, acromioclavicular joint, and coracoacromial
ligament (Figure 30-1). Lubricated by the subacromial bursa, the
subacromial space in health is narrow, and the anatomical struc-
tures surrounding it are responsible for maintaining static and
dynamic shoulder stability. The space between the acromion and
the superior aspect of the humeral head is called the impingement
interval, and abduction of the arm narrows the space further (Fig-
ure 30-2). Any pathological condition that further narrows this
space (e.g., osteophyte, abnormal acromial anatomy, ligamentous
calcification, or congenital defects of the acromion) increases the
incidence of impingement (Figure 30-3). The most common
causes of subacromial impingement are listed in Table 30-1.
Similar to the congenital anatomical variant of the trefoil spinal
canal being associated with a statistically significantly higher inci-
dence of spinal stenosis, several common normal anatomical variants
of the acromion often contribute to development of subacromial
Coracoid process
Subacromial space
Acromion
Clavicle
Greater tuberosity
Lesser tuberosity
Scapula
Humerus
Figure 30-1 The subacromial space lies directly inferior to the acro-
mion, the coracoid process, the acromioclavicular joint, and the cora-
coacromial ligament.
impingement syndrome. These include type 2 and type 3 acromions
(Figure 30-4). Although the normal type 1 acromion is relatively
flat, the type 2 acromion curves downward and the type 3 acromion
hooks downward in the shape of a scimitar. The downward curve of
the type 2 and type 3 acromions markedly narrow the subacromial
space (Figure 30-5). In addition to these anatomical variations, a
congenitally unfused acromial apophysis, the os acromiale, is often
associated with subacromial impingement syndrome (Figure 30-6).
Patients with subacromial impingement syndrome present
with diffuse shoulder pain, with an associated feeling of weakness
combined with loss of range of motion. Pain is often worse at
night, and patients often complain that they are unable to sleep on
the affected shoulder. Although subacromial impingement syn-
drome can occur as a result of acute trauma, the usual clinical pre-
sentation is more insidious, without a clear-cut history of trauma
to the affected shoulder. Untreated, subacromial impingement
syndrome can lead to progressive tendinopathy of the rotator cuff
and gradually increasing shoulder instability and functional dis-
ability. In patients older than 50 years, progression of impinge-
ment often leads to rotator cuff tear.
Signs and Symptoms
A patient with subacromial impingement syndrome reports
increasing shoulder pain with any activities that abduct or forward
flex the shoulder, such as putting in a light bulb or reaching for
dishes in a cabinet above shoulder height (Figure 30-7). Patients
with subacromial impingement syndrome have a positive Neers
test, which is performed by having the patient assume a sitting
position while the examiner applies firm forward pressure on the
patients scapula and simultaneously raises the patients arm to an
overhead position (Figure 30-8). Neers test is considered posi-
tive when the patient exhibits pain or apprehension when the arm
moves about 60 degrees. Although not completely diagnostic of
subacromial impingement syndrome, a positive Neers test should
prompt the examiner to order magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
of the affected shoulder to clarify and strengthen the diagnosis.
Testing
MRI of the shoulder provides the best information regarding any
pathological process of the shoulder. MRI is highly accurate and
helps identify abnormalities that may put the patient at risk for
continuing damage to the rotator cuff and humeral head. MRI
of the shoulder also helps rule out unsuspected pathological con-
ditions that may harm the patient, such as primary and meta-
static tumors of the shoulder joint and surrounding structures.
In patients who cannot undergo MRI, such as patients with
pacemakers, computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable second
81
82 SECTION 3 Shoulder Pain Syndromes
Coraco-clavicular ligament
Acromioclavicular ligament
Coracoacromial ligament
Inflamed supraspinatus
tendon
Biceps Long head
brachii m. Short head
Subcapularis m.
Figure 30-2 The space between the acromion and the superior aspect of the humeral head is the impingement interval, and abduction of the arm
narrows the space further.
choice. Radionuclide bone scanning and plain radiography are
indicated if fracture or bony abnormality such as metastatic dis-
ease is considered in the differential diagnosis.
Screening laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and automated blood
chemistry testing should be performed if the diagnosis of subacro-
mial impingement syndrome is in question. Arthrocentesis of the
glenohumeral joint may be indicated if septic arthritis or crystal
arthropathy is suspected.
Differential Diagnosis
Subacromial impingement syndrome is a clinical diagnosis sup-
ported by a combination of clinical history, physical examina-
tion, radiography, and MRI. Pain syndromes that may mimic
subacromial impingement syndrome include subacromial bursi-
tis, tendinopathy and tendinitis of the rotator cuff, calcification
and thickening of coracoacromial ligament, and arthritis affecting
any of the shoulder joints. Adhesive capsulitis or frozen shoulder
may confuse the diagnosis, as may idiopathic brachial plexopathy
(Parsonage-Turner syndrome; see Chapter 24). Primary and met-
astatic tumors of the shoulder and surrounding structures remain
an ever-present possibility and should always be part of the differ-
ential diagnosis of patients presenting with shoulder pain.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associ-
ated with subacromial impingement syndrome should include a
Subacromial
bursa
Subacromial
bursa
impinged
combination of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and gentle physical
therapy. Local application of heat and cold also may be benefi-
cial. For patients who do not respond to these treatment modali-
ties, injection of the subacromial space with local anesthetic
and steroid is a reasonable next step while obtaining MRI and
other appropriate testing to clarify further the working clinical
diagnosis. The use of physical therapy, including gentle range-
of-motion exercises, should be introduced several days after the
patient undergoes this injection technique for shoulder pain.
Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they would exac-
erbate the patients symptoms. For patients who do not respond
to these treatment modalities or radiographically have shown
anatomical subacromial impingement that is producing ongoing
damage to the rotator cuff, open or arthroscopic acromioplasty
is required.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose subacromial impingement syndrome cor-
rectly puts the patient at risk for the missed diagnosis of other
syndromes that may result in ongoing damage to the shoulder
or lead to overlooked pathological processes in this anatomical
region that may harm the patient, such as Pancoasts tumor or
primary or metastatic tumors of the shoulder. MRI is indicated in
all patients thought to have subacromial impingement syndrome,
and aggressive treatment of surgically correctable causes of such
impingement is generally indicated sooner rather than later to
avoid ongoing irreversible shoulder damage.
 30 Subacromial Impingement Syndrome 83

A B

C
Figure 30-3 Shoulder external subacromial impingement syndrome: Magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities. A, On sagittal oblique T1-weighted
(TR/TE, 800/20) spin echo MRI, a subacromial enthesophyte (solid arrow) containing marrow projects from the anterior surface of the acromion (a)
toward the coracoid process (c). Note its relationship to the coracoacromial ligament (open arrows) and supraspinatus tendon (arrowhead). B, In a
second patient, sagittal oblique T1-weighted (TR/TE, 800/12) spin echo MRI shows a large subacromial enthesophyte (arrows). The acromion (a) is
indicated. C, In a third patient, coronal oblique intermediate-weighted (TR/TE, 2000/30) spin echo MRI image reveals the flattened contour and low
signal intensity characteristic of a subacromial enthesophyte (arrows). Also observe osteoarthritis of the acromioclavicular joint manifested as osteo-
phytosis (arrowhead) and an elevated position of the humeral head, indicative of a rotator cuff tear. The tear was shown better on other MR images
(not shown). (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 3084.)
84 SECTION 3 Shoulder Pain Syndromes

TABLE 30-1
Causes of Subacromial Impingement Syndrome
Subacromial osteophytes
Rotator cuff tears
Abnormal acromial anatomy (e.g., type 2 acromion, type 3 acromion)
Congenital acromial defect (e.g., os acromiale)
Acquired acromial defects (e.g., displaced fracture)
Inflammatory arthritis of the acromioclavicular joint
Abnormalities of the superior aspect of the humeral head
Glenohumeral joint instability LD
A
Crystal arthropathies of the acromioclavicular joint
Frozen shoulder (adhesive capsulitis)
Tendinopathy of the coracoacromial ligament

Type I Type II Type III

B
Figure 30-5 A, Lateral downsloping (LD) of the anterior acromion as
seen on coronal section (arrow). B, Coronal T2-weighted MR image with
fat suppression revealing LD (arrow). Note the corresponding alterations
on the bursal surface of the rotator cuff and the thickened subdeltoid
bursa filled with fluid (arrowheads). (From Zlatkin MB: MRI of the shoulder,
2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2003, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, p 1639.)

Figure 30-4 Anatomical variants of the acromion.

Figure 30-6 Os acromiale. Transaxial intermediate-weighted (TR/TE,

1000/20) spin echo MRI shows a triangular os acromiale (arrows) articu-
lating with the clavicle and, in an irregular fashion (arrowhead), with the
acromion. (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders,
4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 4577.)
 30 Subacromial Impingement Syndrome 85

Acromioclavicular joint
Clavicle
Acromion

Subacromial
bursa
Supraspinatus
tendon

Figure 30-7 Patients with subacromial impingement syndrome typically complain of increasing shoulder pain with activities that abduct or forward
flex the shoulder.

Clinical Pearls
Figure 30-8 Neers test for subacromial impingement syndrome. (From
Waldman SD: Physical diagnosis of pain: An atlas of signs and symp-
toms, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, 2006.)
The musculotendinous unit of the shoulder joint is sus-
ceptible to the development of tendinitis for several rea-
sons. First, the joint is subjected to a wide range of often
repetitive motions. Second, the space in which the mus-
culotendinous unit functions is restricted by the coracoac-
romial arch, making impingement a likely possibility with
extreme movements of the joint. Third, the blood supply
to the musculotendinous unit is poor, making healing of
microtrauma more difficult. These factors can contribute
to tendinitis of one or more of the tendons of the shoulder
joint. Calcium deposition around the tendon may occur if
the inflammation continues, making subsequent treatment
more difficult. Tendinitis of the musculotendinous unit of
the shoulder frequently coexists with bursitis of the associ-
ated bursae of the shoulder joint, creating additional pain
and functional disability. Patients with untreated subacro-
mial impingement syndrome continue to experience pain
and functional disability and may continue to cause ongo-
ing irreversible shoulder damage culminating in damage to
the humeral head and rotator cuff tear.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Dickens VA, Williams JL, Bhamra MS: Role of physiotherapy in the treatment
of subacromial impingement syndrome: a prospective study, Physiotherapy
91:159164, 2005.
Michener LA, McClure PW, Karduna AR: Anatomical and biomechanical mecha-
nisms of subacromial impingement syndrome, Clin Biomech 18:369379, 2003.
Neagle CE, Bennett JB: Subacromial anatomy and biomechanics related to the
impingement syndrome, Oper Tech Sports Med 2:8288, 1994.
Waldman SD: Functional anatomy of the shoulder joint. In Waldman SD, editor:
Pain review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 8081.
Chapter 31
OS ACROMIALE PAIN SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 719.41
ICD-10 CODE M25.519
The Clinical Syndrome
The subacromial space lies directly inferior to the acromion,
the coracoid process, the acromioclavicular joint, and the cora-
coacromial ligament (see Figure 30-1). Lubricated by the sub-
acromial bursa, the subacromial space in health is narrow and
the anatomical structures surrounding it are responsible for
maintaining static and dynamic shoulder stability. The space
between the acromion and the superior aspect of the humeral
head is the impingement interval, and abduction of the arm
narrows the space further (see Figure 30-2). Any pathologi-
cal condition that further narrows this space (e.g., osteophyte,
abnormal acromial anatomy, ligamentous calcification, or
congenital defects of the acromion) increases the incidence of
impingement (see Figure 30-3 and Table 30-1).
One such congenital defect is caused by failure of the distal
ossification center of the acromion to fuse (Figure 31-1). This
failure to fuse is termed os acromiale and essentially results in a
second acromial joint. This second joint can lead to impinge-
ment syndromes and exacerbate shoulder instability.
Patients suffering from os acromiale have diffuse shoulder
pain, with an associated feeling of weakness combined with loss
of range of motion. Pain is often worse at night, and patients
often complain that they are unable to sleep on the affected
shoulder. The clinical presentation is usually insidious, without
a clear-cut history of trauma to the affected shoulder. Affected
patients tend to be younger than those with other causes of
shoulder impingement syndromes. Untreated, os acromiale can
lead to progressive tendinopathy of the rotator cuff and gradu-
ally increasing shoulder instability and functional disability. In
patients older than 50 years, progression of impingement often
leads to rotator cuff tear.
Signs and Symptoms
A patient with os acromiale reports increasing shoulder pain
with any activities that abduct or forward flex the shoulder,
such as putting in a light bulb or reaching for dishes in a cabinet
above shoulder height (Figure 31-2). Patients with os acromiale
have positive tests for shoulder impingement, such as Neers
and Hawkings tests (Figure 31-3). Although not completely
86
diagnostic of os acromiale, a positive Neers or Hawkings test
should prompt the examiner to order magnetic resonance imag-
ing (MRI) of the affected shoulder to clarify and strengthen the
diagnosis.
Testing
MRI of the shoulder provides the best information regarding
any pathological condition of the shoulder (Figure 31-4). MRI
is highly accurate and helps to identify abnormalities that may
put the patient at risk for continuing damage to the rotator cuff
and the humeral head. MRI of the shoulder also helps rule out
unsuspected pathology that may harm the patient, such as pri-
mary and metastatic tumors of the shoulder joint and surrounding
structures. In patients who cannot undergo MRI, such as patients
with pacemakers, computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable sec-
ond choice. Radionuclide bone scanning and plain radiography
are indicated if fracture or bony abnormality such as metastatic
disease is considered in the differential diagnosis.
Screening laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and automated blood
chemistry testing should be performed if the diagnosis of subacro-
mial impingement syndrome is in question. Arthrocentesis of the
glenohumeral joint may be indicated if septic arthritis or crystal
arthropathy is suspected.
Differential Diagnosis
Os acromiale is a clinical diagnosis supported by a combination
of clinical history, physical examination, radiography, and MRI.
Pain syndromes that may mimic os acromiale include subacromial
impingement syndrome, subacromial bursitis, tendinopathy and
tendinitis of the rotator cuff, calcification and thickening of the
coracoacromial ligament, and arthritis affecting any of the shoul-
der joints. Adhesive capsulitis or frozen shoulder may confuse
the diagnosis, as may idiopathic brachial plexopathy (Parsonage-
Turner syndrome; see Chapter 24). Acromial stress fractures and
undiagnosed clavicular fractures also may mimic the clinical pre-
sentation of os acromiale, as may impingement syndromes caused
by aberrant subacromial blood vessels. Primary and metastatic
tumors of the shoulder and surrounding structures are an ever-
present possibility and should remain as part of the differential
diagnosis of patients with shoulder pain.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with os acromiale should include a combination of nonsteroidal

Figure 31-1 Os acromiale is a congenital defect caused by failure of the distal ossification center of the acromion to fuse.
antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)
inhibitors and gentle physical therapy. Local application of heat
and cold also may be beneficial. For patients who do not respond
to these treatment modalities, injection of the subacromial space
with local anesthetic and steroid is a reasonable next step while
obtaining MRI and other appropriate testing to clarify the work-
ing clinical diagnosis further. The use of physical therapy, includ-
ing gentle range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced several
days after the patient undergoes this injection technique for
shoulder pain. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they
would exacerbate the symptoms. For patients who do not respond
to these treatment modalities or have radiographically shown
anatomical subacromial impingement that is producing ongoing
damage to the rotator cuff, open or arthroscopic acromioplasty is
required.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose os acromiale correctly puts the patient at risk
for the missed diagnosis of other syndromes that may result in
ongoing damage to the shoulder or lead to an overlooked path-
ological condition in this anatomical region that may harm the
patient, such as Pancoasts tumor or primary or metastatic tumors
of the shoulder. MRI is indicated in all patients thought to have
os acromiale, and aggressive treatment of surgically correctable
causes of such impingement is generally indicated sooner rather
than later to avoid ongoing irreversible shoulder damage.
31 Os Acromiale Pain Syndrome 87
Os acromiale
Clinical Pearls
The acromion has three distinct ossification centers: (1) the
basiacromion-metacromion, which is most proximal; (2)
the metacromion-mesoacromion, which is in the middle;
and (3) the mesoacromion-preacromion, which is most
distal. Lack of fusion of the mesoacromion-preacromion is
responsible for the development of os acromiale.
The musculotendinous unit of the shoulder joint is sus-
ceptible to the development of tendinitis for several reasons.
First, the joint is subjected to a wide range of often repeti-
tive motions. Second, the space in which the musculoten-
dinous unit functions is restricted by the coracoacromial
arch, making impingement a likely possibility with extreme
movements of the joint. Third, the blood supply to the mus-
culotendinous unit is poor, making healing of microtrauma
more difficult. These factors can contribute to tendinitis of
one or more of the tendons of the shoulder joint. Calcium
deposition around the tendon may occur if the inflamma-
tion continues, making subsequent treatment more difficult.
Tendinitis of the musculotendinous unit of the shoulder
frequently coexists with bursitis of the associated bursae of
the shoulder joint, creating additional pain and functional
disability. Patients with untreated os acromiale continue to
experience pain and functional disability and may continue
to cause ongoing irreversible shoulder damage culminating
in damage to the humeral head and rotator cuff tear.
 Figure 31-3 Hawkings test for shoulder impingement. (From Waldman
SD: Physical diagnosis of pain: an atlas of signs and symptoms, Philadel-
phia, 2006, Saunders, p 72.)

Figure 31-2 Patients with os acromiale complain of increasing shoulder

pain with any activities that abduct or forward flex the shoulder.

A B
Figure 31-4 Os acromiale. A, T2-weighted gradient echo axial image. A high signal intensity line (arrows) runs through the acromion and demarcates
the division between the anterior os acromiale and the remainder of the acromion. B, T2-weighted sagittal oblique image also shows a dividing line
crossing the acromion (arrow). A large, full-thickness rotator cuff tear also is visible (asterisk). (From Haaga JR, Lanzieri CF, Gilkeson RC, editors: CT and
MR imaging of the whole body, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2003, Mosby, p 1955.)
 31 Os Acromiale Pain Syndrome 89

SUGGESTED READINGS Nissen CW: The acromion: fractures and os acromiale, Oper Tech Sports Med
12:3234, 2004.
Case DT, Burnett SE, Nielsen T: Os acromiale: population differences and their Pagnani MJ, Mathis CE, Solman CG: Painful os acromiale (or unfused acromial
etiological significance, HOMO 57:118, 2006. apophysis) in athletes, J Shoulder Elbow Surg 15:432435, 2006.
Nicholson GP, Goodman DA, Flatow EL, Bigliani LU: The acromion: morpho-
logic condition and age-related changesa study of 420 scapulas, J Shoulder
Elbow Surg 5:111, 1996.
Chapter 32

GLOMUS TUMOR OF THE

SHOULDER

appears as a very high and homogeneous signal on T2-weighted

ICD-9 CODE 228.00
ICD-10 CODE D18.00
The Clinical Syndrome
Glomus tumor of the shoulder is an uncommon cause of shoul-
der pain. It is the result of tumor formation of the glomus body,
which is a neuromyoarterial apparatus whose function is to regu-
late peripheral blood flow in the dermis. Glomus tumors occur
most commonly in the subungual region of the fingers, but may
also occur in areas of the body that are not richly endowed with
glomus apparatus (e.g., muscle, bone, blood vessels, nerves). Glo-
mus tumors tend to be solitary, small tumors, but occasionally can
become quite large.
Most patients with glomus tumor are women 30 to 50 years
of age. The pain associated with glomus tumor is severe, lancinat-
ing, and boring. Patients suffering from glomus tumor exhibit the
classic triad of intermittent, excruciating pain; cold intolerance;
and tenderness to palpation. If the tumor is located superficially, a
bluish discoloration under the skin may be visible and the patient
may experience an exacerbation of pain with exposure to cold.
Because of the rarity of glomus tumor in areas other than the dig-
its, diagnosis is often delayed.
images (Figure 32-1). The bony changes associated with glomus
tumor of the shoulder also may appear on plain radiographs if
a careful comparison of the corresponding contralateral shoulder
is made. Radionuclide bone scan also may reveal localized bony
destruction. If the tumor is superficial, pain may be reproduced by
placing an ice pack over the affected area. Based on the patients
clinical presentation, additional tests, including complete blood
cell count, uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and
antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Electromyography
is indicated if coexistent plexopathy or radiculopathy is suspected.
Surgical exploration of the affected area bed often is necessary to
confirm the diagnosis.
Differential Diagnosis
The triad of localized, intermittent, lancinating excruciating
pain, tenderness to palpation, and cold intolerance makes the
diagnosis apparent to an astute clinician. Glomus tumor of the
shoulder must be distinguished from other causes of localized
shoulder pain. If a history of trauma is present, fracture, osteo-
myelitis, tenosynovitis, and foreign body synovitis should be

Signs and Symptoms

The diagnosis of glomus tumor of the shoulder is based primarily
on three points in the patients clinical history: (1) excruciating
pain that is localized to the area of the tumor, (2) ability to trig-
ger the pain by palpating the area (Loves test), and (3) marked
intolerance to cold (Posners cold induction test). Hildreths test
is also useful in the diagnosis of glomus tumor. It is performed
by placing a tourniquet proximal to the area of suspected tumor.
As the distal area becomes ischemic, the sharp lancinating pain
characteristic of glomus tumor will occur. If the tumor is super-
ficial enough, the examiner may identify it beneath the skin. The
patient with glomus tumor of the shoulder often will guard or
protect the area of the tumor to avoid stimulating the pain.

Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the affected area often
reveals the actual glomus tumor and may reveal erosion or a per-
forating lesion of the phalanx beneath the tumor. The tumor
Figure 32-1 Frontal T1 MRI shows the calcification at the distal insertion
of the deltoid muscle in the area of the glomus tumor. (From Boretto J-G,
Lazerges C, Coulet B, Baldet P, Chammas M: Calcified glomus tumor of the
shoulder: a case report, Chir Main 4:183186, 2008.)

90

considered. If there is no history of trauma, tumors or diseases
of the glenohumoral joint and associated soft tissues should
be considered. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy should be distin-
guishable from glomus tumor of the shoulder because the pain
of reflex sympathetic dystrophy is less localized and is associ-
ated with distal trophic skin and nail changes and vasomotor
and sudomotor abnormalities.
Treatment
The mainstay of treatment of glomus tumor is surgical removal.
Medication management is uniformly disappointing. Injec-
tion of the affected area in the point of maximal tenderness
may provide temporary relief of the pain of glomus tumor and
blocks Posners cold induction test response, further strength-
ening the diagnosis.
Complications and Pitfalls
The main complication associated with glomus tumor of the
shoulder involves problems associated with delayed diagnosis,
mainly ongoing destruction of the bone and soft tissues adja-
cent to the glomus tumor. Although usually localized and well
encapsulated, rarely, these tumors can exhibit aggressive invasive
32 Glomus Tumor Of The Shoulder 91
Clinical Pearls
The diagnosis of glomus tumor of the shoulder is usually
straightforward if the clinician identifies the unique nature
of its clinical presentation. Because of the rare potential for
aggressive, invasive behavior, complete excision and careful
follow-up are important.
tendencies, making complete excision of the tumor and careful
follow-up mandatory.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Abela M, Cole AS, Hill GA, Carr AJ: Glomus tumor of the scapular region,
JShoulder Elbow Surg 9:532533, 2000.
Boretto JG, Lazerges C, Coulet B, Baldet P, Chammas M: Calcified glomus tumor
of the shoulder: a case report, Chir Main 27:183186, 2008.
Ghaly RF, Ring AM: Supraclavicular glomus tumor, 20-year history of undiag-
nosed shoulder pain: a case report, Pain 83:379382, 1999.
Nebreda CL, Urban BJ, Taylor AE: Upper extremity pain of 10 years duration
caused by a glomus tumor, Reg Anesth Pain Med 25:6971, 2000.
Roberts SN, Carter C, Brown JN, Hayes MG, Saies A: Enormous glomus tumor
of the shoulder, J Shoulder Elbow Surg 8:365366, 1999.
Yoshikawa I, Murakami M, Ishizawa M, Matsumoto K, Hukuda S: Glomus
tumor of the musculotendinous junction of the rotator cuff, Clin Orthop
326:250253, 1996.
Chapter 33
PECTORALIS MAJOR TEAR
SYNDROME
PECTORALIS MUSCLE TEAR
ICD-9 CODE 840.9
ICD-10 CODE S46.919A
PECTORALIS MUSCLE TENDON RUPTURE
ICD-9 CODE 848.9
ICD-10 CODE T14.90
The Clinical Syndrome
The pectoralis major muscle is susceptible to trauma ranging
from microscopic tears of the muscle substance after heavy exer-
tion to macroscopic partial tearing of the muscle or, in extreme
cases, full-thickness tearing with associated hematoma formation
and cosmetic deformity (Figures. 33-1 to 33-3). Additionally, the
pectoralis major tendon can rupture at its point of insertion into
the crest of the greater tubercle of the humerus (Figure 33-4). A
broad, thick, fanlike muscle, the pectoralis major arises from the
anterior surface of the proximal clavicle, the anterior surface of
the sternum, the cartilaginous attachments of the second through
sixth and occasionally seventh ribs, and the aponeurotic band of
the obliquus externus abdominis. These muscle fibers overlap,
with some running upward and laterally, others running horizon-
tally, and others running downward and laterally, all ending in a
broad flat tendon that inserts into the crest of the greater tubercle
of the humerus.
The clinical presentation of pectoralis major tear syndrome is
varied because of its several causes, with the severity of symptoms
directly proportional to the amount of trauma sustained by the
muscle, its tendons, or both. Patients with pectoralis major tear
syndrome present with the acute onset of anterior chest wall pain
after trauma to the muscle sustained while performing activities
such as bench pressing or rappelling down cliffs (Figure 33-5).
The severity of pain is proportional to the amount of trauma sus-
tained. A patient with pectoralis muscle tear syndrome also may
complain of varying degrees of weakness with internal rotation of
the humerus. If complete tear of the muscle or rupture of the ten-
don occurs, the anterior chest wall bulges acutely with contraction
92
of the muscle in a manner analogous to the Popeyes bulge of
Ludingtons sign associated with rupture of the biceps tendon
(Figures 33-6 and 33-7). If the rupture is not repaired promptly,
further muscle retraction and calcification occur, worsening the
functional disability and cosmetic deformity.
Signs and Symptoms
A patient with pectoralis major tear syndrome complains of the
acute onset of pain in the anterior chest after trauma to the pec-
toralis major muscle, tendon, or both. If the trauma is significant,
hematoma formation is clearly visible. With rupture of the tendon
at its insertion site into the humerus, impressive ecchymosis of the
arm and anterior chest wall that may seem out of proportion to
the amount of trauma perceived by the patient is present. Active
internal rotation of the humerus against examiner resistance may
reveal weakness. If significant disruption of the muscle or rupture
of the tendon occurs, the patient is unable to reach behind his
or her back (Figure 33-8). As mentioned previously, if complete
tear of the muscle or rupture of the tendon occurs, the anterior
chest wall bulges with contraction of the pectoralis major against
the unopposed torn distal muscle, tendon, or both. Although
not completely diagnostic of pectoralis major tear syndrome, this
physical finding should prompt the examiner to order magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) of the affected proximal humerus and
shoulder and anterior chest wall to further clarify and strengthen
the diagnosis.
Testing
MRI of the shoulder, proximal humerus, and anterior chest
wall provides the best information regarding pathological pro-
cesses of these anatomical regions. MRI is highly accurate and
helps identify abnormalities that may require urgent surgical
repair, such as large complete muscle tears, tendon rupture,
or both. MRI of the affected anatomy also helps the clinician
rule out unsuspected pathological conditions that may harm
the patient, such as primary and metastatic tumors. In patients
who cannot undergo MRI, such as patients with pacemakers,
computed tomography (CT) is a reasonable second choice.
Radionuclide bone scanning and plain radiography are indi-
cated if fracture or bony abnormality such as metastatic disease
of the proximal humerus, shoulder, or anterior chest wall is
being considered in the differential diagnosis. Screening labo-
ratory tests consisting of complete blood cell count, erythrocyte
sedimentation rate, and automated blood chemistry testing
should be performed if the diagnosis of pectoralis major tear
syndrome is in question.
 33 Pectoralis Major Tear Syndrome 93

Microscopic muscle fiber tears

Mild bleeding and slight edema

Figure 33-1 Microscopic tear of the pectoralis muscle with mild bleeding and slight edema.

Pectoralis major muscle tear

Figure 33-2 Full-thickness tear of the pectoralis muscle with associated hematoma formation and cosmetic deformity.

Differential Diagnosis
Pectoralis major tear syndrome is a clinical diagnosis supported
by a combination of clinical history, physical examination, radi-
ography, and MRI. Pain syndromes that may mimic pectoralis
major tear syndrome include injuries to the pectoralis minor, sub-
scapularis, or latissimus dorsi muscles and inferior glenohumeral
ligament injuries. Dislocation of the manubrium from the body of
the sternum after acceleration/deceleration injuries also may con-
fuse the diagnosis. Fractures of all of the bony origins of the pecto-
ralis major muscles (e.g., the sternum and ribs and fractures of the
anatomical or surgical neck of the humerus) may mimic the clini-
cal presentation of pectoralis major tear syndrome. Primary and
metastatic tumors of the shoulder, humerus, and anterior chest
wall and their surrounding structures remain an ever-present pos-
sibility and should be included as part of the differential diagnosis
94 SECTION 3 Shoulder Pain Syndromes
Figure 33-3 Clinical photograph shows retraction of the left pectoralis
major, abnormal contour of the axillary fold, and ecchymosis over the
medial arm in a patient with a complete pectoralis tendon rupture at
the insertion site. (From Hasegawa K, Schofer JM: Rupture of the pectoralis
major: a case report and review, J Emerg Med 38:196200, 2010.)
Figure 33-5 Patients with pectoralis major tear syndrome present with acute onset of anterior chest wall pain after trauma to the muscle sustained
while performing activities such as bench pressing.
of patients with symptoms thought to result from pectoralis major
tear syndrome.
Treatment
Although the pain and functional disability associated with mild
microscopic tears of the pectoralis major muscle may be treated
conservatively with a combination of the nonsteroidal antiinflam-
matory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors
and gentle physical therapy, more extensive tears and rupture of
the pectoralis major tendon require urgent surgical repair if per-
manent cosmetic deformity and functional disability are to be
avoided.
Complete rupture
of tendon
Figure 33-4 Pectoralis major tendon rupture at its point of insertion
into the crest of the greater tubercle of the humerus.
Pectoralis
major muscle
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose pectoralis major tear syndrome correctly
puts the patient at risk for the missed diagnosis of other syn-
dromes that may result in ongoing damage to the shoulder or
lead to overlooked pathological processes in this anatomical
region that may harm the patient, such as Pancoasts tumor
or primary or metastatic tumors of the shoulder, humerus, or
anterior chest wall. MRI is indicated in all patients thought to
have pectoralis major tear syndrome, and aggressive treatment
of surgically correctable causes of the symptoms is indicated
on an urgent basis to avoid irreversible cosmetic deformity and
functional disability.

B Waldman SD: Physical diagnosis of pain: an atlas of signs and symptoms,
Figure 33-6 A, Resting axial gradient-recalled echo (GRE) MRI in
a patient with a known pectoralis tendon tear adjacent to the left
humerus at rest shows mild asymmetry of the pectoralis major muscles,
with apparent discontinuity of the left pectoralis major muscle at the
axillary line (arrow). B, Axial GRE MRI in the same patient with sustained
maximal contraction of the injured muscle shows a prominent bulge
in the medial aspect of the left pectoralis major muscle (arrow). (From
EdelmanRR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB, etal, editors: Clinical magnetic reso-
nance imaging, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 3468.)
Biceps m. Ruptured proximal tendon
Figure 33-7 Popeyes sign associated with rupture of the biceps ten-
don. (From Waldman SD: Physical diagnosis of pain: an atlas of signs and
symptoms, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 83.)
33 Pectoralis Major Tear Syndrome 95
Figure 33-8 Active internal rotation of the humerus may reveal weak-
ness. If significant disruption of the muscle or rupture of the tendon
occurs, the patient is unable to reach behind his or her back. (From
Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 50.)
Clinical Pearls
Pectoralis major tear syndrome is an uncommon but easily
recognized cause of anterior chest wall and shoulder pain. A
patient with complete pectoralis major muscle tear, tendon
rupture, or both may present with hematoma and ecchymo-
sis formation that seems out of proportion to the patients
perception of the amount of trauma sustained; the patient
often requires reassurance that he or she will not bleed to
death. Such patients should undergo urgent surgical repair
and careful postoperative rehabilitation to avoid permanent
cosmetic deformity and functional disability.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Beloosesky Y, Grinblat J, Katz M, Hendel D, Sommer R: Pectoralis major rup-
ture in the elderly: clinical and sonographic findings, Clin Imaging 27:261264,
2003.
ElMaraghy AR, Devereaux MW: A systematic review and comprehensive clas-
sification of pectoralis major tears, J Shoulder Elbow Surg 21:412422, 2012.
Mellado JM, Calmet J, Gin J, Saur A: Pectoralis major muscle and tendon tears:
report of two cases with surgical correlation and postoperative follow-up, Eur
JRadiol Extra 50:101104, 2004.
Petilon J, Ellingson CI, Sekiya JK: Pectoralis major muscle ruptures, Oper Tech
Sports Med 13:162168, 2005.
Weaver JS, Jacobson JA, Jamadar DA, etal: Sonography of the pectoralis major
tear, Ultrasound Med Biol 29:S15, 374383, 2003.
Chapter 34
SUPRASCAPULAR NERVE
ENTRAPMENT
ICD-9 CODE 355.9
ICD-10 CODE G58.9
The Clinical Syndrome
Suprascapular nerve entrapment is an uncommon cause of shoul-
der pain that is being encountered more frequently in clinical
practice with the increasing use of backpacks instead of brief-
cases. Suprascapular nerve entrapment syndrome is caused by
compression of the suprascapular nerve as it passes through the
suprascapular notch. The most common causes of compression
of the suprascapular nerve at this anatomical location include the
prolonged wearing of heavy backpacks and direct blows to the
nerve such as occur in football injuries and in falls from trampo-
lines (Figure 34-1). Suprascapular nerve entrapment syndrome
also is seen in baseball pitchers and quarterbacks.
This entrapment neuropathy manifests most commonly as a
severe, deep, aching pain that radiates from the top of the scapula
Supraspinatus m.
Infraspinatus m. (cut)
Figure 34-1 Suprascapular nerve entrapment is caused by compression of the suprascapular nerve as it passes through the suprascapular notch.
m,Muscle.
96
to the ipsilateral shoulder. Tenderness over the suprascapular
notch is usually present. Shoulder movement, especially reaching
across the chest, may increase the pain. Untreated, weakness and
atrophy of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles occur.
Signs and Symptoms
The most important finding in patients with suprascapular nerve
entrapment is weakness of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus
muscles. This weakness manifests itself as weakness of abduction
and external rotation of the ipsilateral shoulder. With significant
compromise of the suprascapular nerve, atrophy of the infra-
spinatus muscle is apparent as it lies superficially. The pain of
suprascapular nerve entrapment can be exacerbated by abducting
the ipsilateral scapula by reaching across the chest and simultane-
ously rotating the neck away from the involved shoulder. Ten-
derness to palpation of the suprascapular notch is often present.
Testing
Electromyography helps to distinguish cervical radiculopathy and
Parsonage-Turner syndrome from suprascapular nerve entrapment
Suprascapular nerve

Trapezius
Supraspinatus
Transverse
suprascapular
ligament
Suprascapular
nerve
Figure 34-2 Transverse sonogram of the scapular notch (arrowheads),
the transverse suprascapular ligament, and the suprascapular nerve
(SSN). (From Herring AA, Stone MB, Nagdev A: Ultrasound-guided supra-
scapular nerve block for shoulder reduction and adhesive capsulitis in the
ED, Am J Emerg Med 8:e1-e3, 2011.
syndrome. Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients who
present with suprascapular nerve entrapment syndrome to rule
out occult bony pathology. Ultrasound imaging may also aid
in the identification of this uncommon cause of shoulder pain
(Figure 34-2). Based on the patients clinical presentation, addi-
tional testing, including complete blood cell count, uric acid
level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody
testing, may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of
the shoulder is indicated if a primary joint pathological process
or space-occupying lesion is suspected. The injection technique
described here is a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
Suprascapular nerve entrapment syndrome is often misdiagnosed as
bursitis, tendinitis, or arthritis of the shoulder. Cervical radiculopa-
thy of the C5 nerve root also may mimic the clinical presentation
of suprascapular nerve entrapment syndrome. Parsonage-Turner
syndrome, also known as idiopathic brachial neuritis, may mani-
fest as sudden onset of shoulder pain and can be confused with
suprascapular nerve entrapment. Tumor involving the superior
scapular nerve, shoulder, or both also should be considered in the
differential diagnosis of suprascapular nerve entrapment syndrome.
Treatment
Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygen-
ase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors represent a reasonable first step in the
treatment of suprascapular nerve entrapment syndrome. The use
of tricyclic antidepressants, such as nortriptyline, at a single bed-
time dose of 25 mg titrating upward as side effects allow also is
useful, especially if sleep disturbance also is present. Avoidance of
34 Suprascapular Nerve Entrapment 97
Suprascapular
nerve
Infraspinatus m.
Suprascapular
notch
Infraspinatus m.
Figure 34-3 Injection of suprascapular nerve for relief of pain. (From
Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management injection techniques, Philadel-
phia, 2000, Saunders, p 169.)
repetitive trauma thought to be contributing to this entrapment
neuropathy also is important, especially in professional athletes. If
these maneuvers fail to produce rapid symptomatic relief, injec-
tion of the suprascapular nerve with local anesthetic and steroid is
a reasonable next step (Figure 34-3). If symptoms persist, surgical
exploration and release of the suprascapular nerve are indicated.
Complications and Pitfalls
The proximity to the suprascapular artery and vein suggests the
potential for inadvertent intravascular injection or local anesthetic
toxicity from intravascular absorption or both. The clinician should
carefully calculate the total milligram dosage of local anesthetic
that may be given safely when performing this injection technique.
Because of proximity of the lung, if the needle is advanced too
deeply through the suprascapular notch, pneumothorax is possible.
Care must be taken if surgical decompression of the suprascapular
nerve is undertaken to avoid inadvertent trauma to the spinal acces-
sory nerve as it runs along the ventral surface of the trapezius.
Clinical Pearls
Avoidance techniques of the repetitive movements respon-
sible for suprascapular nerve entrapment are often forgot-
ten in the rush to treatment. The use of rolling briefcases
instead of backpacks may help avoid continued trauma to
the nerve. This injection technique renders the shoulder
joint insensate. It is important that the clinician ensure that
the physical and occupational therapists caring for a patient
who has undergone suprascapular nerve block understand
that the shoulder girdle as well as the shoulder joint have
been rendered insensate after this injection technique.
Deep heat modalities and range-of-motion exercises must
be monitored carefully to avoid burns or damage to the
shoulder.
98 SECTION 3 Shoulder Pain Syndromes

SUGGESTED READINGS Toussaint CP, Zager EL: Whats new in common upper extremity entrapment
neuropathies, Neurosurg Clin North Am 19:573581, 2008.
Fehrman DA, Orwin JF, Jennings RM: Suprascapular nerve entrapment by gan- Waldman SD: Suprascapular nerve block. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review,
glion cysts: a report of six cases with arthroscopic findings and review of the Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 439440.
literature, Arthroscopy 11:727734, 1995.
Moore TP, Hunter RE: Suprascapular nerve entrapment, Oper Tech Sports Med
4:814, 1996.
Chapter 35
QUADRILATERAL SPACE SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 355.9
ICD-10 CODE G58.9
The Clinical Syndrome
Quadrilateral space syndrome is an uncommon cause of shoul-
der and posterior upper arm pain first described by Cahill and
Palmer in 1983. It is now being encountered more frequently
in clinical practice because magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
makes confirmation of the clinical diagnosis much easier than
the previously required arteriography of the shoulder and upper
extremity. Quadrilateral space syndrome is caused by compres-
sion of the axillary nerve as it passes through the quadrilateral
space (Figures 35-1 and 35-2).
The onset of quadrilateral space syndrome is usually insidious,
with the patient often not reporting any obvious antecedent trauma.
A patient suffering from quadrilateral space syndrome complains of
ill-defined pain in the shoulder and paresthesias radiating into the
posterior upper arm and lateral shoulder. This pain and associated
paresthesias frequently are worsened with abduction and external
rotation of the affected upper extremity. As the syndrome pro-
gresses, the patient may note increasing weakness of the affected
arm and difficulty with abduction and external rotation. Most cases
of quadrilateral space syndrome have occurred in young athletes
in their early second decade to third decade who are involved in
throwing activities (Figure 35-3). The syndrome may be seen occa-
sionally in older patients as a result of other causes of compression
of the axillary nerve as it travels through the quadrilateral space,
such as glenolabral cysts or tumor. Mild cases of quadrilateral space
syndrome resolve over time, but more severe cases, if left untreated,
result in permanent atrophy of the deltoid and teres minor muscles
(Figure 35-4).
Signs and Symptoms
The most important finding in patients with quadrilateral space
syndrome is weakness of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus
muscles. This manifests as weakness of abduction and external
rotation of the ipsilateral shoulder. With significant compromise
of the axillary nerve, atrophy of the deltoid and teres minor mus-
cle is apparent on physical examination. The pain of quadrilateral
space syndrome can be exacerbated by abducting and externally
rotating the ipsilateral upper extremity. Tenderness to palpation
of the quadrilateral space often is present.
Testing
Electromyography may help identify entrapment of the axil-
lary nerve, although the test may be normal in mild cases even
though significant neurapraxia is present. Electromyography
helps distinguish cervical radiculopathy and Parsonage-Turner
syndrome from quadrilateral space syndrome. Plain radiographs
are indicated in all patients who present with quadrilateral
space syndrome to rule out occult bony pathological processes.
Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional testing,
including complete blood cell count, uric acid level, erythro-
cyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may
be indicated. MRI of the shoulder is indicated in all patients
thought to have quadrilateral space syndrome because this test
is highly specific for this disorder. In the rare patient in whom
MRI is nondiagnostic, subclavian arteriography to show occlu-
sion of the posterior humeral circumflex artery may be consid-
ered because this finding is highly suggestive of a diagnosis of
quadrilateral space syndrome.
Differential Diagnosis
Quadrilateral space syndrome is often initially misdiagnosed as
bursitis, tendinitis, or arthritis of the shoulder. Cervical radicu-
lopathy of the lower nerve roots also may mimic the clinical pre-
sentation of quadrilateral space syndrome.
Parsonage-Turner syndrome, or idiopathic brachial neuritis,
also may manifest as sudden onset of shoulder pain and can be
confused with quadrilateral space syndrome. Tumor involving
this anatomical region also should be considered in the differen-
tial diagnosis of quadrilateral space syndrome, as should occult
fractures of the proximal humerus and other mass lesions, such
as cysts and lipomas, that may compress the axillary nerve as it
traverses the quadrilateral space.
Treatment
Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygen-
ase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors represent a reasonable first step in the
treatment of mild, self-limited quadrilateral space syndrome. The
use of tricyclic antidepressants, such as nortriptyline, at a single
bedtime dose of 25 mg, titrating upward as side effects allow also
is useful, especially if sleep disturbance is present. Gabapentin or
carbamazepine also can be considered. Avoidance of repetitive
trauma thought to be contributing to this entrapment neuropa-
thy also is important, especially in professional athletes. If these
maneuvers fail to produce rapid symptomatic relief, surgical
exploration and release of the axillary nerve are indicated.
99
100 SECTION 3 Shoulder Pain Syndromes

Inflamed and flattened

axillary nerve

Figure 35-1 Anatomy of axillary nerve as it travels through the quadrilateral space.

A
B

Figure 35-2 Quadrilateral space: normal anatomy. Coronal oblique section (A) and T1-weighted (TR/TE, 600/20) spin echo magnetic resonance
imaging (B). The posterior humeral circumflex artery and the axillary nerve (51) are located in the quadrilateral space. Other identified structures are
the humeral diaphysis (7), infraspinatus muscle (13), teres minor muscle (15), deltoid muscle (16), teres major muscle (17), long head of the triceps
muscle (35), and lateral head of the triceps muscle (35). (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002,
Saunders, p 3145.)
 35 Quadrilateral Space Syndrome 101

Axillary nerve
Teres minor muscle
Teres major muscle

Triceps muscle

Figure 35-3 If left untreated, quadrilateral space syndrome may result in permanent atrophy of the deltoid and teres minor muscles.

A B
Figure 35-4 Quadrilateral space syndrome: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Coronal oblique (A) and transaxial (B) intermediate-weighted (TR/
TE, 2000/35) spin echo MRI show selective atrophy with fatty replacement of the teres minor muscle (arrows). The infraspinatus muscle (13), deltoid
muscle (16), teres major muscle (17), and long (35) and lateral (35) heads of the triceps muscle are identified and are not involved. The humeral
diaphysis (7) also is seen. (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 3145.)

may harm the patient, such as Pancoasts tumor or primary or

Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose quadrilateral space syndrome correctly puts
the patient at risk for the missed diagnosis of other syndromes
that may result in ongoing damage to the shoulder or lead to
overlooked pathological processes in this anatomical region that
metastatic tumors of the shoulder. MRI is indicated in all patients
thought to have quadrilateral space syndrome, and aggressive
treatment of surgically correctable causes is generally indicated
sooner rather than later to avoid ongoing irreversible shoulder
damage.
102 SECTION 3 Shoulder Pain Syndromes
Clinical Pearls
Avoidance techniques of the repetitive movements respon-
sible for quadrilateral space syndrome often are forgotten in
the rush to treatment. Mild cases of quadrilateral space syn-
drome are usually self-limited, but more severe cases require
urgent surgical intervention. As with other uncommon pain
syndromes, quadrilateral space syndrome should be consid-
ered a diagnosis of exclusion and the clinician should ensure
that no potentially harmful occult space-occupying lesions
are present before attributing symptoms to other benign
causes.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Chautems RC, Glauser T, Waeber-Fey MC, Rostan O, Barraud GE: Quadrilat-
eral space syndrome: case report and review of the literature, Ann Vasc Surg
14:673676, 2000.
McClelland D, Paxinos A: The anatomy of the quadrilateral space with reference
to quadrilateral space syndrome, J Shoulder Elbow Surg 17:162164, 2008.
Nishimura M, Kobayashi M, Hamagashira K, etal: Quadrilateral space syndrome:
a rare complication of thoracic surgery, Ann Thorac Surg 86:13501351, 2008.
Sanders TG, Tirman PFJ: Paralabral cyst: an unusual cause of quadrilateral space
syndrome, Arthroscopy 15:632637, 1999.
SECTION 4 Elbow Pain Syndromes

Chapter 36

PRONATOR SYNDROME

ICD-9 CODE 354.0

ICD-10 CODE G56.00

The Clinical Syndrome

Several sites of entrapment of the median nerve exist in the fore-
arm. The median nerve may be entrapped at the lacertus fibrosus, Median nerve
at the lateral edge of the flexor digitorum superficialis, by fibrous
bands of the superficial head of the pronator teres muscle, or,
most commonly, by the pronator teres muscle itself. Pronator
syndrome is the compression of the median nerve by the prona-
tor teres muscle. The onset of symptoms is usually after repetitive
elbow motions, such as chopping wood, sculling, and cleaning
fish, although occasionally the onset is more insidious, with-
Pronator teres
out apparent antecedent trauma. Clinically, pronator syndrome muscle (cut):
manifests as a chronic aching sensation localized to the forearm
with pain occasionally radiating into the elbow. Patients with Humeral head
Pronator teres
pronator syndrome may complain of a tired or heavy sensation in muscle (cut) Ulnar head
the forearm with minimal activity and clumsiness of the affected
extremity. The sensory symptoms of pronator syndrome are
identical to symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome. In contrast to
carpal tunnel syndrome, nighttime symptoms are unusual with Flexor digitorum
pronator syndrome. superficialis muscle

Signs and Symptoms

The physical findings in pronator syndrome include tenderness
over the forearm in the region of the pronator teres muscle.
Unilateral hypertrophy of the pronator teres muscle may be
identified. A positive Tinels sign over the median nerve as it
passes beneath the pronator teres muscle also may be present
(Figure 36-1). Weakness of the intrinsic muscles of the forearm
and hand that are innervated by the median nerve may be iden-
tified with careful manual muscle testing. A positive pronator
syndrome test, which is pain on forced pronation of the patients
fully supinated arm, is highly suggestive of compression of the Figure 36-1 The symptoms of pronator syndrome are due to compres-
median nerve by the pronator teres muscle (Figure 36-2). sion of the median nerve by the pronator teres muscle.

103
104 SECTION 4 Elbow Pain Syndromes
Testing
Electromyography helps to distinguish cervical radiculopathy,
thoracic outlet syndrome, and carpal tunnel syndrome from pro-
nator syndrome. Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients
who present with pronator syndrome to rule out occult bony
pathological processes. Based on the patients clinical presenta-
tion, additional testing, including complete blood cell count,
uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear
antibody testing, may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) of the forearm is indicated if a primary elbow pathological
condition or space-occupying lesion is suspected. The injection
of the median nerve at the elbow may serve as a diagnostic and
therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
Median nerve entrapment by the ligament of Struthers manifests
clinically as unexplained persistent forearm pain caused by com-
pression of the median nerve by an aberrant ligament that runs
from a supracondylar process to the medial epicondyle. Clinically,
it is difficult to distinguish from pronator syndrome. The diagnosis
is made by electromyography and nerve conduction velocity testing
that show compression of the median nerve at the elbow combined
with the radiographic finding of a supracondylar process.
Figure 36-2 A positive pronator syndrome test is highly indicative of
pronator syndrome.
Both of these entrapment neuropathies can be differentiated
from isolated compression of the anterior interosseous nerve that
occurs approximately 6 to 8 cm below the elbow. These syn-
dromes also should be differentiated from cervical radiculopa-
thy involving the C6 or C7 roots, which sometimes may mimic
median nerve compression. Cervical radiculopathy and median
nerve entrapment may coexist as the double crush syndrome.
The double crush syndrome is seen most commonly with median
nerve entrapment at the wrist or carpal tunnel syndrome. Tho-
racic outlet syndrome also may cause forearm pain to be confused
with pronator syndrome. The pain of thoracic outlet syndrome
radiates into the ulnar rather than the median portion of the hand,
however.
Treatment
Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygen-
ase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors represent a reasonable first step in the
treatment of pronator syndrome. The use of tricyclic antidepres-
sants, such as nortriptyline, at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg,
titrating upward as side effects allow, also is useful, especially
if sleep disturbance is present. Avoidance of repetitive trauma
thought to be contributing to this entrapment neuropathy also is
important. If these maneuvers fail to produce rapid symptomatic
relief, injection of the median nerve at the elbow with a local anes-
thetic and steroid is a reasonable next step. If symptoms persist,
surgical exploration and release of the median nerve are indicated.
Complications and Pitfalls
Median nerve block at the elbow is a safe block, with the major
complications being inadvertent intravascular injection and per-
sistent paresthesia secondary to needle trauma to the nerve. This
technique can be performed safely in the presence of anticoagula-
tion by using a 25- or 27-gauge needle, although at increased risk
for hematoma, if the clinical situation dictates a favorable risk-
to-benefit ratio. These complications can be decreased if man-
ual pressure is applied to the area of the block immediately after
injection. Application of cold packs for 20-minute periods after
the block also decreases the amount of postprocedure pain and
bleeding.
Clinical Pearls
Avoidance techniques of the repetitive movements respon-
sible for pronator syndrome are often forgotten in the rush
to treatment. Median nerve block at the elbow is a simple
and safe technique in the evaluation and treatment of the
aforementioned painful conditions. Careful neurological
examination to identify preexisting neurological deficits
that may later be attributed to the nerve block should be
performed in all patients before beginning median nerve
block at the elbow.
Median nerve compression by the ligament of Struthers
manifests clinically as unexplained persistent forearm pain
caused by compression of the median nerve by an aberrant
ligament that runs from a supracondylar process to the
medial epicondyle. The diagnosis is made by electromy-
ography and nerve conduction velocity testing that show
compression of the median nerve at the elbow combined
 36 Pronator Syndrome 105

with the radiographic finding of a supracondylar process. SUGGESTED READINGS

The pronator syndrome is characterized by unexplained Horak BT, Kuz JT: An unusual case of pronator syndrome with ipsilateral supra-
persistent forearm pain with tenderness to palpation over condylar process and abnormal muscle mass, J Hand Surg 33:7982, 2008.
the pronator teres muscle. A positive Tinels sign also may Lacey SH, Soldatis JJ: Bilateral pronator syndrome associated with anomalous
heads of the pronator teres muscle: a case report, J Hand Surg 18:349351,
be present. Median nerve compression by the ligament 1993.
of Struthers and pronator syndrome must be differenti- Presciutti S, Rodner CM: Pronator syndrome, J Hand Surg 36:907909, 2011.
ated from isolated compression of the anterior interosse- Rehak DC: Pronator syndrome, Clin Sports Med 20:531540, 2001.
ous nerve that occurs approximately 6 to 8 cm below the
elbow. These syndromes also should be differentiated from
cervical radiculopathy involving the C6 or C7 roots that
may sometimes mimic median nerve compression. Cervical
radiculopathy and median nerve entrapment may coexist as
the double crush syndrome. The double crush syndrome is
seen most commonly with median nerve entrapment at the
wrist or carpal tunnel syndrome.
Chapter 37

CUBITAL BURSITIS

nerve entrapment syndromes at the elbow. Injection of the cubital

ICD-9 CODE 726.33
ICD-10 CODE M70.20
The Clinical Syndrome
An uncommon cause of elbow pain, cubital bursitis is being seen
in clinical practice more frequently because of the increasing
number of people using exercise equipment. The cubital bursa
lies in the anterior aspect of the elbow and produces anterior
elbow pain when inflamed. Also known as the bicipitoradial
bursa, the cubital bursa may exist as a single bursal sac or in some
patients may exist as a multisegmented series of sacs that may be
loculated. The cubital bursa is vulnerable to injury from acute
trauma and repeated microtrauma. Acute injuries frequently take
the form of direct trauma to the anterior aspect of the elbow.
Repetitive movements of the elbow, including repeated biceps-
strengthening exercises and throwing of javelins and baseballs,
may result in inflammation and swelling of the cubital bursa
(Figure 37-1). Gout or rheumatoid arthritis rarely may pre-
cipitate acute cubital bursitis. If the inflammation of the cubital
bursa becomes chronic, calcification of the bursa may occur.
bursa with a local anesthetic and steroid is a diagnostic and thera-
peutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
The most common causes of elbow pain are arthritis of the elbow
joint, tennis elbow, golfers elbow, and olecranon bursitis. Arthri-
tis of the elbow joint may mimic cubital bursitis because both
painful conditions are associated with movement of the joint.
The anterior point tenderness seen in cubital bursitis is absent in
arthritis of the elbow, however. Tennis elbow and golfers elbow
are distinct clinical entities that should not be confused with
cubital bursitis because the point tenderness seen in these painful
conditions is identified over the lateral and medial epicondyles,
rather than at the midline, as is seen with cubital bursitis. Acute
gout affecting the elbow manifests as a diffuse acute inflamma-
tory condition that may be difficult to distinguish from infec-
tion of the joint, rather than as a localized musculoskeletal pain
syndrome.

Signs and Symptoms

A patient with cubital bursitis frequently reports pain and swell-
ing with any movement of the elbow (see Figure 37-1). The pain
is localized to the cubital area, with referred pain often noted in
the forearm and hand. Physical examination reveals point tender-
ness in the anterior aspect of the elbow over the cubital bursa and
swelling of the bursa. Passive extension and resisted flexion of the
elbow reproduce the pain, as does any pressure over the bursa.

Testing
The diagnosis of cubital bursitis usually can be made on clinical
grounds. Plain radiographs of the elbow may reveal calcification
of the bursa and associated structures consistent with chronic
inflammation. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is indicated
the patient is thought to have a joint mouse or primary pathologi-
cal process of the elbow joint. Ultrasound imaging also may aid in
the diagnosis of cubital bursitis (Figure 37-2).
Laboratory testing to rule out hyperuricemia and collagen-
vascular disease also should be considered in appropriate patients. Figure 37-1 A patient with cubital bursitis reports pain and swelling on
Electromyography and nerve conduction velocity testing rule out any movement of the elbow.

106

Figure 37-2 Cubital or bicipitoradial bursitis. Longitudinal extended
FOV image demonstrating a sausage-shaped heterogeneous distended
cubital bursa (arrowheads). (From James JJ: Ultrasound of the elbow. In
Allan PL, Baxter GM, Weston MJ, editors: Clinical ultrasound, 3rd ed, New
York, 2011, Elsevier, pp 10431054.)
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with cubital bursitis should include a combination of nonsteroidal
antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)
inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of heat and cold
also may be beneficial. The repetitive movements that incite the
syndrome should be avoided. For patients who do not respond to
these treatment modalities, injection of the cubital bursa with a local
anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step (Figure 37-3).
To inject the cubital bursa, the patient is placed in the supine
position, with the arm fully adducted at the patients side and the
elbow extended and the dorsum of the hand resting on a folded
towel. Using a 5-mL sterile syringe, 2 mL of local anesthetic and
40 mg of methylprednisolone is drawn.
After sterile preparation of skin overlying the anterior aspect
of the joint, the clinician identifies the pulsations of the brachial
artery at the crease of the elbow. After preparation of the skin
with antiseptic solution, a 25-gauge, 1-inch needle is inserted just
lateral to the brachial artery at the crease and slowly advanced in a
slightly medial and cephalad trajectory through the skin and sub-
cutaneous tissues. If bone is encountered, the needle is withdrawn
back into the subcutaneous tissue. The contents of the syringe
are gently injected. Little resistance to injection should be felt. If
resistance is encountered, the needle is probably in the tendon and
should be withdrawn back until the injection proceeds without
significant resistance. The needle is removed, and a sterile pressure
dressing and ice pack are placed at the injection site.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complication associated with cubital diagnosis is mis-
diagnosis. Failure of the clinician to recognize an acute inflamma-
tory or infectious arthritis of the elbow may result in permanent
damage to the joint and chronic pain and functional disability.
Injection of the cubital bursa at the elbow is a safe block, with
the major complications being inadvertent intravascular injec-
tion and persistent paresthesia secondary to needle trauma to
the median nerve. This technique can be performed safely in the
presence of anticoagulation by using a 25- or 37-gauge needle,
although at increased risk for hematoma, if the clinical situation
dictates a favorable risk-to-benefit ratio. These complications
can be decreased if manual pressure is applied to the area of the
block immediately after injection. Application of cold packs for
20-minute periods after the block also decreases the amount of
postprocedure pain and bleeding.
37 Cubital Bursitis 107
Cubital bursa
Figure 37-3 Proper needle placement for injection for treatment of
cubital bursitis.
Clinical Pearls
Bursae are formed from synovial sacs whose purpose is
to allow easy sliding of muscles and tendons across one
another at areas of repeated movement. These synovial sacs
are lined with a synovial membrane invested with a network
of blood vessels that secrete synovial fluid. Inflammation of
the bursa results in an increase in the production of syno-
vial fluid with swelling of the bursal sac. With overuse or
misuse, these bursae may become inflamed, enlarged, and,
rarely, infected. Coexistent tendinitis and epicondylitis also
may contribute to elbow pain and may require additional
treatment with more localized injection of local anesthetic
and depot steroid. This technique is a safe procedure if care-
ful attention is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy in
the areas to be injected, in particular avoiding the median
nerve by keeping the needle lateral to the brachial artery.
Care must be taken to use sterile technique to avoid infec-
tion and universal precautions to avoid risk to the opera-
tor. The incidence of ecchymosis and hematoma formation
can be decreased if pressure is placed on the injection site
immediately after injection. The use of physical modalities,
including local heat and gentle range-of-motion exercises,
should be introduced several days after the patient under-
goes this injection technique for elbow pain. Vigorous
exercises should be avoided because they exacerbate the
patients symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may be
used concurrently with this injection technique.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Chung CB, Kim HJ: Sports injuries of the elbow, Magn Res Imaging Clin N Am
11:239253, 2003.
Hayter CL, Giuffre BM: Overuse and traumatic injuries of the elbow, Magn Res
Imaging Clin N Am 17:617638, 2009.
Howard TM, Shaw JL, Phillips J: Physical examination of the elbow. In Seiden-
berg PH, Beutler AI, editors: The sports medicine resource manual. Philadelphia,
2008, Saunders, pp 7178.
Sellards R, Kuebrich C: The elbow: diagnosis and treatment of common inju-
riesprimary care, Clin Office Pract 32:116, 2005.
Waldman SD: Injection technique for cubital bursitis pain. In Waldman SD,
editor: Pain review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 463464.
Chapter 38
ANCONEUS EPITROCHLEARIS
ICD-9 CODE 354.2
ICD-10 CODE G56.20
The Clinical Syndrome
Anconeus epitrochlearis is an uncommon cause of lateral forearm
pain and weakness that can be quite distressing to the patient.
Anconeus epitrochlearis is caused by entrapment and compression
of the ulnar nerve at the elbow by an accessory anconeus muscle
(Figure 38-1). This entrapment neuropathy manifests as pain and
associated paresthesias in the lateral forearm that radiates to the
wrist and ring and little fingers in a manner analogous to tardy
ulnar palsy. The symptoms often are aggravated by prolonged
Anconeus m.
Figure 38-1 Anconeus epitrochlearis is caused by entrapment and compression of the ulnar nerve at the elbow by an accessory anconeus muscle.
m, Muscle.
108
flexion of the elbow. The pain of anconeus epitrochlearis has been
characterized as unpleasant and dysesthetic. The onset of symp-
toms is usually after repetitive elbow motions or from repeated
pressure on the elbow, such as using the elbows to arise from bed.
Anconeus epitrochlearis also is seen in throwing athletes such as
baseball pitchers and quarterbacks. Direct trauma to the ulnar
nerve as it enters the cubital tunnel may result in a similar clinical
presentation, as can compression of the ulnar nerve as it passes
through the cubital tunnel by osteophytes, lipomas, ganglions,
and aponeurotic bands. Untreated, progressive motor deficit and
ultimately flexion contracture of the affected fingers can result.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical findings include tenderness over the ulnar nerve at the
elbow. A positive Tinels sign over the ulnar nerve as it passes
beneath the aponeuroses is usually present. Weakness of the
Anconeus
epitrochlearis
Inflamed and
compressed
ulnar nerve

A B
Figure 38-2 Eliciting Froments sign. (From Waldman SD: Physical diag-
nosis of pain: an atlas of signs and symptoms, Philadelphia, 2006, Saun-
ders, p 126.)
intrinsic muscles of the forearm and hand that are innervated
by the ulnar nerve may be identified with careful manual muscle
testing, although early in the course of the evolution of anconeus
epitrochlearis, the only physical finding other than tenderness
over the nerve may be the loss of sensation on the ulnar side of
the little finger. As the syndrome progresses, the affected hand
may have a clawlike appearance (see Figure 32-1). A positive
Wartenbergs sign indicative of weakness of the adduction of the
fifth digit is often present. A positive Froments sign also may be
present (Figure 38-2).
Testing
Electromyography helps to distinguish cervical radiculopathy and
anconeus epitrochlearis from golfers elbow. Plain radiographs are
indicated in all patients who present with anconeus epitrochlearis
to rule out occult bony pathology, such as osteophytes impinging
on the ulnar nerve. Based on the patients clinical presentation,
additional testing, including complete blood cell count, uric acid
level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody
testing, may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of
the elbow is indicated if joint instability is suspected and clearly
identifies whether the compression of the ulnar nerve is caused by
an accessory anconeus muscle (see Figure 38-3). Injection of the
ulnar nerve serves as a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
Anconeus epitrochlearis is often misdiagnosed as golfers elbow,
and this fact accounts for the many patients with golfers elbow
who fail to respond to conservative measures. In anconeus epi-
trochlearis, the maximal tenderness to palpation is over the ulnar
nerve 1 inch below the medial epicondyle, whereas in golfers
elbow, the maximal tenderness to palpation is directly over the
medial epicondyle. Anconeus epitrochlearis also should be dif-
ferentiated from cervical radiculopathy involving the C7 or C8
roots and golfers elbow. Cervical radiculopathy and ulnar nerve
entrapment may coexist as the double crush syndrome. The
double crush syndrome is seen most commonly with median
nerve entrapment at the wrist or carpal tunnel syndrome.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with anconeus epitrochlearis should include a combination of
38 Anconeus Epitrochlearis 109
Figure 38-3 Anconeus epitrochlearis muscle replacing the cubital tun-
nel retinaculum. A T2-weighted axial image reveals the ulnar nerve
(white arrow) deep to an anomalous anconeus epitrochlearis muscle
(black arrow) and superficial to the posterior bundle of the medial collat-
eral ligament (curved arrow). (From Edelman RR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB,
etal, editors: Clinical magnetic resonance imaging, 3rd ed, Philadelphia,
2006, Saunders, p 3303.)
nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygen-
ase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application
of heat and cold also may be beneficial. The repetitive movements
that incite the syndrome should be avoided. For patients who do
not respond to these treatment modalities, injection of the ulnar
nerve at the elbow with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a
reasonable next step. If the symptoms of anconeus epitrochlearis
persist, surgical exploration, resection of the accessory anconeus
muscle, and decompression of the ulnar nerve are indicated.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complications associated with anconeus epitrochlearis
fall into two categories: (1) iatrogenically induced complications
resulting from persistent and overaggressive treatment of resistant
golfers elbow and (2) the potential for permanent neurological
deficits resulting from prolonged untreated entrapment of the ulnar
nerve. Failure of the clinician to recognize an acute inflammatory or
infectious arthritis of the elbow may result in permanent damage to
the joint and chronic pain and functional disability.
Clinical Pearls
An accessory anconeus muscle is present in approximately
11% of the adult population. Anconeus epitrochlearis is a
distinct clinical entity that is often misdiagnosed as golfers
elbow, and this fact accounts for the many patients with
golfers elbow who fail to respond to conservative mea-
sures. With anconeus epitrochlearis, the maximal tender-
ness to palpation is over the ulnar nerve and a positive
Tinels sign is present, whereas with golfers elbow, the
maximal tenderness to palpation is over the medial epi-
condyle. If anconeus epitrochlearis is suspected, injection
110 SECTION 4 Elbow Pain Syndromes
of the radial nerve at the elbow with a local anesthetic and
steroid gives almost instantaneous relief. Careful examina-
tion to identify preexisting neurological deficits that may
later be attributed to the nerve block should be performed
on all patients before beginning ulnar nerve block at the
elbow.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Dellon AL: Musculotendinous variations about the medial humeral epicondyle,
JHand Surg 11:175181, 1985.
Kojima T: Ulnar compression neuropathy secondary to the anconeus epitrochle-
aris muscle, J Hand Surg 14:918919, 1989.
Masear VR, Hill JJ Jr, Cohen SM: Ulnar compression neuropathy secondary to
the anconeus epitrochlearis muscle, J Hand Surg 13:720724, 1988.
Waldman SD: The ulnar nerve. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review, Philadel-
phia, 2009, Saunders, pp 7677.
Chapter 39
OS SUPRATROCHLEARE-RELATED
ELBOW PAIN
ICD-9 CODE 733.99
ICD-10 CODE M89.8x9
The Clinical Syndrome
Elbow pain secondary to os supratrochleare is being seen with
increasing frequency in clinical practice owing to the increased
interest in physical fitness and the use of exercise machines. Os
supratrochleare is the name given to an accessory ossicle occasion-
ally found in the posterior elbow. This accessory ossicle often is
found adjacent to the proximal aspect of the olecranon process. It
is thought that accessory ossicles such as os supratrochleare bones
serve to decrease the friction and pressure of tendons as they pass
in proximity to a joint. Similar accessory ossicles are found in the
feet, hands, and wrists.
Elbow pain secondary to os supratrochleare is character-
ized by tenderness and pain over the posterior elbow. Patients
often describe a feeling of having gravel in their elbow and may
report a grating sensation with flexion and extension of the
elbow (Figure 39-1). The pain of os supratrochleare worsens
with activities that require repeated flexion and extension of the
Figure 39-1 Elbow pain secondary to os supratrochleare is character-
ized by tenderness and pain over the posterior elbow.
elbow or with forceful overhead throwing. Os supratrochleare
is often associated with loose bodies in the elbow joint and may
coexist with olecranon bursitis.
Signs and Symptoms
On physical examination, pain can be reproduced by pressure
on the os supratrochleare. In contrast to olecranon bursitis, in
which the tender area remains over the olecranon bursa, with os
supratrochleare, the area of maximal tenderness is just above the
olecranon process. A creaking or grating sensation may be appre-
ciated by the examiner, and locking or catching on extension and
flexion of the elbow occasionally may be present.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with os supratroch-
leare to rule out fractures and identify accessory ossicles that may
have become inflamed. Plain radiographs also often identify loose
bodies or joint mice frequently seen in patients with elbow pain
secondary to os supratrochleare. Based on the patients clinical pre-
sentation, additional testing, including complete blood cell count,
erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody test-
ing, may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the
elbow joint is indicated if joint instability, occult mass, or tumor
is suspected and to clarify the diagnosis further (Figure 39-2).
Radionucleotide bone scanning may be useful in identifying stress
fractures or tumors of the elbow and distal humerus that may be
missed on plain radiographs.
Differential Diagnosis
Primary pathological processes of the elbow, including gout and
occult fractures, may mimic the pain and disability associated
with os supratrochleare. Entrapment neuropathies, such as ulnar
tunnel syndrome, also may confuse the diagnosis, as may bursitis,
tendinitis, and epicondylitis of the elbow, which may coexist with
os supratrochleare. Osteochondritis dissecans, Panners disease,
and synovial chondromatosis also may mimic the pain associated
with os supratrochleare. Primary and metastatic tumors of the
elbow may manifest in a manner similar to elbow pain secondary
to os supratrochleare.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with os supratrochleare should include a combination of non-
steroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2
111
112 SECTION 4 Elbow Pain Syndromes
A B
Figure 39-2 Accessory ossicles. A, Os vesalianum. B, Os intermetatarseum. C, Os supratrochleare posterius (dorsale). (From Resnick D, editor: Diag-
nosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 4570.)
(COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. The local application
of heat and cold also may be beneficial. Avoidance of repetitive
activities that aggravate the patients symptoms also may provide
relief. For patients who do not respond to these treatment modali-
ties, injection of the os supratrochleare with a local anesthetic and
steroid may be a reasonable next step. For pain that persists, or if
the os supratrochleare is causing damage to the elbow joint, surgi-
cal removal is indicated.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complication of injection of os supratrochleare is infec-
tion. This complication should be exceedingly rare if strict aseptic
technique is followed. Approximately 25% of patients report a
transient increase in pain after injection of the os supratrochleare
and should be warned of this possibility. Another potential risk of
this injection technique is trauma to the extensor tendons from
the injection itself.
C
Clinical Pearls
Pain emanating from the elbow is a common problem
encountered in clinical practice. Os supratrochleare must be
distinguished from fractures of the elbow, fractures of the os
supratrochleare itself, entrapment neuropathies of the ulnar
nerve, bursitis, tendinitis, and epicondylitis. Less common
causes of posterior elbow pain are osteochondritis dissecans,
Panners disease, and synovial chondromatosis.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Gudmundsen E, stensen H: Accessory ossicles in the elbow, Acta Orthop Scand
58:130132, 1987.
McFarland EG, Gill HS, Laporte DM, Streiff M: Miscellaneous conditions about
the elbow in athletes [review], Clin Sports Med 23:743763, 2004.
Waldman SD: Functional anatomy of the elbow. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain
review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 7677.
Wood VE, Campbell GS: The supratrochleare dorsale accessory ossicle in the
elbow, J Shoulder Elbow Surg 3:395398, 1994.
Chapter 40
OSTEONECROSIS OF
THE ELBOW JOINT
ICD-9 CODE 733.43
ICD-10 CODE M87.03
The Clinical Syndrome
Osteonecrosis of the elbow joint is an often missed diagnosis. Like
the scaphoid bone of the wrist, the elbow joint is extremely sus-
ceptible to this disease because of the tenuous blood supply of the
articular cartilage. This blood supply is easily disrupted, often leav-
ing the proximal portion of the bone without nutrition and leading
to osteonecrosis (Figure 40-1). A disease of the fourth and fifth
decades, with the exception of patients with osteonecrosis of the
elbow joint secondary to collagen-vascular disease, osteonecrosis
of the elbow joint is more common in men. In younger patients,
sickle cell disease is the most common cause of osteonecrosis of the
elbow. The disease is bilateral in 45% to 50% of cases.
Factors predisposing to osteonecrosis of the elbow joint are
listed in Table 40-1. They include trauma to the joint; cortico-
steroid use; Cushings disease; alcohol abuse; connective tissue
Normal
Cell death
Ischemia
Hyperemia
Figure 40-1 The blood supply to the elbow is easily disrupted, often
leaving the proximal portion of the bone without nutrition and leading
to osteonecrosis.
diseases, especially systemic lupus erythematosus; osteomyelitis;
human immunodeficiency virus infection; organ transplantation;
hemoglobinopathies, including sickle cell disease; hyperlipid-
emia; gout; renal failure; pregnancy; sickle cell disease; and radia-
tion therapy involving the femoral head.
Patients with osteonecrosis of the elbow joint report pain over
the affected elbow joint or joints that may radiate into the upper
extremity. The pain is deep and aching, and patients often report
a catching sensation with range of motion of the affected elbow
joint or joints. Range of motion decreases as the disease progresses.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical examination of patients with osteonecrosis of the elbow
joint reveals pain to deep palpation of the elbow joint. The pain
can be worsened by passive and active range of motion. A click or
crepitus also may be appreciated by the examiner when ranging
the elbow joint. A decreased range of motion is invariably present.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with osteonecrosis
of the elbow joint to rule out underlying occult bony patho-
logical processes and identify sclerosis and fragmentation of
the osseous support of the articular surface. However, early in
TABLE 40-1
Predisposing Factors for Osteonecrosis of the Elbow Joint
Trauma to the elbow joint
Steroids
Cushings disease
Alcohol abuse
Connective tissue diseases, especially systemic lupus erythematosus
Osteomyelitis
Human immunodeficiency virus
Organ transplantation
Hemoglobinopathies, including sickle cell disease
Hyperlipidemia
Gout
Renal failure
Pregnancy
Radiation therapy
Sickle cell disease
113
114 SECTION 4 Elbow Pain Syndromes

the course of the disease, plain radiographs can be notoriously
unreliable; magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) reveals articular
changes before significant changes are evident on plain radio-
graphs (Figure 40-2). Based on the patients clinical presenta-
tion, additional testing, including complete blood cell count,
uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear
antibody testing, also may be indicated. MRI of the elbow joint
is indicated in all patients thought to have osteonecrosis of the
elbow joint; if other causes of joint instability, infection, or
tumor are suspected; or if plain radiographs are nondiagnostic.
Computed tomography (CT) may be useful in early diagnosis,
especially with three-dimensional reconstruction (Figure 40-3).
Administration of gadolinium followed by postcontrast imaging
may help delineate the adequacy of blood supply, with contrast
enhancement of the elbow joint being a good prognostic sign.
Electromyography is indicated if coexistent cervical radiculopa-
thy or brachial plexopathy is suspected. A very gentle intraar-
ticular injection of the elbow joint with small volumes of local
anesthetic will provide immediate improvement of the pain and
help demonstrate the nidus of the pain is in fact the elbow joint.
Ultimately, total joint replacement will be required in most
patients with osteonecrosis of the elbow joint, although newer
joint preservation techniques are becoming more popular in
younger, more active patients given the short life expectancy of
total shoulder prosthesis.
Differential Diagnosis
Coexistent arthritis and gout of the elbow joint, bursitis, and
tendinitis may coexist with osteonecrosis of the elbow joints and
exacerbate the pain and disability. Tears of the ligaments, bone
cysts, bone contusions, and fractures may mimic the pain of osteo-
necrosis of the elbow joint, as can occult metastatic disease.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with osteonecrosis of the elbow joint should include a combina-
tion of the nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and decreased weight bear-
ing of the affected elbow joint or joints. Local application of heat
and cold may be beneficial. For patients who do not respond to
these treatment modalities, an injection of a local anesthetic into
the elbow joint may be a reasonable next step to provide palliation
of acute pain. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they
will exacerbate the symptoms. Ultimately, surgical repair in the
form of total joint arthroplasty is the treatment of choice.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to surgically treat significant osteonecrosis of the elbow
joint usually will result in continued pain and disability and in
most patients will lead to ongoing damage to the elbow joint
(see Figure 40-2). Injection of the joint with local anesthetic is
a relatively safe technique if the clinician is attentive to detail,
specifically using small amounts of local anesthetic and avoiding
high injection pressures, which may further damage the joint.
Another complication of this injection technique is infection.
This complication should be exceedingly rare if strict aseptic
technique is followed. Approximately 25% of patients report
a transient increase in pain after this injection technique and
should be warned of this possibility.

A B
Figure 40-2 A, Coronal T2-weighted with fat suppression (FST2W) MRI demonstrating an area of high-signal intensity marrow edema in the
capitellum (solid arrow) of an adolescent with elbow pain. An area of low SI is seen in the subchondral bone plate (dashed arrow), suggestive of an
osteochondral defect. B, The sagittal FST2W MRI more clearly shows the low-SI osteochondral defect (curved arrow), with a linear area of high SI
at its base, indicating that the lesion is likely to be unstable. These appearances are typical of Panners disease (osteochondritis dissecans). (From
Waldman SD: Osteonecrosis of the elbow. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, New York, 2011, Elsevier, p 282.)
 40 Osteonecrosis of the Elbow Joint 115

Po A

255/128 B 255/128 C
A
Figure 40-3 Multifocal aspect of elbow osteonecrosis. A, Anterior; P, posterior. (From Mukaza MM, Manicom O, Fillipini P, Hernigou P: Elbow osteone-
crosis in sickle cells anemia: a study of six cases, Orthop Traumatol 95:8284, 2009.)

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Osteonecrosis of the elbow joint is a diagnosis that is often
missed, leading to considerable unnecessary pain and dis-
ability. The clinician should include osteonecrosis of the
elbow joint in the differential diagnosis in all patients with
shoulder joint pain, especially if any of the predisposing fac-
tors listed in Table 40-1 are present. Coexistent arthritis,
tendinitis, and gout may contribute to the pain and may
require additional treatment. The use of physical modali-
ties, including local heat and cold and decreased weight
bearing may provide symptomatic relief. Vigorous exercises
should be avoided because they will exacerbate the symp-
toms and may cause further damage to the wrist. Simple
analgesics and NSAIDs may be used concurrently with this
injection technique.
Henderson AB: Sickle cell anemia: clinical study of fifty-four cases (review), Am J
Med 9:757765, 1950.
Mukaza MM, Manicom O, Fillipini P, Hernigou P: Elbow osteonecrosis in sickle
cells anemia: a study of six cases, Orthop Traumatol 95:8284, 2009.
Savini CJ, James CW: HIV infection and osteonecrosis, J Assoc Nurse AIDS Care
12:8385, 2001.
Waldman SD: Functional anatomy of the elbow. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain
review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 7677.
Waldman SD: Osteonecrosis of the elbow. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, edi-
tors: Imaging of pain, New York, 2011, Elsevier, pp 281283.
Watanabe R, Sato K, Nakamura T, etal: Steroid-induced osteonecrosis of bilat-
eral distal humerus treated by arthroplasty using costal osteochondral graft: case
report, J Hand Surg 36:816819, 2011.
Chapter 41
TRICEPS TENDINITIS
ICD-9 CODE 727.09
ICD-10 CODE M65.80
The Clinical Syndrome
Triceps tendinitis is being seen with increasing frequency in
clinical practice as exercising and the use of exercise equipment
have increased in popularity. The triceps tendon is susceptible
to the development of tendinitis at its distal portion and its
insertion on the ulna. The triceps tendon is subject to repeti-
tive motion that may result in microtrauma, which heals poorly
because of the tendons avascular nature. Exercise is often impli-
cated as the inciting factor of acute triceps tendinitis. Tendinitis
of the triceps tendon frequently coexists with bursitis of the asso-
ciated bursae of the tendon and elbow joint, creating additional
pain and functional disability. Calcium deposition around the
tendon may occur if the inflammation continues, making subse-
quent treatment more difficult (Figure 41-1). Continued trauma
to the inflamed tendon ultimately may result in tendon rupture
(Figure 41-2).
ST
Figure 41-1 Tendon and soft tissue calcification. Calcified deposits are visualized in the triceps tendon (T) and soft tissues (ST) around the proximal
end of the radius. (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 1581.)
116
Signs and Symptoms
The onset of triceps tendinitis is usually acute, occurring after overuse
or misuse of the elbow joint. Inciting factors include playing tennis
and aggressive use of exercise machines. Improper stretching of triceps
muscle and triceps tendon before exercise also has been implicated in
the development of triceps tendinitis and acute tendon rupture. Inju-
ries ranging from partial to complete tears of the tendon can occur
when the distal tendon sustains direct trauma while it is fully flexed
under load or when the elbow is forcibly flexed while the arm is fully
extended. The pain of triceps tendinitis is constant and severe and is
localized in the posterior elbow (Figure 41-3). Significant sleep dis-
turbance is often reported. Patients with triceps tendinitis exhibit pain
with resisted extension of the elbow. A creaking or grating sensation
may be palpated when passively extending the elbow. As mentioned,
a chronically inflamed triceps tendon may rupture suddenly with
stress or during vigorous injection procedures inadvertently injected
into the substance of the tendon. With triceps tendon rupture, the
patient is unable to fully and forcefully extend the affected arm.
Testing
Plain radiographs and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are
indicated for all patients who present with posterior elbow pain
 41 Triceps Tendinitis 117

A B
Figure 41-2 Triceps tendon rupture imaged in flexion. This patient was unable to extend the elbow because of discomfort. The images were obtained
on a high-field scanner with the patient prone and the arm flexed overhead. Proton density (A) and fat-suppressed T2-weighted (B) coronal images
reveal a fluid-filled tear of the distal triceps tendon (arrows) from the olecranon (O). (From Edelman RR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB, etal, editors: Clinical
magnetic resonance imaging, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 3302.)

is useful to identify stress fractures of the elbow not seen on plain

radiographs.

Differential Diagnosis
Triceps tendinitis generally is easily identified on clinical grounds,
but coexistent bursitis may confuse the diagnosis. Stress fractures
of the olecranon also may mimic triceps tendinitis and may be
identified on plain radiographs or radionuclide bone scanning.

Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated with
triceps tendinitis should include a combination of nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhib-
itors and physical therapy. The local application of heat and cold also
may be beneficial. Patients should be encouraged to avoid repetitive
activities responsible for the evolution of the tendinitis. For patients
who do not respond to these treatment modalities, injection with
local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step.

Complications and Pitfalls

Figure 41-3 The pain of triceps tendinitis is constant and severe and is
localized in the posterior elbow.
(see Figures 41-1 and 41-2). Based on the patients clinical presen-
tation, additional tests, including complete blood count, erythro-
cyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be
indicated. MRI of the elbow is indicated if joint instability is sus-
pected and to confirm the diagnosis. Radionuclide bone scanning
Trauma to the triceps tendon from the injection itself is possi-
ble. Tendons that are highly inflamed or previously damaged are
subject to rupture if they are directly injected. This complication
can be greatly decreased if the clinician uses gentle technique and
stops injecting immediately if significant resistance to injection is
encountered. Approximately 25% of patients report a transient
increase in pain after this injection technique, and patients should
be warned of this possibility.
118 SECTION 4 Elbow Pain Syndromes

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Badia A, Stennett C: Sports-related injuries of the elbow, J Hand Ther 19:
The triceps tendon is a very strong tendon, but it is also very 206227, 2006.
susceptible to rupture. Coexistent bursitis and arthritis also Jafarnia K, Gabel GT, Morrey BF: Triceps tendinitis, Oper Tech Sports Med
9:217221, 2001.
may contribute to posterior elbow pain and may require Potter HG, Schachar J, Jawetz S: Imaging of the elbow, Oper Tech Orthop 19:
additional treatment with a more localized injection of local 199208, 2009.
anesthetic and methylprednisolone acetate. Waldman SD: Functional anatomy of the elbow. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain
Injection of the triceps tendon is a safe procedure if review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 7677.
careful attention is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy
in the areas to be injected. The use of physical modalities,
including local heat and gentle range-of-motion exercises,
should be introduced several days after the patient under-
goes this injection technique for elbow pain. Vigorous exer-
cises should be avoided because they would exacerbate the
patients symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may be
used concurrently with this injection technique.
Chapter 42

RADIAL TUNNEL SYNDROME

include aberrant fibrous bands in front of the radial head, anoma-

ICD-9 CODE 354.9
ICD-10 CODE G56.90
The Clinical Syndrome
Radial tunnel syndrome is an uncommon cause of lateral elbow
pain that has the unique distinction among entrapment neuropa-
thies of almost always being initially misdiagnosed. The incidence
of misdiagnosis of radial tunnel syndrome is so common that it is
often incorrectly referred to as resistant tennis elbow (Table 42-1).
As seen from the following discussion, the only major similarity
that radial tunnel syndrome and tennis elbow share is the fact that
both clinical syndromes produce lateral elbow pain.
The lateral elbow pain of radial tunnel syndrome is aching
and localized to the deep extensor muscle mass. The pain may
radiate proximally and distally into the upper arm and forearm
(Figure 42-1). The intensity of the pain of radial tunnel syn-
drome is mild to moderate, but it may produce significant func-
tional disability.
In radial tunnel syndrome, the posterior interosseous branch of
the radial nerve is entrapped by a variety of mechanisms that have
in common a similar clinical presentation. These mechanisms
lous blood vessels that compress the nerve, extrinsic masses, or a
sharp tendinous margin of the extensor carpi radialis brevis. These
entrapments may exist alone or in combination.
Signs and Symptoms
Regardless of the mechanism of entrapment of the radial nerve,
the common clinical feature of radial tunnel syndrome is pain just
below the lateral epicondyle of the humerus. The pain of radial
tunnel syndrome may develop after an acute twisting injury or
direct trauma to the soft tissues overlying the posterior interosse-
ous branch of the radial nerve, or the onset may be more insidi-
ous, without an obvious inciting factor. The pain is constant and
worsens with active supination of the wrist. Patients often note
the inability to hold a coffee cup or hammer. Sleep disturbance
is common. On physical examination, elbow range of motion is
normal. Grip strength on the affected side may be diminished.
In the classic text on entrapment neuropathies, Dawson and
colleagues note three important signs that allow the clinician to
distinguish radial tunnel syndrome from tennis elbow: (1) tender-
ness to palpation distal to the radial head in the muscle mass of the
extensors, rather than over the more proximal lateral epicondyle,
as in tennis elbow; (2) increasing pain on active resisted supina-
tion of the forearm owing to compression of the radial nerve by
the arcade of Frohse as a result of contraction of the muscle mass;

TABLE 42-1
Characteristics of Radial Tunnel Syndrome and Lateral Epicondylitis
Characteristic Radial Tunnel Syndrome Lateral Epicondylitis(Tennis Elbow)
Frequency Rare (2% of all peripheral nerve compressions of the upper Common cause of lateral elbow pain
limb)
Cause Compression of the radial nerve Caused by overuse of the extensor and supi-
nator muscles
Characteristic patient Anybody with repetitive, stressful pronation and supination Tennis players
(e.g., tennis players, Frisbee players, swimmers, powerlifters)
Pain location Pain over the neck of the radius and lateral aspect of the Pain and tenderness over the lateral epi-
proximal forearm over the extensor muscles themselves condyle and immediately distal to it (at the
(distal to where the pain is located in LE) origin of the extensor muscles)
Pain radiation Pain can radiate proximally and (more commonly) distally Usually localized without radiation
Provocative tests (much overlap Pain with resisted extension of the middle finger with the Pain with resisted wrist extension or elbow
between the two entities) forearm pronated and the elbow extended. Pain with resisted supination with the elbow extended. Pain with
forearm supination with the elbow fully extended forceful wrist flexion or forearm pronation
Modified from Mileti J, Largacha M, ODriscoll SW. Radial tunnel syndrome caused by ganglion cyst: treatment by arthroscopic cyst decompression, Arthroscopy
20:e39e44, 2004.

119
120 SECTION 4 Elbow Pain Syndromes
Radial nerve
Extensor carpi
radialis brevis
muscle
Figure 42-1 The pain of radial tunnel syndrome is localized to the deep
extensor muscle mass and may radiate proximally and distally into the
upper arm and forearm.
and (3) a positive result on the middle finger test. The middle
finger test is performed by having the patient extend the forearm,
wrist, and middle finger and sustain this action against resistance.
Patients with radial tunnel syndrome exhibit increased lateral
elbow pain secondary to fixation and compression of the radial
nerve by the extensor carpi radialis brevis muscle.
Testing
Because of the ambiguity and confusion surrounding this clini-
cal syndrome, testing is important to help confirm the diagnosis
of radial tunnel syndrome. Electromyography helps to distin-
guish cervical radiculopathy and radial tunnel syndrome from
tennis elbow. Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients who
present with radial tunnel syndrome to rule out occult bony
pathology. Based on the patients clinical presentation, addi-
tional testing, including complete blood cell count, uric acid,
erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody test-
ing, may be indicated.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the elbow is indicated
if internal derangement of the joint is suspected and may help
identify the factors responsible for the nerve entrapment, such as
ganglion cysts or lipomas (Figure 42-2). The injection technique
of the radial nerve at the elbow with a local anesthetic and steroid
may help confirm the diagnosis and treat the syndrome.
Differential Diagnosis
Cervical radiculopathy and tennis elbow can mimic radial tun-
nel syndrome. Radial tunnel syndrome can be distinguished from
tennis elbow because with radial tunnel syndrome, the maximal
tenderness to palpation is distal to the lateral epicondyle over the
posterior interosseous branch of the radial nerve, whereas with
tennis elbow, the maximal tenderness to palpation is over the
lateral epicondyle. Increased pain with active supination and a
positive middle finger test (see earlier discussion) helps strengthen
the diagnosis of radial tunnel syndrome. Acute gout affecting the
elbow manifests as a diffuse acute inflammatory condition that
may be difficult to distinguish from infection of the joint, rather
than a localized nerve entrapment.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with radial tunnel syndrome should include a combination of
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygen-
ase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. The local applica-
tion of heat and cold also may be beneficial. Patients should avoid
the repetitive movements that incite the syndrome. For patients
who do not respond to these treatment modalities, injection of the
radial nerve at the elbow with a local anesthetic and steroid may be
a reasonable next step. If the symptoms of radial tunnel syndrome
persist, surgical exploration and decompression of the radial nerve
are indicated.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complications associated with radial tunnel syndrome
fall into two categories: (1) iatrogenically induced complications
resulting from persistent and overaggressive treatment of resistant
tennis elbow and (2) the potential for permanent neurological
deficits as a result of prolonged untreated entrapment of the radial
nerve. Failure of the clinician to recognize an acute inflammatory
or infectious arthritis of the elbow may result in permanent dam-
age to the joint and chronic pain and functional disability.
Clinical Pearls
Radial tunnel syndrome is a distinct clinical entity that is
often misdiagnosed as tennis elbow, and this fact accounts
for the many patients with tennis elbow who fail to
respond to conservative measures. Radial tunnel syndrome
can be distinguished from tennis elbow because with radial
tunnel syndrome, the maximal tenderness to palpation is
over the radial nerve, whereas with tennis elbow, the maxi-
mal tenderness to palpation is over the lateral epicondyle.
If radial tunnel syndrome is suspected, injection of the
radial nerve at the humerus with a local anesthetic and ste-
roid gives almost instantaneous relief. Careful neurological
examination to identify preexisting neurological deficits
that may later be attributed to the nerve block should be
performed on all patients before beginning radial nerve
block at the humerus.
 42 Radial Tunnel Syndrome 121

Pre-op Post-op
Pre-op

A B C
Pre-op

Post-op

E
Post-op

D F
Figure 42-2 Preoperative and postoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (T2-weighted fast spin echo sequences with fat saturation). A,
Sagittal MRI shows cystic mass anterior to the capitellum. B, Postoperative sagittal MRI shows decompression of the cyst. C, Preoperative coronal
MRI shows cyst communication with the proximal radioulnar joint. D, Postoperative coronal MRI after decompression. E, Series of preoperative axial
MRIs showing the cyst from the anterior to the capitellum distally into the proximal radioulnar joint. F, Postoperative axial MRIs after decompression.
(From Mileti J, Largacha M, ODriscoll SW: Radial tunnel syndrome caused by ganglion cyst: treatment by arthroscopic cyst decompression, Arthroscopy
20:e39e44, 2004.)

SUGGESTED READINGS
Clavert P, Lutz JC, Adam P: Frohses arcade is not the exclusive compression site
of the radial nerve in its tunnel, Orthop Traumatol Surg Res 95:114118, 2009.
Lee JT, Azari K: Ford Jones N: Long term results of radial tunnel release: the effect
of co-existing tennis elbow, multiple compression syndromes and workers
compensation, J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 61:10951099, 2008.
Huisstede B, Miedema HS, van Opstal T: Interventions for treating the radial tun-
nel syndrome: a systematic review of observational studies, J Hand Surg 33:72,
2008, e1-72.e10.
Tennent TD, Woodgate A: Posterior interosseous nerve dysfunction in the radial
tunnel, Curr Orthop 22:226232, 2008.
Waldman SD: Radial tunnel syndrome. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review,
Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 268269.
Waldman SD: Radial tunnel syndrome. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors:
Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 287288.
Chapter 43
CUBITAL TUNNEL SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 354.2
ICD-10 CODE G56.2
The Clinical Syndrome
Cubital tunnel syndrome is an uncommon cause of lateral fore-
arm pain and weakness that can be quite distressing to the patient.
This entrapment neuropathy manifests as pain and associated
paresthesias in the lateral forearm that radiates to the wrist and
ring and little fingers. The symptoms are often aggravated by pro-
longed flexion of the elbow. The pain of cubital tunnel syndrome
has been characterized as unpleasant and dysesthetic. The onset
of symptoms is usually after repetitive elbow motions or from
repeated pressure on the elbow, such as using the elbows to arise
from bed. Direct trauma to the ulnar nerve as it enters the cubi-
tal tunnel may result in a similar clinical presentation. Untreated,
progressive motor deficit and ultimately flexion contracture of
the affected fingers can result. Cubital tunnel syndrome is most
often caused by compression of the ulnar nerve by an aponeurotic
band that runs from the medial epicondyle of the humerus to the
medial border of the olecranon.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical findings include tenderness over the ulnar nerve at the
elbow. A positive Tinels sign over the ulnar nerve as it passes beneath
the aponeuroses is usually present. Weakness of the intrinsic muscles
of the forearm and hand that are innervated by the ulnar nerve may
be identified with careful manual muscle testing, although early in
the course of the evolution of cubital tunnel syndrome, the only
physical finding other than tenderness over the nerve may be the loss
of sensation on the ulnar side of the little finger. As the syndrome
progresses, the affected hand may take on a clawlike appearance
(Figure 43-1). A positive Wartenbergs sign indicative of weakness
of the adduction of the fifth digit is often present (Figures 43-2 and
43-3). A positive scratch collapse test is often present (Figure 43-4).
Testing
Electromyography helps distinguish cervical radiculopathy and
cubital tunnel syndrome from golfers elbow. Plain radiographs are
indicated in all patients with cubital tunnel syndrome to rule out
occult bony pathological processes, such as osteophytes impinging
on the ulnar nerve. Based on the patients clinical presentation,
122
additional tests, including complete blood cell count, uric acid
level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody
testing, may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
of the elbow is indicated if joint instability is suspected and to
identify the cause of ulnar nerve entrapment (Figure 43-5). Ultra-
sound evaluation is also useful if the diagnosis is in question
(Figure 43-6). Injection of the ulnar nerve serves as a diagnostic
maneuver and a therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
Cubital tunnel syndrome is often misdiagnosed as golfers elbow,
which accounts for the many patients with golfers elbow who
fail to respond to conservative measures. Cubital tunnel syndrome
can be distinguished from golfers elbow, because in cubital tun-
nel syndrome, the maximal tenderness to palpation is over the
ulnar nerve 1 inch below the medial epicondyle, whereas with
golfers elbow, the maximal tenderness to palpation is directly
over the medial epicondyle. Cubital tunnel syndrome also should
be differentiated from cervical radiculopathy involving the C7
or C8 roots and golfers elbow. Cervical radiculopathy and ulnar
nerve entrapment may coexist as the double crush syndrome.
The double crush syndrome is seen most commonly with median
nerve entrapment at the wrist or carpal tunnel syndrome.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with cubital tunnel syndrome should include a combination of
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygen-
ase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of
heat and cold also may be beneficial. The repetitive movements that
incite the syndrome should be avoided. For patients who do not
respond to these treatment modalities, injection of the ulnar nerve
at the elbow with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable
next step. If the symptoms of cubital tunnel syndrome persist, surgi-
cal exploration and decompression of the ulnar nerve are indicated.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complications associated with cubital tunnel syndrome
fall into two categories: (1) iatrogenically induced complications
resulting from persistent and overaggressive treatment of resistant
golfers elbow and (2) the potential for permanent neurological
deficits as a result of prolonged untreated entrapment of the ulnar
nerve. Failure of the clinician to recognize an acute inflammatory
or infectious arthritis of the elbow may result in permanent dam-
age to the joint and chronic pain and functional disability.
 Ulnar nerve

Medial epicondyle

Ulnar
nerve

Flexor carpi Ulnar collateral

ulnaris muscle ligament

Medial
epicondyle

Figure 43-1 Patients with cubital tunnel syndrome exhibit weakness of the intrinsic muscles of the forearm, and the hand may take on a clawlike
appearance.

Figure 43-2 Adduction of the fifth digit is often present in cubital tun- Figure 43-3 A positive Wartenbergs sign is indicative of cubital tunnel
nel syndrome. (From Waldman SD: Physical diagnosis of pain: an atlas of syndrome. (From Waldman SD: Physical diagnosis of pain: an atlas of
signs and symptoms, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 127.) signs and symptoms, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 128.)
124 SECTION 4 Elbow Pain Syndromes

Patient

A Examiner B C
Figure 43-4 The scratch collapse test. The patient faces the examiner with arms adducted, elbows flexed, and hands outstretched with the wrists at
neutral. A, The patient resists bilateral shoulder adduction and internal rotation as the examiner applies these forces to the forearm. B, The examiner
scratches or swipes the fingertips over the course of the compressed ulnar nerve. C, The force is reapplied to the forearm. A positive result occurs
when the patient has a temporary loss of external rotation resistance tone (as seen in the diagram). (From Cheng CJ, Mackinnon-Patterson B, Beck JL,
Mackinnon SE: Scratch collapse test for evaluation of carpal and cubital tunnel syndromes, J Hand Surg 33A:15181524, 2008.)

A B
Figure 43-5 Thickening of the cubital tunnel retinaculum. A, T1-weighted axial MR image reveals the ulnar nerve (white arrow) deep to a thickened
cubital tunnel retinaculum (arrowheads) and superficial to the posterior bundle of the medial collateral ligament (curved arrow). B, Axial image further
distally in the same patient reveals the ulnar nerve (white arrow) deep to a normal, thin aponeurosis of the flexor carpi ulnaris (small black arrows) and
superficial to a mildly thickened medial joint capsule (open arrow). (From Edelman RR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB, etal, editors: Clinical magnetic resonance
imaging, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 3303.)

Ulna
Clinical Pearls
ME
Tunnel
Figure 43-6 In this patient with UCT the ulnar nerve has a cross sec-
tional anatomy (CSA) of 0.29 cm2. The cross-section of the ulnar nerve is
depicted by arrows outlining its periphery. The nerve also is hypoechoic,
a finding that can be seen with increased edema. ME, Medial epicon-
dyle; Tunnel, ulnar tunnel. (From Wiesler ER, Chloros GD, Cartwright MS,
Shin HW, Walker FO: Ultrasound in the diagnosis of ulnar neuropathy at the
cubital tunnel, J Hand Surg 31:10881093, 2006.)
Cubital tunnel syndrome is a distinct clinical entity that is
often misdiagnosed as golfers elbow, which accounts for
the many patients with golfers elbow who fail to respond
to conservative measures. Cubital tunnel syndrome can be
distinguished from golfers elbow because in cubital tunnel
syndrome, the maximal tenderness to palpation is over the
ulnar nerve and a positive Tinels sign is present, whereas
with golfers elbow, the maximal tenderness to palpation
is over the medial epicondyle. If cubital tunnel syndrome
is suspected, injection of the radial nerve at the elbow with
a local anesthetic and steroid gives almost instantaneous
relief. Careful neurological examination to identify preex-
isting neurological deficits that may later be attributed to
the nerve block should be performed on all patients before
beginning ulnar nerve block at the elbow.
 43 Cubital Tunnel Syndrome 125

SUGGESTED READINGS Palmer BA, Hughes TB: Cubital tunnel syndrome, J Hand Surg 35:153163,
2010.
Hariri S, McAdams TR: Nerve injuries about the elbow, Clin Sports Med 29:655 Rich BC, McKay MP: The cubital tunnel syndrome: a case report and discussion,
675, 2010. J Emerg Med 23:347350, 2002.
Heithoff SJ: Cubital tunnel syndrome: ulnar nerve subluxation, J Hand Surg
35:1556, 2010.
Chapter 44
DRIVERS ELBOW
ICD-9 CODE 354.2
ICD-10 CODE G56.20
The Clinical Syndrome
The ulnar nerve is susceptible to compression when a driver or
passenger rests his or her elbow on the lower sill of the vehicle
window while the shoulder is abducted and the elbow flexed.
When the elbow is flexed, the proximal edge of the arcuate liga-
ment becomes taut and the total volume of the cubital tunnel
is decreased, resulting in increased intratunnel pressure further
compromising the ulnar nerve. Vibration transmitted from the
car body to the elbow also may further contribute to compromise
of the ulnar nerve. This entrapment neuropathy presents as pain
and associated paresthesias in the lateral forearm that radiate to
the wrist and ring and little finger. Untreated, progressive motor
deficit and, ultimately, flexion contracture of the affected fingers
can result.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical findings associated with drivers elbow include tenderness
over the ulnar nerve at the elbow. A positive Tinels sign over the
ulnar nerve as it passes beneath the aponeuroses is usually present
(Figure 44-1). Weakness of the intrinsic muscles of the forearm
Figure 44-1 Tinels sign at elbow. (From Waldman SD: Atlas of pain man-
agement injection techniques, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2013, Saunders, p 129.)
126
and hand that are innervated by the ulnar nerve may be identi-
fied with careful manual muscle testing (Table 44-1). It should be
noted that the possibility always exists that a patient with drivers
elbow also may have an coexistent ulnar, median, or radial nerve
lesion distal to the elbow that may confuse the clinical picture.
Furthermore, it should be remembered that cervical radiculopathy
and ulnar nerve entrapment may coexist as the double crush
syndrome. The double crush syndrome is seen most commonly
with median nerve entrapment at the wrist or with carpal tunnel
syndrome. The clinician should be aware that early in the course
of the evolution of drivers elbow the only physical finding other
than tenderness over the nerve may be the loss of sensation on the
ulnar side of the little finger.
Testing
Drivers elbow should be differentiated from cervical radiculop-
athy involving the C7 or C8 roots and golfers elbow. Electro-
myography helps distinguish cervical radiculopathy and drivers
elbow from golfers elbow. Ultrasound imaging of the elbow
may be useful in assessing the status of the ulnar nerve and can
provide important anatomic information when combined with
the neurophysiological data obtained from electromyography.
Plain radiographs and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are
indicated in all patients with drivers elbow to rule out intrinsic
pathological conditions of the elbow joint (Figure 44-2). Based
on the patients clinical presentation, additional testing, includ-
ing complete blood count, uric acid level, sedimentation rate,
and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. The injection
technique described in this chapter serves as both a diagnostic and
therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
Drivers elbow is an entrapment neuropathy resulting from exter-
nal compression of the ulnar nerve that clinically mimics cubital
tunnel syndrome. It is often is misdiagnosed as golfers elbow,
which accounts for the many patients with golfers elbow who
fail to respond to conservative measures. Drivers elbow can be dis-
tinguished from golfers elbow in that in drivers elbow, the maxi-
mal tenderness to palpation is over the ulnar nerve 1 inch below
the medial epicondyle, whereas with golfers elbow, the maximal
tenderness to palpation is directly over the medial epicondyle.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with drivers elbow should include a combination of nonsteroidal
 44 Drivers Elbow 127

TABLE 44-1
Summary of Ulnar Nerve Motor Signs and Tests Grouped by Affected Musculature
Test Name Description Positive Result
Motor signs involving the adductor pollicis muscle
Froments sign The patient holds a piece of paper using a lateral pinch. Thumb IP flexion compensates for a weak adductor
The examiner then pulls the paper distally along the pollicis muscle.
thumbs longitudinal axis and assesses the patients
method of stabilization.
Jeannes sign The patient holds a piece of paper using a lateral pinch. Thumb MP hyperextension compensates for a weak
The examiner then pulls the paper distally along the adductor pollicis muscle.
thumbs longitudinal axis and assesses the patients
method of stabilization.
Motor signs and tests involving the interosseous muscles
Finger flexion sign Performed bilaterally at the same time. Both forearms and The involved side will use MP flexion to compensate
wrists are in neutral. Examiner first places a piece of paper for interossei weakness.
between the middle and ring fingers in both hands and
then pulls the paper distally.
Crossed finger test Examiner asks the patient to cross the middle finger over Inability to cross the fingers. Compare with unin-
the index finger. volved side.
Egawas sign Examiner then asks the patient to flex the middle finger Inability to perform this action in contrast to unin-
MP joint and then to abduct it to both sides. This can volved side.
be difficult to perform; therefore bilateral assessment is
recommended.
Motor signs involving the ulnar nerveinnervated lumbrical muscles
Duchennes sign Sign is identified by observing the posture of the small Clawing posture (MP hyperextension and IP flexion)
and ring fingers on the involved side. present in the ring and small fingers.
Andr-Thomas sign Sign is identified by observing the compensatory pattern Wrist tends to flex with ring and small finger EDC
used in the ring and small fingers during actions involv- activation.
ing EDC use.
Motor signs involving the hypothenar musculature
Wartenbergs sign Patient actively abducts the fingers with the forearm in Inability of the small finger to fully adduct and
pronation and the wrist in neutral. Observe the small touch the ring finger. Compare with the uninvolved
fingers ability to fully adduct. side.
Masses sign Observe the metacarpal arch as compared with the unin- Flattened metacarpal arch.
volved side. The convex nature of the ulnar aspect of the
hand is altered by hypothenar atrophy.
Pitres-Testut sign Noted after the examiner asks the patient to shape the Inability to shape the hand in the form of a cone.
hand in the form of a cone. Although present in the lit-
erature, this sign is not commonly used in clinical practice
settings.
Palmaris brevis sign A rarely observed sign in lower ulnar nerve palsy in which The sparing of the palmaris brevis muscle in con-
the lesion selectively affects the deep branch. Determine trast to the uninvolved side.
the presence of this sign by observing and evaluating the
palmaris brevis muscle in contrast to the uninvolved side.
Motor signs involving the extrinsic ulnar nerveinnervated muscles
Nail file sign Patient attempts to make a hook fist. Examiner places an Decreased small and ring finger FDP strength in
index finger along the volar surface of the patients small contrast to the uninvolved side.
and ring fingers, leaving the DIPs free to contract.
Modified from Goldman SB, Brininger TL, Schrader JW, Koceja DM: A review of clinical tests and signs for the assessment of ulnar neuropathy, J Hand Ther 22:209220,
2009.
DIP, Distal interphalangeal; EDC, extensor digitorum communis; FDP, flexor digitorum profundus; IP, interphalangeal; MP, metacarpophalangeal.

anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-

2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of heat
and cold also may be beneficial. The repetitive movements that
incite the syndrome should be avoided. For patients who do not
respond to these treatment modalities, injection of the ulnar
nerve at the elbow with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a
reasonable next step. If the symptoms of cubital tunnel syndrome
persist, surgical exploration and decompression of the ulnar nerve
are indicated.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complications associated with the diagnosis and treatment
of patients with drivers elbow fall into two categories: (1) iatrogeni-
cally induced complications resulting from persistent and overaggres-
sive treatment of resistant golfers elbow and (2) the potential for
permanent neurological deficits as a result of prolonged untreated
entrapment of the ulnar nerve. Failure of the clinician to recognize
acute inflammatory or infectious arthritis of the elbow may result in
permanent damage to the joint, chronic pain, or functional disability.
128 SECTION 4 Elbow Pain Syndromes

LE

ME
O

A B

C D
Figure 44-2 A, Axial T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of a patient with symptoms of ulnar nerve compression. Soft tissue is seen
within the region of the cubital tunnel (white arrow); it is isointense, with normal muscle and represents an accessory anconeus muscle. The ulnar
nerve is not clearly visible. B, Compare this axial T1-weighted image of a normal elbow with high signal intensity fat suppression (FS) within the
cubital tunnel around the ulnar nerve (broken black arrow) and no accessory muscle tissue. The axial (C) and sagittal FS T2-weighted MRI demonstrate
high signal intensity within the nerve (white arrows) resulting from compression neuritis. LE, Lateral epicondyle; ME, medial epicondyle; O, olecranon.
(From Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, p 290.)
 44 Drivers Elbow 129

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Abdel-Salam A, Eyres KS, Cleary J: Drivers elbow: a cause of ulnar neuropathy,
Drivers elbow is a distinct clinical entity often misdi- JHand Surg 16:436437, 1991.
agnosed as golfers elbow, which accounts for the many Palmer BA, Hughes TB: Cubital tunnel syndrome, J Hand Surg 35:153163,
2010.
patients with golfers elbow who fail to respond to con- Szabo RM, Kwak C: Natural history and conservative management of cubital tun-
servative measures. Drivers elbow can be distinguished nel syndrome, Hand Clin 23:311318, 2007.
from golfers elbow because, with cubital tunnel syndrome, Waldman SD: Golfers elbow. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review, Philadelphia,
the maximal tenderness to palpation is over the ulnar nerve 2009, Saunders, pp 267268.
and a positive Tinels sign is present, whereas with golfers Waldman SD: The ulnar nerve. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review, Philadel-
phia, 2009, Saunders, pp 76.
elbow, the maximal tenderness to palpation is over the Waldman SD: Ulnar nerve entrapment at the elbow. In Waldman SD, editor:
medial epicondyle. Drivers elbow also should be differen- Pain review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 270271.
tiated from cervical radiculopathy involving the C8 spinal
root, which may at times mimic ulnar nerve compression.
Furthermore, it should be remembered that cervical radicu-
lopathy and ulnar nerve entrapment may coexist in double
crush syndrome. The double crush syndrome is seen most
commonly with median nerve entrapment at the wrist or
with carpal tunnel syndrome. Pancoasts tumor invading
the medial cord of the brachial plexus may also mimic an
isolated ulnar nerve entrapment and should be ruled out by
apical lordotic chest radiograph.
Careful neurological examination to identify preexist-
ing neurological deficits that may later be attributed to
the nerve block should be performed on all patients before
beginning ulnar nerve block at the elbow.
Ulnar nerve entrapment at the elbow is often misdiag-
nosed as golfers elbow, and this fact accounts for the many
patients whose golfers elbow fails to respond to conser-
vative measures. Drivers elbow can be distinguished from
golfers elbow in that in drivers elbow, the maximal tender-
ness to palpation is over the ulnar nerve 1 inch below the
medial epicondyle, whereas with golfers elbow, the maxi-
mal tenderness to palpation is directly over the medial epi-
condyle. If cubital tunnel syndrome is suspected, injection
of the ulnar nerve at the elbow with local anesthetic and
steroid gives almost instantaneous relief.
Chapter 45
ANTERIOR INTEROSSEOUS
SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 354.9
ICD-10 CODE G56.90
The Clinical Syndrome
Anterior interosseous syndrome is an uncommon cause of fore-
arm and wrist pain. The onset of symptoms in patients with
anterior interosseous syndrome is usually after acute trauma to
the forearm or after repetitive forearm and elbow motions, such
as using an ice pick. In this setting, the pain and muscle weakness
of anterior interosseous syndrome are thought to be secondary
to median nerve compression of the nerve just below the elbow
by the tendinous origins of the pronator teres muscle and flexor
digitorum superficialis muscle of the long finger or by aberrant
blood vessels. In some patients, no antecedent trauma is identi-
fied, and an inflammatory cause analogous to Parsonage-Turner
syndrome has been suggested as the cause of anterior interosse-
ous syndrome in the absence of trauma.
Clinically, anterior interosseous syndrome manifests as acute
pain in the proximal forearm and deep in the wrist. As the syn-
drome progresses, patients with anterior interosseous syndrome
may report a tired or heavy sensation in the forearm with minimal
activity and the inability to pinch items between the thumb and
index finger because of paralysis of the flexor pollicis longus and
the flexor digitorum profundus (Figure 45-1).
Signs and Symptoms
Physical findings include the inability to flex the interphalangeal
joint of the thumb and the distal interphalangeal joint of the index
finger resulting from paralysis of the flexor pollicis longus and the
flexor digitorum profundus. Tenderness over the forearm in the
region of the pronator teres muscle is seen in some patients with
anterior interosseous syndrome. A positive Tinels sign over the
anterior interosseous branch of the median nerve approximately 6
to 8 cm below the elbow also may be present.
Testing
Electromyography helps distinguish cervical radiculopathy, tho-
racic outlet syndrome, and carpal tunnel syndrome from ante-
rior interosseous syndrome. Plain radiographs are indicated in all
patients who present with anterior interosseous syndrome to rule
out occult bony pathology. Based on the patients clinical pre-
sentation, additional tests, including complete blood cell count,
130
uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear
antibody testing, may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) of the forearm is indicated to help clarify the diagnosis
and if a primary elbow pathological process or a space-occupying
lesion is suspected (Figure 45-2). Injection of the median nerve at
the elbow serves as a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
The anterior interosseous syndrome also should be differentiated
from cervical radiculopathy involving the C6 or C7 roots, which
sometimes may mimic median nerve compression. Cervical radicu-
lopathy and median nerve entrapment may coexist as the double
crush syndrome. The double crush syndrome is seen most com-
monly with median nerve entrapment at the wrist or carpal tunnel
syndrome. Anterior interosseous syndrome can be distinguished
from pronator syndrome and median nerve compression by the
ligament of Struthers, because the pain of anterior interosseous syn-
drome occurs more distally and is accompanied by the characteristic
loss of ability to pinch items between the thumb and index finger.
Treatment
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxy-
genase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors represent a reasonable first step in
the treatment of anterior interosseous syndrome. The use of the
tricyclic antidepressants, such as nortriptyline, at a single bedtime
dose of 25 mg, titrating upward as side effects allow, also is use-
ful, especially if sleep disturbance is present. It is important for
the patient to avoid repetitive trauma thought to be contributing
to this entrapment neuropathy. If these maneuvers fail to pro-
duce rapid symptomatic relief, injection of the median nerve at
the elbow with a local anesthetic and steroid is a reasonable next
step. If symptoms persist, surgical exploration and release of the
anterior interosseous branch of the median nerve are indicated.
Complications and Pitfalls
Median nerve block below the elbow is a relatively safe block, with
major complications being inadvertent intravascular injection and
persistent paresthesia secondary to needle trauma to the nerve.
This technique can be performed safely in the presence of anti-
coagulation by using a 25- or 27-gauge needle, albeit at increased
risk for hematoma, if the clinical situation dictates a favorable
risk-to-benefit ratio. These complications can be decreased if
manual pressure is applied to the area of the block immediately
after injection. Application of cold packs for 20-minute periods
after the block also decreases the amount of postprocedure pain
and bleeding the patient may experience.
 45 Anterior Interosseous Syndrome 131

Muscle paralysis:

Nerve compression:

Normal

Pronator teres Median nerve

muscle Muscle paralysis

Pronator digitorum
superficialis muscle
Flexor pollicis
Anterior interosseous longus muscle
branch of median nerve
Flexor digitorum
profundus muscle

Figure 45-1 Patients with anterior interosseous syndrome exhibit acute forearm pain and progressive weakness of pinch.
132 SECTION 4 Elbow Pain Syndromes

A B

C
Figure 45-2 A, Axial T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the mid-forearm in a patient with weakness in muscles in the distribution of
the anterior interosseous nerve. The forearm appears normal on the T1-weighted image, but the axial FST2-weighted image (B) shows high signal
intensity within the muscles of the flexor pollicis longus (FPL), index finger tendon (FDP2) and middle finger tendon (FDP3) (arrows), which are sig-
nificantly reduced in bulk. This pattern is typical of denervation edema and atrophy. C, The axial FST2-weighted image of the distal forearm shows
similar high signal intensity denervation edema in the pronator quadratus muscle (arrows). (Waldman SD:. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors:
Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, p 291)

Clinical Pearls
Avoidance techniques for the repetitive movements respon-
sible for pronator syndrome are often forgotten in the rush
to treatment. Median nerve block at the elbow is a simple
and safe technique in the evaluation and treatment of the
aforementioned painful conditions. Careful neurological
examination to identify preexisting neurological deficits
that may later be attributed to the nerve block should be
performed in all patients before beginning median nerve
block at the elbow.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Chi Y, Harness NG: Anterior interosseous nerve syndrome, J Hand Surg 35:2078
2080, 2010.
Douglas H, Chin CL, Meals RA: Anterior interosseous nerve syndrome, J Am Soc
Surg Hand 1:249257, 2001.
Feldman MI, Muhammad K, Beltran J: Preoperative diagnosis of anterior inter-
osseous nerve syndrome resulting in complete recovery, Eur J Radiol Extra
69:e73e76, 2009.
Waldman SD: Anterior interosseous syndrome. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain
review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 271272.
Waldman SD: Anterior interosseous syndrome. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD,
editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 291293.
SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

Chapter 46

ULNAR TUNNEL SYNDROME

neuropathy. Clinically, this mixed neuropathy manifests as pain

ICD-9 CODE 354.2 and the previously described motor deficits.

ICD-10 CODE G56.20 Signs and Symptoms

Physical findings include tenderness over the ulnar nerve at the
wrist. A positive Tinels sign over the ulnar nerve as it passes
beneath the transverse carpal ligament is usually present. If the
The Clinical Syndrome sensory branches are involved, decreased sensation occurs into the
Ulnar tunnel syndrome is an entrapment neuropathy of the ulnar ulnar aspect of the hand and the little finger and the ulnar half of
nerve characterized by pain, numbness, and paresthesias of the the ring finger. Depending on the location of neural compromise,
wrist that radiate into the ulnar aspect of the palm and dorsum the patient may have weakness of the intrinsic muscles of the hand
of the hand and the little finger and the ulnar half of the ring as evidenced by the inability to spread the fingers, weakness of the
finger. These symptoms also may radiate proximal to the nerve hypothenar eminence, or both.
entrapment into the forearm. The pain of ulnar tunnel syndrome
is often described as aching or burning, with associated pins and
needles paresthesias.
Similar to carpal tunnel syndrome, ulnar tunnel syndrome
occurs more commonly in women than in men. Also similar to
carpal tunnel syndrome, the pain of ulnar tunnel syndrome is
frequently worse at night and worsened by vigorous flexion and
extension of the wrist. The onset of symptoms usually follows
repetitive wrist motions or from direct trauma to the wrist, such ery
Ar t
as wrist fractures, or direct trauma to the proximal hypothenar
eminence, such as may occur when the hand is used to hammer
on hubcaps or from handlebar compression during long-distance Moto
r
cycling. Ulnar tunnel syndrome also is seen in patients with
rapid weight gain, rheumatoid arthritis, or Dupuytrens disease Sens
or during pregnancy. Untreated, progressive motor deficit and ory
ultimately flexion contracture of the affected fingers can result.
Ulnar tunnel syndrome is caused by compression of the ulnar
nerve as it passes through Guyons canal at the wrist (Figure 46-1).
The most common causes of compression of the ulnar nerve at
this anatomical location include space-occupying lesions, such
as ganglion cysts and ulnar artery aneurysms; fractures of the
distal ulna and carpals; and repetitive motion injuries that com-
promise the ulnar nerve as it passes through this closed space. Figure 46-1 The ulnar nerve can be divided into sensory (palmar) and
This entrapment neuropathy manifests most commonly as a motor (dorsal) branches. Note the fibrous arch of the hypothenar mus-
pure motor neuropathy without pain, which is due to compres- cles under which the deep motor branch passes on its way out of the
sion of the deep palmar branch of the ulnar nerve as it passes ulnar tunnel. The ulnar artery travels along the radial side of the nerve
through the tunnel, after which it splits and becomes the deep and
through Guyons canal. This pure motor neuropathy manifests superficial palmar arches. Blue tag, Sensory branch; black tag, motor
as painless paralysis of the intrinsic muscles of the hand. Ulnar branch; red tag, ulnar artery. (From Waugh RP, Pellegrini Jr VD: Ulnar tun-
tunnel syndrome also may manifest as a mixed sensory and motor nel syndrome, Hand Clin 23:301310, 2007.)

133
134 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

B C
Figure 46-2 Entrapment of the ulnar nerve: Guyons canal syndrome (ulnar tunnel syndrome). A, Ganglion cyst. Transverse T2-weighted (TR/TE,
2000/80) spin echo magnetic resonance imaging shows a ganglion cyst (arrow) adjacent to the ulnar nerve and vessels (arrowhead). B and C, Anoma-
lous muscle. This accessory muscle (i.e., accessory abductor digiti minimi muscle) (arrows) is well shown in transverse T1-weighted (TR/TE, 550/12)
spin echo (B) and fat-suppressed fast spin echo (TR/TE, 3000/11) (C) images. Note the abnormal high signal intensity in the muscle and subjacent
Guyons canal in C. (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 3527.)

Testing and diabetic neuropathy. Patients with arthritis of the carpo-

Electromyography helps distinguish cervical radiculopathy, diabetic
polyneuropathy, and Pancoasts tumor from ulnar tunnel syndrome.
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients who present with ulnar
tunnel syndrome to rule out occult bony pathological processes.
Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests, including
complete blood cell count, uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) of the wrist is indicated to help confirm
the diagnosis and whether joint instability or a space-occupying
lesion is suspected (Figures 46-2 and 46-3). The injection technique
described here serves as a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
Ulnar tunnel syndrome often is misdiagnosed as arthritis of the
carpometacarpal joints, cervical radiculopathy, Pancoasts tumor,
metacarpal joint usually have radiographic evidence and physi-
cal findings suggestive of arthritis. Most patients with a cervical
radiculopathy have reflex, motor, and sensory changes associated
with neck pain, whereas patients with ulnar tunnel syndrome have
no reflex changes, and motor and sensory changes are limited to
the distal ulnar nerve.
Diabetic polyneuropathy generally manifests as symmetrical
sensory deficit involving the entire hand, rather than limited in the
distribution of the ulnar nerve. Cervical radiculopathy and ulnar
nerve entrapment may coexist as the double crush syndrome.
Because ulnar tunnel syndrome is commonly seen in patients with
diabetes, diabetic polyneuropathy usually occurs in patients with
diabetes with ulnar tunnel syndrome. Pancoasts tumor invading
the medial cord of the brachial plexus also may mimic an isolated
ulnar nerve entrapment and should be ruled out by apical lordotic
chest radiographs.
 46 Ulnar Tunnel Syndrome 135

T L

A B

C
Figure 46-3 A, Axial T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging through the level of the proximal carpal row in a patient with symptoms of ulnar
nerve compression. A high signal intensity lesion (white arrow) adjacent to the ulnar artery and vein (broken white arrows) displaces the ulnar nerve
(curved white arrow). B, The postcontrast (obtained after administration of a contrast agent) T1-weighted image shows low SI within the lesion (white
arrow) without enhancement, and the displaced ulnar nerve is again demonstrated. The appearances are consistent with a ganglion within Guyons
canal. C, The cystic nature of the lesion is further confirmed on the transverse Doppler ultrasound image, on which the ganglion can be seen as an
anechoic mass (white arrow) with flow evident in the ulnar artery and vein (black arrows). L, Lunate; P, pisiform; S, scaphoid; T, triquetrum. (Repro-
duced with permission from Spratt JD, etal: The role of diagnostic radiology in compressive and entrapment neuropathies, Eur Radiol 12:23522364, 2002.)

Treatment Clinical Pearls

Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with ulnar tunnel syndrome should include a combination of
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygen-
ase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application
of heat and cold also may be beneficial. The repetitive movements
that incite the syndrome should be avoided. For patients who do
not respond to these treatment modalities, injection of the ulnar
nerve at the ulnar tunnel with a local anesthetic and steroid may
be a reasonable next step. If the symptoms of ulnar tunnel syn-
drome persist, surgical exploration and decompression of the
ulnar nerve are indicated.
Ulnar tunnel syndrome should be differentiated from cer-
vical radiculopathy involving the C8 spinal root, which
sometimes may mimic ulnar nerve compression. Cervical
radiculopathy and ulnar nerve entrapment may coexist in
the double crush syndrome. The double crush syndrome is
seen most commonly with ulnar nerve entrapment at the
wrist or carpal tunnel syndrome. Pancoasts tumor invad-
ing the medial cord of the brachial plexus also may mimic
isolated ulnar nerve entrapment and should be ruled out by
apical lordotic chest radiographs.

Complications and Pitfalls SUGGESTED READINGS

The major complication associated with ulnar tunnel syndrome is
due to delayed diagnosis and treatment of the disease. This delay
can cause permanent neurological deficits resulting from pro-
longed untreated entrapment of the ulnar nerve. Failure of the
clinician to recognize an acute inflammatory or infectious arthritis
of the wrist may result in permanent damage to the joint and
chronic pain and functional disability.
Moghtaderi A, Ghafarpoor M: The dilemma of ulnar nerve entrapment at wrist in
carpal tunnel syndrome, Clin Neurol Neurosurg 111:151155, 2009.
Waldman SD: The ulnar tunnel. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review, Philadel-
phia, 2009, Saunders, pp 104.
Waldman SD: Injection technique for ulnar tunnel syndrome. In Waldman SD,
editor: Pain review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 469470.
Ulnar tunnel syndrome. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of
pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 323324.
Waugh RP, Pellegrini VD Jr: Ulnar tunnel syndrome, Hand Clin 23:301310, 2007.
Chapter 47

CHEIRALGIA PARESTHETICA

have cheiralgia paresthetica. Plain radiographs are indicated in all

ICD-9 CODE 355.9
ICD-10 CODE G58.9
The Clinical Syndrome
Cheiralgia paresthetica is an uncommon cause of wrist and hand
pain and numbness. It also is known as handcuff neuropathy and
Wartenbergs syndrome. The onset of symptoms usually occurs
after compression of the sensory branch of the radial nerve.
Radial nerve dysfunction secondary to compression by tight
handcuffs, wristwatch bands, or casts is a common cause of chei-
ralgia paresthetica. Direct trauma to the nerve may result in a
similar clinical presentation. Fractures or lacerations frequently
disrupt the nerve completely, resulting in sensory deficit in the
distribution of the radial nerve. The sensory branch of the radial
nerve also may be damaged during surgical treatment of de Quer-
vains tenosynovitis.
Cheiralgia paresthetica manifests as pain and associated par-
esthesias and numbness of the radial aspect of the dorsum of the
hand to the base of the thumb (Figure 47-1). Because significant
interpatient variability exists in the distribution of the sensory
branch of the radial nerve owing to overlap of the lateral ante-
brachial cutaneous nerve, the signs and symptoms of cheiralgia
paresthetica may vary from patient to patient.
patients who present with cheiralgia paresthetica to rule out occult
bony pathological processes. Based on the patients clinical pre-
sentation, additional tests, including complete blood cell count,
uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear
antibody testing, may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) of the elbow is indicated if joint instability is suspected.
Injection of the sensory branch of the radial nerve at the wrist
serves as a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver and may be used
as an anatomical differential neural blockade to distinguish lesions
of the sensory branch of the radial nerve from lesions involving the
lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve.
Differential Diagnosis
Cheiralgia paresthetica is often misdiagnosed as lateral ante-
brachial cutaneous nerve syndrome. Cheiralgia paresthetica also
should be differentiated from cervical radiculopathy involv-
ing the C6 or C7 roots, although patients with cervical radic-
ulopathy generally present not only with pain and numbness
but also with reflex and motor changes. Cervical radiculopathy
and radial nerve entrapment may coexist as the double crush
syndrome. The double crush syndrome is seen most commonly
Superficial radial nerve
Dorsal digital nerves

Signs and Symptoms

Physical findings include tenderness over the radial nerve at the
wrist. A positive Tinels sign over the radial nerve at the distal
forearm is usually present (Figure 47-2). Decreased sensation
in the distribution of the sensory branch of the radial nerve is
often present, although, as mentioned, the overlap of the lateral
antebrachial cutaneous nerve may result in a confusing clinical
presentation. A positive wristwatch sign also may be present
(Figure 47-3). Flexion and pronation of the wrist and ulnar
deviation often cause paresthesias in the distribution of the
sensory branch of the radial nerve in patients with cheiralgia
paresthetica.

Testing
Electromyography can help identify the exact source of neurologi- Figure 47-1 Cheiralgia paresthetica manifests as pain, paresthesias, and
cal dysfunction and clarify the differential diagnosis; this should numbness of the radial aspect of the dorsum of the hand to the base
be the starting point of the evaluation of all patients thought to of the thumb.

136

Figure 47-2 A positive Tinels sign over the radial nerve at the distal
forearm is usually present in patients with cheiralgia paresthetica. (From
Waldman SD: Physical diagnosis of pain: an atlas of signs and symptoms,
Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 168.)
with median nerve entrapment at the wrist or carpal tunnel syn-
drome. It should be remembered that radial nerve compression
has many causes and the nerve can be compressed anywhere
along its path (Table 47-1).
Treatment
The first step in the treatment of cheiralgia paresthetica is the
removal of the cause of pressure on the radial nerve. A trial of
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxy-
genase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors represents a reasonable next step.
For patients for whom these treatment modalities fail, injec-
tion of the sensory branch of the radial nerve at the wrist with a
local anesthetic and steroid should be considered. For persistent
47 Cheiralgia Paresthetica 137
Figure 47-3 Positive wristwatch sign suggests cheiralgia paresthetica.
(From Waldman SD: Physical diagnosis of pain: an atlas of signs and
symptoms, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 169.)
symptoms, surgical exploration and decompression of the nerve
are indicated.
Complications and Pitfalls
Radial nerve block at the wrist is a relatively safe block, with the
major complications being inadvertent intravascular injection and
persistent paresthesia secondary to needle trauma to the nerve.
This technique can be performed safely in the presence of anti-
coagulation by using a 25- or 27-gauge needle, albeit at increased
risk for hematoma, if the clinical situation dictates a favorable
risk-to-benefit ratio. These complications can be decreased if
manual pressure is applied to the area of the block immediately
after injection. Application of cold packs for 20-minute periods
after the block also decreases the amount of postprocedure pain
and bleeding the patient may experience.
138 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

TABLE 47-1
Causes of Compressive Radial Neuropathies
Site Cause
High radial nerve Trauma
Fractures: Diaphyseal, distal third of the humerus
Aneurysms
Tumors
Infection
Inflammation: Local
Anomalous muscles and arteries
Idiopathic: Nerve torsion or localized constrictions
Muscular effort: Lateral triceps
Muscular hypertrophy
Hereditary neuropathies
External compression: Casts, crutches, braces, sleeping positions, tourniquets, walkers
Radial nerve Radial tunnel: Pain without muscular weakness
Anatomy: (1) Fibrous band, (2) vasculature leash (of Henry), (3) extensor carpi radialis brevis,
(4) arcade of Frohse, (5) distal edge of supinator
Musculature compression: Rowers, tennis players, weightlifters
Metabolic: Pseudogout (joint swelling), rheumatoid arthritis
Tumor: Synovial chondromatosis, ganglion, bicipital bursitis
Infection: Septic arthritis
External compression: Casts
Posterior interosseous nerve (PIN) Same sites as the radial tunnel
Surgical: Arthroscopy portals
Tumor: Scapholunate ganglion, lipoma, intramuscular myxoma, ganglion
Metabolic: Pseudogout
Arteriovenous malformation, vasculitis
Trauma: Dislocated radial head
External compression: Casts, weight
Idiopathic nerve constriction
Superficial branch Wrist ganglion
Anatomical: Fascia at brachoradialis/extensor carpi radialis brevis
External compression: Casts, watch bands
Crush injury

Modified from Markiewitz AD, Merryman J: Radial nerve compression in the upper extremity, J Am Soc Surg Hand 5:8799, 2005.

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Radial nerve block at the wrist is an effective treatment for Markiewitz AD, Merryman J: Radial nerve compression in the upper extremity,
JAm Soc Surg Hand 5:8799, 2005.
the symptoms of cheiralgia paresthetica. Careful neurologi- Massey EW, Pleet AB: Handcuffs and cheiralgia paresthetica, Neurology 28:1312
cal examination to identify preexisting neurological defi- 1313, 1978.
cits that may later be attributed to the nerve block should Smith MS: Handcuff neuropathy, Ann Emerg Med 10:668, 1981.
be performed in all patients before beginning radial nerve Waldman SD: Cheiralgia paresthetica. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review, Phil-
adelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 275276.
block at the wrist when treating cheiralgia paresthetica. If
cheiralgia paresthetica is identified early, removal of the
offending pressure and radial nerve block with a local anes-
thetic and steroid should lead to marked improvement in
most patients.
Chapter 48
SECRETANS SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 782.3
ICD-10 CODE F68.1
The Clinical Syndrome
Secretans syndrome, also known as posttraumatic edema syndrome,
is caused by a peritendinous fibrosis that occurs after trauma to
the dorsum of the hand. Often, the trauma is seemingly minor,
such as hitting the back of the hand on the corner of a desk.
Initially, the swelling and tenderness may be attributed to the
trauma, but instead of improvement with time, the dorsum of the
hand becomes more indurated with the edema becoming brawny.
Without treatment, peritendinous fibrosis and an almost myxede-
matous hardening of the soft tissues of the dorsum of the hand
occur (Figure 48-1). Similar to the pain of Dupuytrens contrac-
ture, the pain of Secretans syndrome seems to burn itself out as
the disease progresses.
Figure 48-1 Secretans syndrome is caused by a peritendinous fibrosis
that occurs after trauma to the dorsum of the hand.
Signs and Symptoms
Brawny edema with associated loss of extensor function of the
hand after seemingly minor trauma is the sine qua non of Secre-
tans syndrome. In contrast to reflex sympathetic dystrophy, which
can mimic Secretans syndrome, no sudomotor, vasomotor, or
trophic nail changes occur, although the skin changes can appear
identical to the skin changes of reflex sympathetic dystrophy.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients who present with
Secretans syndrome to rule out underlying occult bony patholog-
ical processes. Based on the patients clinical presentation, addi-
tional tests, including complete blood cell count, uric acid level,
erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing,
may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the hand
will help confirm the diagnosis and is also indicated if joint insta-
bility, infection, or tumor is suspected. Electromyography is indi-
cated if coexistent ulnar or carpal tunnel syndrome is suspected.
Injection of the areas of fibrosis provides improvement of the pain
and disability of this disease if implemented early.
Differential Diagnosis
Coexistent arthritis, gout of the metacarpal and interphalangeal
joints, and tendinitis also may coexist with Secretans syndrome and
exacerbate the pain and disability of Secretans syndrome. Reflex
sympathetic dystrophy may manifest in a similar clinical manner,
but can be distinguished from Secretans syndrome because the pain
of reflex sympathetic dystrophy responds to sympathetic neural
blockade and the pain of Secretans syndrome does not.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with Secretans syndrome should include a combination of non-
steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of
heat and cold also may be beneficial. For patients who do not
respond to these treatment modalities, an injection of a local anes-
thetic and steroid into the areas of the peritendinous fibrosis may
be a reasonable next step. The use of physical therapy, including
gentle range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced several
days after the patient undergoes this injection technique. Vigor-
ous exercises should be avoided because they would exacerbate the
patients symptoms.
139
140 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

Complications and Pitfalls SUGGESTED READINGS

Injection of the peritendinous fibrosis responsible for Secretans
syndrome is a relatively safe technique if the clinician is attentive
to detail. Such tendons may rupture if directly injected, and needle
position should be confirmed outside the tendon before injection
to avoid this complication. Another complication of this injection
technique is infection. This complication should be exceedingly
rare if strict aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25%
of patients report a transient increase in pain after this injection
technique, and patients should be warned of this possibility.
Moretta DN, Cooley RD Jr: Secretans disease: a unique case report and literature
review, Am J Orthop 31:524527, 2002.
Reading G: Secretans syndrome: hard edema of the dorsum of the hand, Plast
Reconstr Surg 65:182187, 1980.
Whitney TM, Jones NF: Magnetic resonance imaging findings in Secretans dis-
ease, J Hand Surg 20:464466, 1995.
Winkelmann RK, Barker SM: Factitial traumatic panniculitis, J Am Acad Dermatol
13:988994, 1985.

Clinical Pearls
This injection technique is extremely effective in the treat-
ment of pain and dysfunction secondary to Secretans syn-
drome. Coexistent arthritis, tendinitis, and gout also may
contribute to the pain and may require additional treatment
with more localized injection of a local anesthetic and depot
steroid. This technique is a safe procedure if careful atten-
tion is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy in the areas
to be injected. Care must be taken to use sterile technique
to avoid infection and universal precautions to avoid risk
to the operator. The incidence of ecchymosis and hema-
toma formation can be decreased if pressure is placed on
the injection site immediately after injection. The use of
physical modalities, including local heat, massage, and gen-
tle range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced several
days after the patient undergoes this injection technique.
Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they would
exacerbate the patients symptoms. Simple analgesics and
NSAIDs may be used concurrently with this injection tech-
nique.
Chapter 49
FOREIGN BODY SYNOVITIS
ICD-9 CODE 727.00
ICD-10 CODE M65.9
The Clinical Syndrome
Foreign body synovitis is an uncommon cause of joint or soft tis-
sue pain encountered in clinical practice. Although foreign body
synovitis can occur anywhere in the body when a foreign material
is introduced into or near a joint, tendon sheath, or soft tissue
surrounding a joint, the hand is most often affected. When this
occurs, a chronic, inflammatory monarthritis or tenosynovitis
results. Plant thorns, wood splinters, glass, and sea urchin spines
are most commonly implicated.
After the initial injury, a patient with foreign body tenosynovi-
tis may note localized pain in and around the joint. If the patient
realizes a foreign body is present, he or she may try to remove
it. If a portion of the foreign body is left behind, foreign body
synovitis can occur. After the acute injury, a period of quiescence
may occur, lasting weeks to months. After this latent period, the
patient begins to experience pain and loss of function in the area
of the retained foreign body and an inflammatory monarthritis or
tenosynovitis may result.
Signs and Symptoms
The diagnosis of foreign body synovitis is easy if the anteced-
ent trauma is recognized. This is not usually the case, however.
A patient with foreign body synovitis presents with a localized
monarthritis or synovitis without obvious cause (Figure 49-1).
The patient also may report myalgias or flulike symptoms in
some cases. Examination of other joints fails to reveal evidence of
inflammatory arthritis, and the targeted history is negative. A high
index of suspicion in any patient with monoarthritis combined
with appropriate testing leads the clinician to a correct diagnosis.
Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the affected joint often
reveals the offending foreign body. Vegetable matter such as plant
thorns, wood, and glass are not radiopaque and do not show up
on plain radiographs; failure to obtain MRI results in a missed
diagnosis (Figures 49-2 and 49-3). Sea urchin spines have a high
calcium content and may appear on plain radiographs. Based
on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests, including
complete blood cell count, uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimen-
tation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated.
Electromyography is indicated if coexistent ulnar or carpal tun-
nel syndrome is suspected. Joint aspiration and synovial biopsy
may be required to make the diagnosis of foreign body synovitis.
Arthroscopy or arthrotomy may be the mechanism by which the
diagnosis is finally made.
Differential Diagnosis
The recognition of the possibility of antecedent trauma with the
introduction of a foreign body makes the diagnosis apparent. For-
eign body synovitis must be distinguished from other causes of
monarthritis and synovitis. Table 49-1 lists common causes of
monarthritis. The ultimate differential diagnosis usually requires a
careful targeted history and physical examination combined with
appropriate laboratory and radiographic testing.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with foreign body synovitis should include a combination of
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygen-
ase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local applica-
tion of heat and cold also may be beneficial. For patients who
do not respond to these treatment modalities, an injection into
the affected area with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a
reasonable next step. The use of physical therapy, including gen-
tle range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced several days
after the patient undergoes this injection technique. Vigorous
exercises should be avoided because they would exacerbate the
patients symptoms. Surgical removal of the offending foreign
body often is the only intervention that successfully treats foreign
body synovitis.
Complications and Pitfalls
The main complication associated with foreign body synovitis
is the risk for permanent joint damage resulting from delayed
diagnosis. Injection of the area of synovitis syndrome is a safe
technique if the clinician is attentive to detail. Inflamed tendons
may rupture if directly injected, and needle position should be
confirmed outside the tendon before injection to avoid this com-
plication. Another complication of this injection technique is
infection. This complication should be exceedingly rare if strict
aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25% of patients
report a transient increase in pain after this injection technique,
and patients should be warned of this possibility.
141
142 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

Middle phalanx

Joint cavity
Thorn
Inflamed synovial
membrane

Proximal phalanx
Figure 49-1 Foreign body synovitis manifests as a monarthritis without apparent cause.

Figure 49-3 T2-weighted sagittal foot MRI depicting foreign body as

Figure 49-2 T1-weighted axial postgadolinium image. White arrow
indicates possible foreign body within area of enhancement. (From
Yewlett A, Oakley J, Makwana N, Patel HJ: Retained blackthorn causing
peroneal tendonitis: a case report, Foot Ankle Surg 15:205206, 2009.)
a longitudinal structure plantar to first metatarsal similar in appearance
to flexor hallucis brevis tendon. Other findings include synovitis with
erosions and nonspecific marrow edema of the first metatarsal head and
proximal phalanx. (From Bode KS, Haggerty CJ, Krause J: Latent foreign
body synovitis, J Foot Ankle Surg 46:291296, 2007.)
 49 Foreign Body Synovitis 143

TABLE 49-1 Clinical Pearls

Common Causes of Monarthritis
The diagnosis of foreign body synovitis is easy if the cli-
Gout nician thinks of it. By including foreign body synovitis in
Traumatic arthritis the differential diagnosis of patients with monarthritis or
Gonococcal arthritis tenosynovitis, the diagnosis is more easily recognized. The
early use of MRI of the affected area also helps increase the
Charcots joint
diagnostic accuracy of the clinician.
Other crystal arthropathies
Sarcoidosis
Amyloidosis SUGGESTED READINGS
Osteoarthritis Bode KS, Haggerty CJ, Krause J: Latent foreign body synovitis, J Foot Ankle Surg
46:291296, 2007.
Osteonecrosis Kandel L, Friedman A, Chaimski G, etal: Foreign-body synovitis mimicking sep-
Villonodular synovitis tic arthritis of the knee, Arthroscopy 17:993996, 2001.
Olenginski TP, Bush DC, Harrington TM: Plant thorn synovitis: an uncommon
Neoplasm
cause of monoarthritis, Semin Arthritis Rheum 21:4046, 1991.
Foreign body synovitis Yewlett A, Oakley J, Makwana N, Patel HJ: Retained blackthorn causing peroneal
tendonitis: a case report, Foot Ankle Surg 15:205206, 2009.
Chapter 50
GLOMUS TUMOR OF THE HAND
ICD-9 CODE 228.00
ICD-10 CODE D18.00
The Clinical Syndrome
Glomus tumor of the hand is an uncommon cause of distal finger
pain. It is the result of tumor formation of the glomus body, which is
a neuromyoarterial apparatus whose function is to regulate periph-
eral blood flow in the digits. Most patients with glomus tumor are
women 30 to 50 years of age. The pain is severe in intensity, lanci-
nating, and boring. The tumor frequently involves the nail bed and
may invade the distal phalanx. Patients with glomus tumor of the
hand exhibit the classic triad of excruciating distal finger pain, cold
intolerance, and tenderness to palpation of the affected digit. Mul-
tiple glomus tumors are present in approximately 25% of patients
diagnosed with this disease. Glomus tumors also can occur in the
foot and occasionally in other parts of the body.
Signs and Symptoms
The diagnosis of glomus tumor of the hand is based primarily
on three points in the patients clinical history: (1) excruciating
pain localized to a distal digit, (2) the ability to trigger the pain
by palpating the area (Loves test), and (3) marked intolerance to
cold. The pain of glomus tumor can be reproduced by placing the
affected digit in a glass of ice water. If glomus tumor is present,
the characteristic lancinating, boring pain occurs within 30 to 60
seconds. Placing other unaffected fingers of the same hand in ice
water does not trigger the pain in the affected finger. Hildreths
test also is useful in the diagnosis of glomus tumor. It is performed
by placing a tourniquet proximal to the area of suspected tumor.
As the distal area becomes ischemic, the sharp lancinating pain
characteristic of glomus tumor will occur. Nail bed ridging is pres-
ent in many patients with glomus tumor of the hand, and a small
blue or dark red spot at the base of the nail is visible in 10% to
15% of patients with the disease (Figure 50-1). The patient with
glomus tumor of the hand frequently wears a finger protector on
the affected digit and guards against hitting the digit on anything
to avoid triggering the pain.
Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the affected digit often
reveals the actual glomus tumor and may reveal erosion or a
144
perforating lesion of the phalanx beneath the tumor (Figure 50-2).
The tumor appears as a very high and homogeneous signal on
T2-weighted images. The bony changes associated with glomus
tumor of the hand also may appear on plain radiographs if a care-
ful comparison of the corresponding contralateral digit is made.
Radionuclide bone scan also may reveal localized bony destruc-
tion. The ice water test mentioned earlier helps the clinician
strengthen the diagnosis. Based on the patients clinical presenta-
tion, additional tests, including complete blood cell count, uric
acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear anti-
body testing, may be indicated. Electromyography is indicated if
coexistent ulnar or carpal tunnel syndrome is suspected. Surgical
exploration of the affected digit and nail bed often is necessary to
confirm the diagnosis.
Differential Diagnosis
The triad of localized excruciating distal digit pain, tenderness to
palpation, and cold intolerance makes the diagnosis apparent to
an astute clinician. Glomus tumor of the hand must be distin-
guished from other causes of localized hand pain, including sub-
ungual melanoma and osteoid osteoma. If a history of trauma is
present, fracture, osteomyelitis, tenosynovitis, and foreign body
synovitis should be considered. If there is no history of trauma,
gout, other crystal monarthropathies, tumors, and diseases of the
nail and nail bed should be considered. Reflex sympathetic dys-
trophy should be distinguishable from glomus tumor of the hand
because the pain of reflex sympathetic dystrophy is less localized
and is associated with trophic skin and nail changes and vasomo-
tor and sudomotor abnormalities. Raynauds syndrome usually
involves the entire hand, and the ice water test mentioned typi-
cally triggers pain if the unaffected finger is tested.
Figure 50-1 The classic bluish discoloration of the nail plate is seen on
the right proximal corner of the nail. (From McDermott EM, Weiss A-P C:
Glomus tumors, J Hand Surg Am 31:13971400, 2006.)

A localized and well encapsulated, rarely, these tumors can exhibit
B
Figure 50-2 Glomus tumor: MRI abnormalities. A, On a sagittal
T1-weighted (TR/TE, 350/25) spin echo magnetic resonance image, a
glomus tumor (arrows) led to subtle erosion of the dorsal surface of
the distal phalanx. Its signal intensity is identical to that of the nail bed
(arrowhead). B, After intravenous gadolinium administration, a sagit-
tal fat-suppressed T1-weighted (TR/TE, 500/25) spin echo image shows
the glomus tumor (arrows) and nail bed (arrowhead) as regions of high
signal intensity. (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint dis-
orders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 3999.)
50 Glomus Tumor of the Hand 145
Treatment
The mainstay of treatment of glomus tumor is surgical removal.
Medication management is uniformly disappointing. Injection of
the affected digit in the point of maximal tenderness may provide
temporary relief of the pain of glomus tumor and blocks the posi-
tive ice water test response, further strengthening the diagnosis.
Complications and Pitfalls
The main complication associated with glomus tumor of the hand
involves the problems associated with delayed diagnosis, mainly
ongoing destruction of the bone and nail bed. Although usually
aggressive invasive tendencies, making complete excision of the
tumor and careful follow-up mandatory.
Clinical Pearls
The diagnosis of glomus tumor of the hand is usually
straightforward if the clinician identifies the unique nature
of its clinical presentation. Because of the rare potential for
aggressive, invasive behavior, complete excision and careful
follow-up are important.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Abou Jaoude JF, Roula Farah A, Sargi Z, Khairallah S, Fakih C: Glomus tumors:
report on eleven cases and a review of the literature, Chirurg Main 19:243252,
2000.
Constantinesco A, Arbogast S, Foucher G, etal: Detection of glomus tumor of the
finger by dedicated MRI at 0.1 T, Magn Reson Imaging 12:11311134, 1994.
Gandon F, Legaillard Ph, Brueton R, Le Viet D, Foucher G: Forty-eight glomus
tumours of the hand: retrospective study and four-year follow-up, Ann Chir
Main Memb Super 11:401405, 1992.
Gombos Z, Fogt F, Zhang PJ: Intraosseous glomus tumor of the great toe: a case
report with review of the literature, J Foot Ankle Surg 47:299301, 2008.
McDermott EM, Weiss A-P C: Glomus tumors, J Hand Surg Am 31:13971400,
2006.
Chapter 51
BOXERS KNUCKLE
ICD-9 CODE 736.1
ICD-10 CODE M20.019
The Clinical Syndrome
It is not surprising that given the tremendous forces placed on a
boxers clenched fist when throwing a punch that traumatic injury
can occur. Along with fractures of the metacarpals and phalan-
ges, carpal boss and boxers knuckle are the most common hand
injuries seen in clinical practice. Boxers knuckle is characterized
by localized tenderness and sharp pain over metacarpophalangeal
joints with subluxation or dislocation of the longitudinal central
tendon following to rupture of the extensor hood mechanism and
associated longitudinal central tendon dysfunction (Figure 51-1).
Along with the sagittal bands, the longitudinal central tendon
serves as a shock absorber that protects the underlying articular
capsule and surfaces. When these structures are damaged by the
trauma of a punch, the central tendon subluxes or dislocates, leav-
ing the underlying joint unprotected (Figure 51-2).
Figure 51-1 Subluxation of the central tendon and rupture of the
extensor hood mechanism create the classic deformity associated with
boxers knuckle.
146
Signs and Symptoms
On physical examination, the patient with boxers knuckle will
exhibit swelling over the affected joint with a decreased range of
motion. The examiner may detect lag of extension of the affected
digit in contrast to the adjacent untraumatized fingers. The pain
associated with boxers knuckle can be reproduced by applying
pressure to the affected knuckle and by active flexion and exten-
sion.
Patients with boxers knuckle often demonstrate ulnar devia-
tion of the central tendon (see Figure 51-1). With acute trauma
to the dorsum of the hand, ecchymosis over the affected joint or
joints may be present.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with boxers knuckle
to rule out fractures and identify subchondral cysts, which are
often associated with osteochondral fracture (Figure 51-3). Based
on the patients clinical presentation, additional testing may be
warranted to rule out inflammatory arthritis, including a com-
plete blood count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, uric acid level,
and antinuclear antibody testing. Magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) of the fingers and wrist is indicated if joint instability,
occult mass, occult fracture, infection, or tumor is suspected.
Radionuclide bone scanning may be useful to identify stress
fractures.
Differential Diagnosis
The tentative diagnosis of boxers knuckle is made on clinical
grounds and confirmed by radiographic testing. Arthritis, teno-
synovitis, or gout of the affected digits may accompany boxers
knuckle and exacerbate the patients pain. Occult fractures
occasionally confuse the clinical presentation.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with carpal boss consists of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs), simple analgesics, or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)
inhibitors. Physical modalities, including local heat and gentle
range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced to avoid loss of
function. Vigorous exercises should be avoided, because they will
exacerbate the patients symptoms. A nighttime splint to protect
the fingers may be helpful. If sleep disturbance is present, low-
dose tricyclic antidepressants are indicated. Ultimately, surgical
repair is required to alleviate the patients pain and functional
disability.
 51 Boxers Knuckle 147

Normal anatomy

Interosseous muscles

Central extensor tendon

Joint capsule

Sagittal band

Central
extensor tendon

Metacarpal

Torn capsule
Boxers knuckle

Injured joint
cartilage
Figure 51-2 Normal anatomy of
the metacarpophalangeal (MP)
Torn sagittal joint extensor hood mechanism
band and the pathoanatomy of boxers
knuckle. Despite variations in extent
and exact location, the characteris-
tic lesion consistently comprised
rupture of the sagittal band with
subluxation or overt dislocation of
the central extensor tendon. (From
Melone CP JR, Polatsch DB, Beldner
S: Disabling hand injuries in boxing:
boxers knuckle and traumatic carpal
boss, Clin Sports Med 28:609621,
2009.)

Complications and Pitfalls

The clinician should always keep in mind that occult fracture
or tumor may mimic the clinical symptoms of boxers knuckle.
Radiographic imaging is important to avoid misdiagnosis. Given
the amount of trauma sustained with the sport of boxing, coexis-
tent arthritis is usually present.

Clinical Pearls
Figure 51-3 Radiograph demonstrating a subchondral cyst at the head
of the index metacarpal highly suggestive of boxers knuckle associated
with osteochondral fracture (arrow). (From Polatsch DB, Beldner S: Dis-
abling hand injuries in boxing: boxers knuckle and traumatic carpal boss,
Clin Sports Med 28:609621, 2009.)
Pain emanating from the hand is a common problem.
Boxers knuckle must be distinguished from stress frac-
ture, arthritis, and other occult pathological conditions of
the wrist and hand. Although NSAIDs may palliate the
pain of carpal boss, patients often require surgical repair to
obtain long-lasting relief and restore functionality. Coexis-
tent arthritis bursitis and tendinitis may contribute to the
patients pain, necessitating additional treatment with more
localized injection of local anesthetic and steroid.
148 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

SUGGESTED READINGS
Aronowitz AR, Leddy JP: Closed tendon injuries of the hand and wrist in athletes,
Clin Sports Med 17:449467, 1998.
Melone CP Jr, Polatsch DB, Beldner S: Disabling hand injuries in boxing: boxers
knuckle and traumatic carpal boss, Clin Sports Med 28:609621, 2009.
Posner MA, Ambrose L: Boxers knuckle: dorsal capsular rupture of the metacar-
pophalangeal joint of a finger, J Hand Surg Am 14:229236, 1989.
Waldman SD: Painful conditions of the wrist and hand. Physical diagnosis of pain:
an atlas of signs and symptoms, ed 2, Philadelphia, 2010, Saunders, pp 153154.
Chapter 52

TRIANGULAR FIBROCARTILAGE TEAR

SYNDROME

ICD-9 CODE 718.03 Signs and Symptoms

Physical examination of patients with triangular fibrocartilage
tear syndrome reveals pain on rotation of the wrist with a marked
ICD-10 CODE M24.139 exacerbation of this pain with stress loading of the distal radioul-
nar joint with the wrist in pronation and supination. A clicking
sensation may be appreciated by the examiner on range of motion
The Clinical Syndrome and depression or sag of the carpals on the ulnar side of the unsup-
ported wrist. Instability of the distal radioulnar joint often can be
Triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome, also known as trian- shown by shucking or pressing ones fingers between the distal
gular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) lesion, is caused by trauma radius and ulna. Similar instability may be shown between the
or degenerative changes to the wrist. The TFCC is a group or lunotriquetral interval. A positive piano key sign is often present
complex of ligament and cartilage structures that together serve and can be elicited by pressing down on the ulnar styloid as if it
four major functions related to the function of the human wrist,
as follows: (1) The TFCC helps suspend the distal radius and
ulnar carpus from the distal ulna; (2) the TFCC is the major lig-
amentous stabilizer of the distal radioulnar joint; (3) the TFCC
provides a continuous gliding surface across the entire distal
face of the radius and ulna to allow smooth flexion/extension
and translational movements of the wrist; and (4) the TFCC
acts a shock absorber for forces transmitted over the ulnocarpal
axis (Figure 52-1 and Table 52-1).
Degeneration of the TFCC begins to occur as part of the
natural aging process in the third decade. This degenerative pro-
cess predisposes the TFCC to traumatic injury. Common inju-
ries that lead to TFCC tear syndrome are listed in Table 52-2.
These injuries include falls onto a fully pronated and hyper-
extended wrist; waterskiing and horseback riding injuries, in
which the patient is dragged by the wrist by a tangled ski rope or
reins, causing critical distraction forces to be applied to the volar
forearm and wrist; power drill injuries, in which the drill bit
binds and the drill handle forcibly rotates the wrist rather than
the drill bit; and distal radius fractures (Figure 52-2). Fractures
of the distal radius usually affect the radial side of the TFCC,
Triangular fibrocartilage
and the clinical symptoms, as described subsequently, may be complex
less clear-cut.
Patients with triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome usu-
ally give a history of trauma to the affected wrist, although older
patients may report ulnar-side wrist pain in the absence of trauma,
often attributing their symptoms to arthritis. Reports of increased
pain when stirring coffee or other activities that require rotation
of the distal radioulnar joint are common with triangular fibro-
cartilage tear syndrome. Some patients also may report a catching
or clicking sensation with movement of the wrist and a feeling
of weakness. Occasionally, patients note that the bones beneath
their little finger have sunken in. This finding is due to the loss of
support of the carpal bones on the ulnar side of the wrist resulting
from disruption of the TFCC. FIGURE 52-1 Anatomy of the triangular fibrocartilage complex.

149
150 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes
TABLE 52-1
Function of the Triangular Fibrocartilage Complex
Helps suspend distal radius and ulnar carpus from distal ulna
Acts as major ligamentous stabilizer of distal radioulnar joint
Provides continuous gliding surface across entire distal face of
radius and ulna
Allows for smooth flexion/extension and translational movements
of wrist
Acts as shock absorber for forces transmitted over ulnocarpal axis
TABLE 52-2
Common Causes of Triangular Fibrocartilage Tear
Syndrome
Falls onto fully pronated and hyperextended wrist
Waterskiing and horseback riding dragging injuries causing critical
distraction forces to be applied to volar forearm and wrist
Power drill injuries in which the drill bit binds and the drill handle
forcibly rotates the wrist rather than the drill bit
Distal radius fractures
Degenerative changes
were a piano key. If the ulnar styloid readily depresses, the test is
considered positive (Figure 52-3).
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients who present with
triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome to rule out underlying
occult bony pathological processes. Based on the patients clini-
cal presentation, additional tests, including complete blood cell
count, uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and anti-
nuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) of the wrist is indicated in all patients suspected
to have triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome or if other causes of
joint instability, infection, or tumor are suspected (Figures 52-4
and 52-5). Magnetic resonance arthography also will help confirm
the diagnosis of fibrocartilage tear syndrome in questionable cases,
as will arthroscopy of the wrist (Figure 52-6). Electromyography
is indicated if coexistent ulnar or carpal tunnel syndrome is
suspected. A very gentle injection of the radioulnar joint with
small volumes of local anesthetic and steroid provides immedi-
ate improvement of the pain, but ultimately surgical repair is
required.
Differential Diagnosis
Coexistent arthritis, gout of the radioulnar joint, carpometacarpal
and interphalangeal joints, and tendinitis also may coexist with tri-
angular fibrocartilage tear syndrome and exacerbate the patients
pain and disability. Ulnocarpal abutment syndrome, Kienbcks
disease, and extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis also may mimic the
pain of triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome should include a
combination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and short-term immobi-
lization of the wrist. Local application of heat and cold also may
be beneficial. For patients who do not respond to these treatment
modalities, an injection of a local anesthetic and steroid into the
radioulnar joint may be a reasonable next step. Vigorous exercises
should be avoided because they would exacerbate the patients
symptoms. Ultimately, surgical repair is the treatment of choice.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to treat significant triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome
surgically usually results in continued pain and disability and in
some patients leads to ongoing damage to the wrist. Injection of
the radioulnar joint with local anesthetic and steroid is a safe tech-
nique if the clinician is attentive to detail, specifically using small
amounts of local anesthetic and steroid and avoiding high injec-
tion pressures, which may disrupt the complex further. Another
complication of this injection technique is infection. This compli-
cation should be exceedingly rare if strict aseptic technique is fol-
lowed. Approximately 25% of patients report a transient increase
in pain after this injection technique, and patients should be
warned of this possibility.
 52 Triangular Fibrocartilage Tear Syndrome 151

Distraction of
radius and ulna
from metacarpals

FIGURE 52-2 Common injuries that lead to triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome include waterskiing and horseback riding injuries, in which the
patient is dragged by the wrist by a tangled ski rope or reins, causing critical distraction forces to be applied to the volar forearm and wrist.

Protruding ulna

Torn and inflamed

triangular fibrocartilage
complex
Figure 52-3 Piano key sign is elicited by pressing down on the ulnar styloid as if it were a piano key. If the ulnar styloid readily depresses, the test is
considered positive.
152 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

A
B

C
Figure 52-4 Ulnar-sided triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) tears. A, Coronal two-dimensional T2 gradient echo magnetic resonance imaging.
A large amount of fluid signal is seen replacing the ulnar attachment of the TFCC, extending beyond the ulnar capsule, along the extensor carpi ulna-
ris tendon sheath more proximally (long arrows). A tear of the scapholunate ligament also is present (short arrow). B, Coronal T2 fast spin echo image
with fat saturation reveals fluid signal and altered morphology indicating disruption of the ulnar attachment (arrow) of the TFCC. C, Coronal short tau
inversion recovery MR image. The ulnar aspect of the TFCC is torn and detached (white arrows). A fracture of the ulnar styloid tip can be seen (black
arrow). (From Edelman RR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB, etal, editors: Clinical magnetic resonance imaging, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 3325.)
 52 Triangular Fibrocartilage Tear Syndrome 153

C
Figure 52-5 Radial-sided triangular fibrocartilage complex (TFCC) tears. Coronal two-dimensional T2* gradient echo magnetic resonance imaging
(A) and T2 fast spin echo image with fat saturation (B) show fluid signal intensity in the radial aspect of the TFCC (arrow), which extends to the
radiocarpal and the distal radioulnar joint articular surfaces. Fluid is seen in the distal radioulnar joint. C, Coronal high-resolution T1 fast spin echo
image after intra-articular contrast injection into the radiocarpal joint in another patient illustrates high signal intensity contrast extending through
a TFCC defect into the distal radioulnar joint (arrow). (From Edelman RR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB, etal, editors: Clinical magnetic resonance imaging,
3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 3324.)
154 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

A B C
Figure 52-6 A, Digital subtraction magnetic resonance arthrogram image demonstrating a leak of contrast agent from the radiocarpal joint into the
distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ) (broken black arrow) resulting from a TFC tear. B, The postinjection radiograph also shows contrast agent within the
DRUJ. In addition, contrast agent is seen in the midcarpal joint because of a leak through an asymptomatic central perforation of the scapholunate
ligament. C, The coronal gradient echo magnetic resonance arthrogram image shows the tear of the TFC (white arrow). The articular cartilage of the
wrist is well demonstrated and normal. (From In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, p 310.)

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome is a straightforward
diagnosis in the presence of obvious antecedent trauma. The
diagnosis is less obvious in the absence of trauma, however,
unless the clinician includes it in the differential diagno-
sis with all patients with ulnar-sided wrist pain. Coexistent
arthritis, tendinitis, and gout also may contribute to the
pain and may require additional treatment with more local-
ized injection of a local anesthetic and depot steroid. The
use of physical modalities, including local heat and cold
and immobilization of the wrist, may provide symptomatic
relief. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they
would exacerbate the patients symptoms and may cause
further damage to the wrist. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs
may be used concurrently with this injection technique.
Buterbaugh GA, Brown TR, Horn PC: Ulnar-sided wrist pain in athletes, Clin
Sports Med 17:567583, 1998.
Coggins CA: Imaging of ulnar-sided wrist pain, Clin Sports Med 25:505526,
2006.
Kovachevich R, Elhassan BT: Arthroscopic and open repair of the TFCC,
Hand Clin 26:485494, 2010.
Sachar K: Ulnar-sided wrist pain: evaluation and treatment of triangular fibro-
cartilage complex tears, ulnocarpal impaction syndrome, and lunotriquetral
ligament tears, J Hand Surg Br 33:16691679, 2008.
Chapter 53
SCAPHOLUNATE LIGAMENT TEAR
SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 718.03
ICD-10 CODE M24.139
The Clinical Syndrome
Scapholunate ligament tear syndrome is caused by trauma or, rarely,
degenerative changes to the wrist. The scapholunate ligament serves
as a stabilizer of the scaphoids palmarward rotational force against
the opposite dorsalward rotational force of the lunate. The liga-
ment also maintains the spacing of the scapulolunate gap, keeping
the proximal pole of the scaphoid in proper position relative to the
lunate (Figure 53-1).
Degeneration of the scapholunate ligament complex begins to
occur as part of the natural aging process in the third decade.
This degenerative process predisposes the scapholunate ligament
complex to traumatic injury. Common injuries that lead to scaph-
olunate ligament tear include falls onto a hyperextended wrist
(Figure 53-2). If the tear is partial, the patient reports dorsoradial
wrist pain. If the tear is complete, instability of the wrist accompa-
nies the pain. Some patients report an audible click with any ulnar
to radial deviation of the wrist.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical examination of patients with scapholunate ligament tear
reveals pain on ulnar deviation of the wrist with the pain worsened
by having the patient tightly clench the fist, which places stress on
the carpal bones. Pain is present on palpation of the anatomical
snuffbox, and a widening of the scapholunate gap may be appre-
ciated. A clicking sensation may be appreciated by the examiner
on range of motion. A positive Watsons test also is present when
the wrist is moved from the ulnar to radial position while the
patient tightly clutches the fist (Figure 53-3). If left untreated,
degeneration of the radioscaphoid, midcarpal, and radiolunate
joints results in a deformity termed scapholunate advanced collapse,
which is also referred to as an SLAC wrist.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients who present with
scapholunate ligament tear syndrome to rule out underlying
occult bony pathological conditions and identify widening of
the scapholunate gap (also known as a positive Terry Thomas or
David Lettermans sign after the space between the teeth of these
celebrities), palmar flexion of the scaphoid, and dorsiflexion of
the lunate, which is termed scapholunate dissociation with dorsal
intercalary segment instability (Figure 53-4). Based on the patients
clinical presentation, additional tests, including complete blood
cell count, uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and
antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Magnetic reso-
nance imaging (MRI) of the wrist is indicated in all patients
thought to have scapholunate ligament tear or if other causes of
joint instability, infection, or tumor are suspected (Figure 53-5).
Electromyography is indicated if coexistent ulnar or carpal tunnel
syndrome is suspected. A very gentle injection of the radioulnar
joint with small volumes of local anesthetic and steroid provides
immediate improvement of the pain, but ultimately surgical
repair is required.
Differential Diagnosis
Coexistent arthritis and gout of the radioulnar, carpal, metacarpal,
and interphalangeal joints; dorsal wrist ganglion; de Quervains
stenosing tenosynovitis; and tendinitis may coexist with scapholu-
nate ligament tear syndrome and exacerbate the patients pain and
disability. Kienbcks disease, avascular necrosis of the scaphoid,
and scaphoid fractures also may mimic the pain of scapholunate
ligament tear.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with scapholunate ligament tear syndrome should include a com-
bination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and short-term immobili-
zation of the wrist. Local application of heat and cold also may
be beneficial. For patients who do not respond to these treatment
modalities, an injection of a local anesthetic and steroid into
the scapholunate joint may be a reasonable next step. Vigorous
exercises should be avoided because they would exacerbate the
patients symptoms. Ultimately, surgical repair is the treatment
of choice.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to treat significant scapholunate ligament tear surgically
usually results in continued pain and disability and, in some
patients, leads to ongoing damage to the wrist. Injection of the
scapholunate joint with local anesthetic and steroid is a safe
technique if the clinician is attentive to detail, specifically using
small amounts of local anesthetic and steroid and avoiding high
injection pressures, which may disrupt the ligament further.
155
156 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

Scapholunate
ligament
complex

Figure 53-1 Anatomy of the scapholunate ligament complex.

Torn and inflamed

scapholunate
ligament complex

Figure 53-2 Common injuries that lead to scapholunate ligament tear include falls onto a hyperextended wrist.
 53 Scapholunate Ligament Tear Syndrome 157

Figure 53-3 Watsons test (scaphoid displacement test) for the diag-
nosis of scapholunate dissociation is performed by pushing upward on
the scaphoid tuberosity while the hand is in ulnar deviation. This action
tends to cause the scaphoid to ride out of the radial fossa over the dor-
sal rim, at times producing a painful snap. The test might be positive
in loose-jointed individuals and should always be compared with the
contralateral side. (From Manuel J, Moran SL: The diagnosis and treatment
of scapholunate instability, Hand Clin 26:129144, 2010.)
Figure 53-4 Posteroanterior radiograph of the wrist depicting severe
scapholunate dissociation with increased scapholunate gap, also
referred to as a positive Terry Thomas sign. The scaphoid is foreshort-
ened with respect to the longitudinal axis of the forearm. The scaphoid
tuberosity is seen in profile providing the ring sign. The lunate appears
to be trapezoidal in shape because the palmar pole is rotated under
the capitate. (From Manuel J, Moran SL: The diagnosis and treatment of
scapholunate instability, Hand Clin 26:129144, 2010.)

A B
Figure 53-5 Intercarpal ligaments: three-dimensional Fourier transform gradient recalled magnetic resonance imaging. Normal and abnormal scaph-
olunate interosseous ligament. A, Normal scapholunate interosseous ligament. Coronal three-dimensional Fourier transform (TR/TE, 60/11; flip
angle, 10 degrees) MRI shows the low signal intensity and linear morphology that characterize normal scapholunate (arrow) and lunotriquetral
(arrowhead) interosseous ligaments. The triangular fibrocartilage also is normal. B, Communicating defect of the scapholunate interosseous ligament.
Coronal oblique three-dimensional Fourier transform (TR/TE, 60/10; flip angle, 30 degrees) MRI shows altered morphology (arrow) of the scapholu-
nate interosseous ligament. (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and Joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 3039.)
158 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

Another complication of this injection technique is infection. SUGGESTED READINGS

This complication should be exceedingly rare if strict aseptic Goldberg SH, Riansuwan K, Rosenwasser MP: Arthroscopic treatment of
technique is followed. Approximately 25% of patients report scapholunate ligament tears, In Slutsky DJ, Osterman AL (eds) Fractures and
a transient increase in pain after this injection technique, and Injuries of the Distal Radius and Carpus 463474, 2009.
Manuel J, Moran SL: The diagnosis and treatment of scapholunate instability,
patients should be warned of this possibility. Orthop Clin North Am 38:261277, 2007.
Manuel J, Moran SL: The diagnosis and treatment of scapholunate instability,
Hand Clin 26:129144, 2010.
Clinical Pearls OMeeghan CJ, Stuart W, Mamo V, Stanley JK, Trail IA: The natural history of
an untreated isolated scapholunate interosseus ligament injury, J Hand Surg Br
Scapholunate ligament tear and other disorders of the 28:307310, 2003.
scaphoid are a straightforward diagnosis in the presence
of obvious antecedent trauma. The diagnosis is less obvi-
ous in the absence of trauma, however, unless the clinician
includes it in the differential diagnosis with all patients
reporting radial-sided wrist pain. Coexistent arthritis, ten-
dinitis, and gout also may contribute to the pain and may
require additional treatment with more localized injection
of a local anesthetic and depot steroid. The use of physical
modalities, including local heat and cold and immobiliza-
tion of the wrist, may provide symptomatic relief. Vigorous
exercises should be avoided because they would exacerbate
the patients symptoms and may cause further damage to
the wrist. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may be used con-
currently with this injection technique.
Chapter 54

LUNOTRIQUETRAL INSTABILITY
PAIN SYNDROME

instability pain syndrome or if other causes of joint instability,

ICD-9 CODE 18.03 infection, or tumor are suspected (Figure 54-3). Electromyogra-
phy is indicated if coexistent ulnar or carpal tunnel is suspected. A
gentle injection of the lunotriquetral joint with small volumes of
ICD-10 CODE M24.139 local anesthetic and steroid provides immediate improvement of
the pain, but ultimately surgical repair is required.

The Clinical Syndrome Differential Diagnosis

Lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome is caused by trauma or, Coexistent arthritis and gout of the radioulnar, carpometacarpal,
rarely, degenerative changes to the wrist. The lunotriquetral liga- and interphalangeal joints; dorsal wrist ganglion; and tendinitis
ment stabilizes the wrist and helps maintain the proper spacing of may coexist with lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome and
the lunotriquetral gap (Figure 54-1). exacerbate the patients pain and disability. Kienbcks disease
Degeneration of the lunotriquetral ligament complex begins and lunate fractures also may mimic the pain of lunotriquetral
to occur as part of the natural aging process in the third decade. instability pain syndrome, as can tear of the triangular fibrocarti-
This degenerative process predisposes the lunotriquetral liga- lage complex and ulnar impaction syndrome.
ment complex to traumatic injury. Common injuries that lead
to lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome include backward falls
onto a hyperextended wrist (Figure 54-2). If the tear is partial,
the patient reports dorsoulnar wrist pain. If the tear is complete,
instability of the wrist accompanies the pain. Some patients report
an audible click with any ulnar deviation of the wrist.

Signs and Symptoms

Physical examination of patients with lunotriquetral instability
pain syndrome reveals pain on ulnar or radial deviation of the
wrist with the pain worsened by having the patient tightly clench
the fist, which places stress on the carpal bones. Pain is felt on
palpation of the lunate and triquetrum, and a widening of the
lunotriquetral gap may be appreciated. A clicking sensation may
be appreciated by the examiner on range of motion. A positive
lunotriquetrum shear test is often present. This test is performed
by displacing the triquetrum dorsally, while displacing the lunate
palmarly. The test is considered positive if the examiner demon-
strates increased excursion of the lunotriquetral joint over the
normal side.

Testing
Lunotriquetral
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients who present with ligament complex
lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome to rule out underlying
occult bony pathological processes and identify widening of the
lunotriquetral gap. Based on the patients clinical presentation,
additional tests, including complete blood cell count, uric acid
level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody
testing, may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of
the wrist is indicated in all patients suspected to have lunotriquetral Figure 54-1 Anatomy of the lunotriquetral ligament complex.

159
160 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome should include a
combination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and short-term immobi-
lization of the wrist. Local application of heat and cold also may
be beneficial. For patients who do not respond to these treatment
modalities, an injection of a local anesthetic and steroid into the
lunotriquetral joint may be a reasonable next step. Vigorous exer-
cises should be avoided because they would exacerbate the patients
symptoms. Ultimately, surgical repair is the treatment of choice.

Complications and Pitfalls

Torn lunotriquetral
ligament
Figure 54-2 Common injuries that lead to lunotriquetral instability
pain syndrome include backward falls onto a hyperextended wrist.
Failure to treat significant lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome
surgically usually results in continued pain and disability and in some
patients leads to ongoing damage to the wrist. Injection of the joint
with local anesthetic and steroid is a safe technique if the clinician
is attentive to detail, specifically using small amounts of local anes-
thetic and steroid and avoiding high injection pressures, which may
disrupt the ligament further. Another complication of this injection
technique is infection. This complication should be exceedingly
rare if strict aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25% of
patients report a transient increase in pain after this injection tech-
nique, and patients should be warned of this possibility.
 54 Lunotriquetral Instability Pain Syndrome 161

Right

A B C

D E
Figure 54-3 A, Lateral radiograph demonstrating the lunate (white arrows) with its axis (white line) tilted in a volar direction compared with the axis
of capitate and radius (broken white line); this tilting is consistent with a volar intercalated segment instability (VISI) deformity. B, A digital subtraction
arthrogram of the same patient after injection of contrast agent into the radiocarpal joint demonstrates contrast agent passing through the lunotriquetral
(LT) joint (black arrow) and into the metacarpal joint (broken black arrow), indicating a tear of the LT ligament. The coronal T1-weighted (C) and
T2-weighted with fat suppression (D) magnetic resonance arthrogram images show sclerosis, subchondral cyst formation, and marrow edema within
the lunate resulting from secondary osteoarthritis change in the LT joint. E, The gradient echo magnetic resonance image best demonstrates absence
of the LT ligament (white arrow) and loss of articular cartilage. Compare with the normal appearance of the scapholunate ligament (broken white arrow).
(From: Lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 307308.)

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Butterfield WL, Joshi AB, Lichtman D: Lunotriquetral injuries, J Am Soc Surg
Lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome and other dis- Hand 2:195203, 2002.
orders of the lunate and triquetrum are a straightforward Goldberg SH, Strauch RE, Rosenwasser MP: Scapholunate and lunotriquetral
instability in the athlete: diagnosis and management, Oper Tech Sports Med
diagnosis in the present of obvious antecedent trauma. The 14:108121, 2006.
diagnosis is less obvious in the absence of trauma, however, Lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD,
unless the clinician included it in the differential diagno- editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 307308.
sis with all patients with ulnar-sided wrist pain. Coexistent Sachar K: Ulnar-sided wrist pain: evaluation and treatment of triangular fibro-
arthritis, tendinitis, and gout also may contribute to the cartilage complex tears, ulnocarpal impaction syndrome, and lunotriquetral
ligament tears, J Hand Surg Am 33:16691679, 2008.
pain and may require additional treatment with more local-
ized injection of a local anesthetic and depot steroid. The
use of physical modalities, including local heat and cold
and immobilization of the wrist, may provide symptomatic
relief. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they
would exacerbate the patients symptoms and may cause
further damage to the wrist. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs
may be used concurrently with this injection technique.
Chapter 55

KIENBCKS DISEASE

the lunotriquetral joint with small volumes of local anesthetic and

ICD-9 CODE 732.3 steroid provides immediate improvement of the pain, but ulti-
mately surgical repair is required.

ICD-10 CODE M92.30 Differential Diagnosis

Coexistent arthritis and gout of the radioulnar, carpometacarpal,
and interphalangeal joints; dorsal wrist ganglion; and tendinitis
The Clinical Syndrome may coexist with Kienbcks disease and exacerbate the pain and
Kienbcks disease, or lunatomalacia, is caused by avascular necro- disability of the patient. Lunate cysts, contusions, and fractures
sis of the lunate after repeated microfractures or major fractures to also may mimic the pain of Kienbcks disease, as can tear of the
the lunate after trauma to the wrist. Repetitive microtrauma to the triangular fibrocartilage complex and ulnar impaction syndrome
wrist from repetitive compressive loading and unloading such as (Figure 55-3).
use of a jackhammer and recurrent compression of the lunate by
the capitate and distal radius resulting from extreme wrist positions
also has been implicated in the evolution of this painful condition
of the wrist and forearm (Figure 55-1). A patient with Kienbcks
disease reports unilateral dorsal wrist pain over the lunate that radi-
ates into the forearm and decreasing range of motion of the wrist.
Weakened grip strength also may be noticed. Kienbcks disease
usually affects one wrist; incidence of bilateral disease is extremely
low. The disease is most common in the second through fourth
decades of life.

Signs and Symptoms

Physical examination of patients with Kienbcks disease reveals
pain on ulnar or radial deviation of the wrist, with the pain
worsened by passively dorsiflexing the middle phalanx on the
affected side. Pain is felt on palpation of the lunate, and a click
or crepitus may be appreciated by the examiner when putting
the wrist through range of motion.

Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients who present with
Kienbcks disease to rule out underlying occult bony pathological
conditions and identify sclerosis and fragmentation of the lunate.
Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests,
including complete blood cell count, uric acid level, erythrocyte
sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may also
be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the wrist is
indicated in all patients suspected to have Kienbcks disease or if
Figure 55-1 Repetitive microtrauma to the wrist from repetitive compres-
other causes of joint instability, infection, or tumor are suspected sive loading and unloading and recurrent compression of the lunate by the
(Figure 55-2). Electromyography is indicated if coexistent ulnar capitate and distal radius owing to extreme wrist positions have been impli-
or carpal tunnel syndrome is suspected. A very gentle injection of cated in the evolution of this painful condition of the wrist and forearm.

162
 55 Kienbcks Disease 163

B C
Figure 55-2 Kienbcks disease and nonunion of a scaphoid fracture: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A, Conventional tomography shows cystic
changes and sclerosis in the lunate bone and an ununited fracture of the midportion of the scaphoid bone. The fracture lines are smooth with sclerotic
margins. Mild negative ulnar variance is seen. B, Coronal T1-weighted (TR/TE, 800/20) spin echo MRI reveals low signal intensity throughout the
lunate bone and in the fracture gap of the scaphoid bone. C, Coronal T2-weighted (TR/TE, 2500/60) spin echo MRI shows foci of high signal intensity
(arrowhead) in the lunate bone. Fluid of high signal intensity (arrow) is evident in a portion of the fracture gap in the scaphoid bone. (From Resnick D,
editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 3044.)

Treatment Complications and Pitfalls

Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with Kienbcks disease should include a combination of non-
steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors and short-term immobilization of the wrist.
Local application of heat and cold also may be beneficial. For
patients who do not respond to these treatment modalities, an
injection of a local anesthetic and steroid into the lunotriquetral
joint may be a reasonable next step to provide palliation of acute
pain. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they would
exacerbate the patients symptoms. Ultimately, surgical repair is
the treatment of choice.
Failure to treat significant Kienbcks disease surgically usually
results in continued pain and disability and in some patients leads
to ongoing damage to the wrist. Injection of the joint with local
anesthetic and steroid is a safe technique if the clinician is atten-
tive to detail, specifically using small amounts of local anesthetic
and steroid and avoiding high injection pressures, which may
damage the joint further. Another complication of this injection
technique is infection. This complication should be exceedingly
rare if strict aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25%
of patients report a transient increase in pain after this injection
technique, and patients should be warned of this possibility.
164 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

A B

C
Figure 55-3 Kienbcks disease mimics. Posteroanterior x-ray (A) and B T1-weighted coronal MRI of a patient with stage 1 Kienbcks disease (B).
(From Beredjiklian PK: Kienbcks disease, J Hand Surg Am 34:167175, 2009.)

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Beredjiklian PK: Kienbcks disease, J Hand Surg Am 34:167175, 2009.
Kienbcks disease and other disorders of the lunate are a Innes L, Strauch RJ: Systematic review of the treatment of Kienbcks disease in its
relatively straightforward diagnosis in the present of obvi- early and late stages, J Hand Surg Am 35:713717, 2010.
Taniguchi Y, Yoshida M, Iwasaki H, Otakara H, Iwata S: Kienbcks disease in
ous antecedent trauma. The diagnosis is less obvious in the elderly patients, J Hand Surg Am 28:779783, 2003.
absence of trauma, however, unless the clinician included it Wagner JP, Chung KC: A historical report on Robert Kienbck (18711953) and
in the differential diagnosis with all patients with dorsoul- Kienbcks disease, J Hand Surg Am 30:11171121, 2005.
nar wrist pain that radiated into the forearm. Coexistent Yazaki N, Nakamura R, Nakao E, etal: Bilateral Kienbcks disease, J Hand Surg
arthritis, tendinitis, and gout also may contribute to the Br 30:133136, 2005.
pain and may require additional treatment with more local-
ized injection of a local anesthetic and depot steroid. The
use of physical modalities, including local heat and cold
and immobilization of the wrist, may provide symptomatic
relief. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they
would exacerbate the patients symptoms and may cause
further damage to the wrist. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs
may be used concurrently with this injection technique.
Chapter 56

AVASCULAR NECROSIS OF THE

SCAPHOID

sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, also may

ICD-9 CODE 733.40
ICD-10 CODE M84.1
The Clinical Syndrome
Avascular necrosis of the scaphoid is a common sequela to scaph-
oid fracture. Second only to the hip in the incidence of avascu-
lar necrosis, the scaphoid is extremely susceptible to this disease
because of the tenuous blood supply of the scaphoid, which enters
the bone through its distal half. The dorsal blood supply and the
volar blood supply are easily disrupted by fracture of the scaphoid,
often leaving the proximal portion of the bone without nutrition,
leading to osteonecrosis.
Common causes of scaphoid fracture include trauma to the
scaphoid from falls on a hyperextended wrist and from steering
wheel injuries during motor vehicle accidents, although an idio-
pathic form of the disease, known as Preisers disease, can occur
(Figure 56-1). A patient with avascular necrosis of the scaphoid
reports unilateral wrist pain over the anatomical snuffbox that
may radiate into the radial aspect of the forearm and decreas-
ing range of motion of the wrist. Weakened grip strength also
may be noticed. Movement of the thumb usually exacerbates the
patients pain.
be indicated. Computerized tomography (CT) and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) of the wrist are indicated in all patients
thought to have avascular necrosis of the scaphoid or if other
causes of joint instability, infection, or tumor are suspected.
Administration of gadolinium followed by postcontrast imaging
may help delineate the adequacy of blood supply, with contrast
enhancement of the proximal scaphoid being a good prognostic
sign (Figure 56-4). Ultrasound imaging of the scaphoid also may
aid in the diagnosis (Figure 56-5). Electromyography is indicated
if coexistent ulnar or carpal tunnel syndrome is suspected. A very
gentle injection of the radial aspect of the distal radioulnar joint
with small volumes of local anesthetic and steroid provides imme-
diate improvement of the pain, but ultimately surgical repair is
required.
Differential Diagnosis
Coexistent arthritis and gout of the radioulnar, carpometacarpal,
and interphalangeal joints; dorsal wrist ganglion; and tendinitis
may coexist with avascular necrosis of the scaphoid and exacer-
bate the patients pain and disability. Distal fractures of the radius,

Signs and Symptoms

Physical examination of patients reports avascular necrosis of the
scaphoid reveals pain on palpation of the anatomical snuffbox
(Figure 56-2). The pain can be worsened by passively moving the
wrist from ulnar to radial position or by moving the thumb of the
affected side. A click or crepitus also may be appreciated by the
examiner when putting the wrist through range of motion. Weak-
ness of dorsiflexion is common, as is weakness of grip strength in
contrast to the nonaffected side.
Fractured
Testing scaphoid

Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients who present with

avascular necrosis of the scaphoid to rule out underlying occult
bony pathological conditions and identify sclerosis and fragmen-
tation of the scaphoid, although early in the course of the disease,
plain radiographs can be notoriously unreliable (Figure 56-3). Figure 56-1 Common causes of scaphoid fractures include trauma to
Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests, the scaphoid from falls on a hyperextended wrist and from steering
including complete blood cell count, uric acid level, erythrocyte wheel injuries during motor vehicle accidents.

165
166 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

de Quervains stenosis, tenosynovitis, scapholunate ligament tears,

scaphoid cysts, contusions, and fractures also may mimic the pain
of avascular necrosis of the scaphoid, as can tear of the triangular
fibrocartilage complex.

Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with avascular necrosis of the scaphoid should include a com-
bination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and short-term immobili-
zation of the wrist. Local application of heat and cold also may
be beneficial. For patients who do not respond to these treatment
modalities, an injection of a local anesthetic and steroid into the
radial aspect of the distal radioulnar joint may be a reasonable next
step to provide palliation of acute pain. Vigorous exercises should
be avoided because they would exacerbate the patients symptoms.
Ultimately, surgical repair is the treatment of choice.

Complications and Pitfalls

Anatomical snuff box
Figure 56-2 Physical examination of patients with avascular necrosis of
the scaphoid reveals pain to palpation of the anatomical snuffbox.
Failure to treat significant avascular necrosis of the scaphoid surgi-
cally usually results in continued pain and disability and in some
patients leads to ongoing damage to the wrist. Injection of the joint
with local anesthetic and steroid is a safe technique if the clinician
is attentive to detail, specifically using small amounts of local anes-
thetic and steroid and avoiding high injection pressures, which may
damage the joint further. Another complication of this injection
technique is infection. This complication should be exceedingly
rare if strict aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25% of
patients report a transient increase in pain after this injection tech-
nique, and patients should be warned of this possibility.

A B
Figure 56-3 A, Radiograph obtained 12 weeks after a scaphoid fracture. There is an apparent cyst in the scaphoid but no fracture line. B, The com-
puted tomography scan, however, confirms fracture nonunion. (From In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011,
Saunders, pp 313-315.
 56 Avascular Necrosis of the Scaphoid 167

A B
Figure 56-4 Osteonecrosis of the scaphoid bone after a fracture. A, Four months after a scaphoid fracture, coronal T1-weighted (TR/TE, 500/14) spin
echo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) reveals nonunion of the bone and low signal intensity at the fracture line and in the proximal pole of the
scaphoid. B, After intravenous gadolinium administration, fat-suppressed coronal T1-weighted (TR/TE, 550/14) spin echo MRI image shows enhance-
ment in both portions of the scaphoid, a good prognostic sign. (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia,
2002, Saunders, p 3045.)

Figure 56-5 A split-screen side-by-side comparison of the fractured scaphoid (right) and normal scaphoid (left). The arrows identify two cortical frac-
tures in the palmar cortex. (From Senall JA, Failla JM, Bouffard A, Holsbeeck M: Ultrasound for the early diagnosis of clinically suspected scaphoid fracture,
J Hand Surg Am 29:400405, 2004.)
168 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Adey L, Souer JS, Lozano-Calderon S: Computed tomography of suspected
Avascular necrosis of the scaphoid is a diagnosis that is scaphoid fractures, J Hand Surg Am 32:6166, 2007.
often missed, leading to much unnecessary pain and dis- Kawamura K, Chung KC: Treatment of scaphoid fractures and nonunions,
J Hand Surg Am 33:988997, 2008.
ability. The clinician should include avascular necrosis of Senall JA, Failla JM, Bouffard A, Holsbeeck M: Ultrasound for the early diagnosis
the scaphoid in the differential diagnosis in all patients with of clinically suspected scaphoid fracture, J Hand Surg Am 29:400405, 2004.
radial-sided wrist pain after trauma to the wrist. Coexistent
arthritis, tendinitis, and gout also may contribute to the
pain and may require additional treatment with more local-
ized injection of a local anesthetic and depot steroid. The
use of physical modalities, including local heat and cold
and immobilization of the wrist, may provide symptomatic
relief. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they
would exacerbate the patients symptoms and may cause
further damage to the wrist. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs
may be used concurrently with this injection technique.
Chapter 57

EXTENSOR CARPI ULNARIS

TENDINITIS

on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests, including

ICD-9 CODE 727.05
ICD-9 CODE M65.849
The Clinical Syndrome
Extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis is being seen with increasing fre-
quency in clinical practice as golf and racquet sports have increased
in popularity. The extensor carpi ulnaris tendon is susceptible to
the development of tendinitis at the distal portion. The extensor
carpi ulnaris tendon is subject to repetitive motion that may result
in microtrauma, which heals poorly because of the tendons avas-
cular nature. Exercise is often implicated as the inciting factor of
acute extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis, with improper grip of golf
clubs and tennis racquets a common inciting cause (Figure 57-1).
Tendinitis of the extensor carpi ulnaris tendon frequently coexists
with bursitis, creating additional pain and functional disability.
Calcium deposition around the tendon may occur if the inflam-
mation continues, making subsequent treatment more difficult.
Continued trauma to the inflamed tendon ultimately may result
in tendon rupture.
complete blood count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinu-
clear antibody testing, may be indicated. MRI of the wrist is indi-
cated if joint instability is suspected and to confirm the diagnosis
further (Figure 57-2). Ultrasound imaging is also useful in aiding
in diagnosis (Fig. 57-3). Radionuclide bone scanning is useful to
identify stress fractures of the wrist not seen on plain radiographs.
Differential Diagnosis
Extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis is generally easily identified on clin-
ical grounds; however, coexistent bursitis may confuse the diagnosis.
Fractures of the ulnar styloid and lunate and tears of the triangular
fibrocartilage complex, ulnocarpal abutment syndrome, and Kien-
bcks disease also may mimic extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis should include a combination

Signs and Symptoms

The onset of extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis is usually acute,
occurring after overuse or misuse of the wrist joint. Inciting fac-
tors include playing tennis, playing golf, and prolonged use of
a heavy hammer. Injuries ranging from partial to complete tears
of the tendon can occur when the distal tendon sustains direct
trauma while the wrist is in full radial deviation under load or
when the wrist is forced into full radial deviation while under
load. The pain of extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis is constant,
severe, and localized in the dorsoulnar aspect of the wrist. Sig-
nificant sleep disturbance is often reported. Patients with extensor
carpi ulnaris tendinitis exhibit pain with resisted radial deviation
of the wrist. A creaking or grating sensation may be palpated when Inflamed extensor
the wrist is passively deviated radially. As mentioned, the chroni- carpi ulnaris tendon
cally inflamed extensor carpi ulnaris tendon may rupture suddenly
with stress or during vigorous injection procedures inadvertently
injected into the substance of the tendon.

Testing
Plain radiographs and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are indi- Figure 57-1 Improper grip of golf clubs and tennis racquets is often
cated for all patients who present with ulnar-sided wrist pain. Based implicated as the inciting cause of acute extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis.

169
170 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

Figure 57-2 Tenosynovitis of the extensor carpi ulnaris tendon sheath: magnetic resonance imaging. Transaxial T1-weighted (TR/TE, 600/20) spin
echo MRI of the wrist at the level of the radiocarpal joint shows fluid of intermediate signal intensity (arrows) around the extensor carpi ulnaris ten-
don in the sixth extensor compartment. (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 3048.)

* * *
* *
Ulna
Triquetrum

Figure 57-3 Longitudinal ultrasound image of a patient with simple tenosynovitis of the extensor carpi ulnaris (ECU) tendon. There is anechoic fluid
(white arrows) within the ECU tendon sheath. The ECU tendon (asterisks) is not thickened. (From Waldman SD: Extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis. In Wald-
man SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 329330.)

of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygen-

ase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of
Clinical Pearls
heat and cold also may be beneficial. Repetitive activities responsible
for the evolution of the tendinitis should be avoided. For patients
who do not respond to these treatment modalities, injection with
local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
Trauma to the extensor carpi ulnaris tendon from the injec-
tion itself is an ever-present possibility. Tendons that are highly
inflamed or previously damaged are subject to rupture if they are
directly injected. This complication can be greatly decreased if the
clinician uses gentle technique and stops injecting immediately if
significant resistance to injection is encountered. Approximately
25% of patients report a transient increase in pain after this injec-
tion technique, and patients should be warned of this possibility.
The extensor carpi ulnaris is a very strong tendon, but it
is also very susceptible to rupture. Coexistent bursitis and
arthritis also may contribute to wrist pain and may require
additional treatment with a more localized injection of local
anesthetic and methylprednisolone acetate.
Injection of the extensor carpi ulnaris tendon is a safe
procedure if careful attention is paid to the clinically rele-
vant anatomy in the areas to be injected. The use of physical
modalities, including local heat and gentle range-of-motion
exercises, should be introduced several days after the patient
undergoes this injection technique for elbow pain. Vigorous
exercises should be avoided because they would exacerbate
the patients symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs
may be used concurrently with this injection technique.
 57 Extensor Carpi Ulnaris Tendinitis 171

SUGGESTED READINGS
Allende C, Le Viet D: Extensor carpi ulnaris problems at the wrist: classification, Waldman SD: Extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD,
surgical treatment and results, J Hand Surg Br 30:265272, 2005. editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 329330.
Jeantroux J, Becce F, Guerini H, et al: Athletic injuries of the extensor carpi Watanabe A, Souza F, Vezeridis PS, Blazar P, Yoshioka H: Ulnar-sided wrist pain.
ulnaris subsheath: MRI findings and utility of gadolinium-enhanced fat- II. Clinical imaging and treatment, Skeletal Radiol 39:837857, 2010.
saturated T1-weighted sequences with wrist pronation and supination, Eur
Radiol 21:160166, 2011.
Chapter 58

FLEXOR CARPI RADIALIS TENDINITIS

pain. Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional

ICD-9 CODE 727.05 tests, including complete blood count, erythrocyte sedimenta-
tion rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated.
MRI and ultrasound imaging of the wrist are indicated if joint
ICD-10 CODE M65.849 instability or occult mass is suspected and to further confirm the
diagnosis (Figures 58-2 and 58-3). Radionuclide bone scanning
is useful to identify stress fractures of the wrist not seen on plain
The Clinical Syndrome radiographs.

Flexor carpi radialis tendinitis is being seen with increasing fre-

quency in clinical practice as golf and racquet sports have increased
Differential Diagnosis
in popularity. The flexor carpi radialis tendon is susceptible to the Flexor carpi radialis tendinitis is generally easily identified on
development of tendinitis at its distal portion. The flexor carpi clinical grounds; however, coexistent bursitis may confuse the
radialis tendon is subject to repetitive motion that may result in diagnosis. Fractures of the distal radius and scaphoid and tears of
microtrauma, which heals poorly because of the tendons avascular the triangular fibrocartilage complex and avascular necrosis of the
nature. Exercise and repetitive trauma are often implicated as incit- scaphoid also may mimic flexor carpi radialis tendinitis.
ing factors of acute flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, with improper
grip of golf clubs or tennis racquets and the prolonged use of a
heavy hammer as the common inciting causes (Figure 58-1).
Tendinitis of the flexor carpi radialis tendon frequently coexists
with bursitis, creating additional pain and functional disability.
Calcium deposition around the tendon may occur if the inflam-
mation continues, making subsequent treatment more difficult.
Continued trauma to the inflamed tendon ultimately may result
in tendon rupture.

Signs and Symptoms

The onset of flexor carpi radialis tendinitis is usually acute, occur-
ring after overuse or misuse of the wrist joint. Inciting factors
include playing tennis, playing golf, and prolonged use of a heavy
hammer. Injuries ranging from partial to complete tears of the ten-
don can occur when the distal tendon sustains direct trauma while
the wrist is in full ulnar deviation under load or when the wrist is
forced into full ulnar deviation while under load. The pain of flexor
carpi radialis tendinitis is constant and severe and is localized in the Inflamed
dorsoradial aspect of the wrist. Significant sleep disturbance is often flexor carpi
reported. Patients with flexor carpi radialis tendinitis exhibit pain radialis tendon
with resisted ulnar deviation of the wrist. A creaking or grating sen-
sation may be palpated when the wrist is passively deviated radially.
As mentioned, the chronically inflamed flexor carpi radialis tendon
may rupture suddenly with stress or during vigorous injection pro-
cedures inadvertently injected into the substance of the tendon.

Testing
Figure 58-1 Exercise and repetitive trauma, such as prolonged use of
Plain radiographs and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are a heavy hammer, are often implicated as inciting factors of acute flexor
indicated for all patients who present with ulnar-sided wrist carpi radialis tendinitis.

172
 58 Flexor Carpi Radialis Tendinitis 173

Figure 58-2 Tenosynovitis of the flexor carpi radialis tendon sheath: magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Coronal T1-weighted (TR/TE, 600/14) spin
echo MRI of the volar aspect of the wrist shows the enlarged tendon sheath (arrow) containing fluid or inflammatory tissue. (From Resnick D, editor:
Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 3049.)

MN

Scaphoid

FCR

tra

Scaphoid

A C
Figure 58-3 Flexor carpi radialis (FCR) tendinopathy in a 65-year-old woman with a painful palpable lump over the ventral radial aspect of the right wrist.
The patient was referred for ultrasound examination for a suspected ventral ganglion cyst. A, Anteroposterior radiograph reveals scapholunate diasta-
sis and advanced triscaphe arthritis (arrows). B, Transverse ultrasound image over the lump demonstrates a swollen and heterogeneous FCR tendon
(arrows) stabilized over the scaphoid tubercle by a thickened retinaculum (white arrowhead). C, Longitudinal ultrasound image shows bony spurs (hollow
arrowhead) from the ventral aspect of the scaphoid and the trapezium (tra) impinging on the undersurface of the abnormal tendon. The retinaculum
is thickened (solid arrowheads). (From Allen PL, Baxter GM, Weston MJ: Clinical ultrasound, 3rd ed, vol 2, New York, 2011, Churchill Livingstone p 1060.)
174 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes

Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with flexor carpi radialis tendinitis should include a combination
of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxy-
genase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local applica-
tion of heat and cold also may be beneficial. Repetitive activities
responsible for the evolution of the tendinitis should be avoided.
For patients who do not respond to these treatment modalities,
injection with local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable
next step.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bishop AT, Gabel G, Carmichael SW: Flexor carpi radialis tendinitis. I. Operative
anatomy, J Bone Joint Surg Am 76:10091014, 1994.
Cowey AJ, Carmont MR, Tins B, Ford DJ: Flexor carpi radialis rupture reined in!,
Injury Extra 38:9093, 2007.
Fitton JM, Shea FW, Goldie W: Lesions of flexor carpi radialis tendon and sheath
causing pain at the wrist, J Bone Joint Surg Br 50:359363, 1968.
Gabel G, Bishop AT, Wood MB: Flexor carpi radialis tendinitis. II. Results of
operative treatment, J Bone Joint Surg Am 76:10151018, 1994.
Kosiyatrakul A, Luenam S, Prachaporn S: Symptomatic flexor carpi radialis brevis:
case report, J Hand Surg 35:633635, 2010.

Complications and Pitfalls

Trauma to the flexor carpi radialis tendon from the injection
itself is an ever-present possibility. Tendons that are highly
inflamed or previously damaged are subject to rupture if they are
directly injected. This complication can be greatly decreased if
the clinician uses gentle technique and stops injecting immedi-
ately if significant resistance to injection is encountered. Approx-
imately 25% of patients report a transient increase in pain after
this injection technique, and patients should be warned of this
possibility.

Clinical Pearls
The flexor carpi radialis is a very strong tendon, yet it is also
very susceptible to rupture. Coexistent bursitis and arthritis
may contribute to wrist pain and may require additional
treatment with a more localized injection of local anesthetic
and methylprednisolone acetate.
Injection of the flexor carpi radialis tendon is a safe pro-
cedure if careful attention is paid to the clinically relevant
anatomy in the areas to be injected. The use of physical
modalities, including local heat and gentle range-of-motion
exercises, should be introduced several days after the patient
undergoes this injection technique for elbow pain. Vigorous
exercises should be avoided because they would exacerbate
the patients symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs
may be used concurrently with this injection technique.
Chapter 59

TRIGGER WRIST

ICD-9 CODE 727.05 Testing

ICD-10 CODE M65.849
The Clinical Syndrome
Trigger wrist is a rare cause of wrist pain and functional disability
caused by inflammation and swelling of the wrist flexor tendon
apparatus or by tumors or masses affecting the wrist flexor ten-
dons. Commonly, the tendinopathy associated with trigger wrist
is due to compression by the carpal bones, especially the hook of
the hamate bone. Sesamoid bones in this region may also com-
press and cause trauma to the tendons. Trauma is usually the
result of repetitive motion or pressure on the tendon as it passes
over these bony prominences. If the inflammation and swelling
become chronic, the tendon sheath may thicken, resulting in con-
striction. Frequently, nodules develop on the tendon, and they
can often be palpated when the patient flexes and extends the
wrists. Such nodules may catch in the tendon sheath as they pass
under the transverse palmar ligament in a manner analogous to
the more common trigger finger phenomenon, producing a trig-
gering that causes the wrist to catch or lock. Trigger wrist occurs
in patients engaged in repetitive activities such as playing the
drums (Figure 59-1).
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients who present with
trigger wrist to rule out occult bony pathological processes. Based
on the patients clinical presentation, additional testing, including
a complete blood count, uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) of the hand is indicated if joint insta-
bility, mass, tumor, or some other abnormality is suspected. The
injection technique described later serves as both a diagnostic and
therapeutic maneuver. Occasionally, surgical exploration is required
to accurately ascertain the cause of trigger wrist (Figure 59-3).
Differential Diagnosis
The diagnosis of trigger wrist is usually made on clinical grounds.
Arthritis or gout of the carpal or radioulnar joint may accompany
trigger wrist and exacerbate the patients pain. Occult fractures
occasionally confuse the clinical presentation. Trigger finger and
carpal tunnel syndrome frequently coexist with the much less
commonly occurring trigger wrist.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with trigger wrist includes a combination of nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)

Signs and Symptoms

The pain of trigger wrist is localized to the distal wrist and
proximal palm, and tender nodules often can be palpated. The
pain is constant and is made worse with active flexion/exten-
sion of the wrist. Patients note significant stiffness when flexing
the wrists. Sleep disturbance is common, and patients often
awaken to find that the wrist has become locked in a flexed
position.
On physical examination, tenderness and swelling are noted
over the tendon, with maximal point tenderness over the carpal
bones. Many patients with trigger wrist experience a creaking or
snapping sensation with flexion and extension of the wrists. Range
of motion of the wrists may be decreased because of pain, and a
triggering phenomenon may be noted. A catching tendon sign
may be elicited by having the patient flex the affected wrist for
30 seconds and then relax but not unflex the wrist. The exam-
iner then passively extends the affected wrist, and if a locking,
popping, or catching of the tendon is appreciated as the wrist is Figure 59-1 Trigger wrist is the result of repetitive microtrauma from
straightened, the sign is positive (Figure 59-2). repeated flexion and extension of the wrist.

175
176 SECTION 5 Wrist and Hand Pain Syndromes
A is withdrawn into the subcutaneous tissue. The contents of the
B Complications and Pitfalls
Figure 59-2 The catching tendon sign for trigger wrist. A, The patient is
asked to actively flex the affected wrist for 30 seconds. B, The examiner
passively extends the affected wrist while palpating the flexor tendons.
Figure 59-3 Giant cell tumour of the flexor sheath compressing the
median nerve. (From Chalmers RL, Mandalia M, Contreras R, Schreuder F:
Acute trigger wrist and carpal tunnel syndrome due to giant-cell tumour of
the flexor sheath, J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 61:1557, 2008.)
inhibitors and physical therapy. A nighttime splint to protect the
wrists also may help relieve the symptoms. If these treatments fail,
the following injection technique is a reasonable next step.
Injection of trigger wrist is carried out by placing the patient in
the supine position with the arm fully adducted at the patients side
and the dorsal surface of the hand resting on a folded towel. A total
of 2 mL local anesthetic and 40 mg methylprednisolone is drawn
up in a 5-mL sterile syringe. After sterile preparation of the skin
overlying the affected tendon, the carpal bone beneath the tendon
is identified. Using strict aseptic technique, at a point just proximal
to the joint, a 1-inch, 25-gauge needle is inserted at a 45-degree
angle parallel to the affected tendon through the skin and into the
subcutaneous tissue overlying the tendon, with care taken to avoid
the median nerve as it passes under the transverse carpal ligament
and radial nerve and artery. If bone is encountered, the needle
syringe is then gently injected. The tendon sheath should distend as
the injection proceeds. Little resistance to injection should be felt; if
resistance is encountered, the needle is probably in the tendon and
should be withdrawn until the injection can be accomplished with-
out significant resistance. The needle is then removed, and a sterile
pressure dressing and ice pack are applied to the injection site.
Physical modalities, including local heat and gentle range-
of-motion exercises, should be introduced several days after the
patient undergoes injection. Vigorous exercises should be avoided,
because they will exacerbate the patients symptoms.
Surgical treatment should be considered for patients who fail
to respond to the aforementioned treatment modalities.
Failure to adequately treat trigger wrist early in its course can result
in permanent pain and functional disability because of continued
trauma to the tendon and tendon sheath. The major complications
associated with injection are related to trauma to the inflamed
and previously damaged tendon. The tendon may rupture if it is
injected directly, so a needle position outside the tendon should
be confirmed before proceeding with the injection. Further more,
the radial artery and superficial branch of the radial nerve are sus-
ceptible to damage if the needle is placed too far medially. Another
complication of injection is infection, although it should be
exceedingly rare if strict aseptic technique is used, along with uni-
versal precautions to minimize any risk to the operator. The inci-
dence of ecchymosis and hematoma formation can be decreased if
pressure is applied to the injection site immediately after injection.
Approximately 25% of patients report a transient increase in pain
after injection, and they should be warned of this possibility.
Clinical Pearls
The injection technique described is extremely effective in
the treatment of pain secondary to trigger wrist. Coexistent
arthritis or gout may contribute to the patients pain, neces-
sitating additional treatment with more localized injection
of local anesthetic and methylprednisolone. A hand splint
to protect the wrists also may help relieve the symptoms of
trigger wrist. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs can be used
concurrently with the injection technique, although surgi-
cal treatment may ultimately be required to provide perma-
nent relief.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Chalmers RL, Mandalia M, Contreras R, Schreuder F: Acute trigger wrist and
carpal tunnel syndrome due to giant-cell tumour of the flexor sheath, J Plast
Reconstr Aesthet Surg 61:1557, 2008.
Giannikas D, Karabasi A, Dimakopoulos P: Trigger wrist, J Hand Surg Br 32:
214216, 2007.
Pople IK: Trigger wrist due to idiopathic synovial hypertrophy, J Hand Surg Br
11:453454, 1986.
Ragheb D, Stanley A, Gentili A, Hughes T, Chung CB: MR imaging of the wrist
tendons: normal anatomy and commonly encountered pathology, Eur J Radiol
56:296306, 2005.
59 Trigger Wrist 177
Sonoda H, Takasita M, Taira H, Higashi T, Tsumura H: Carpal tunnel syndrome
and trigger wrist caused by a lipoma arising from flexor tenosynovium: a case
report, J Hand Surg Am 27:10561058, 2002.
Waldman SD: Trigger finger. Atlas of pain management injection techniques, 2nd
ed, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders, pp 244247.
Waldman SD: Painful conditions of the wrist and hand. Physical diagnosis of pain:
an atlas of signs and symptoms, 2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2010, Saunders, pp 153159.
SECTION 6 Thoracic Pain Syndromes

Chapter 60

DEVILS GRIP

in the differential diagnosis. Based on the patients clinical

ICD-9 CODE 074.1 presentation, additional tests, including complete blood cell
count, sedimentation rate, and throat cultures for Streptococcus
spp, may be indicated. Computed tomography (CT) scan of
ICD-10 CODE R07.81 the thoracic contents is indicated if occult mass or empyema is
suspected.

The Clinical Syndrome

Devils grip is an uncommon cause of chest pain. Also known as
Bornholm disease, the grip of the phantom, dry pleurisy, and Sylvests
disease, devils grip is caused by acute infection with coxsackievi-
rus. This virus is transmitted via the fecaloral route and is highly
contagious, owing to a long period of viral shedding of 6 weeks. In
some patients, their immune system limits the infection to a mild
fever or flulike illness called summer fever. In others, a full-fledged
infection with resultant pleurodynia and cough develops.
Devils grip has a seasonal variation in occurrence, with 90%
of cases occurring in the summer and fall, with August being
the peak month. No gender predilection is seen, but the disease
occurs more commonly in young adults and occasionally in chil-
dren. The pain is severe and described as sharp or pleuritic. The
pain occurs in paroxysms that can last 30 minutes.

Signs and Symptoms

Physical examination of a patient with devils grip reveals a patient
who appears acutely ill (Figure 60-1). Pallor and fever are invari-
ably present, as is tachycardia. Patients may report of malaise, sore
throat, and arthralgia, which may confuse the clinical picture.
Examination of the chest wall reveals minimal physical findings,
although a friction rub is sometimes present. During the parox-
ysms of pain, the patient suffering from devils grip attempts to
splint or protect the affected area. Deep inspiration or movement
of the chest wall markedly increases the pain of devils grip.

Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with pain thought
to be the result of infection with coxsackievirus to rule out
occult chest wall pathology, pulmonary tumors, pneumonia, or
empyema (Figure 60-2). Ventilation/perfusion studies of the
lungs are indicated if pulmonary embolism is being considered Figure 60-1 Deep inspiration markedly increases the pain of devils grip.

178
 60 Devils Grip 179

*
*

*
B

C E
Figure 60-2 A, This patient presented with a right upper lobe pneumonia (*) and a pleural effusion (arrow) seen in. B, Chest computed tomography
shows the effusion (*) that appears to be free-flowing as it is dependent. C, An ultrasound shows multiple septations in the pleural fluid (arrows). D,
Radiograph after image-guided insertion of a small-bore chest tube and fibrinolytic therapy. The empyema is nearly resolved, with persistent pneu-
monia (*) causing persistent fevers. E, Minimal residual pleural thickening (arrow) seen after removal of the chest tube and completion of antibiotics.
(From Hogan MJ, Coley BD: Interventional radiology treatment of empyema and lung abscesses, Paediatr Respir Rev 9:7784, 2008.)

As mentioned earlier, the pain of devils grip is often mis-

Differential Diagnosis
As is the case with costochondritis, costosternal joint pain, Tie-
tzes syndrome, and rib fractures, many patients with devils
grip first seek medical attention because they believe they are
having a heart attack. If the area innervated by the subcostal
nerve is involved, patients may believe they have gallbladder
disease. Statistically, children with devils grip have abdominal
pain more often than do adults, and such pain may be attrib-
uted to appendicitis, leading to unnecessary surgery. In con-
tradistinction to most other causes of pain involving the chest
wall, which are musculoskeletal or neuropathic, the pain of
devils grip is infectious. The constitutional symptoms associ-
ated with devils grip may lead the clinician to consider pneu-
monia, empyema, and occasionally pulmonary embolus as the
most likely diagnosis.
taken for pain of cardiac or gallbladder origin and can lead to
visits to the emergency department and unnecessary cardiac
and gastrointestinal workups. If trauma has occurred, devils
grip may coexist with fractured ribs or fractures of the sternum
itself, which can be missed on plain radiographs and may require
radionucleotide bone scanning for proper identification. Tietzes
syndrome, which is painful enlargement of the upper costochon-
dral cartilage associated with viral infection, can be confused
with devils grip.
Neuropathic pain involving the chest wall also may be confused
or coexist with costosternal syndrome. Examples of such neuro-
pathic pain include diabetic polyneuropathies and acute herpes
zoster involving the thoracic nerves. The possibility of diseases of
the structures of the mediastinum is ever present, and such disease
sometimes can be difficult to diagnose. Pathological processes that
180 SECTION 6 Thoracic Pain Syndromes
Intercostal a.
Rib
Figure 60-3 Injection technique to relieve the pain of devils grip. a, Artery; n, nerve; v, vertebra.
inflame the pleura, such as pulmonary embolus, infection, and
tumor, also need to be considered.
Treatment
Initial treatment of devils grip should include a combination
of simple analgesics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors. If these med-
ications do not control the patients symptoms adequately, opioid
analgesics may be added during the period of acute pain. Local
application of heat and cold also may be beneficial to provide
symptomatic relief of the pain of devils grip. The use of an elastic
rib belt may help provide symptomatic relief in some patients.
For patients who do not respond to the aforementioned treat-
ment modalities, the following injection technique using a local
anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step. The patient
is placed in the prone position with the patients arms hanging
loosely off the side of the cart. Alternatively, this block can be
done with the patient in the sitting or lateral position. The rib
Intercostal n. Intercostal v.
to be blocked is identified by palpating its path at the posterior
axillary line. The index and middle fingers are placed on the rib,
bracketing the site of needle insertion. The skin is prepared with
antiseptic solution. A 22-gauge, 112-inch needle is attached to a
12-mL syringe and is advanced perpendicular to the skin, aim-
ing for the middle of the rib between the index and middle fin-
gers. The needle should impinge on bone after being advanced
approximately 34 inch. After bony contact is made, the needle is
withdrawn into the subcutaneous tissues and the skin and subcu-
taneous tissues are retracted with the palpating fingers inferiorly;
this allows the needle to be walked off the inferior margin of the
rib. As soon as bony contact is lost, the needle is slowly advanced
approximately 2 mm deeper; this places the needle in proximity
to the costal groove, which contains the intercostal nerve and the
intercostal artery and vein (Figure 60-3). After careful aspiration
reveals no blood or air, 3 to 5 mL of 1% preservative-free lidocaine
is injected. If the pain has an inflammatory component, the local
anesthetic is combined with 80 mg of methylprednisolone and
is injected in incremental doses. Subsequent daily nerve blocks

are done in a similar manner, substituting 40 mg of methylpred-
nisolone for the initial 80-mg dose. Because of the overlapping
innervation of the chest and upper abdominal wall, the intercos-
tal nerves above and below the nerve suspected of subserving the
painful condition need to be blocked.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major problem in the care of patients believed to have devils
grip is the failure to identify potentially serious pathological con-
ditions of the thorax or upper abdomen. Given the proximity of
the pleural space, pneumothorax after intercostal nerve block is
a distinct possibility. The incidence of the complication is less
than 1%, but it occurs with greater frequency in patients with
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Because of the proximity
to the intercostal nerve and artery, the clinician should calculate
carefully the total milligram dosage of local anesthetic adminis-
tered, because vascular uptake by these vessels is high. Although
uncommon, infection is an ever-present possibility, especially in
an immunocompromised patient with cancer. Early detection of
infection is crucial to avoid potentially life-threatening sequelae.
60 Devils Grip 181
Clinical Pearls
Devils grip is an uncommon cause of chest pain that is
frequently misdiagnosed. Correct diagnosis is necessary to
treat this painful condition properly and to avoid overlook-
ing serious intrathoracic or intra-abdominal pathology.
Intercostal nerve block is a simple technique that can pro-
duce dramatic relief for patients with devils grip. As men-
tioned, the proximity of the intercostal nerve to the pleural
space makes careful attention to technique mandatory.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Connolly JH, ONeill HJ: Bornholm disease associated with coxsackie A9 virus
infection, Lancet 298:1035, 1971.
Cotterill JA: The devils grip, Lancet 301:13081309, 1973.
Ikeda RM, Kondracki SF, Drabkin PD, Birkhead GS, Morse DL: Pleurodynia
among football players at a high school: an outbreak associated with coxsacki-
evirus B1, JAMA 270:22052206, 1993.
Stalkup JR, Chilukuri S: Enterovirus infections: a review of clinical presentation,
diagnosis, and treatment, Dermatol Clin 20:217223, 2002.
Chapter 61
STERNOCLAVICULAR SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 786.59
ICD-10 CODE R07.89
The Clinical Syndrome
With the advent of seat belts that cross the chest, sternoclavicular
syndrome is being seen with greater frequency by clinicians. The
joint is often traumatized during acceleration/deceleration injuries
and blunt trauma to the chest. With severe trauma, the joint may
sublux or dislocate in association with fractures of adjacent struc-
tures. Overuse or misuse also can result in acute inflammation of
the sternoclavicular joint, which can be debilitating. Because the
sternoclavicular joint is a true joint, it is susceptible to the devel-
opment of arthritis, including osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis,
ankylosing spondylitis, Reiters syndrome, infection, and psoriatic
arthritis. The joint also is subject to invasion by tumor from either
primary malignancies, including thymoma, or metastatic disease.
Sternoclavicular
joint
Figure 61-1 Acute protraction or retraction of the shoulder reproduces the pain of sternoclavicular syndrome.
182
Pain emanating from the sternoclavicular joint often mimics the
pain of cardiac origin.
Signs and Symptoms
On physical examination, obvious physical deformity may be
present and the patient vigorously attempts to splint the joint by
keeping the shoulders stiffly in neutral position (Figures 61-1 and
61-2). Pain is reproduced with active protraction or retraction
of the shoulder and full elevation of the arm. Shrugging of the
shoulder also may reproduce the pain. The sternoclavicular joint
may be tender to palpation and feel hot and swollen if acutely
inflamed. The patient also may report a clicking sensation with
movement of the joint.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients who have pain
thought to emanate from the sternoclavicular joint to rule out
occult bony pathological processes, including tumor. Based on

A
B
Figure 61-2 A, Anterior view shows anterior dislocation of the right
sternoclavicular joint. B, Superior view shows posterior dislocation of
the acromioclavicular joint. (From Schemitsch LA, Schemitsch EH, McKee
MD: Bipolar clavicle injury: posterior dislocation of the acromioclavicular
joint with anterior dislocation of the sternoclavicular jointa report of two
cases, J Shoulder Elbow Surg 20:e18e22, 2011.)
the patients clinical presentation, additional tests, including com-
plete blood cell count, prostate-specific antigen level, erythrocyte
sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be
indicated. Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) of the joint is indicated if joint instability, tumor,
or infection is suspected (Figure 61-3). Injection of the sterno-
clavicular joint with a local anesthetic, steroid, or both serves as a
diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
As mentioned earlier, the pain of sternoclavicular syndrome is
often mistaken for pain of cardiac origin and can lead to visits
to the emergency department and unnecessary cardiac workups.
If trauma has occurred, sternoclavicular syndrome may coexist
with fractured ribs or fractures of the sternum itself, which can
be missed on plain radiographs and may require radionucleo-
tide bone scanning for proper identification. Tietzes syndrome,
which is painful enlargement of the upper costochondral cartilage
61 Sternoclavicular Syndrome 183
A
B
Figure 61-3 Three-dimensional computed tomography images show
bipolar dislocation of the clavicle. (From Schemitsch LA, Schemitsch EH,
McKee MD: Bipolar clavicle injury: posterior dislocation of the acromiocla-
vicular joint with anterior dislocation of the sternoclavicular jointa report
of two cases, J Shoulder Elbow Surg 20:e18e22, 2011.)
associated with viral infections, can be confused with sternocla-
vicular syndrome.
Neuropathic pain involving the chest wall also may be confused
or coexist with sternoclavicular syndrome. Examples of such neu-
ropathic pain include diabetic polyneuropathies and acute herpes
zoster involving the thoracic nerves. The possibility of diseases of
the structures of the mediastinum is ever present and these diseases
sometimes can be difficult to diagnose. Pathological processes that
inflame the pleura, such as pulmonary embolus, infection, and
Bornholms disease, also should be considered.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated with
sternoclavicular syndrome should include a combination of non-
steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors. Local application of heat and cold also may
be beneficial. The use of an elastic clavicle splint may help pro-
vide symptomatic relief and help protect the sternoclavicular joints
from additional trauma. For patients who do not respond to these
treatment modalities, injection of the sternoclavicular joint using a
local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step.
184 SECTION 6 Thoracic Pain Syndromes

Complications and Pitfalls SUGGESTED READINGS

Because of the many pathological processes that may mimic the
pain of sternoclavicular syndrome, the clinician must be careful
to rule out underlying cardiac disease and diseases of the lung and
structures of the mediastinum. Failure to do so could lead to disas-
trous results. The major complication of this injection technique
is pneumothorax if the needle is placed too laterally or deeply and
invades the pleural space. Infection, although rare, can occur if
strict aseptic technique is not followed. The possibility of trauma
to the contents of the mediastinum remains an ever-present pos-
sibility. This complication can be greatly decreased if the clinician
pays close attention to accurate needle placement.
Bicos J, Nicholson GP: Treatment and results of sternoclavicular joint injuries,
Clin Sports Med 22:359370, 2003.
Crisostomo RA, Laskowski ER, Bond JR, Agerter DC: Septic sternoclavicular
joint: a case report, Arch Physical Med Rehabil 89:884886, 2008.
Puri V, Meyers BF, Kreisel D, etal: Sternoclavicular joint infection: a comparison
of two surgical approaches, Ann Thorac Surg 91:257261, 2011.
Schemitsch LA, Schemitsch EH, McKee MD: Bipolar clavicle injury: posterior
dislocation of the acromioclavicular joint with anterior dislocation of the sterno-
clavicular jointa report of two cases, J Shoulder Elbow Surg 20:e18e22, 2011.

Clinical Pearls
Patients with pain emanating from the sternoclavicular
joint often attribute their pain symptoms to a heart attack.
Reassurance is required, although it should be remem-
bered that this musculoskeletal pain syndrome and coro-
nary artery disease can coexist. Tietzes syndrome, which
is painful enlargement of the upper costochondral cartilage
associated with viral infections, can be confused with ster-
noclavicular syndrome, although both respond to the injec-
tion technique described. The use of physical modalities,
including local heat and gentle range-of-motion exercises,
should be introduced several days after the patient under-
goes this injection technique for sternoclavicular joint pain.
Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they would
exacerbate the patients symptoms. Simple analgesics and
NSAIDs may be used concurrently with this injection tech-
nique. Laboratory evaluation for collagen-vascular disease
is indicated in patients with sternoclavicular joint pain in
whom other joints are involved.
Chapter 62

POSTMASTECTOMY PAIN

ICD-9 CODE 611.71 The clinician should always be alert to the possibility of
metastatic disease or direct extension of tumor into the chest
wall, which may mimic the pain of postmastectomy syndrome.
ICD-10 CODE N64.4 The findings of the targeted history and physical examination
assist the clinician in making an assessment of the sympathetic,
neuropathic, and musculoskeletal components of the pain and
designing a rational treatment plan.
The Clinical Syndrome
Postmastectomy pain syndrome is a constellation of symptoms that Testing
include pain in the anterior chest, breast, axilla, and medial upper
extremity after surgical procedures on the breast. Postmastectomy Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients who present with
pain is a misnomer because the clinical syndrome includes the pain pain thought to be due to postmastectomy syndrome to rule out
mentioned here even if the patient has only a lumpectomy or if occult bony pathology, including tumor. Electromyography helps
another, less extensive surgical procedure is performed on the breast. rule out damage to the intercostobrachial nerve or plexopathy
The pain is often described as constricting, with a continuing dull that may be contributing to the patients pain. Radionucleotide
ache. In addition to these symptoms, many patients with postmas-
tectomy pain syndrome also report sudden paresthesia radiating into
the breast, axilla, or both. In some patients, a burning, allodynic pain
reminiscent of reflex sympathetic dystrophy may be the principal
manifestation. The intensity of postmastectomy pain is moderate
to severe. The onset of postmastectomy pain may be immediately
after surgery and initially be confused with expected postsurgical
pain, or the onset may be more insidious, occurring gradually 2 to 6
weeks after the inciting surgical procedure. If complete mastectomy
is performed, phantom breast pain may confound the diagnosis fur-
ther, as may associated lymphedema. Sleep disturbance is a common
finding in patients with postmastectomy pain.

Signs and Symptoms

Evaluation of a patient with postmastectomy syndrome requires
that the clinician take a careful history designed to delineate the
various components that make up the patients pain to help guide
the physical examination. The clinician should question the
patient specifically about the presence of phantom breast pain,
which may be quite distressing to the patient when superimposed
on the pain of postmastectomy syndrome.
Typical physical findings in patients with postmastectomy syn-
drome include areas of decreased sensation, hyperpathia, and dys-
esthesia in the distribution of the intercostobrachial nerve, which is
a branch of the second intercostal nerve (Figure 62-1). This nerve is
frequently damaged during breast surgery (Figure 62-2). Allodynia
outside the distribution of the intercostobrachial nerve also is often
present. Movement of the arm and axilla often exacerbates the
pain, which leads to splinting and disuse of the affected shoulder
and upper extremity. This disuse often worsens any lymphedema
that is present. If disuse of the upper extremity continues, frozen Figure 62-1 The pain of postmastectomy syndrome is due to damage
shoulder may develop, further complicating the clinical picture. of the intercostobrachial nerve.

185
186 SECTION 6 Thoracic Pain Syndromes
Breast ICBN
AV
LTV
Fibrofatty
tissue
Figure 62-2 Relationship of the intercostobrachial nerve (ICNB), the
lateral thoracic vein (LTV), the axillary vein, and the breast within the
left axilla during mastectomy. (From Ivanovic N, Granic M, Randjelovic
T, Todorovic S: Fragmentation of axillary fibrofatty tissue during dissection
facilitates preservation of the intercostobrachial nerve and the lateral tho-
racic vein, Breast 17:293295, 2008.)
bone scanning may be useful to rule out occult pathological frac-
tures of the ribs, sternum, or both. Based on the patients clini-
cal presentation, additional tests, including complete blood cell
count, prostate-specific antigen level, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Com-
puted tomography (CT) scan of the thoracic contents is indicated
if occult mass is suspected. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
of the brachial plexus also should be considered if plexopathy
secondary to tumor involvement is a consideration.
Differential Diagnosis
As mentioned earlier, the pain of postmastectomy syndrome is
often mistaken for postoperative pain. If the breast surgery was
performed for malignancy, a careful search for metastatic disease
or tumor invasion of the chest wall is mandatory. Postmastectomy
syndrome may coexist with pathological rib fractures or patho-
logical fractures of the sternum itself, which can be missed on
plain radiographs and may require radionucleotide bone scanning
for proper identification.
Neuropathic pain involving the chest wall also may be confused
or coexist with postmastectomy syndrome. Examples of such neu-
ropathic pain include diabetic polyneuropathies and acute herpes
zoster involving the thoracic nerves. The possibility of diseases of
the structures of the mediastinum is ever present, and these diseases
sometimes can be difficult to diagnose. Pathological processes that
inflame the pleura, such as pulmonary embolus, infection, and
Bornholms disease, also may mimic the pain of postmastectomy
syndrome.
Treatment
Initial treatment of postmastectomy syndrome should include a com-
bination of simple analgesics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors. If these
medications do not control the patients symptoms adequately, a
tricyclic antidepressant or gabapentin should be added.
Traditionally, tricyclic antidepressants have been a main-
stay in the palliation of pain secondary to postmastectomy
syndrome. Controlled studies have shown the efficacy of ami-
triptyline for this indication. Other tricyclic antidepressants,
including nortriptyline and desipramine, also have been shown
to be clinically useful. This class of drugs is associated with
significant anticholinergic side effects, however, including dry
mouth, constipation, sedation, and urinary retention. These
drugs should be used with caution in patients with glaucoma,
cardiac arrhythmia, and prostatism. To minimize side effects
and encourage compliance, the primary care physician should
start amitriptyline or nortriptyline at a 10-mg dose at bedtime.
The dose can be titrated to 25 mg at bedtime as side effects
allow. Upward titration of dosage in 25-mg increments can
be done each week as side effects allow. Even at lower doses,
patients generally report a rapid improvement in sleep distur-
bance and begin to experience pain relief in 10 to 14 days. If
the patient does not experience any improvement in pain as the
dose is being titrated upward, the addition of gabapentin alone
or in combination with nerve blocks of the intercostal nerves
with local anesthetics, steroid, or both is recommended. Selec-
tive serotonin reuptake inhibitors, such as fluoxetine, also have
been used to treat the pain of diabetic neuropathy, and although
better tolerated than tricyclic antidepressants, they seem to be
less efficacious.
If the antidepressant compounds are ineffective or contraindi-
cated, gabapentin represents a reasonable alternative. Gabapentin
should be started with a 300-mg dose at bedtime for 2 nights. The
patient should be cautioned about potential side effects, including
dizziness, sedation, confusion, and rash. The drug is increased in
300-mg increments, given in equally divided doses over 2 days,
as side effects allow, until pain relief is obtained or a total dose of
2400 mg daily is reached. At this point, if the patient has experi-
enced partial pain relief, blood values are measured and the drug
is carefully titrated upward using 100-mg tablets. Rarely is more
than 3600 mg daily required.
Local application of heat and cold, as well as topical capsaicin,
also may be beneficial to provide symptomatic relief of the pain
of postmastectomy syndrome. The use of an elastic rib belt may
help provide symptomatic relief. For patients who do not respond
to these treatment modalities, injection of the affected intercostal
nerves or thoracic epidural nerve block using local anesthetic and
steroid may be a reasonable next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major problem in the care of patients thought to have post-
mastectomy syndrome is the failure to identify potentially serious
pathological conditions of the thorax or upper abdomen second-
ary to metastatic disease or invasion of the chest wall and thorax
by tumor. Given the proximity of the pleural space, pneumo-
thorax after intercostal nerve block is a distinct possibility. The
incidence of the complication is less than 1%, but it occurs with
greater frequency in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease. Although uncommon, infection is an ever-present possi-
bility, especially in an immunocompromised patient with cancer.
Early detection of infection is crucial to avoid potentially life-
threatening sequelae.

Clinical Pearls
Postmastectomy syndrome is a cause of chest wall and tho-
racic pain that should not be overlooked in patients after
breast surgery. Correct diagnosis is necessary to treat this
painful condition properly and to avoid overlooking seri-
ous intrathoracic or intra-abdominal pathological processes.
The use of the pharmacological agents mentioned, includ-
ing gabapentin, allows the clinician to control the pain of
postmastectomy syndrome adequately. Intercostal nerve
block is a simple technique that can produce dramatic relief
for patients with postmastectomy syndrome. As mentioned,
the proximity of the intercostal nerve to the pleural space
makes careful attention to technique mandatory.
62 Postmastectomy Pain 187
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bjrkman B, Arnr S, Hydn L-C: Phantom breast and other syndromes after
mastectomy: eight breast cancer patients describe their experiences over time a
2-year follow-up study, J Pain 9:10181025, 2008.
Chang SH, Mehta V, Langford RM: Acute and chronic pain following breast
surgery, Acute Pain 11:114, 2009.
Katz J, Poleshuck EL, Andrus CH, etal: Risk factors for acute pain and its persis-
tence following breast cancer surgery, Pain 119:1625, 2005.
Watson CP, Evans RJ, Watt VR: The post-mastectomy pain syndrome and the
effect of topical capsaicin, Pain 38:177186, 1989.
Chapter 63

STERNALIS SYNDROME

ICD-9 CODE 786.52 and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Computed
tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of
the chest are indicated if a retrosternal mass, such as thymoma,
ICD-10 CODE R07.1 is suspected, as well as to help confirm the presence of a sternalis
muscle or other anterior chest wall mass (Figures 63-2 and 63-3).
Electromyography is indicated in patients with sternalis syndrome
to help rule out cervical radiculopathy or plexopathy that may
The Clinical Syndrome be considered because of the referred arm pain. Injection of the
Chest wall pain syndromes are commonly encountered in clini- sternalis muscle with a local anesthetic and steroid serves as a
cal practice. Some occur with relatively greater frequency and are diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver.
more readily identified by the clinician, such as costochondritis
and Tietzes syndrome. Others occur so infrequently that they are
often misdiagnosed, resulting in suboptimal outcome. Sternalis
Differential Diagnosis
syndrome is one such infrequent cause of anterior chest wall pain. As mentioned earlier, the pain of sternalis syndrome is often
Sternalis is a constellation of symptoms affecting the midline mistaken for pain of cardiac origin and can lead to visits to the
anterior chest wall that can radiate to the retrosternal area and the emergency department and unnecessary cardiac workups. If
medial aspect of the arm. Sternalis syndrome can mimic the pain
of myocardial infarction and is frequently misdiagnosed as such.
Sternalis syndrome is a myofascial pain syndrome and is char-
acterized by trigger points in the midsternal area. In contrast to
costosternal syndrome, which also manifests as midsternal pain,
the pain of sternalis syndrome is not exacerbated by movement Myofascial
of the chest wall and shoulder. The intensity of the pain associ- trigger points
ated with sternalis syndrome is mild to moderate and described as
having a deep, aching character. The pain of sternalis syndrome
is intermittent.

Signs and Symptoms

On physical examination, a patient with sternalis syndrome
exhibits myofascial trigger points at the midline over the ster-
num (Figure 63-1). Occasionally, a coexistent trigger point
is located in the pectoralis muscle or sternal head of the ster-
nocleidomastoid muscle. Pain is reproduced with palpation of
these trigger points, rather than movement of the chest wall and
shoulders. A positive jump sign is present when these trigger
points are stimulated. Trigger points at the lateral border of the
scapula also may be present and amenable to injection therapy.
As mentioned, movement of the shoulders and chest wall does
not exacerbate the pain.

Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients thought to have
sternalis syndrome to rule out occult bony pathological processes,
including metastatic lesions. Based on the patients clinical pre-
sentation, additional tests, including complete blood cell count, Figure 63-1 Patients with sternalis syndrome exhibit myofascial trigger
prostate-specific antigen level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, points at the midline over the sternum.

188

Figure 63-2 Left sternalis muscle is incidentally discovered anterior to
the left pectoralis major muscle in this young adult man. (From Alpert JB,
Naidich DP: Imaging of incidental findings on thoracic computed tomogra-
phy, Radiol Clin North Am 49:267289, 2011.)
trauma has occurred, sternalis syndrome may coexist with frac-
tured ribs or fractures of the sternum itself, which can be missed
on plain radiographs and may require radionucleotide bone scan-
ning for proper identification. Tietzes syndrome, which is painful
enlargement of the upper costochondral cartilage associated with
viral infections, can be confused with sternalis syndrome, as can
costosternal syndrome.
Neuropathic pain involving the chest wall also may be con-
fused or coexist with costosternal syndrome. Examples of such
neuropathic pain include diabetic polyneuropathies and acute
herpes zoster involving the thoracic nerves. The possibility of
diseases of the structures of the mediastinum is ever present, and
these diseases sometimes can be difficult to diagnose. Pathological
processes that inflame the pleura, such as pulmonary embolus,
infection, and tumor, also should be considered.
Treatment
Initial treatment of sternalis syndrome should include a combi-
nation of simple analgesics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors. Local
application of heat and cold also may be beneficial to provide
symptomatic relief of the pain of sternalis syndrome. The use of
an elastic rib belt may help provide symptomatic relief in some
patients. For patients who do not respond to these treatment
modalities, injection of the trigger areas located in the sternalis
muscle using a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable
next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major problem in the care of patients thought to have ster-
nalis syndrome is the failure to identify potentially serious patho-
logical conditions of the thorax, mediastinum, or both. Given the
proximity of the pleural space, pneumothorax after injection of
the sternalis muscle is a possibility, as is injury to the mediasti-
nal and intrathoracic structures. Approximately 25% of patients
report a transient increase in pain after this injection technique
and should be warned about this.
63 Sternalis Syndrome 189
Figure 63-3 Well-encapsulated, fat density lesion associated with the
left serratus anterior muscle is consistent with chest wall lipoma, the
most common benign chest wall neoplasm. (From Alpert JB, Naidich DP:
Imaging of incidental findings on thoracic computed tomography, Radiol
Clin North Am 49:267289, 2011.)
Clinical Pearls
Patients with sternalis syndrome often present to the emer-
gency department fearing they are having a heart attack. The
syndrome also is misdiagnosed frequently as cervical radicu-
lopathy secondary to the referred arm pain. Electromyography
helps delineate the cause and extent of neural compromise.
The injection technique is extremely effective in the treat-
ment of sternalis syndrome. Coexistent costosternal or manu-
briosternal arthritis also may contribute to anterior chest wall
pain and may require additional treatment with a more local-
ized injection of a local anesthetic and depot steroid. This
technique is a safe procedure if careful attention is paid to the
clinically relevant anatomy in the areas to be injected. Pneu-
mothorax can be avoided if shorter needles are used, and the
needle is not advanced too deeply. Care must be taken to
use sterile technique to avoid infection and universal precau-
tions to avoid risk to the operator. The incidence of ecchymo-
sis and hematoma formation can be decreased if pressure is
placed on the injection site immediately after injection. The
use of physical modalities, including local heat and gentle
range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced several days
after the patient undergoes this injection technique for shoul-
der pain. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they
would exacerbate symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs
may be used concurrently with this injection technique.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Alpert JB, Naidich DP: Imaging of incidental findings on thoracic computed
tomography, Radiol Clin North Am 49:267289, 2011.
Baldry P: The chest wall. In Baldry P, editor: Myofascial pain fibromyalgia
syndromes, London, 2001, Churchill Livingstone, pp 303327.
Bennett R: Myofascial pain syndromes and their evaluation, Best Pract Res Clin
Rheumatol 21:427445, 2007.
Baldry PE, Thompson JW, editors: Acupuncture, trigger points and musculoskeletal
pain, ed 3, London, 2005, Churchill Livingstone, pp 165185.
Chapter 64
MANUBRIOSTERNAL JOINT PAIN
ICD-9 CODE 786.52
ICD-10 CODE R07.1
The Clinical Syndrome
The manubriosternal joint can serve as a source of pain that
often may mimic pain of cardiac origin. The manubriosternal
joint is susceptible to the development of arthritis, including
osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, Reit-
ers syndrome, and psoriatic arthritis (Figure 64-1). The joint is
often traumatized during acceleration/deceleration injuries and
blunt trauma to the chest. With severe trauma, the joint may
sublux or dislocate (Figure 64-2). Overuse or misuse can result
in acute inflammation of the manubriosternal joint, which can
be quite debilitating. The joint is subject to invasion by tumor
Figure 64-1 Abnormalities of the manubriosternal joint. Radiographic
abnormalities of the manubriosternal joint are illustrated in this coro-
nal section of the sternum. They include osseous erosions and sclerosis.
Note the irregularity of the costosternal joints (arrow). (From Resnick D,
editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002,
Saunders, p 924.)
190
from primary malignancies, including thymoma, metastatic dis-
ease, and infection.
Signs and Symptoms
On physical examination, the physical deformity of joint sub-
luxation after traumatic injury may be obvious on inspection
(Figure 64-3). The patient vigorously attempts to splint the
joint by keeping the shoulders stiffly in neutral position. Pain is
reproduced by active protraction or retraction of the shoulder,
deep inspiration, and full elevation of the arm. Shrugging of the
shoulder also may reproduce the pain. The manubriosternal joint
may be tender to palpation and feel hot and swollen if acutely
inflamed. The patient may report a clicking sensation with
movement of the joint.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated for all patients who present with
pain thought to be emanating from the manubriosternal joint
to rule out occult bony pathological processes, including tumor.
Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional testing may
be indicated, including complete blood count, prostate-specific
antigen level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear
antibody testing. Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic reso-
nance imaging (MRI) of the joint is indicated if infection, tumor,
or joint instability is suspected (Figure 64-4). Injection of the
manubriosternal joint with local anesthetic and steroid serves as a
diagnostic maneuver and a therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
As mentioned earlier, manubriosternal joint pain is often mis-
taken for cardiac pain. A careful search for metastatic disease or
tumor invasion of the chest wall is mandatory in all patients with
manubriosternal joint pain because this pain may coexist with
pathological rib fractures or pathological fractures of the sternum
itself, which can be missed on plain radiographs and may require
radionucleotide bone scanning for proper identification.
Neuropathic pain involving the chest wall and sternum also
may be confused or coexist with manubriosternal joint pain.
Examples of such neuropathic pain include diabetic polyneuropa-
thies and acute herpes zoster involving the thoracic nerves. The
possibility of diseases of the structures of the mediastinum is ever
present, and these diseases sometimes can be difficult to diagnose.
Pathological processes that inflame the pleura, such as pulmonary
embolus, infection, and Bornholms disease, also may mimic the
pain emanating from the manubriosternal joint.

Figure 64-2 With severe trauma, the manubriosternal joint may sublux or dislocate.
Figure 64-3 Obvious step in manubriosternal joint. (From Lyons I, Saha
S, Arulampalam T: Manubriosternal joint dislocation: an unusual risk of
trampolining, J Emerg Med 39:596598, 2010.)
Treatment
Initial treatment of manubriosternal joint pain should include a
combination of simple analgesics and nonsteroidal anti-inflam-
matory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibi-
tors. If these medications do not control the patients symptoms
adequately, or if considerable sleep disturbance exists, a tricyclic
antidepressant should be added.
Traditionally, tricyclic antidepressants have been a mainstay
in the palliation of sleep disturbance associated with painful
64 Manubriosternal Joint Pain 191
Dislocated
manubriosternal
joint
Figure 64-4 Lateral chest CT scan showing posterior dislocation of the
sternum. (From Lyons I, Saha S, Arulampalam T: Manubriosternal joint dis-
location: an unusual risk of trampolining, J Emerg Med 39:596598, 2010.)
conditions. Controlled studies have shown the efficacy of ami-
triptyline for this indication. Other tricyclic antidepressants,
including nortriptyline and desipramine, also have been shown
to be clinically useful. This class of drugs is associated with
considerable anticholinergic side effects, including dry mouth,
constipation, sedation, and urinary retention. These drugs
should be used with caution in patients with glaucoma, car-
diac arrhythmia, and prostatism. To minimize side effects and
192 SECTION 6 Thoracic Pain Syndromes
encourage compliance, the primary care physician should start
amitriptyline or nortriptyline at a 10-mg dose at bedtime. The
dose can be titrated upward to 25 mg at bedtime as side effects
allow. Upward titration of dosage in 25-mg increments can
be done each week as side effects allow. Even at lower doses,
patients generally report a rapid improvement in sleep dis-
turbance and begin to experience pain relief in 10 to 14 days.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, such as fluoxetine, also
have been used to treat the pain of diabetic neuropathy, and
although better tolerated than tricyclic antidepressants, they
seem to be less efficacious than the tricyclic antidepressants.
Local application of heat and cold may be beneficial to pro-
vide symptomatic relief of the pain of manubriosternal joint pain.
The use of an elastic rib belt may help provide symptomatic relief.
For patients who do not respond to these treatment modalities,
injection of the manubriosternal joint using local anesthetic and
steroid may be a reasonable next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major problem in the care of patients thought to have manu-
briosternal pain is the failure to identify potentially serious pathol-
ogy of the thorax or upper abdomen secondary to metastatic
disease or invasion of the chest wall and thorax by tumor. Given
the proximity of the pleural space, pneumothorax after injection
of the manubriosternal joint is a possibility. The incidence of the
complication is less than 1%, but it occurs with greater frequency
in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Although
uncommon, infection is an ever-present possibility, especially in
an immunocompromised patient with cancer. Early detection of
infection is crucial to avoid potentially life-threatening sequelae.
Clinical Pearls
Patients with pain emanating from the manubriosternal
joint often attribute their pain symptoms to a heart attack.
Reassurance is required, although it should be remembered
that this musculoskeletal pain syndrome and coronary
artery disease can coexist. Care must be taken to use sterile
technique to avoid infection and universal precautions to
avoid risk to the operator. The incidence of ecchymosis and
hematoma formation can be decreased if pressure is placed
on the injection site immediately after injection. The use of
physical modalities, including local heat and gentle range-
of-motion exercises, should be introduced several days after
the patient undergoes this injection technique for manu-
briosternal joint pain. Vigorous exercise should be avoided
because it exacerbates the symptoms. Simple analgesics and
NSAIDs may be used concurrently with this injection tech-
nique. Laboratory evaluation for collagen-vascular disease is
indicated for patients who have manubriosternal joint pain
with other joints involved.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Al-Dahiri A, Pallister I: Arthrodesis for osteoarthritis of the manubriosternal joint,
Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 29:119121, 2006.
Ellis H: The superior mediastinum, Anaesth Intens Care Med 10:360361, 2009.
Lyons I, Saha S, Arulampalam T: Manubriosternal joint dislocation: an unusual
risk of trampolining, J Emerg Med 39:596598, 2010.
Stochkendahl MJ, Christensen HW: Chest pain in focal musculoskeletal disorders,
Med Clin North Am 94:259273, 2010.
Waldman SD: Manubriosternal joint syndrome. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain
review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 247248.
Chapter 65

XIPHODYNIA

ICD-9 CODE 733.90 (MRI) of the joint is indicated if joint instability or an occult mass
is suspected (Figure 65-3). The following injection technique
serves as a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver.
ICD-10 CODE M94.9
Differential Diagnosis
As with costochondritis, costosternal joint pain, devils grip, Tie-
The Clinical Syndrome tzes syndrome, and rib fractures, many patients with xiphodynia
An uncommon cause of anterior chest wall pain, xiphodynia is first seek medical attention because they believe they are having a
often misdiagnosed as pain of cardiac or upper abdominal origin. heart attack. Patients also may believe they have ulcer or gallblad-
Xiphodynia syndrome is a constellation of symptoms consisting der disease. In contrast to most other causes of pain involving
of severe intermittent anterior chest wall pain in the region of the chest wall that are musculoskeletal or neuropathic in origin,
the xiphoid process that worsens with overeating, stooping, and the pain of devils grip results from infection. The constitutional
bending. The patient may report a nauseated feeling associated symptoms associated with devils grip may lead the clinician to
with the pain of xiphodynia syndrome. This xiphisternal joint
seems to serve as the nidus of pain for xiphodynia syndrome.
The xiphisternal joint is often traumatized during acceleration/ Xiphisternal joint
deceleration injuries and blunt trauma to the chest. With severe
trauma, the joint may sublux or dislocate. The xiphisternal joint
also is susceptible to the development of arthritis, including osteo-
arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, Reiters
syndrome, and psoriatic arthritis. The joint is subject to invasion
by tumor from either primary malignancies, including thymoma,
or metastatic disease.

Signs and Symptoms

Physical examination reveals that the pain of xiphodynia syndrome
is reproduced with palpation or traction on the xiphoid. The xiphi-
sternal joint may feel swollen (Figure 65-1). Stooping or bending
may reproduce the pain. Coughing may be difficult, and this may
lead to inadequate pulmonary toilet in patients who have sus-
tained trauma to the anterior chest wall. The xiphisternal joint and
adjacent intercostal muscles also may be tender to palpation. The
patient may report a clicking sensation with movement of the joint.
Furthermore, patients with a prominent xiphoid process on visual
inspection indicating an xiphisternal angle less than 160 degrees
are more prone to the development of xiphodynia (Figure 65-2).

Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with pain thought to
be emanating from the xiphisternal joint to rule out occult bony
pathological conditions, including tumor. Based on the patients
clinical presentation, additional tests, including complete blood
cell count, prostate-specific antigen level, erythrocyte sedimen-
tation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated.
Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging Figure 65-1 The xiphisternal joint is swollen in patients with xiphodynia.

193
194 SECTION 6 Thoracic Pain Syndromes
Figure 65-2 Visible prominence of the xyphoid process. (From Maigne
J-Y, Vareli M, Rousset P, Cornelis P: Xiphodynia and prominence of the
xyphoid process: value of xiphosternal angle measurementthree case
reports, Joint Bone Spine 77:474476, 2010.)
Figure 65-3 The xiphosternal angle was 105 degrees. The curved shape
of the xyphoid process hindered the measurement of the angle. (From
Maigne J-Y, Vareli M, Rousset P, Cornelis P: Xiphodynia and prominence of
the xyphoid process: value of xiphosternal angle measurementthree case
reports, Joint Bone Spine 77:474476, 2010.)
consider pneumonia, empyema, and occasionally pulmonary
embolus as the most likely diagnosis.
Treatment
Initial treatment of xiphodynia should include a combination
of simple analgesics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors. If these
medications do not control the patients symptoms adequately,
opioid analgesics may be added during the period of acute pain.
Local application of heat and cold may be beneficial to provide
symptomatic relief of the pain of xiphodynia. The use of an elastic
rib belt may help provide symptomatic relief in some patients.
For patients who do not respond to these treatment modalities,
the injection of the xiphisternal joint using a local anesthetic and
steroid may be a reasonable next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major problem in the care of patients thought to have xipho-
dynia is the failure to identify potentially serious pathology of the
thorax or upper abdomen. The major complication of injection
of the xiphisternal joint is pneumothorax if the needle is placed
too laterally or deeply and invades the pleural space. Infection,
although rare, can occur if strict aseptic technique is not followed.
Trauma to the contents of the mediastinum is an ever-present
possibility. This complication can be greatly decreased if the
clinician pays close attention to accurate needle placement.
Clinical Pearls
Patients with pain emanating from the xiphisternal joint
often attribute their pain symptoms to a heart attack or
ulcer disease. Reassurance is required, although it should
be remembered that this musculoskeletal pain syndrome,
ulcer disease, and coronary artery disease can coexist. The
xiphoid process articulates with the sternum via the xiphi-
sternal joint. The xiphoid process is a plate of cartilaginous
bone that becomes calcified in early adulthood. The xiphi-
sternal joint is strengthened by ligaments, but it can be sub-
luxed or dislocated by blunt trauma to the anterior chest.
The xiphisternal joint is innervated by the T4-7 intercostal
nerves and the phrenic nerve. It is thought that this innerva-
tion by the phrenic nerve is responsible for the referred pain
associated with xiphodynia syndrome. Tietzes syndrome,
which is painful enlargement of the upper costochondral
cartilage associated with viral infections, can be confused
with xiphisternal syndrome, although both respond to the
injection technique described.
The use of physical modalities, including local heat and
gentle range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced sev-
eral days after the patient undergoes this injection technique
for xiphisternal joint pain. Vigorous exercises should be
avoided because they would exacerbate the patients symp-
toms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may be used concur-
rently with this injection technique. Laboratory evaluation
for collagen-vascular disease is indicated in patients with
xiphisternal joint pain in whom other joints are involved.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Howell J: Xiphodynia: an uncommon cause of exertional chest pain, Am J Emerg
Med 8:176, 1990.
Howell JM: Xiphodynia: a report of three cases, J Emerg Med 10:435438, 1992.
Jelenko C III, Cowan GSM Jr: Perichondritis (Tietzes syndrome) at the xiphisternal
joint: a mimic of severe disease, J Am Coll Emerg Physicians 6:536542, 1977.
Koren W, Shahar A: Xiphodynia masking acute myocardial infarction: a diagnostic
cul-de-sac, Am J Emerg Med 16:177178, 1998.
Stochkendahl MJ, Christensen HW: Chest pain in focal musculoskeletal disorders,
Med Clin North Am 94:259273, 2010.
Chapter 66
SERRATUS ANTERIOR MUSCLE
SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 729.1
ICD-10 CODE M79.7
The Clinical Syndrome
Chest wall pain syndromes are commonly encountered in clini-
cal practice. Some occur with relatively greater frequency and are
more readily identified by the clinician, such as costochondritis
and Tietzes syndrome. Others occur so infrequently that they are
often misdiagnosed, resulting in less-than-optimal outcome. Ser-
ratus anterior muscle syndrome is one such infrequent cause of
anterior chest wall pain. The syndrome is a constellation of symp-
toms consisting of pain overlying the fifth to the seventh ribs in
the midaxillary line, with referred pain that may radiate down the
ispilateral upper extremity into the palmar aspect of the ring and
little finger. Serratus anterior muscle syndrome can mimic the pain
of myocardial infarction and is frequently misdiagnosed as such. It
is a myofascial pain syndrome. The intensity of the pain associated
with serratus anterior muscle syndrome is mild to moderate and is
described as having a deep, aching character. The pain of serratus
anterior muscle syndrome is intermittent.
Signs and Symptoms
On physical examination, the patient with serratus anterior muscle
syndrome will exhibit myofascial trigger points overlying the 5th
to 7th ribs in the midaxillary line, with referred pain that may radi-
ate down the ispilateral upper extremity into the palmar aspect of
the ring and little fingers (Figure 66-1). Pain is reproduced with
palpation of these trigger points rather than with movement of
the chest wall and shoulders. A positive jump sign will be pres-
ent when these trigger points are stimulated. Trigger points at the
lateral border of the scapula may be present and amenable to injec-
tion therapy. As mentioned, movement of the shoulders and chest
wall will not exacerbate the pain.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with suspected
serratus anterior muscle syndrome to rule out occult bony
pathological processes, including metastatic lesions. Based on
the patients clinical presentation, additional testing may be
indicated, including complete blood cell count, prostate-specific
antigen level, sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody test-
ing. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the chest is indicated
if a retrosternal mass such as thymoma is suspected or if trauma
to the serratus anterior muscle itself has occurred (Figure 66-2).
Electromyography is indicated in patients with serratus ante-
rior muscle syndrome to help rule out cervical radiculopathy
or plexopathy that may be considered because of the referred
arm pain. Injection of the serratus anterior muscle with a local
anesthetic and steroid serves as both a diagnostic and therapeutic
maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
As mentioned, the pain of serratus anterior muscle syndrome is
often mistaken for pain of cardiac origin and can lead to visits
to the emergency department and unnecessary cardiac workups.
If trauma has occurred, serratus anterior muscle syndrome may
coexist with fractured ribs or fractures of the sternum itself, which
can be missed on plain radiographs and may require radionucleo-
tide bone scanning for proper identification. Tietzes syndrome,
which is painful enlargement of the upper costochondral cartilage
associated with viral infections, can be confused with sternalis
syndrome, as can costosternal syndrome.
Neuropathic pain involving the chest wall may be confused or
coexist with costosternal syndrome. Examples of such neuropathic
pain include diabetic polyneuropathies and acute herpes zoster
involving the thoracic nerves. The possibility of diseases of the
structures of the mediastinum remains ever present and at times
can be difficult to diagnose. Pathological processes that inflame
the pleura, such as pulmonary embolus, infection, and tumor, also
should be considered.
Treatment
Initial treatment of serratus anterior muscle syndrome should
include a combination of simple analgesics and the nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory agents or the cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)
inhibitors. The local application of heat and cold may be benefi-
cial to provide symptomatic relief of the pain of serratus anterior
muscle syndrome. The use of an elastic rib belt may help provide
symptomatic relief in some patients. For patients who do not
respond to these treatment modalities, injection of the trigger
areas located in the sternalis muscle using a local anesthetic and
steroid may be a reasonable next step.
195
196 SECTION 6 Thoracic Pain Syndromes

Side view

Serratus
anterior m.

Trigger point

Referred pain

Figure 66-1 Serratus anterior muscle syndrome is a constellation of symptoms consisting of anterior chest wall pain that can radiate to the retrosternal
area and the medial aspect of the arm.

Complications and Pitfalls

The major problem in the care of patients thought to have serratus
anterior muscle syndrome is the failure to identify potentially seri-
ous pathological conditions of the thorax or mediastinum. Given
the proximity of the pleural space, pneumothorax after injection
* * of the serratus anterior muscle is a distinct possibility, as is injury
to the mediastinal and intrathoracic structures. Approximately
A B 25% of patients will report a transient increase in pain after this
injection technique and should be warned of this.
Figure 66-2 T2-weighted magnetic resonance image showing the
hematoma (*) in the right chest wall after traumatic avulsion of the
serratus anterior muscle. A, Axial view. B, Coronal view. (From Otoshi
K, Itoh Y, Tsujino A, Hasegawa M, Kikuchi S: Avulsion injury of the serratus
anterior muscle in a high-school underhand pitcher: a case report, J Shoul-
der Elbow Surg 16:e45e47, 2007.)
 66 Serratus Anterior Muscle Syndrome 197

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Bradley LA: Pathophysiology of fibromyalgia, Am J Med 122(Suppl 1):S22S30,
Patients with serratus anterior muscle syndrome will often 2009.
go the emergency department, fearing they are having a Ge H-Y, Nie H, Madeleine P, etal: Contribution of the local and referred pain from
heart attack. The syndrome is also frequently misdiagnosed active myofascial trigger points in fibromyalgia syndrome, Pain 147:233240,
2009.
as a cervical radiculopathy because of the referred arm pain. Son MBF, Sundel RP: Musculoskeletal causes of pediatric chest pain, Pediatr Clin
Electromyography will help delineate the cause and extent North Am 57:13851395, 2010.
of neural compromise. Yurtsever I, Topal U, Yalin R, Adm B, Bayram S: Desmoid tumor of the chest
This injection technique is extremely effective in the wall, Eur J Radiol Extra 46:119121, 2003.
treatment of serratus anterior muscle syndrome. Coexistent
costosternal or manubriosternal arthritis may contribute to
anterior chest wall pain and may require additional treat-
ment with a more localized injection of an anesthetic and
depot steroid. This technique is a safe procedure if care-
ful attention is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy in
the areas to be injected. Pneumothorax can be avoided if
shorter needles are used and the needle is not advanced
too deeply. Care must be taken to use sterile technique to
avoid infection, and universal precautions must be used to
avoid risk to the operator. The incidence of ecchymosis and
hematoma formation can be decreased if pressure is placed
on the injection site immediately after injection. The use of
physical modalities, including local heat and gentle range-
of-motion exercises, should be introduced several days after
the patient undergoes this injection technique for shoulder
pain. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they will
exacerbate the symptoms. Simple analgesics and nonsteroi-
dal anti-inflammatory agents may be used concurrently
with this injection technique.
Chapter 67

SLIPPING RIB SYNDROME

ICD-9 CODE 786.59 imaging (MRI) of the affected ribs and cartilage is indicated if
joint instability or occult mass is suspected. The injection tech-
nique discussed in this chapter serves as a diagnostic and thera-
ICD-10 CODE R07.82 peutic maneuver.

The Clinical Syndrome
Encountered more frequently in clinical practice since the
increased use of across-the-chest seat belts and airbags, slipping
rib syndrome is often misdiagnosed, leading to prolonged suffer-
ing and excessive testing for intra-abdominal and intrathoracic
pathological conditions. Slipping rib syndrome is a constellation
of symptoms consisting of severe knifelike pain emanating from
the lower costal cartilages associated with hypermobility of the
anterior end of the lower costal cartilages. The tenth rib is most
commonly involved, but the eighth and ninth ribs also can be
affected. This syndrome is also known as the rib-tip syndrome.
Slipping rib syndrome is almost always associated with trauma
to the costal cartilage of the lower ribs. These cartilages are often
traumatized during acceleration/deceleration injuries and blunt
trauma to the chest. With severe trauma, the cartilage may sublux
or dislocate from the ribs. Patients with slipping rib syndrome
may report a clicking sensation with movement of the affected
ribs and associated cartilage.
Differential Diagnosis
As mentioned earlier, the pain of slipping rib syndrome is often
mistaken for pain of cardiac or gallbladder origin and can lead
to visits to the emergency department and unnecessary cardiac
and gastrointestinal workups. If trauma has occurred, slipping rib
syndrome may coexist with rib fractures or fractures of the ster-
num, which can be missed on plain radiographs and may require
radionucleotide bone scanning for proper identification. Tietzes
syndrome, which is painful enlargement of the upper costochon-
dral cartilage associated with viral infections, can be confused with
8th rib
9th rib
10th rib

Signs and Symptoms

On physical examination, the patient vigorously attempts to splint
the affected costal cartilage joints by keeping the thoracolumbar
spine slightly flexed (Figure 67-1). Pain is reproduced with pres-
sure on the affected costal cartilage. Patients with slipping rib
syndrome exhibit a positive hooking maneuver test. The hooking
maneuver test is performed by having the patient lie in the supine
position with the abdominal muscles relaxed while the clinician
hooks his or her fingers under the lower rib cage and pulls gently
outward. Pain and a clicking or snapping sensation of the affected
ribs and cartilage indicate a positive test.

Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients who present with
pain thought to be emanating from the lower costal cartilage and
ribs to rule out occult bony pathological processes, including rib
fracture and tumor. Based on the patients clinical presentation,
additional tests, including complete blood cell count, prostate-
specific antigen level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and anti- Figure 67-1 Patients with slipping rib syndrome exhibit pain on hook-
nuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Magnetic resonance ing of the affected costochondral cartilage.

198

slipping rib syndrome, as can devils grip, which is a pleura-based
pain syndrome of infectious origin.
Neuropathic pain involving the chest wall also may be con-
fused or coexist with slipping rib syndrome. Examples of such
neuropathic pain include diabetic polyneuropathies and acute
herpes zoster involving the thoracic nerves. The possibility of dis-
eases of the structures of the mediastinum is ever present, and
these diseases sometimes can be difficult to diagnose. Pathologi-
cal processes that inflame the pleura, such as pulmonary embolus,
infection, and tumor, also should be considered.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with slipping rib syndrome should include a combination of non-
steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. The local application of
heat and cold may be beneficial. The repetitive movements that
incite the syndrome should be avoided. For patients who do not
respond to these treatment modalities, injection of the affected
costochondral cartilages with a local anesthetic and steroid may be
a reasonable next step.
To inject the slipping ribs, the patient is placed in the supine
position, and proper preparation with antiseptic solution of the skin
overlying the affected costal cartilage and rib is done. A sterile syringe
containing 1 mL of 0.25% preservative-free bupivacaine for each
joint to be injected and 40 mg of methylprednisolone is attached to
a 25-gauge, 1-inch needle using strict aseptic technique.
With strict aseptic technique, the distal rib and costal cartilage
are identified. The lower margin of each affected distal rib is iden-
tified and marked with a sterile marker. The needle is carefully
advanced at the point marked through the skin and subcutaneous
tissues until the needle tip impinges on the periosteum of the
underlying rib. The needle is withdrawn back into the subcutane-
ous tissues and walked inferiorly off the inferior rib margin. The
needle should be advanced just beyond the inferior rib margin,
but no farther, or pneumothorax or damage to the abdominal
viscera could result. After careful aspiration to ensure that the
needle tip is not in an intercostal vein or artery, 1 mL of solution
is gently injected. There should be limited resistance to injec-
tion. If significant resistance is encountered, the needle should be
withdrawn slightly until the injection proceeds with only limited
resistance. This procedure is repeated for each affected rib and
associated cartilage. The needle is removed, and a sterile pressure
dressing and ice pack are placed at the injection site.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major problem in the care of patients thought to have slip-
ping rib syndrome is the failure to identify potentially serious
67 Slipping Rib Syndrome 199
pathological conditions of the thorax or upper abdomen. Given
the proximity of the pleural space, pneumothorax after the injec-
tion technique described is a possibility. The incidence of the
complication is less than 1%, but it occurs with greater frequency
in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Because
of the proximity to the intercostal nerve and artery, the clinician
should calculate carefully the total milligram dosage of local anes-
thetic administered, in consideration of the high vascular uptake
via these vessels. Although uncommon, infection is an ever-pres-
ent possibility, especially in an immunocompromised patient with
cancer. Early detection of infection is crucial to avoid potentially
life-threatening sequelae.
Clinical Pearls
Patients with pain from slipping rib syndrome often attri-
bute their pain symptoms to a gallbladder attack or ulcer
disease. Reassurance is required, although it should be
remembered that this musculoskeletal pain syndrome and
intra-abdominal pathological conditions can coexist. Care
must be taken to use sterile technique to avoid infection
and universal precautions to avoid risk to the operator. The
incidence of ecchymosis and hematoma formation can be
decreased if pressure is placed on the injection site immedi-
ately after injection. The use of physical modalities, includ-
ing local heat and gentle range-of-motion exercises, should
be introduced several days after the patient undergoes this
injection technique for slipping rib syndrome. Vigorous
exercises should be avoided because they would exacerbate
the symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may be used
concurrently with this injection technique. Laboratory eval-
uation for collagen-vascular disease is indicated in patients
with costal cartilage pain in whom other joints are involved.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Brunse MH, Stochkendahl MJ, Vach W, etal: Examination of musculoskeletal
chest pain: an inter-observer reliability study, Manual Ther 15:167172, 2010.
Cranfield KAW, Buist RJ, Nandi PR, Baranowski AP: The twelfth rib syndrome,
J Pain Symptom Manage 13:172175, 1997.
Fam AG, Smythe HA: Musculoskeletal chest wall pain, CMAJ 133:379389,
1985.
Stochkendahl MJ, Christensen HW: Chest pain in focal musculoskeletal disorders,
Med Clin North Am 94:259273, 2010.
Verdon F, Herzig L, Burnand B, etal: Chest pain in daily practice: occurrence,
causes and management, Swiss Med Wkly 138:340347, 2008.
Wright JT: Slipping-rib syndrome, Lancet 316:632634, 1980.
Chapter 68
WINGED SCAPULA SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 736.89
ICD-10 CODE M21.80
The Clinical Syndrome
Winged scapula syndrome is an uncommon cause of musculo-
skeletal pain of the shoulder and posterior chest wall. Caused
by paralysis of the serratus anterior muscle, winged scapula
syndrome begins as a painless weakness of the muscle with the
resultant pathognomonic finding of winged scapula. As a result
of dysfunction secondary to paralysis of the muscle, musculoskel-
etal pain often results. Winged scapula syndrome is often initially
misdiagnosed as strain of the shoulder groups and muscles of
the posterior chest wall because the onset of the syndrome often
occurs after heavy exertion, most commonly after carrying heavy
backpacks. The syndrome may coexist with entrapment of the
suprascapular nerve.
Trauma to the long thoracic nerve of Bell is most often respon-
sible for the development of winged scapula syndrome. Arising
from the fifth, sixth, and seventh cervical nerves, the nerve is sus-
ceptible to stretch injuries and direct trauma. The nerve is often
injured during first rib resection for thoracic outlet syndrome.
Injuries to the brachial plexus or cervical roots also may cause
scapular winging, but usually in conjunction with other neuro-
logical findings.
The pain of winged scapula syndrome is aching and is localized
to the muscle mass of the posterior chest wall and scapula. The pain
may radiate into the shoulder and upper arm. The intensity of the
pain of winged scapula syndrome is mild to moderate, but it may
produce significant functional disability, which, if untreated, con-
tinues to exacerbate the musculoskeletal component of the pain.
Signs and Symptoms
Regardless of the mechanism of injury to the long thoracic
nerve of Bell, the common clinical feature of winged scapula
syndrome is paralysis of the scapula resulting from weakness of
the serratus anterior muscle. The pain of winged scapula syn-
drome generally develops after the onset of acute muscle weak-
ness, but it is often erroneously attributed to overuse during
vigorous exercise. On physical examination, the last 30 degrees
of overhead arm extension is lost and the scapular rhythm is
disrupted. By having the patient press the outstretched arms
against a wall, the scapular winging is easily viewed by the clini-
cian observing the patient from behind. The remainder of the
200
patients neurological examination should be within normal
limits (Figure 68-1).
Testing
Owing to the ambiguity and confusion surrounding this clinical
syndrome, testing is important to help confirm the diagnosis of
winged scapula syndrome. Electromyography helps distinguish
isolated damage to the long thoracic nerve of Bell associated
with winged scapula syndrome from brachial plexopathy. Plain
radiographs are indicated in all patients who present with winged
scapula syndrome to rule out occult bony pathological processes.
Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests,
including complete blood cell count, uric acid level, erythrocyte
sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indi-
cated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brachial plexus,
cervical spine, or both is indicated if the patient exhibits other
neurological deficits.
Differential Diagnosis
Lesions of the cervical spinal cord, brachial plexus, and cervical
nerve roots can produce clinical symptoms that include winging
of the scapula. Such lesions also should produce additional neuro-
logical findings that allow the clinician to distinguish these patho-
logical conditions from the isolated neurological findings seen in
winged scapula syndrome. Pathology of the scapula or shoulder
group also may confuse the clinical diagnosis.
Treatment
No specific treatment for winged scapula syndrome exists other than
removal of the cause of nerve entrapment (e.g., heavy backpacks
or tumor compressing a nerve) and use of an orthotic device to
help stabilize the scapula to allow normal shoulder function. Initial
symptomatic relief of the pain and functional disability associated
with winged scapula should include a combination of nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)
inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of heat and cold
also may be beneficial. Repetitive movements or movements that
incite the syndrome should be avoided.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complications associated with winged scapula syn-
drome fall into two categories: (1) damage to the shoulder resulting
from the functional disability associated with the syndrome and (2)
failure to recognize that the cause of winging of the scapula is the
 68 Winged Scapula Syndrome 201

Scapula

Long thoracic
nerve (C5-C7)

Serratus anterior
muscle

Figure 68-1 Scapular winging is best viewed by having the patient push his or her hands against the wall.

result not of an isolated lesion of the long thoracic nerve of Bell but
rather a part of a larger neurological problem.
Clinical Pearls
Winged scapula syndrome is a distinct clinical entity that
is difficult to treat. Early removal of the offending cause
of nerve entrapment should allow rapid recovery of nerve
function with resultant improvement in pain and shoulder
dysfunction. A careful search for other causes of winging of
the scapula should occur before attributing this neurologi-
cal finding to winged scapula syndrome.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Akgun K, Aktas I, Terzi Y: Winged scapula caused by a dorsal scapular nerve
lesion: a case report, Arch Phys Med Rehabil 89:20172020, 2008.
Belville RG, Seupaul RA: Winged scapula in the emergency department: a case
report and review, J Emerg Med 29:279282, 2005.
Nakatsuchi Y, Saitoh S, Hosaka M, Uchiyama S: Long thoracic nerve paralysis
associated with thoracic outlet syndrome, J Shoulder Elbow Surg 3:2833, 1994.
Sherman SC, OConnor M: An unusual cause of shoulder pain: winged scapula,
J Emerg Med 28:329331, 2005.
SECTION 7 Abdominal and Groin Pain Syndromes
Chapter 69
ANTERIOR CUTANEOUS NERVE
ENTRAPMENT
ICD-9 CODE 355.9
ICD-10 CODE G58.9
The Clinical Syndrome
Anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment is an uncommon cause of
anterior abdominal wall pain that is a frequently overlooked clinical
diagnosis. Anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment syndrome is a con-
stellation of symptoms consisting of severe knifelike pain emanating
from the anterior abdominal wall associated with the physical find-
ing of point tenderness over the affected anterior cutaneous nerve.
The pain radiates medially to the linea alba but in almost all cases
does not cross the midline. Anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment
syndrome occurs most commonly in young women. The patient
can often localize the source of pain accurately by pointing to the
spot at which the anterior cutaneous branch of the affected inter-
costal nerve pierces the fascia of the abdominal wall at the lateral
border of the abdominus rectus muscle (Figure 69-1). At this point,
the anterior cutaneous branch of the intercostal nerve turns sharply
in an anterior direction to provide innervation to the anterior wall.
The nerve passes through a firm fibrous ring as it pierces the fascia,
and at this point the nerve becomes subject to entrapment. The
nerve is accompanied through the fascia by an epigastric artery and
vein. The potential exists for small amounts of abdominal fat to
herniate through this fascial ring and become incarcerated, which
results in further entrapment of the nerve. The pain of anterior
cutaneous nerve entrapment is moderate to severe in intensity.
Signs and Symptoms
As mentioned earlier, the patient often can point to the exact
spot that the anterior cutaneous nerve is entrapped. Palpation
of this point often elicits sudden sharp, lancinating pain in the
distribution of the affected anterior cutaneous nerve. Voluntary
contraction of the abdominal muscles puts additional pressure on
the nerve and may elicit the pain. The patient attempts to splint
202
the affected nerve by keeping the thoracolumbar spine slightly
flexed to avoid increasing tension on the abdominal musculature
(Figure 69-2). Having the patient do a sit-up often reproduces
the pain, as does a Valsalva maneuver. Patients with anterior cuta-
neous nerve entrapment will also exhibit a positive Carnetts test
when the patient is asked to tense his or her abdominal muscula-
ture, which is indicative of abdominal wall pain rather than pain
with an intra-abdominal nidus (Figure 69-3).
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with pain thought
to be emanating from the lower costal cartilage and ribs to rule
out occult bony pathological conditions, including rib fracture
and tumor. Radiographic evaluation of the gallbladder is indi-
cated if cholelithiasis is suspected. Based on the patients clini-
cal presentation, additional tests, including complete blood cell
count, rectal examination with stool guaiac, erythrocyte sedi-
mentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indi-
cated. Ultrasonography and computed tomography (CT) scan
of the abdomen are indicated if intra-abdominal pathological
process or occult mass is suspected. Injection of the anterior
cutaneous nerve with or without ultrasound guidance at the
point at which it pierces the fascia serves as a diagnostic and
therapeutic maneuver (Figure 69-4).
Differential Diagnosis
The differential diagnosis of anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment
syndrome should consider ventral hernia, peptic ulcer disease,
cholecystitis, intermittent bowel obstruction, renal calculi,
angina, mesenteric vascular insufficiency, diabetic polyneuropa-
thy, and pneumonia (Table 69-1). Rarely, the collagen-vascular
diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus and polyarteri-
tis nodosa, may cause intermittent abdominal pain; porphyria
also may cause intermittent abdominal pain. Because the pain of
acute herpes zoster may precede the rash by 24 to 72 hours, the
pain may be attributed erroneously to anterior cutaneous nerve
entrapment.
 69 Anterior Cutaneous Nerve Entrapment 203

Linea alba

Rectus
abdominis Entrapped anterior
cutaneous nerve
Transverse
abdominis

Figure 69-1 The course of the anterior cutaneous nerve within the abdominal wall.

Rectus
sheath

Anterior
cutaneous
nerve
Figure 69-2 Patients with anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment often
attempt to splint the affected nerve by keeping the thoracolumbar
spine slightly flexed to avoid increasing tension on the abdominal
musculature.

Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with anterior cutaneous entrapment syndrome should include a
combination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
or the cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical
therapy. Local application of heat and cold may be beneficial.
The repetitive movements that incite the syndrome should be
avoided. For patients who do not respond to these treatment
modalities, injection of the anterior cutaneous nerve at the point
at which the nerve pierces the fascia with a local anesthetic and
steroid may be a reasonable next step. If the symptoms of anterior
cutaneous entrapment syndrome persist, surgical exploration and
decompression of the anterior cutaneous nerve are indicated.
B
Figure 69-3 A, The patient is asked to completely relax the abdominal
muscles and point with one finger to the most painful area. B, The
patient is then asked to maximally tense the abdominal muscles. The
Carnetts test is positive if the localized pain increases at the previously
identified painful area.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complications associated with anterior cutaneous
entrapment syndrome fall into two categories: (1) iatrogenically
induced complications secondary to incorrect diagnosis and (2)
204 SECTION 7 Abdominal and Groin Pain Syndromes

Figure 69-4 Transverse ultrasound image demonstrating the linea alba, rectus muscles, and the skin and subcutaneous tissues.

TABLE 69-1
The Differential Diagnosis of Anterior Cutaneous Nerve Entrapment Syndrome
Differential Diagnosis Investigations and Characteristics
Anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment syndrome Carnetts test, injection of local anesthetics
Thoracic lateral cutaneous nerve entrapment History of previous surgery, clinical examination
Ilioinguinal or iliohypogastric nerve entrapment History of previous groin surgery, clinical examination, injection of local anesthetics
Endometriosis History of cyclic abdominal pain, laparoscopy
Myofascial pain syndrome Clinical examination, myofascial strain
Slipping rib syndrome Hypermobile, luxating eighth to tenth ribs, clinical examination
Diabetic radiculopathy Paraspinal EMG, patient with diabetes mellitus
Abdominal wall tear History of acute pain related to lifting or stretching, athletes
Abdominal wall or rectus sheath hematoma Abdominal ultrasound or CT scan, after laparoscopy, after coughing in anticoagulated
patient
Herpes zoster History and clinical examination, dermatomal
Abdominal wall tumor (lipoma, desmoid, metastasis) History and clinical examination, abdominal CT scan
Spinal nerve irritation Referred pain by thoracic spine pathological condition
Hernia Abdominal ultrasound, clinical examination
Traction symphysitis or pubalgia Athletes, positive findings on MRI or scintigraphy
CT, Computed tomographic; EMG, electromyography; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging.

failure of the clinician to recognize that a hernia coexists with the SUGGESTED READINGS
nerve entrapment until bowel ischemia occurs. Hall MW, Sowden DS, Gravestock H, et al: Abdominal wall tenderness test,
Lancet 7:16061607, 1991.
Kanakarajan S, High K, Nagaraja R: Chronic abdominal wall pain and ultrasound-
Clinical Pearls guided abdominal cutaneous nerve infiltration: a case series, Pain Med 12:
382386, 2011.
Patients with pain from anterior cutaneous nerve entrap- Kuan L-C, Li Y-T, Chen F-M, etal: Efficacy of treating abdominal wall pain by
ment syndrome often attribute their pain symptoms to a local injection, Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol 45:239243, 2006.
gallbladder attack or ulcer disease. Reassurance is required, Srinivasan R, Greenbaum DS: Chronic abdominal wall pain: a frequently overlooked
although it should be remembered that this musculoskeletal problem: practical approach to diagnosis and management, Am J Gastroenterol
97:824830, 2002.
pain syndrome and intra-abdominal pathological conditions
can coexist. The use of physical modalities, including local
heat and gentle range-of-motion exercises, should be intro-
duced several days after the patient undergoes this injec-
tion technique for anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment
syndrome. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because
they would exacerbate the symptoms. Simple analgesics and
NSAIDs may be used concurrently with the aforementioned
injection technique. Radiographic evaluation for intra-
abdominal pathological conditions is indicated in patients
with anterior abdominal pain of unclear origin.
Chapter 70

ACUTE INTERMITTENT PORPHYRIA

ICD-9 CODE 277.1 as may dehydration, calorie restriction, hormonal alterations, and
infection.
ICD-10 CODE E802.9
Testing
Given the usual delay in the diagnosis of acute intermittent por-
The Clinical Syndrome phyria, a considerable amount of testing is done. Most standard
laboratory testing does not point the clinician toward a diagnosis
Acute intermittent porphyria is an uncommon cause of abdominal of acute intermittent porphyria, however. Specifically, liver func-
pain that frequently confounds the diagnostic efforts of even the tion tests are normal. A mild normocytic, normochromic anemia
most astute clinician. The porphyrias are disorders of heme syn- is sometimes present. Freshly passed urine is colorless, but it turns
thesis that can produce a wide range of clinical symptoms. Many a port wine color if exposed to light. Given the low incidence of
different types of porphyrias occur, each of which manifests in a porphyria, qualitative urine screening tests, such as the Watson-
distinct clinical manner that reflects the specific enzyme deficiency Schwartz test, is a reasonable first step in diagnosing porphyria. If
of the heme biosynthetic pathway. The porphyrias can be inher- the qualitative tests are positive, quantitative testing, such as gas
ited or acquired. The main clinical manifestations of the porphyr- chromatographic measurements for aminolevulinic acid, should
ias are neurological dysfunction and the unique clinical finding of be performed.
cutaneous sensitivity to sunlight.
Acute intermittent porphyria is an autosomal dominant trait
with variable clinical expression. The incidence of the gene
responsible for acute intermittent porphyria is thought to be 1 in
100,000 individuals. The disease rarely manifests before puberty.
Acute abdominal pain is usually the first clinical expression of
the disease. As the name implies, the pain of acute intermittent
porphyria is intermittent and colicky. The pain may be localized
to the abdomen or may radiate to the flanks. The patient also
may exhibit neurological symptoms, suggesting dysfunction of the
central and peripheral nervous systems. Port wine urine, which is
characteristic of hepatic porphyrias, including acute intermittent
porphyria, is often seen during acute attacks.

Signs and Symptoms

Although the reports of abdominal pain are often quite impressive
in patients with acute intermittent porphyria, the abdominal exam-
ination is often nondescript (Figure 70-1). Vomiting occasionally
occurs. Tachycardia and autonomic dysfunction, including sweat-
ing, are common, as is labile hypertension. Occasionally, urinary
retention may occur and may confuse the clinical diagnosis, espe-
cially if port wine urine is present. Neurological findings, including
attenuated deep tendon reflexes and decreased distal sensation sug-
gestive of peripheral neuropathy, are often present. Cranial nerve
involvement is less common, but can be severe. Mental distur-
bance ranging from agitation to frank psychosis can occur in one
third of patients with acute intermittent porphyria. The presence
of nervousness and anxiety often makes the care of these patients
difficult. Alcohol, smoking, pregnancy, barbiturates, and oral con- Figure 70-1 Patients with acute intermittent porphyria often report
traceptives may precipitate attacks of acute intermittent porphyria, very severe abdominal pain.

205
206 SECTION 7 Abdominal and Groin Pain Syndromes
Differential Diagnosis
Essentially all causes of acute intermittent abdominal pain must
be included in the differential diagnosis. The clinician needs to
take a detailed history and perform a careful physical examina-
tion to rule out life-threatening causes of acute, intermittent
abdominal pain, such as ischemic bowel, volvulus, and acute
appendicitis. The key distinguishing factor in acute intermittent
porphyria is that the patients report of severe abdominal pain
and the benign abdominal examination do not correlate. Given
the high incidence of psychiatric abnormalities in patients with
acute intermittent porphyria, psychogenic causes of abdominal
pain must be included in the differential diagnosis.
Treatment
Attacks of acute intermittent porphyria can be aborted by the
intravenous administration of large quantities of carbohydrates,
such as glucose. Hematin can be given intravenously and seems to
be well tolerated. Cimetidine, a histamine-2 inhibitor, also may
be useful in ameliorating acute attacks. Avoidance of barbiturates,
anticonvulsants, and alcohol is imperative to avoid exacerbating
the symptoms of acute intermittent porphyria attacks. Care-
ful attention to fluid and electrolyte balance also is important.
Despite careful treatment, fatalities during attacks do occur.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complications surrounding acute intermittent por-
phyria relate to misdiagnosis and failure to correct metabolic
and electrolyte abnormalities during acute attacks. Barbiturates
and anticonvulsants are often erroneously given to control
seizures associated with acute intermittent porphyria, which
worsen the porphyria, creating a vicious negative feedback cycle
that ultimately may kill the patient.
Clinical Pearls
The cause of abdominal pain in acute intermittent por-
phyria is thought to be the result of intermittent autonomic
dysfunction causing abnormal gut motility with alternating
spasm and obstruction. The incidence of psychiatric abnor-
malities in patients with acute intermittent porphyria often
confounds the clinician and complicates treatment. It has
been said that to make a diagnosis, the clinician must think
of it first. Nowhere is this statement more true than in the
case of acute intermittent porphyria.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Crimlisk HL: The little imitator: porphyriaa neuropsychiatric disorder, J Neurol
Neurosurg Psychiatry 62:319328, 1997.
Herrick AL, McColl KEL: Acute intermittent porphyria, Best Pract Res Clin
Gastroenterol 19:235249, 2005.
Kuo H-C, Lee M-J, Chuang W-L, Huang C-C: Acute intermittent porphyria with
peripheral neuropathy: a follow-up study after hematin treatment, J Neurol Sci
260:231235, 2007.
Peters TJ, Deacon AC: International air travel: a risk factor for attacks in acute
intermittent porphyria, Clin Chim Acta 335:5963, 2003.
Shen FC, Hsieh CH, Huang CR: Acute intermittent porphyria presenting as acute
pancreatitis and posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome, Acta Neurol
Taiwan 17:177183, 2008.
Chapter 71
RADIATION ENTERITIS
ICD-9 CODE 558.1
ICD-10 CODE K52.0
The Clinical Syndrome
As cancer patients live longer, clinicians are being called on
with greater frequency to manage the side effects and compli-
cations of cancer therapy. One such complication is radiation
enteritis. This complication of radiation therapy can occur after
radiation to the abdomen or pelvis. Early symptoms of radiation
enteritis are due to mucosal edema and ulceration and include
abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and a sensation of needing
to move the bowels, tenesmus, or both. Late symptoms that
are more related to radiation-induced scarring and narrowing
of the bowel include small-caliber stools, rectal burning, and
mucoid stools. The intensity of pain is mild to moderate and
cramping. The onset of the early symptoms of radiation enteri-
tis can begin within 1 week to 10 days after the completion
of radiation therapy, and the late symptoms can occur months
to years later. A variety of factors can predispose the patient
to the development of radiation enteritis, including preexisting
systemic disease such as diabetes and treatment-related factors
(Table 71-1).
Signs and Symptoms
Physical examination of a patient with radiation enteritis reveals
diffuse abdominal tenderness and hyperactive bowel sounds. Mild
abdominal distention may be present. Signs of acute peritoneal
irritation suggestive of perforated viscus, such as rebound tender-
ness, are absent. The patient may exhibit frequent mucoid stools,
diarrhea, and vomiting. The patient appears systemically ill, but
not septic (Figure 71-1).
Testing
Colonoscopy provides definitive evidence of radiation enteritis,
while helping to exclude other causes of abdominal pain that may
mimic this clinical syndrome. Based on the patients clinical pre-
sentation, additional tests, including complete blood cell count,
erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and stool and blood cultures for
infectious enteritis, may be indicated. Computed tomography
(CT) of the abdomen with oral and intravenous contrast mate-
rial is indicated if occult mass or abscess is suspected. Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) of the abdomen also helps confirm the
diagnosis of radiation enteritis (Figure 71-2).
Differential Diagnosis
A history of previous radiation therapy is necessary to consider the
diagnosis of radiation enteritis. The very problem that necessitated
radiation therapy in the first placemalignancy can recur, how-
ever, and produce clinical symptoms indistinguishable from those
of radiation enteritis. Given the immunocompromised state of
most patients who have received radiation therapy, the possibility
of infectious enteritis or intra-abdominal abscess always must be
included in the differential diagnosis. Other causes of abdominal
pain, including diverticulitis, bowel obstruction, and appendicitis,
also may occur in conjunction with radiation enteritis.
Treatment
Symptom management is the primary thrust of the treatment of
radiation enteritis. Careful attention to the patients fluid and
metabolic status during the acute phases of the disease is crucial to
avoid complications. Psyllium helps the patient with diarrhea and
with mucoid stools and may decrease the sensations of needing to
move the bowels frequently. Anticholinergics such as dicyclomine
and antiperistaltics such as loperamide can help decrease diarrhea.
Zinc oxide ointment and sitz baths with aluminum acetate soaks
help with the symptoms of tenesmus and rectal pain. Steroid and
sucralfate enemas also have been reported to provide symptomatic
relief in difficult cases of radiation enteritis.
Complications and Pitfalls
The potential for complications after radiation therapy is high.
Spontaneous bowel perforation, stenosis, fistula formation, bleeding,
and malabsorption occur with sufficient frequency to complicate the
management of this painful condition. As mentioned, the potential
for recurrence of tumor and infectious complications is ever present.
TABLE 71-1
Risk Factors Associated with Chronic Radiation Enteritis
Patient Factors Treatment Factors
Reduced body mass index Volume of small bowel in radio-
therapy field
Comorbidities (e.g., diabetes Radiotherapy dose and
mellitus, hypertension, fractionation
inflammatory bowel disease)
Smoking Radiotherapy technique
Previous intestinal surgery Concomitant chemotherapy use
Modified from Theis VS, Sripadam R, Ramani V, etal: Chronic radiation enteritis,
Clin Oncol 2:7083, 2010.
207
208 SECTION 7 Abdominal and Groin Pain Syndromes

Clinical Pearls
Treatment of the symptoms associated with radiation enter-
itis should be part of the overall management of a patient
with cancer. The recognition and treatment of symptoms
other than pain are often delayed while the clinician focuses
on pain control, further compounding the patients suffer-
ing. Vigilance for life-threatening complications of radia-
tion enteritis, including bowel perforation, is mandatory to
avoid disaster.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Andreyev HJ: Gastrointestinal problems after pelvic radiotherapy: the past, the
present and the future, Clin Oncol 1979019799, 2007.
Chon BH, Loeffler JS: The effect of nonmalignant systemic disease on tolerance to
radiation therapy, Oncologist 7:136143, 2002.
Theis VS, Sripadam R, Ramani V, Lal S: Chronic radiation enteritis, Clin Oncol
22:7083, 2010.
Waddell BE, Rodriguez-Bigas MA, Lee RJ, Weber TK, Petrelli NJ: Prevention of
chronic radiation enteritis, J Am Coll Surg 189:611624, 1999.

Figure 71-1 Patients with radiation enteritis typically exhibit diffuse

abdominal tenderness, hyperactive bowel sounds, and mild abdominal
distention, with frequent mucoid stools, diarrhea, and vomiting. They
appear systemically ill, but are not septic.

Figure 71-2 Radiation enteritis. Gadolinium-enhanced spoiled gradient

echo image after pelvic radiation shows segmental mural thickening
and enhancement (arrows) representing evidence of radiation enteritis.
(From Edelman RR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB, etal, editors: Clinical mag-
netic resonance imaging, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 2701.)
Chapter 72

LIVER PAIN

of peritoneal irritation over the right upper quadrant. A friction

ICD-9 CODE 573.8 rub is often present with auscultation over the liver. The liver may
be extremely tender to palpation. Primary tumor or metastatic
disease or both may be present.
ICD-10 CODE K76.8
Testing
Testing for patients with liver pain should be aimed at identifying
The Clinical Syndrome the primary source of liver disease responsible for the pain and ruling
Liver pain is a common clinical occurrence, but it is often poorly out other pathological processes that may be responsible for the pain.
diagnosed and treated. The liver can serve as a source of pain in and Plain radiographs of the chest and abdomen, including an upright
of itself through the sympathetic nervous system and via referred abdominal film, are indicated in all patients with pain thought to be
pain secondary to peritoneal irritation through the intercostal and emanating from the liver. Radiographs of the ribs are indicated to
subcostal nerves. Pain that emanates from the liver itself tends to
be ill defined and may be referred primarily to the epigastrium. It
is dull and aching and is mild to moderate in severity. The pain
can be related to swelling of the liver and concomitant stretching
of the liver capsule or distention of the veins, as is seen with portal
obstruction. This pain is carried via sympathetic fibers from the
celiac ganglion that enter the liver along with the hepatic artery and
vein. This type of liver pain responds poorly to adjuvant analgesics.
Occasionally, hepatic enlargement causes diaphragmatic irritation,
which produces pain that is referred to the ipsilateral supraclavicular Clavicle
and shoulder region. This referred pain is known as Kehrs sign and
is transmitted via the phrenic nerve and is often misdiagnosed.
Referred liver pain is caused by mechanical irritation and
inflammation of the inferior pleura and peritoneum. This pain is
somatic and carried primarily by the lower intercostal and subcostal
nerves. This somatic pain is sharp and pleuritic and is moderate to
severe in intensity. It responds more favorably to nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and opioid analgesics in contrast to
sympathetically mediated liver pain.

Signs and Symptoms

The clinical presentation of liver pain is directly related to whether
the pain is mediated via the sympathetic or somatic nervous sys-
tem or both. In patients with sympathetically mediated pain, the Liver
abdominal examination may reveal hepatomegaly with tenderness
to palpation of the liver. Primary tumor or metastatic disease also
may be identified. The remainder of the abdominal examination
is nondescript. Auscultation over the liver fails to reveal a friction
rub in most cases. As mentioned, the patient may report ill-defined
pain in the supraclavicular region (Figure 72-1).
Patients with somatically mediated liver pain present in an
entirely different manner. The patient often splints the right lower
chest wall and abdomen and takes small, short breaths to avoid
exacerbating the pain. The patient may avoid coughing because of
the pain and accumulated upper airway secretions, and atelectasis Figure 72-1 Patients with liver pain may report ill-defined pain in the
may be a problem. The abdominal examination may reveal signs supraclavicular region.

209
210 SECTION 7 Abdominal and Groin Pain Syndromes
rule out occult bony pathological conditions, including tumor. Based
on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests, including
complete blood cell count, automated chemistries, liver function test,
erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may
be indicated. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) of the lower thoracic contents and abdomen are
indicated in most patients with liver pain to rule out occult pulmo-
nary and intra-abdominal pathological processes, including cancer of
the gallbladder and pancreas (Figures 72-2 and 72-3). Differential
neural blockade on an anatomical basis can serve as a diagnostic and
therapeutic maneuver (see discussion of treatment).
Differential Diagnosis
Pain of hepatic origin must be taken seriously. It is often the result
of an underlying serious disease, such as biliary malignancy, portal
Figure 72-2 Gallbladder carcinoma (small arrows) manifesting as thicken-
ing of the gallbladder wall with a gallstone (large arrow) and metastasis to
lymph nodes (n). (From Haaga JR, Lanzieri CF, Sartoris UJ, etal: Computed
tomography and magnetic resonance imaging of the whole body, 3rd ed,
St Louis, 1994, Mosby, p 1359.)
Figure 72-3 Axial precontrast T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging
shows numerous bright metastases within the liver and vertebral body.
(From Edelman RR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB, etal, editors: Clinical magnetic
resonance imaging, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 2572.)
hypertension, or hepatic metastatic disease. Pain emanating from
the liver is often mistaken for pain of cardiac or gallbladder origin
and can lead to visits to the emergency department and unneces-
sary cardiac and gastrointestinal workups. If trauma has occurred,
liver pain may coexist with rib fractures or fractures of the sternum
itself that can be missed on plain radiographs and may require
radionucleotide bone scanning for proper identification.
Neuropathic pain involving the chest wall may be confused or
coexist with liver pain. Examples of neuropathic pain include dia-
betic polyneuropathies and acute herpes zoster involving the lower
thoracic and upper lumbar nerves. The possibility of diseases of the
structures of the inferior mediastinum and retroperitoneum is ever
present, and these diseases sometimes can be difficult to diagnose.
Pathological processes that inflame the pleura, such as pulmonary
embolus, infection, and Bornholms disease, may mimic or coexist
with pain of hepatic origin.
Treatment
Initial treatment of liver pain should include a combination of sim-
ple analgesics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors. If these medications do
not control the patients symptoms adequately, an opioid analgesic
may be added. Local application of heat and cold may be beneficial
to provide symptomatic relief of liver pain. The use of an elastic rib
belt over the liver may help provide symptomatic relief.
For patients who do not respond to these treatment modalities,
an intercostal nerve block using a local anesthetic and steroid may
be a reasonable next step. If the pain is thought to be sympatheti-
cally mediated, a celiac plexus block is a reasonable next step. This
technique provides diagnostic and therapeutic benefit. If the pain
is thought to be somatic, intercostal nerve blocks should be the
next step. Pain of hepatic origin may be somatic and sympathetic
and require celiac plexus and intercostal nerve block for complete
control.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major problem in the care of patients thought to have liver
pain is the failure to identify potentially serious pathological pro-
cesses of the thorax or upper abdomen. Given the proximity of
the pleural space, pneumothorax after intercostal nerve block is a
possibility. The incidence of the complication is less than 1%, but
it occurs with greater frequency in patients with chronic obstruc-
tive pulmonary disease. Although uncommon, infection, includ-
ing liver abscess, remains an ever-present possibility, especially in
an immunocompromised patient with cancer. Early detection of
infection is crucial to avoid potentially life-threatening sequelae.
Clinical Pearls
Liver pain is often poorly diagnosed and treated. Correct
diagnosis of the cause of liver pain and the nerves subserving
the pain is necessary to treat this painful condition prop-
erly and to avoid overlooking serious intrathoracic or intra-
abdominal pathological processes. Intercostal nerve block
is a simple technique that can produce dramatic relief for
patients with liver pain thought to be somatically mediated.
Celiac plexus block is technically more demanding and
should be performed only by clinicians well versed in the
technique and potential complications.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Goodman CC: Screening for medical problems in patients with upper extremity
signs and symptoms, J Hand Ther 23:105126, 2010.
Hansen L, Sasaki A, Zucker B: End-stage liver disease: challenges and practice
implications, Nurs Clin North Am 45:411426, 2010.
Khoury GF, Stein C, Ramming KP: Neck and shoulder pain associated with
hepatic arterial chemotherapy using an implantable infusion pump, Pain
32:275277, 1988.
72 Liver Pain 211
Tsunekawa K, Matsuda R, Ohgushi N, Ogasawara A: Ohnishi: Basic problems of
the pain from the gallbladder and liver, Pain 30(Suppl 1):S24, 1987.
Waldman SW, Feldstein GS, Donohoe CD, Waldman KA: The relief of body
wall pain secondary to malignant hepatic metastases by intercostal nerve block
with bupivacaine and methylprednisolone, J Pain Symptom Manage 3:3943,
1988.
Chapter 73

ABDOMINAL ANGINA

ICD-9 CODE 557.1 vasculitis, a collagen-vascular workup is indicated in all patients

with abdominal angina. Computed tomography (CT) of the abdo-
men with oral and intravenous contrast material is indicated if an
ICD-10 CODE K55.1

The Clinical Syndrome

Abdominal angina is an uncommon cause of intermittent
abdominal pain. Patients with abdominal angina report severe
cramping abdominal pain that begins 15 to 30 minutes after
eating (Figure 73-1). This postprandial pain persists for 2 to 3
hours. Additional ingestion of food aggravates the patients pain,
forcing the patient to stop eating. Weight loss is common. As
the disease progresses, malabsorption and diarrhea occur as a
result of mucosal and mural injury, which further exacerbates the
patients weight loss.
The cause of abdominal angina is arterial vascular insufficiency.
The term angina is used because the pain occurs only after eating,
when the insufficient fixed arterial supply is unable to meet the
increased demands needed to support digestion. The most com-
mon cause of abdominal angina is stenosis of the celiac artery with
inadequate collateralization. Aneurysms of the superior mesenteric
artery, the vasculitides, fibromuscular hyperplasia, and tumor
encroachment on the celiac artery also have been implicated as
causes of abdominal angina.

Signs and Symptoms

Physical examination of a patient with abdominal angina reveals
diffuse abdominal tenderness. Mild abdominal distention may be
present. Signs of acute peritoneal irritation suggestive of perfo-
rated viscus, such as rebound tenderness, are absent. The patient
15 to 30 minutes
may exhibit frequent defecation of mucoid stools, diarrhea, and after eating
vomiting. The patient appears systemically ill, but not septic.

Testing
The diagnosis of abdominal angina is based on clinical history.
Angiography of the celiac artery provides proof of vascular insuf-
ficiency and often identifies the cause of the problem. Barium
enema shows the classic finding of thumbprinting that is strongly
suggestive of mucosal ischemia (Figure 73-2). Colonoscopy reveals
localized hemorrhage and ulceration of the affected mucosa. Based
on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests, including
complete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and Figure 73-1 Abdominal angina is an uncommon cause of intermittent
stool and blood cultures for infectious enteritis, may be indicated. abdominal pain. Patients with abdominal angina report severe cramping
Given the possibility that the patients abdominal angina is due to abdominal pain that begins 15 to 30 minutes after eating.

212

Figure 73-2 Thumbprinting in acute ischemic colitis at the splenic flex-
ure. (From Grainger RG, Allison D: Grainger and Allisons diagnostic radi-
ology: a textbook of medical imaging, 3rd ed, New York, 1997, Churchill
Livingstone, p 1036.)
Figure 73-3 Severe chronic mesenteric ischemia secondary to superior
mesenteric artery occlusion and a high-grade celiac stenosis (arrow)
depicted by contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance angiography (left).
Anterior projection shows a large inferior mesenteric artery (arrow) that
supplies the entire abdomen via large mesenteric and retroperitoneal
collaterals (right). (From Edelman RR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB, etal, edi-
tors: Clinical magnetic resonance imaging, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2006,
Saunders, p 805.)
occult mass or abscess is suspected. Magnetic resonance angiogra-
phy (MRA) of the celiac and mesenteric vessels also can help clarify
the diagnosis and aid in planning a treatment strategy, as can ultra-
sonogrpahic and Doppler flow studies (Figures 73-3 and 73-4).
Differential Diagnosis
Any disease process that can produce ischemic bowel can mimic
the pain of abdominal angina. The vasculitides, including polyar-
teritis nodosum and Henoch-Schnlein purpura, also can cause
the symptoms of abdominal angina. Embolic disease that may
cause occlusion of the vascular supply to the gut also should be
considered. The possibility of infectious enteritis always must be
73 Abdominal Angina 213
B
Figure 73-4 Ischaemic colitis. A, Longitudinal view shows thickened
descending colon with absence of blood flow. The mural stratification is
maintained. B, Transverse view shows diffuse, poorly reflective thicken-
ing (arrow), loss of the mural stratification and absence of blood flow.
Focal area of pneumatosis is seen (arrow) with edema of the paracolic
fat and ascites (arrowhead). (From Allen PL, Baxter GM, Weston MJ: Clini-
cal ultrasound, vol 1, ed 3, New York, 2011, Churchill Livingstone, p 402.)
included in the differential diagnosis. Other causes of abdominal
pain, including diverticulitis, bowel obstruction, and appendicitis,
may occur in conjunction with abdominal angina.
Treatment
The only definitive treatment of abdominal angina is correction
of the arterial insufficiency via either angioplasty or surgical revas-
cularization. Careful attention to the patients fluid and metabolic
status is crucial to avoid complications. Anticholinergics such
as dicyclomine and antiperistaltics such as loperamide can help
decrease diarrhea. Small, frequent feedings also may help palliate
the postprandial pain.
Complications and Pitfalls
The potential for complications in patients with abdominal
angina is high. Spontaneous bowel perforation, stenosis, fistula
formation, bleeding, and malabsorption occur with sufficient
frequency to complicate the management of this painful condi-
tion. Untreated, abdominal angina frequently progresses to bowel
infarction.
214 SECTION 7 Abdominal and Groin Pain Syndromes
Clinical Pearls
Treatment of the symptoms associated with abdominal
angina is difficult, and, ultimately, correction of the vascu-
lar insufficiency is required. Vigilance for life-threatening
complications of abdominal angina, including bowel infarc-
tion, is mandatory to avoid disaster.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Cho JS, Carr JA, Jacobsen G, etal: Long-term outcome after mesenteric artery
reconstruction: a 37-year experience, J Vasc Surg 35:453460, 2002.
Cognet F, Ben Salem D, Dranssart M, etal: Chronic mesenteric ischemia: imaging
and percutaneous treatment, Radiographics 22:863879, 2002.
Hamed RMA, Ghandour K: Abdominal angina and intestinal gangrene: a cata-
strophic presentation of arterial fibromuscular dysplasiacase report and
review of the literature, J Pediatr Surg 32:13791380, 1997.
Rha SE, Ha HK, Lee SH, etal: CT and MR imaging findings of bowel ischemia
from various primary causes, RadioGraphics 20:2942, 2000.
SECTION 8 Lumbar Spine and Sacroiliac Joint Pain Syndromes
Chapter 74
EPIDURAL ABSCESS
ICD-9 CODE 324.1
ICD-10 CODE G06.1
The Clinical Syndrome
Epidural abscess is an uncommon cause of spine pain that, if undi-
agnosed, can result in paralysis and life-threatening complications.
Epidural abscess can occur anywhere in the spine and intracranially.
It can occur spontaneously via hematogeneous seeding, most fre-
quently as a result of urinary tract infections that spread to the spinal
epidural space via Batsons plexus. More commonly, epidural abscess
occurs after instrumentation of the spine, including surgery and epi-
dural nerve blocks. The literature suggests that the administration of
steroids into the epidural space results in immunosuppression, with
a resultant increase in the incidence of epidural abscess. Although
theoretically plausible, the statistical evidencegiven the thousands
of epidural steroid injections performed around the United States on
a daily basiscalls this belief into question.
A patient with epidural abscess initially presents with ill-defined
pain in the segment of the spine affected (e.g., cervical, thoracic,
or lumbar) (Figure 74-1). This pain becomes more intense and
localized as the abscess increases in size and compresses neural
structures. Low-grade fever and vague constitutional symptoms,
including malaise and anorexia, progress to frank sepsis with
a high-grade fever, rigors, and chills. At this point, the patient
begins to experience sensory and motor deficits and bowel and
bladder symptoms as the result of neural compromise. As the
abscess continues to expand, compromise of the vascular supply to
the affected spinal cord and nerve occurs with resultant ischemia
and, if untreated, infarction and permanent neurological deficits.
Signs and Symptoms
A patient with epidural abscess initially has ill-defined pain in the
general area of the infection. At this point, mild pain may occur on
range of motion of the affected segments. The neurological exami-
nation is within normal limits. A low-grade fever, night sweats,
or both may be present. Theoretically, if the patient has received
steroids, these constitutional symptoms may be attenuated or their
onset may be delayed. As the abscess increases in size, the patient
appears acutely ill, with fever, rigors, and chills. The clinician
may be able to identify neurological findings suggestive of spinal
nerve root compression, spinal cord compression, or both. Subtle
findings that point toward the development of myelopathy (e.g.,
Babinskis sign, clonus, and decreased perineal sensation) may be
overlooked if not carefully sought. As compression of the involved
neural structures continues, the patients neurological status may
deteriorate rapidly. If the diagnosis is not made, irreversible motor
and sensory deficit occurs.
Testing
Myelography is still considered the best test to ascertain compro-
mise of the spinal cord and exiting nerve roots by an extrinsic
mass such as an epidural abscess. In this era of readily available
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and high-speed computed
tomography (CT), it may be more prudent to perform this non-
invasive testing first, rather than wait for a radiologist or spine
surgeon to perform a myelogram (Figure 74-2). MRI and CT are
highly accurate in the diagnosis of epidural abscess and are prob-
ably more accurate than myelography in the diagnosis of intrinsic
disease of the spinal cord and spinal tumor. All patients suspected
to have epidural abscess should undergo laboratory testing con-
sisting of complete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and automated blood chemistries. Blood and urine cultures
should be performed immediately in all patients thought to have
epidural abscess to allow immediate implementation of antibiotic
therapy while the workup is in progress. Gram stains and cultures
of the abscess material also should be performed, but antibiotic
treatment should not be delayed waiting for this information.
Differential Diagnosis
The diagnosis of epidural abscess should be strongly considered
in any patient with spine pain and fever, especially if the patient
has undergone spinal instrumentation or epidural nerve blocks for
either surgical anesthesia or pain control. Other pathological pro-
cesses that must be considered in the differential diagnosis include
intrinsic disease of the spinal cord, such as demyelinating disease
and syringomyelia, and other processes that can result in compres-
sion of the spinal cord and exiting nerve roots, such as metastatic
215
216 SECTION 8 Lumbar Spine and Sacroiliac Joint Pain Syndromes
Lumbar
vertebrae
Figure 74-1 Patients with epidural abscess initially present with ill-defined pain in the affected segment of the spine.
tumor, Pagets disease, and neurofibromatosis. As a general rule,
unless the patient has concomitant infection, these diseases are
routinely associated with only back pain and not with fever.
Treatment
The rapid initiation of treatment of epidural abscess is manda-
tory if the patient is to avoid the sequelae of permanent neuro-
logical deficit or death. The treatment of epidural abscess has
two goals: (1) treatment of the infection with antibiotics and (2)
drainage of the abscess to relieve compression on neural struc-
tures. Because most epidural abscesses are caused by Staphylococcus
aureus, antibiotics such as vancomycin that treat staphylococcal
infection should be started immediately after blood and urine cul-
ture samples are taken. Antibiotic therapy can be tailored to the
culture and sensitivity reports as they become available. As men-
tioned, antibiotic therapy should not be delayed while waiting for
definitive diagnosis if epidural abscess is being considered as part
of the differential diagnosis.
Antibiotics alone rarely treat an epidural abscess successfully
unless the diagnosis is made very early in the course of the disease;
drainage of the abscess is required to effect full recovery. Drainage
of the epidural abscess is usually accomplished via decompression
laminectomy and evacuation of the abscess. More recently, inter-
ventional radiologists have been successful in draining epidural
abscesses percutaneously using drainage catheters placed with the
Spinal cord
Cauda equina
Dura mater
Epidural
space
Abscess
use of CT or MRI guidance. Serial CT or MRI scans are useful
in following the resolution of epidural abscess; scans should be
repeated immediately at the first sign of negative change in the
patients neurological status.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose and treat epidural abscess rapidly and accu-
rately can result in disaster for the clinician and patient alike. The
insidious onset of neurological deficit associated with epidural
abscess can lull the clinician into a sense of false security that can
result in permanent neurological damage to the patient. If epidu-
ral abscess or other causes of spinal cord compression is suspected,
the algorithm shown in Table 74-1 should be followed.
Clinical Pearls
Delay in diagnosis puts the patient and clinician at tremen-
dous risk for a poor outcome. The clinician should assume
that all patients who present with fever and back pain have
an epidural abscess until proved otherwise and should treat
accordingly. Overreliance on a single negative or equivo-
cal imaging test is a mistake. Serial CT or MRI scans are
indicated should there be any deterioration in the patients
neurological status.
 74 Epidural Abscess 217

A B C

D E F
Figure 74-2 Sagittal (A and B) and axial (C and D) T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of discitis at the LF-S1 disk level showing high-
signal-intensity fluid within the disk. High-signal-intensity fluid collections (white arrows) are seen in the epidural space, consistent with abscesses. The
sagittal postcontrast T1-weighted MRI with fat saturation (E and F) show the abscesses as low-signal-intensity areas with only peripheral enhancement
(broken white arrows). (In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, p 152.)

TABLE 74-1
Algorithm for Evaluation of Spinal Cord Compression Caused by Epidural Abscess
Immediately obtain blood and urine samples for cultures.
Immediately start high-dose antibiotics that cover Staphylococcus aureus.
Immediately order the most readily available spinal imaging technique (computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, myelography)
that can confirm the presence of spinal cord compression (e.g., abscess, tumor).
Simultaneously obtain emergency consultation from a spine surgeon.
Continuously and carefully monitor patients neurological status.
If any of the measures listed here are unavailable, arrange emergency transfer of patient to tertiary care center by the most rapidly available
transportation.
Repeat imaging, and obtain repeat surgical consultation if any deterioration occurs in the patients neurological status.
218 SECTION 8 Lumbar Spine and Sacroiliac Joint Pain Syndromes
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bandikatla VB, Rizwan B, Skalimis A, Patel H: Spinal epidural abscess and menin-
gitis following an epidural catheterisation, Acute Pain 9:3538, 2007.
Esteves Pereira C, Lynch JC: Spinal epidural abscess: an analysis of 24 cases, Surg
Neurol 63(Suppl 1):S26S29, 2005.
Recinos PF, Pradilla G, Crompton P, Thai Q-A, Rigamonti D: Spinal epidural
abscess: diagnosis and treatment, Oper Techn Neurosurg 7:188192, 2004.
Rigamonti D, Liem L, Sampath P, et al: Spinal epidural abscess: contemporary
trends in etiology, evaluation, and management, Surg Neurol 52:189197, 1999.
Chapter 75

MULTIPLE MYELOMA

ICD-9 CODE 203.0 secondary to hypercalcemia also may be elicited. Anasarca result-
ing from renal failure, if present, is an ominous prognostic sign.
ICD-10 CODE C90.00
Testing
The presence of Bence Jones protein in the urine, anemia, and
The Clinical Syndrome increased M protein on serum protein electrophoresis point

Multiple myeloma is an uncommon cause of back pain that is

frequently initially misdiagnosed. It is a unique disease in that it
may cause pain via several mechanisms that can act alone or in
concert. These mechanisms include invasion or compression of
pain-sensitive structures (1) by the tumor itself, (2) by the prod-
ucts that the tumor produces, and (3) by the host response to the Rib pain
tumor and its products.
Although the exact cause of multiple myeloma is unknown, the
following facts have been elucidated. There seems to be a genetic
predisposition to the development of myeloma. It also is known
Spine pain
that exposure to radiation increases the incidence of the disease, as
witnessed in survivors of the nuclear bombs used in World War II.
RNA viruses also have been implicated in the evolution of multiple
myeloma. The disease is rare in individuals younger than 40 years,
with a median age of diagnosis of 60 years. A male gender predilec-
tion is seen, and blacks have twice the incidence of multiple myeloma
than whites. Worldwide, the incidence of multiple myeloma is 3 per
100,000 population.
The most common clinical presentation of multiple myeloma
is back and rib pain. It occurs in more than 70% of patients ulti-
mately diagnosed with the disease. These bone lesions are osteo-
lytic and are best diagnosed with plain radiography rather than
with radionucleotide bone scanning. Pain with movement is com-
mon, and hypercalcemia occurs with sufficient frequency to be the
presenting symptom in many patients with multiple myeloma.
Life-threatening infection, anemia, bleeding, and renal failure are
often present in conjunction with the symptoms of pain. Hyper-
viscosity of the serum that is the result of the products of tumor
production may lead to cerebrovascular accidents.

Signs and Symptoms

Pain is the most common clinical symptom that ultimately leads
the clinician to the diagnosis of multiple myeloma (Figure 75-1).
Seemingly minor trauma may cause pathological vertebral com-
pression or rib fractures. Pain on movement of the affected bones
is a common finding on physical examination, as is the finding of
tumor mass on palpation of the skull and other affected bones.
Neurological findings, either based on neural compression sec-
ondary to tumor or fracture or as a result of cerebrovascular acci- Figure 75-1 Pain is the most common clinical symptom that ultimately
dent, are often present. Positive Trousseaus and Chvosteks signs leads to the diagnosis of multiple myeloma.

219
220 SECTION 8 Lumbar Spine and Sacroiliac Joint Pain Syndromes

A B C

D E F
Figure 75-2 Elderly patient with low back pain. Anteroposterior (A) and lateral (B) radiographs show a presumed insufficiency fracture of
L2 with minor end-plate collapse of L3. The sagittal T1-weighted (C), T2-weighted (D), and short tau inversion recovery (STIR) (E) magnetic
resonance images acquired a few months later show multilevel vertebral fractures. Diffuse abnormalities of the bone marrow are seen, with
a generally patchy appearance and some rounded areas of high signal intensity on the T2-weighted and STIR images. The appearances are
strongly suspicious for disorders such as plasma cell dyscrasias and other reticuloendothelial disorders. Immunoglobin testing yielded results
positive for myeloma, and a subsequent skeletal survey showed lytic lesions in the skull (F) typical of multiple myeloma. (In Waldman SD,
Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, p 192.)

strongly to the diagnosis of multiple myeloma. Classic punched-out
bone lesions in the skull and spine on plain radiographs are pathog-
nomonic for the disease (Figures 75-2 and 75-3). Because little
osteoclastic activity is present in patients with multiple myeloma,
radionucleotide bone scanning can be negative in the face of diffuse
bony destruction. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is indicated
in any patient thought to have multiple myeloma who exhibits
signs of spinal cord compression. Serum creatine testing and auto-
mated blood chemistries that include serum calcium determina-
tions are indicated in all patients with multiple myeloma.

Differential Diagnosis
A variety of other abnormalities of the bone marrow, including the
heavy chain diseases and Waldenstrms macroglobulinemia, can
mimic the clinical presentation of multiple myeloma. Amyloidosis
also shares many common clinical signs and symptoms. Metastatic
disease from prostate and breast cancer can produce pathological
fractures of the spine and ribs and calvarial metastases that may be
mistaken for multiple myeloma. A small group of patients have
benign monoclonal gammopathy, which in most patients requires
no therapy but can mimic the laboratory findings of multiple
myeloma.
Treatment
Management of multiple myeloma is aimed at the treatment of
progressive bone lesions and reduction in serum myeloma pro-
teins. These goals are accomplished with radiation therapy and
chemotherapy, alone or in combination. High-dose pulsed steroids
have been shown to provide symptomatic relief and to extend life
expectancy in patients with multiple myeloma.
Initial treatment of the pain associated with multiple myeloma
should include either nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors. It may be
necessary to add opioid analgesics to control the more severe pain
of pathological fractures. Orthotic devices such as the Cash brace
and rib belts may help stabilize the spine and ribs and should be
considered in the presence of pathological fractures. Local appli-
cation of heat and cold may be beneficial. The repetitive move-
ments that incite the syndrome should be avoided. For patients
who do not respond to these treatment modalities, injection of
the affected areas with a local anesthetic and steroid using either
intercostal or epidural nerve blocks is a reasonable next step. Spi-
nal administration of opioids may be beneficial in selected cases.
Ultimately, radiation therapy is often required if significant bony
involvement occurs, to provide adequate pain control. Stem cell
transplant and gene therapy are emerging as exciting new options
in treatment of this disease.
75 Multiple Myeloma 221
Complications and Pitfalls
Approximately 15% of patients with multiple myeloma die within
the first 3 months after diagnosis despite aggressive treatment. An
additional 15% of patients die each successive year. The most
common causes of death are renal failure, overwhelming sepsis,
hypercalcemia, bleeding, the development of acute leukemia,
and stroke. Nonfatal complications such as pathological fractures
can make life for patients with multiple myeloma quite difficult.
Failure to recognize and treat these complications of multiple
myeloma early can increase patient suffering and hasten death.
Clinical Pearls
Careful evaluation of patients with the triad of proteinuria,
spine or rib pain, and abnormal serum protein electropho-
resis is mandatory to help avoid the inevitable complica-
tions of a delayed diagnosis of multiple myeloma. The
clinician and patient must understand that despite early
treatment, most patients with multiple myeloma die within
2 to 5 years of the time the disease is diagnosed. Epidural
and intercostal injection of local anesthetics and steroids
can provide excellent palliation of the pain associated with
multiple myeloma.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Kaufman J, Lonial S: Multiple myeloma: the role of transplant and novel treatment
strategies, Semin Oncol 31(Suppl 4):99105, 2004.
Mahindra A, Hideshima T, Anderson KC: Multiple myeloma: biology of the
disease, Blood Rev 24(Suppl 1):S5S11, 2010.
Mitsiades CS, Hayden PJ, Anderson KC, Richardson PG: From the bench to the
bedside: emerging new treatments in multiple myeloma, Best Pract Res Clin
Haematol 20:797816, 2007.
Reece DE: Management of multiple myeloma: the changing landscape, Blood Rev
21:301314, 2007.
San Miguel JF, Gutirrez NC, Mateo G, Orfao A: Conventional diagnostics in
multiple myeloma, Eur J Cancer 42:15101519, 2006.
Chapter 76
PAGETS DISEASE
ICD-9 CODE 731.1
ICD-10 CODE M90.60
The Clinical Syndrome
Pagets disease is an uncommon cause of back pain that is frequently
diagnosed on plain radiographs obtained for other purposes or
when the patient notices swelling of a long bone. Pagets disease is
also known as osteitis deformans, and its cause is unknown. The
incidence of Pagets disease is approximately 2%, with the disease
occurring much less commonly in India, Japan, the Middle East,
and Scandinavia.
In the early phase of the disease, resorption of bone occurs, and
the affected areas become vascular. The resorption phase is followed
by the formation of new pagetic bone that is laid down in a dense,
haphazard fashion. This process of bone resorption and formation
can be quite active, with the bone turnover rate increased 20 times
above normal. This process results in a characteristic pattern on
plain radiographs that includes areas of bone resorption termed
osteoporosis circumscripta. Areas of new bone formation show an
irregularly widened cortex, with a dense, striated pattern and focal
variations in density that reflect the chaotic nature in which the
pagetic bone is laid down.
Although many patients with Pagets disease are asymptom-
atic, and their disease is a fortuitous finding when radiographs are
obtained for other reasons, back pain also may occur. It is thought
that the cause of the back pain associated with Pagets disease is
multifactorial. The pain may be caused by the bone resorption
process itself or distortion of the facet joints as new pagetic bone is
formed. Both of these processes may alter the functional stability
of the spine and exacerbate preexisting facet arthropathy.
Patients with Pagets disease may experience thickening and
widening of the long bones or enlargement of the skull resulting
from new bone formation. Rarely, exuberant bone growth at the
base of the skull may cause compression of the brainstem, with
disastrous results. Hearing loss secondary to compression of the
eighth cranial nerve by new bone formation or by direct involve-
ment of the ossicles themselves may occur. Occasionally, exces-
sive bone formation in the dorsal spine may result in spinal cord
compression, which, if untreated, may result in paraplegia. Patho-
logical fractures resulting from excessive resorption of the vertebra
may occur, with resultant acute back pain. Hip pain secondary to
calcific periarthritis also may be present. An increased incidence of
222
renal calculi and gout may occur, especially in men with Pagets
disease. In less than 1% of patients, a pagetic bone lesion may
transform into a malignant osteosarcoma.
Signs and Symptoms
Although the disease is often asymptomatic, pain is the most com-
mon clinical symptom that ultimately leads the clinician to the
diagnosis of Pagets disease (Figure 76-1). Seemingly minor trauma
may cause pathological vertebral compression fractures. Pain on
movement of the affected bones is a common finding on physical
examination, as is excess bone growth on palpation of the skull and
other affected bones. Neurological findings based on neural com-
pression secondary to either excessive bone growth or pathological
fracture may be present. Pain on range of motion of the peripheral
joints, especially the hip, owing to calcific periarthritis is a common
physical finding in patients with Pagets disease. Hearing loss may
be noted on physical examination. In rare patients with Pagets
disease, high-output cardiac failure resulting from increased blood
flow to new bone may be present.
Testing
As mentioned previously, Pagets disease is often fortuitously
diagnosed when the patient is undergoing radiographic testing
for an unrelated problem, such as intravenous pyelography for
renal calculi. The classic radiographic appearance of areas of bone
resorption with surrounding areas of dense, chaotic bone points
strongly to the diagnosis of Pagets disease. In patients with Pagets
disease, radionucleotide bone scanning can be used to assess the
extent of the disease because many bone lesions are clinically silent
(Figure 76-2). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is indicated in
any patient thought to have Pagets disease who exhibits signs of
spinal cord compression. Serum creatine testing and automated
blood chemistries, including serum calcium determinations, are
indicated in all patients with Pagets disease. Alkaline phosphatase
levels are elevated, especially during the resorption phase of the
disease. Given the increased incidence of hearing loss in patients
with Pagets disease, audiometric testing is indicated.
Differential Diagnosis
Numerous other diseases of the bone, including osteoporosis, mul-
tiple myeloma, osteopetrosis, and primary and metastatic bone
tumors, can mimic the clinical presentation of Pagets disease.
Acromegaly also shares many common clinical signs and symptoms.
Metastatic disease from prostate and breast cancer can produce

Spine pain
Thickening of
long bones
Figure 76-1 Although the disease is often asymptomatic, pain is the
most common clinical symptom that ultimately leads to the diagnosis
of Pagets disease.
pathological fractures of the spine and ribs and calvarial metastases
that may be mistaken for Pagets disease.
Treatment
Most patients with asymptomatic Pagets disease require only
reassurance. Initial treatment of the pain associated with Pagets
disease should include aspirin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs), or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors. Opi-
oid analgesics may be needed to control the more severe pain of
pathological fractures. Orthotic devices such as the Cash brace
and rib belts may help stabilize the spine and ribs and should be
considered if pathological fractures occur. Local application of
heat and cold may be beneficial. The repetitive movements that
incite the syndrome should be avoided. For patients who do not
76 Pagets Disease 223
Figure 76-2 Whole-body bone scan patterns in a patient with elevated
serum alkaline phosphatase levels and Pagets disease in multiple bones.
(From Grainger RG, Allison D: Grainger and Allisons diagnostic radiol-
ogy: a textbook of medical imaging, ed 3, New York, 1997, Churchill
Livingstone, p 1927.)
respond to these treatment modalities, the injection of the affected
areas with a local anesthetic and steroid using either intercostal or
epidural nerve blocks is a reasonable next step. Spinal administra-
tion of opioids may be beneficial in selected cases.
In patients who fail to respond to these treatments, calcito-
nin and etidronate have been used with some degree of success.
Cytotoxic drugs, including dactinomycin, may rarely be required
if excessive bone destruction occurs. High-dose pulsed steroids
have been shown to provide symptomatic relief in patients with
Pagets disease.
Complications and Pitfalls
The primary complications associated with Pagets disease are
related to the resorptive and formation phases of the disease. Exces-
sive resorption of bone may result in vertebral compression frac-
tures, rib fractures, and occasionally fractures of the long bones.
Excessive bone formation may result in compression of neural
structures, which may result in hearing loss, brainstem compres-
sion, myelopathy, and paraplegia. An increased incidence of renal
calculi and gout is seen, especially in men with Pagets disease.
Rarely, the formation of new bone is so great that high-output
cardiac failure secondary to increased blood flow may result. As
224 SECTION 8 Lumbar Spine and Sacroiliac Joint Pain Syndromes
mentioned earlier, pagetic lesions undergo malignant transforma-
tion in approximately 1% of patients with Pagets disease.
Clinical Pearls
Careful evaluation of patients with Pagets disease is manda-
tory to help avoid the potential complications of the disease.
The clinician must look carefully for subtle signs of brain-
stem or spinal cord compression. Epidural and intercostal
injection of local anesthetics and steroids can provide excel-
lent palliation of the pain associated with Pagets disease
that fails to respond to pharmacological treatment.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Ralston SH: Pathogenesis of Pagets disease of bone, Bone 43:819825, 2008.
Rousire M, Michou L, Cornlis F, Orcel P: Pagets disease of bone, Best Pract Res
Clin Rheumatol 17:10191041, 2003.
Rousire M, Michou L, Cornlis F, Orcel P: Pagets disease. In Waldman SD,
Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2010, Saunders.
Walsh JP, Attewell R, Stuckey BGA, et al: Eisman treatment of Pagets disease
of bone: a survey of clinical practice in Australia, Bone 42:12191225, 2008.
Whitten CR, Saifuddin A: MRI of Pagets disease of bone, Clin Radiol 58:
763769, 2003.
Chapter 77
DIFFUSE IDIOPATHIC SKELETAL
HYPEROSTOSIS
ICD-9 CODE 733.99
ICD-10 CODE M89.30
The Clinical Syndrome
Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH) is a disease of
the ligamentous structures of the spine. The cause of DISH is
unknown. The hallmark of this disease is confluent ossification of
the spinal ligamentous structures that spans at least three spinal
interspaces (Table 77-1). DISH occurs most commonly in the
thoracolumbar spine, but it also can affect the cervical spine, ribs,
and bones of the pelvis.
DISH causes stiffness and pain of the cervical and thoracolum-
bar spine. The symptoms are worse on wakening and at night.
When the disease affects the cervical spine, cervical myelopathy
may result. If anterior spurring of the cervical spine occurs, dys-
phagia may result. DISH is a disease of the late fifth and early
sixth decades. It also can cause a relative spinal stenosis with
intermittent claudication. It affects men twice as commonly as
women. DISH is a disease that affects primarily whites. Patients
with DISH have a higher incidence of diabetes mellitus, hyperten-
sion, and obesity than the general population. DISH usually is
diagnosed by plain radiographs of the spine.
Signs and Symptoms
A patient with DISH reports stiffness and pain in the area of
the affected spinal segments or bone. Patients also may note
TABLE 77-1
Causes of Abnormal Bone Growth in and About the
Axial Skeleton
Seronegative spondyloathropathies
Acromegaly
Charcot neuroarthropathy
Trauma
Degenerative changes
Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis
Abnormal urate deposition
Excessive fluoride intake
Onchronosis
numbness, weakness, and lack of coordination in the extremi-
ties subserved by the spinal segments affected by DISH. Muscle
spasms, back pain, and pain referred to the buttocks are common
(Figure 77-1). Occasionally, a patient with DISH experiences
compression of the spinal cord, nerve roots, and cauda equina,
resulting in myelopathy or cauda equina syndrome. DISH is the
second most common cause of cervical myelopathy after cervical
spondylosis. Patients with lumbar myelopathy or cauda equina
syndrome experience varying degrees of lower extremity weakness
and bowel and bladder symptoms; this represents a neurosurgical
emergency and should be treated as such.
Testing
DISH is diagnosed by plain radiographs. Confluent ossification of
the spinal ligamentous structures spanning at least three interspaces
is pathognomonic for the disease. Disk space height is preserved
in patients with DISH. If myelopathy is suspected, magnetic reso-
nance imaging (MRI) of the spine provides the best information
regarding the status of the spinal cord and nerve roots. MRI is
highly accurate and helps identify other abnormalities that may
put the patient at risk for the development of permanent spinal
cord injury (Figure 77-2). In patients who cannot undergo MRI,
such as a patient with a pacemaker, computed tomography (CT)
or myelography is a reasonable second choice. Radionucleotide
bone scanning and plain radiographs are indicated if fracture or
bony abnormality, such as metastatic disease, is being considered.
Although this testing provides useful neuroanatomical infor-
mation, electromyography and nerve conduction velocity test-
ing provide neurophysiological information that can delineate
the actual status of each individual nerve root and the lumbar
plexus. Screening laboratory tests, consisting of complete blood
cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and automated blood
chemistry testing, should be performed if the diagnosis of DISH
is in question.
Differential Diagnosis
DISH is a radiographic diagnosis that is supported by a combina-
tion of clinical history, physical examination, and MRI. Pain syn-
dromes that may mimic DISH include neck and low back strain;
bursitis; fibromyositis; inflammatory arthritis; ankylosing spondy-
litis; and disorders of the spinal cord, roots, plexus, and nerves.
Thirty percent of patients with multiple myeloma or Pagets
disease also have DISH. Screening laboratory tests consisting of
complete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, anti-
nuclear antibody testing, human leukocyte antigen (HLA) B-27
antigen screening, and automated blood chemistry testing should
225
226 SECTION 8 Lumbar Spine and Sacroiliac Joint Pain Syndromes
Figure 77-1 Patients with DISH report stiffness and pain in the area of
the affected spinal segments or bone. They also may note numbness,
weakness, and lack of coordination in the extremities subserved by the
spinal segments affected by DISH. Muscle spasms, back pain, and pain
referred to the buttocks are common.
be performed if the diagnosis of DISH is in question to help rule
out other causes of the patients pain.
Treatment
DISH is best treated with a multimodality approach. Physical
therapy, including heat modalities, range-of-motion exercises,
and deep sedative massage, combined with nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and skeletal muscle relaxants
represents a reasonable starting point. The addition of steroid
epidural nerve blocks is a reasonable next step if pain remains a
problem. Underlying sleep disturbance and depression are best
treated with a tricyclic antidepressant compound, such as nor-
triptyline, which can be started at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose DISH accurately may put the patient at risk for
the development of myelopathy, which, if untreated, may progress
Figure 77-2 Ankylosing spondylitis. Sagittal T1-weighted (600/20/4)
magnetic resonance imaging of the upper lumbar spine, including the
lower thoracic segments, also shows the characteristic squaring of the
vertebral body corners. (From Stark DD, Bradley WG Jr: Magnetic reso-
nance imaging, ed 3, St Louis, 1999, Mosby, p 1877.)
to paraparesis or paraplegia. Electromyography helps distinguish
between plexopathy from radiculopathy and helps identify coex-
istent entrapment neuropathy, which may confuse the diagnosis.
Clinical Pearls
Given the association of DISH with multiple myeloma and
Pagets disease, these potentially life-threatening diseases
must always be included in the differential diagnosis. DISH
and degenerative arthritis and discogenic disease may coexist.
Each disease process may require its own specific course of
treatment.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Hannallah D, White AP, Goldberg G, Albert TJ: Diffuse idiopathic skeletal
hyperostosis, Operat Techn Orthop 17:174177, 2007.
Kasper D, Hermichen H, Koster R, Schultz-Coulon HJ: Clinical manifestations
of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH), HNO 50:978983, 2002.
Mader R: Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis: a distinct clinical entity, Isr Med
Assoc J 5:506508, 2003.
Mader R: Current therapeutic options in the management of diffuse idiopathic
skeletal hyperostosis, Exp Opin Pharmacother 6:13131318, 2005.
Chapter 78

SPONDYLOLISTHESIS

ICD-9 CODE 756.12
ICD-10 CODE Q76.2
The Clinical Syndrome
Spondylolisthesis is a degenerative disease of the lumbar spine that
results in pain and functional disability. It occurs more commonly
in women and is most often seen after age 40. This disease is caused
by the slippage of one vertebral body onto another as a result of
degeneration of the facet joints and intervertebral disk. Usually,
the upper vertebral body moves anteriorly relative to the vertebral
body below it, which causes narrowing of the spinal canal. This
narrowing results in a relative spinal stenosis and back pain. Occa-
sionally, the upper vertebral body slides posteriorly relative to the
vertebral body below it, which compromises the neural foramina.
Clinically, a patient with spondylolisthesis reports back pain
with lifting, twisting, or bending of the lumbar spine. Patients
may state that they feels like they have a catch in their back.
Patients with spondylolisthesis often report radicular pain of the
lower extremity and often experience pseudoclaudication with
walking. Rarely, the slippage of the vertebra is so extreme that
myelopathy or cauda equina syndrome develops.
imaging (MRI) of the lumbar spine provides the best information
regarding the contents of the lumbar spine (Figure 78-3). MRI is
highly accurate and helps identify abnormalities that may put the
patient at risk for the development of lumbar myelopathy, such as
the trefoil spinal canal of congenital spinal stenosis (Figure 78-4).
In patients who cannot undergo MRI, such as patients with pace-
makers, computed tomography (CT) and myelography are rea-
sonable second choices. Radionucleotide bone scanning and plain
radiographs are indicated if fracture or bony abnormality, such as
metastatic disease, is being considered.
Although this testing provides useful neuroanatomical infor-
mation, electromyography and nerve conduction velocity testing
provide neurophysiological information that can delineate the
actual status of each individual nerve root and the lumbar plexus.
Screening laboratory tests, consisting of complete blood cell count,
erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and automated blood chemistry

Signs and Symptoms

Patients with spondylolisthesis report back pain with motion of
the lumbar spine. Rising from a sitting to a standing position often
reproduces the pain (Figure. 78-1). Many patients with spondylo-
listhesis experience radicular symptoms that manifest on physical
examination as weakness and sensory abnormality in the affected
dermatomes. Often, more than one dermatome is affected. Occa-
sionally, a patient with spondylolisthesis experiences compression
of the lumbar spinal nerve roots and cauda equina, resulting in
myelopathy or cauda equina syndrome. Lumbar myelopathy is
most commonly due to midline herniated lumbar disk, spinal ste-
nosis, tumor, or, rarely, infection. Patients with lumbar myelopa-
thy or cauda equina syndrome experience varying degrees of lower
extremity weakness and bowel and bladder symptoms; this rep-
resents a neurosurgical emergency and should be treated as such.

Testing
Plain radiographs of the lumbar spine usually are sufficient to Figure 78-1 Patients with spondylolisthesis often report back pain with
diagnose spondylolisthesis (Figure 78-2). The lateral view shows motion of the lumbar spine. Rising from a sitting to a standing position
the slippage of one vertebra onto another. Magnetic resonance often reproduces the pain.

227
228 SECTION 8 Lumbar Spine and Sacroiliac Joint Pain Syndromes
Figure 78-2 Type 2a isthmic spondylolisthesis. Lateral radiograph of the
lumbar spine demonstrates bilateral L4 pars defects (arrow) with associ-
ated grade 1 L4/5 isthmic spondylolisthesis. The L4/5 disk has degen-
eration. (From Butt S, Saifuddin A: The imaging of lumbar spondylolisthesis,
Clin Radiol 60:533546, 2005.)
testing, should be performed if the diagnosis of spondylolisthesis
is in question.
Differential Diagnosis
Spondylolisthesis is a radiographic diagnosis that is supported by a
combination of clinical history, physical examination, radiography,
and MRI. Pain syndromes that may mimic spondylolisthesis include
lumbar radiculopathy; low back strain; lumbar bursitis; lumbar fibro-
myositis; inflammatory arthritis; and disorders of the lumbar spinal
cord, roots, plexus, and nerves. MRI of the lumbar spine should be
performed in all patients thought to have spondylolisthesis. Screening
laboratory tests consisting of complete blood cell count, erythrocyte
sedimentation rate, antinuclear antibody testing, human leukocyte
antigen (HLA) B-27 antigen screening, and automated blood chem-
istry testing should be performed if the diagnosis of spondylolisthesis
is in question to help rule out other causes of pain.
Treatment
Spondylolisthesis is best treated with a multimodality approach.
Physical therapy, including flexion exercises, heat modalities,
and deep sedative massage, combined with nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and skeletal muscle relaxants repre-
sents a reasonable starting point. The addition of steroid epidural
nerve blocks is a reasonable next step. Caudal or lumbar epidural
blocks with a local anesthetic and steroid have been shown to be
extremely effective in the treatment of pain secondary to spondy-
lolisthesis. Underlying sleep disturbance and depression are best
L4
L5
Figure 78-3 Spondylolisthesis. Grade II spondylolisthesis of L4 on L5.
This leads to the false impression of L4-5 disk herniation. The posterior
disk margin has not extended beyond the L5 vertebral margin (arrows),
however. (From Haaga JR, Lanzieri CF, Gilkeson RC, editors: Computed
tomography and magnetic resonance imaging of the whole body, ed 4,
St Louis, 2003, Mosby, p 732.)
treated with a tricyclic antidepressant compound, such as nortrip-
tyline, which can be started at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to diagnose spondylolisthesis accurately may put the
patient at risk for the development of lumbar myelopathy, which,
if untreated, may progress to paraparesis or paraplegia. Electro-
myography helps distinguish plexopathy from radiculopathy and
helps identify coexistent entrapment neuropathy, such as tarsal
tunnel syndrome, which can confuse the diagnosis.
Clinical Pearls
The diagnosis of spondylolisthesis should be considered in
any patient reporting back pain, radicular pain, or both or
symptoms of pseudoclaudication. Patients with symptoms
of myelopathy should undergo MRI on an urgent basis.
Physical therapy may help prevent recurrent episodes of
pain, but, ultimately, surgical stabilization of the affected
segments may be required.
 78 Spondylolisthesis 229

SUGGESTED READINGS
Agabegi SA, Fischgrund JS: Contemporary management of isthmic spondylolis-
thesis: pediatric and adult, Spine J 10:530543, 2010.
Butt S, Saifuddin A: The imaging of lumbar spondylolisthesis, Clin Radiol
60:533546, 2005.
Denard PJ, Holton KF, Miller J, etal: Lumbar spondylolisthesis among elderly
men: prevalence, correlates and progression, Spine 35:10721078, 2010.
Denard PJ, Holton KF, Miller J, etal: Osteoporotic Fractures in Men (MrOS)
Study Group: Back pain, neurogenic symptoms, and physical function in rela-
tion to spondylolisthesis among elderly men, Spine J 10:865873, 2010.

L4

B
Figure 78-4 Congenital spinal stenosis. A 12-year-old boy developed
leg numbness and pain after a soccer game. A, Sagittal T2-weighted
magnetic resonance imaging shows progressive narrowing of the sagit-
tal dimension of the lumbar spinal canal from the upper to lower lev-
els. B, On an axial proton densityweighted image at L4, short stubby
pedicles are the primary cause of small lateral recesses and congenital
spinal stenosis. (From Edelman RR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB, etal, editors:
Clinical magnetic resonance imaging, ed 3, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders,
p 2227.)
Chapter 79
ANKYLOSING SPONDYLITIS
ICD-9 CODE 720.0
ICD-10 CODE M45.9
The Clinical Syndrome
Ankylosing spondylitis is an inflammatory disease of the spine,
sacroiliac joints, and occasionally extra-articular structures,
including the eye. It also is known as Marie-Strmpell disease. The
cause of ankylosing spondylitis is unknown, but autoimmune-
mediated mechanisms have been implicated. Approximately 90%
of patients with ankylosing spondylitis have the histocompat-
ibility antigen human leukocyte antigen (HLA) B-27 in contrast
to 7% of the general population. The significance of this fact is
unknown, but this antigen provides the basis for a test to aid in
diagnosis of the disease. Ankylosing spondylitis occurs three times
more frequently in men, and symptoms usually appear by the
third decade of life. Onset of the disease after age 40 is rare.
Sacroiliitis is often one of the earliest manifestations of anky-
losing spondylitis. This finding usually manifests as morning stiff-
ness and a deep aching pain of insidious onset in the low back and
over the sacroiliac joints. This stiffness improves with activity and
reappears with periods of inactivity. The pain worsens as the dis-
ease progresses, and nocturnal exacerbations with significant sleep
disturbance are common. Tenderness over the spine, sacroiliac
joints, costosternal junction, and greater trochanters is common.
Pain and stiffness of the peripheral joints, including the hips and
shoulders, are present in 30% to 40% of patients with ankylosing
spondylitis. The character of the pain of ankylosing spondylitis is
dull and aching, and its intensity is mild to moderate. Occasion-
ally, acute uveitis can occur, as can aortic valvular disease.
Signs and Symptoms
Clinically, a patient with ankylosing spondylitis reports back and
sacroiliac pain and stiffness that are worse in the morning and
after periods of prolonged activity (Figure 79-1). The patient may
report a limitation of range of motion of the lateral spine and
occasionally chest expansion. This limitation of range of motion
is due to a combination of bony ankylosis and muscle spasm that
the clinician may be able to identify on physical examination.
Tenderness to palpation of the iliac crests, greater trochanter, and
axial skeleton is a common finding in ankylosing spondylitis. As
the disease progresses, the lumbar lordosis disappears, and atrophy
of the gluteal muscles may occur. A thoracic kyphosis develops,
and the neck is forward flexed. Hip ankylosis may occur with hip
involvement, and the patient often compensates with flexion at
230
the knee. Spinal fracture with resultant spinal cord injury may
occur as a result of the rigid and inflexible nature of the spine.
Anterior uveitis manifests with photophobia, decreased visual acu-
ity, and excessive lacrimation and represents an ophthalmological
emergency.
Testing
Plain radiographs of the sacroiliac joints usually allow the clini-
cian to diagnose ankylosing spondylitis. Erosion of the sacroiliac
joints produces a characteristic symmetrical pseudowidening
that is diagnostic of the disease (Figure 79-2), as is squaring of
the vertebral bodies, sclerosis of the anterior margins of the verte-
bral bodies (so-called shiny corners), and the classic trolley track
sign resulting from ankylosis of the facet joints (Figure 79-3).
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the spine provides the
best information regarding the contents of the lumbar spine and
sacroiliac joints. MRI is highly accurate and helps identify abnor-
malities that may put the patient at risk for the development of
myelopathy (Figure 79-4). In patients who cannot undergo MRI,
such as patients with pacemakers, computed tomography (CT)
or myelography is a reasonable second choice. Radionucleotide
bone scanning and plain radiography are indicated if fracture or
bony abnormality, such as metastatic disease, is being considered
in the differential diagnosis.
Although no test is diagnostic for ankylosing spondylitis, find-
ing of the HLA B-27 antigen is highly suggestive of the disease
in patients with the previously mentioned clinical findings. This
antigen is present in 90% of patients with ankylosing spondylitis.
Complete blood cell count may reveal normocytic normochromic
anemia. The erythrocyte sedimentation rate is usually elevated, as
is the serum immunoglobulin A level.
Differential Diagnosis
Ankylosing spondylitis is a radiographic diagnosis that is sup-
ported by a combination of clinical history, physical examination,
and laboratory testing. Pain syndromes that may mimic ankylos-
ing spondylitis include low back strain; lumbar bursitis; lumbar
fibromyositis; inflammatory arthritis; Reiters syndrome; collagen-
vascular diseases; and disorders of the lumbar spinal cord, roots,
plexus, and nerves as well as the sacroiliac joints. The clinician
should be aware that many other causes of sacroiliitis-related pain
exist (Table 79-1). Screening laboratory tests, consisting of com-
plete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, antinuclear
antibody testing, HLA B-27 antigen screening, and automated
blood chemistry testing, should be performed if the diagnosis of
ankylosing spondylitis is in question to help rule out other causes
of the patients pain.
 79 Ankylosing Spondylitis 231

Spine

Ilium

Sacroiliac
joint

Sacrum

Greater
trochanter

Figure 79-1 Patients with ankylosing spondylitis often report back and sacroiliac pain and stiffness that are worse in the morning and after periods
of prolonged activity.

Figure 79-2 Anteroposterior Ferguson view of the sacroiliac joints in

a patient with ankylosing spondylitis, showing bilateral symmetrical
involvement. Small, succinct erosions involve both sides of the joint,
with limited bone repair. (From Brower AC: Disorders of the sacroiliac joint,
Radiology 1:3, 1978.)

Treatment
Ankylosing spondylitis is best treated with a multimodality
approach. Physical therapy, including exercises to maintain func-
tion, heat modalities, and deep sedative massage, combined with
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and skeletal mus-
cle relaxants represents a reasonable starting point. Sulfasalazine Figure 79-3 Lateral radiograph of the lumbar spine with squaring of the
may be useful in managing the arthritis associated with the disease. vertebral bodies, which is typical of early ankylosing spondylitis. Gener-
The addition of steroid epidural nerve blocks is a reasonable next alized osteopenia and early inflammatory arthropathy of the lower facet
step. Caudal or lumbar epidural blocks with a local anesthetic and joints are seen. (From Waldman SD: Seronegative spondyloarthropathy. In
steroid have been shown to be extremely effective in the treatment Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011,
Saunders, pp 141144.)
of pain secondary to ankylosing spondylitis. Underlying sleep dis-
turbance and depression are best treated with a tricyclic antide-
pressant compound, such as nortriptyline, which can be started at
232 SECTION 8 Lumbar Spine and Sacroiliac Joint Pain Syndromes

Figure 79-4 Ankylosing spondylitis. Parasagittal and sagittal T1-weighted images show extensive L2-L3 discovertebral erosion and associated marrow
edema and a posterior neural arch pseudofracture that is depicted as a horizontal dark signal abnormality (arrows). Note the presence of a prevertebral
inflammatory mass. Magnetic resonance imaging findings are indistinguishable from the findings of infectious spondylodiscitis. Plain film radiographs
showing characteristic findings of ankylosing spondylitis and clinical history are useful for differentiating the two entities. (From Edelman RR, Hesselink
JR, Zlatkin MB, etal, editors: Clinical magnetic resonance imaging, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 2346.)

TABLE 79-1
disability. Myelopathy, which may progress to paraplegia or quad-
riplegia, is a serious problem if diagnosis is delayed. Electromyog-
Common Causes of Sacroilitis-Related Pain raphy helps distinguish plexopathy from radiculopathy and helps
Psoriatic arthritis identify coexistent entrapment neuropathy, such as tarsal tunnel
Reiters syndrome syndrome, which confuse the diagnosis.
Septic arthritis
Ulcerative colitis
Crohns disease
Clinical Pearls
Synovitis-acne-pustulosis hyperostosis-osteomyelitis (SAPHO) The diagnosis of ankylosing spondylitis should be consid-
syndrome ered in any patient reporting back or sacroiliac pain and
Seronegative arthropathies, including ankylosing spondylitis stiffness that are worse in the morning or after prolonged
Tuberculosis periods of inactivity. Patients with symptoms of myelopathy
should undergo MRI on an urgent basis. Physical therapy
Intestinal bypassinduced arthritis
combined with NSAIDs may help prevent recurrent epi-
Sarcoidosis sodes of pain and help preserve function.
Whipples disease
Brucellosis
Hyperparathyroidism
SUGGESTED READINGS
Joseph A, Brasington R, Kahl L, etal: Immunologic rheumatic disorders, J Allergy
a single bedtime dose of 25 mg. Acute uveitis should be managed Clin Immunol 125(Suppl 2):S204S215, 2010.
with corticosteroids and mydriatic agents. Mansour M, Cheema GS, Naguwa SM, et al: Ankylosing spondylitis: a con-
temporary perspective on diagnosis and treatment, Semin Arthritis Rheum
36:210223, 2007.
Complications and Pitfalls Reveille JD, Arnett FC: Spondyloarthritis: update on pathogenesis and management,
Am J Med 118:592603, 2005.
Failure to diagnose ankylosing spondylitis accurately may put Waldman SD: Seronegative spondyloarthropathy. In Waldman SD, Campbell
the patient at risk for the development of significant functional RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 141144.
Chapter 80
SUPERIOR CLUNEAL NERVE
ENTRAPMENT SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 355.9
ICD-10 CODE G58.9
The Clinical Syndrome
Entrapment of the superior cluneal nerve is an uncommon cause
of low back and buttocks pain. Comprising the terminal branches
of the posterior rami of L1, L2, and L3 nerve roots, the superior
cluneal nerves provide cutaneous innervation to the upper part of
the buttocks and are susceptible to entrapment as it passes over
the iliac crest through a tunnel formed by the thoracolumbar fas-
cia and the superior rim of the iliac crest in a manner analogous
to compression of the median nerve as it passes through the car-
pal tunnel (Figure 80-1). The middle branch is most commonly
affected.
This entrapment neuropathy presents as pain, numbness, and
dysesthesias in the distribution of the superior cluneal nerve. The
symptoms often begin as a burning pain in the upper buttocks
with associated cutaneous sensitivity. Patients with superior cluneal
nerve entrapment note that sitting, squatting, or wearing tight jeans
with a low rise causes the symptoms to worsen. Although traumatic
lesions to the superior cluneal nerve during bone harvesting proce-
dures and pelvic fractures have been implicated in superior cluneal
nerve entrapment, in most patients, no obvious antecedent trauma
can be identified.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical findings include tenderness over the superior cluneal
nerves as they passes over the posterior iliac crest. A positive
Tinels sign over the superior cluneal nerves as they pass over the
posterior iliac crest may be present. Patients may report burning
dysesthesias in the nerves distribution (Figure 80-1). Careful
sensory examination of the upper buttocks may reveal a sensory
deficit in the distribution of the superior cluneal nerves; no motor
deficit should be present. Sitting or the wearing of low-cut jeans
with tight waistbands or wide belts can compress the nerve and
exacerbate the symptoms of superior cluneal nerve entrapment.
Testing
Electromyography can distinguish lumbar radiculopathy and
plexopathy from superior cluneal nerve entrapment. Plain radio-
graphs of the back, hip, and pelvis are indicated in all patients who
present with superior cluneal nerve entrapment to rule out occult
bony pathological processes. Based on the patients clinical presen-
tation, additional testing may be warranted, including a complete
blood count, uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and
antinuclear antibody testing. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
of the back is indicated if herniated disk, spinal stenosis, or space-
occupying lesion is suspected. The injection technique described
later serves as both a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
Superior cluneal nerve entrapment is often misdiagnosed as lumbar
radiculopathy, sacroiliac joint pain, gluteal bursitis, or primary hip
pathological conditions. Radiographs of the hip and electromy-
ography can distinguish superior cluneal nerve entrapment from
radiculopathy or pain emanating from the hip. In addition, most
patients with lumbar radiculopathy have back pain associated with
reflex, motor, and sensory changes, whereas patients with supe-
rior cluneal nerve entrapment have no back pain and no motor
or reflex changes. The sensory changes of superior cluneal nerve
entrapment are limited to the distribution of the superior cluneal
nerve and should not extend below the upper buttocks. It should
be remembered that lumbar radiculopathy and superior cluneal
nerve entrapment may coexist as the double crush syndrome.
Occasionally, lumbar plexopathy produces buttocks pain, which
may confuse the diagnosis.
Treatment
Patients with superior cluneal nerve entrapment should be
instructed in avoidance techniques to reduce the symptoms and
pain associated with this entrapment neuropathy. A short course
of conservative therapy consisting of simple analgesics, nonste-
roidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), or cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors is a reasonable first step in the treatment of
superior cluneal nerve entrapment. If patients do not experience
rapid improvement, injection is the next step.
To treat the pain of superior cluneal nerve entrapment, the
patient is placed in the prone position. The posterior iliac crest is
identified by palpation, as are the spinous processes of the adjacent
lumbar vertebra. A point 7 cm lateral to midline, along the poste-
rior iliac crest, is identified and prepared with antiseptic solution.
A 112-inch, 25-gauge needle is slowly advanced perpendicular to
the skin until the needle is felt to pop through the fascia. A pares-
thesia is often elicited. After careful aspiration, a solution of 5 to 7
mL of 1% preservative-free lidocaine and 40 mg methylpredniso-
lone is injected in a fanlike pattern as the needle pierces the fascia
gluteal muscle. After injection of the solution, pressure is applied
to the injection site to decrease the incidence of ecchymosis and
233
234 SECTION 8 Lumbar Spine and Sacroiliac Joint Pain Syndromes

Entrapped, inflamed,
and flattened
cluneal nerves

Gluteus medius
Gluteus maximus

Figure 80-1 Distribution of the superior cluneal nerves as they pass over the posterior iliac crest and provide cutaneous innervation of the buttocks.
The medial superior cluneal nerve is shown crossing the iliac crest 7 cm from midline. The wearing of low-cut jeans with tight waistbands or wide
belts can compress the nerve and exacerbate the symptoms of superior cluneal nerve entrapment.

hematoma formation, which can be quite dramatic, especially in SUGGESTED READINGS

anticoagulated patients. If anatomical landmarks are difficult to
identify, the use of fluoroscopic or ultrasound guidance should
be considered.
Complications and Pitfalls
Care must be taken to rule out other conditions that may mimic
the pain of superior cluneal nerve entrapment. The main compli-
cations of the injection technique are ecchymosis and hematoma.
Rarely, infection may occur. Early detection of infection is crucial
to avoid potentially life-threatening sequelae.
Clinical Pearls
Akbas M, Yegin A, Karsli B: Superior cluneal nerve entrapment eight years after
decubitus surgery, Pain Pract 5:364366, 2005.
Aly TA, Tanaka Y, Aizawa T, Ozawa H, Kokubun S: Medial superior cluneal
nerve entrapment neuropathy in teenagers: a report of two cases, Tohoku J Exp
Med 197:229231, 2002.
Herring A, Price DD, Nagdev A, Simon B: Superior cluneal nerve block for
treatment of buttock abscesses in the emergency department, J Emerg Med
39:8385, 2010.
Lu J, Ebraheim NA, Huntoon M, Heck BE, Yeasting RA: Anatomic consider-
ations of superior cluneal nerve at posterior iliac crest region, Clin Orthop Relat
Res 347:224228, 1998.
Maigne JY, Doursounian L: Entrapment neuropathy of the medial superior cluneal
nerve: nineteen cases surgically treated, with a minimum of 2 years follow-up,
Spine 22:11561159, 1997.
Talu GK, zyalin S, Talu U: Superior cluneal nerve entrapment, Reg Anesth Pain
Med 25:648650, 2000.

Superior cluneal nerve entrapment is a common condition

that is often misdiagnosed as lumbar radiculopathy, sacroiliac
pain, or gluteal bursitis. The injection technique described
can produce dramatic pain relief; however, if a patient has
pain suggestive of superior cluneal nerve entrapment but
does not respond to superior cluneal nerve block, a lesion
more proximal in the lumbar plexus or an L1-3 radiculop-
athy should be considered. Such patients often respond to
epidural block with steroid. Electromyography and MRI of
the lumbar plexus are indicated in this patient population to
rule out other causes of pain, including malignancy invading
the lumbar plexus or epidural or vertebral metastatic disease
at L1-3.
Chapter 81
LUMBAR MYOFASCIAL PAIN
SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 724.2
ICD-10 CODE M54.5
The Clinical Syndrome
The muscles of the back work together as a functional unit to
stabilize and allow coordinated movement of the low back and
allow maintaining an upright position. Trauma to an individual
muscle can result in dysfunction of the entire functional unit.
The rhomboids, latissimus dorsi, iliocostalis quadratus lumbo-
rum, multifidus, and psoas muscles are frequent sites of myo-
fascial pain syndrome. The points of origin and attachments of
these muscles are particularly susceptible to trauma and the sub-
sequent development of myofascial trigger points (Figure 81-1).
Injection of these trigger points serves as a diagnostic and thera-
peutic maneuver.
The muscles of the back are particularly susceptible to the devel-
opment of myofascial pain syndrome. Flexion/extension injuries
to the back or repeated microtrauma secondary to improper lifting
Multifidus m.
Figure 81-1 Myofascial pain syndrome is a chronic pain syndrome that affects a focal or regional portion of the body.
and bending may result in the development of myofascial pain in
the muscles of the back. Myofascial pain syndrome is a chronic
pain syndrome that affects a focal or regional portion of the body.
The sine qua non of myofascial pain syndrome is the finding
of myofascial trigger points on physical examination. Although
these trigger points are generally localized to the regional part of
the body affected, the pain of myofascial pain syndrome often is
referred to other areas. This referred pain often is misdiagnosed or
attributed to other organ systems, leading to extensive evaluations
and ineffective treatment. Patients with myofascial pain syndrome
involving the muscles of the low back often have referred pain into
the hips, sacroiliac joint, and buttocks.
Signs and Symptoms
The trigger point is the pathognomonic lesion of myofascial pain
and is thought to be the result of microtrauma to the affected
muscles. This pathological lesion is characterized by a local point
of exquisite tenderness in affected muscle. Mechanical stimulation
of the trigger point by palpation or stretching produces not only
intense local pain, but also referred pain. In addition to this local
and referred pain, an involuntary withdrawal of the stimulated
235
236 SECTION 8 Lumbar Spine and Sacroiliac Joint Pain Syndromes
muscle often occurs that is called a jump sign. This jump sign also
is characteristic of myofascial pain syndrome.
Taut bands of muscle fibers often are identified when myo-
fascial trigger points are palpated. Despite this consistent physi-
cal finding in patients with myofascial pain syndrome, the
pathophysiology of the myofascial trigger point remains elusive,
although many theories have been advanced. Common to all
of these theories is the belief that trigger points are the result of
microtrauma to the affected muscle. This microtrauma may occur
as a single injury to the affected muscle or as the result of repeti-
tive microtrauma or chronic deconditioning of the agonist and
antagonist muscle unit.
In addition to muscle trauma, a variety of other factors seem
to predispose to development of myofascial pain syndrome. The
weekend athlete who subjects his or her body to unaccustomed
physical activity often develops myofascial pain syndrome. Poor
posture while sitting at a computer keyboard or watching television
has been implicated as a predisposing factor to the development of
myofascial pain syndrome. Previous injuries may result in abnormal
muscle function and predispose to the subsequent development of
myofascial pain syndrome. All of these predisposing factors may be
intensified if the patient also has poor nutritional status or coex-
isting psychological or behavioral abnormalities, including chronic
stress and depression. The muscles of the low back seem to be par-
ticularly susceptible to stress-induced myofascial pain syndrome.
Stiffness and fatigue often coexist with the pain of myofascial
pain syndrome, increasing the functional disability associated with
this disease and complicating its treatment. Myofascial pain syn-
drome may occur as a primary disease state or may occur in con-
junction with other painful conditions, including radiculopathy
and chronic regional pain syndromes. Psychological or behavioral
abnormalities, including depression, frequently coexist with the
muscle abnormalities associated with myofascial pain syndrome.
Treatment of these psychological and behavioral abnormalities
must be an integral part of any successful treatment plan for myo-
fascial pain syndrome.
Testing
No specific test exists for lumbar myofascial pain syndrome. Test-
ing is aimed primarily at identifying occult pathology or other
diseases that may mimic myofascial pain syndrome (see discussion
of differential diagnosis). Plain radiographs help delineate bony
abnormality of the lumbar spine, including arthritis, fracture,
congenital abnormalities (e.g., trefoil spinal canal), and tumor. All
patients with recent onset of myofascial pain syndrome should
undergo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the lumbar spine
to rule out occult pathological processes. Screening laboratory
tests, consisting of complete blood count, erythrocyte sedimen-
tation rate, antinuclear antibody testing, and automated blood
chemistry testing, should be performed to rule out occult inflam-
matory arthritis, infection, and tumor.
Differential Diagnosis
Lumbar myofascial pain syndrome is a clinical diagnosis of exclu-
sion that is supported by a combination of clinical history, physi-
cal examination, radiography, and MRI. Pain syndromes that
may mimic lumbar myofascial pain syndrome include lumbar
strain, inflammatory arthritis, and disorders of the lumbar spi-
nal cord, roots, plexus, and nerves. Congenital abnormalities,
such as arteriovenous malformations and trefoil spinal canal, and
spondylolisthesis also may mimic the clinical presentation of lum-
bar myofascial pain syndrome.
Treatment
Lumbar myofascial pain syndrome is best treated with a multi-
modality approach. Physical therapy, including correction of
functional abnormalities (e.g., poor posture, improper chair or
computer height) and the use of heat modalities and deep sedative
massage, combined with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) and skeletal muscle relaxants represents a reasonable
starting point. If these treatments fail to provide rapid symptomatic
relief, local trigger point injection of anesthetic and steroid into the
myofascial trigger point area is a reasonable next step. Underlying
diffuse muscle pain and sleep disturbance and depression are best
treated with a tricyclic antidepressant compound, such as nortrip-
tyline, which can be started at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg.
When performing trigger point injections, careful prepara-
tion of the patient before injection helps optimize results. Trigger
point injections are directed at the primary trigger point, rather
than the area of referred pain. It should be explained to the patient
that the goal of trigger point injection is to block the trigger of the
persistent pain and, it is hoped, provide long-lasting relief. It is
important that the patient understand that for most patients with
myofascial pain syndrome, more than one treatment modality is
required to provide optimal pain relief. The use of the prone or
lateral position when identifying and marking trigger points and
when performing the actual trigger point injection helps decrease
the incidence of vasovagal reactions. The skin overlying the trig-
ger point to be injected should always be prepared with antiseptic
solution before injection to avoid infection.
After the goals of trigger point injection are explained to the
patient and proper preparation of the patient has been carried out,
the trigger point to be injected is reidentified by palpation with a
sterile gloved finger (Figure 81-2). A syringe containing 10 mL of
Trapezius m. Erector spinae m.
Latissimus dorsi m. Serratus posterior m.
Trigger points
Carrico & Shavell
Figure 81-2 Injection technique to relieve lumbar myofascial pain.
(From Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management injection techniques, ed
2, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders, p 330.)
 81 Lumbar Myofascial Pain Syndrome 237

0.25% preservative-free bupivacaine and 40 mg of methylpred- SUGGESTED READINGS

nisolone to be injected is attached to a 25-gauge needle of a length
adequate to reach the trigger point. For the deeper muscles of
posture in the low back, a 312-inch needle is required. A volume
of 0.5 to 1 mL of solution is injected into each trigger point. The
patient should be informed that a series of two to five treatment
sessions may be required to abolish the trigger point completely.
Complications and Pitfalls
The proximity to the spinal cord and exiting nerve roots makes
it imperative that this procedure be performed only by clinicians
well versed in the regional anatomy and experienced in perform-
ing interventional pain management techniques. Many patients
report a transient increase in pain after injection of trigger points.
If long needles are used, pneumothorax or damage to the retro-
peritoneal organs, including the kidneys, also may occur.
Bradley LA: Pathophysiology of fibromyalgia, Am J Med 122:S22S30, 2009.
Ge H-Y, Nie HL, Madeleine P, et al: Contribution of the local and referred
pain from active myofascial trigger points in fibromyalgia syndrome, Pain
147:233240, 2009.
Krismer M, van Tulder M: The Low Back Pain Group of the Bone and Joint
Health Strategies for Europe Project: Low back pain (non-specific), Best Pract
Res Clin Rheumatol 21:7791, 2007.
Mens JMA: The use of medication in low back pain, Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol
19:609621, 2005.
Stanos SP, PM, Harden RN: The physiatric approach to low back pain, Semin
Pain Med 2:186196, 2004.

Clinical Pearls
Trigger point injections are an extremely safe procedure if
careful attention is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy in
the areas to be injected. Care must be taken to use sterile tech-
nique to avoid infection and universal precautions to avoid
risk to the operator. Most side effects of trigger point injec-
tion are related to needle-induced trauma to the injection
site and underlying tissues. The incidence of ecchymosis and
hematoma formation can be decreased if pressure is placed
on the injection site immediately after trigger point injec-
tion. The avoidance of overly long needles helps decrease the
incidence of trauma to underlying structures. Special care
must be taken to avoid pneumothorax when injecting trig-
ger points in proximity to the underlying pleural space.
Antidepressant compounds are the primary pharmaco-
logical treatment for myofascial pain syndrome. Tricyclic
antidepressants are thought to be more effective than selec-
tive serotonin reuptake inhibitors in the treatment of this
painful condition. The precise mechanism of action of anti-
depressant compounds in the treatment of myofascial pain
syndrome is unknown. Some investigators believe that the
primary effect of this class of drugs is to treat the underlying
depression that is present in many patients with myofascial
pain syndrome. Drugs such as amitriptyline and nortrip-
tyline represent good first choices and should be given as a
single bedtime dose, starting with 10 to 25 mg and titrating
upward as side effects allow.
SECTION 9 Pelvic Pain Syndromes
Chapter 82
PROCTALGIA FUGAX
ICD-9 CODE 564.6
ICD-10 CODE K59.4
The Clinical Syndrome
Proctalgia fugax is a disease of unknown cause characterized by
paroxysms of rectal pain with pain-free periods between attacks.
The pain-free periods between attacks can last seconds to minutes.
Similar to cluster headache, spontaneous remissions of the disease
occur and may last weeks to years. Proctalgia fugax is more com-
mon in women and occurs with greater frequency in patients with
irritable bowel syndrome.
The pain of proctalgia fugax is sharp or gripping and severe.
Similar to other urogenital focal pain syndromes, such as vul-
vodynia and prostadynia, the causes remain obscure. Stress and
sitting for prolonged periods often increase the frequency and
intensity of attacks of proctalgia fugax. Patients often feel an urge
to defecate with the onset of the paroxysms of pain (Figure 82-1).
Depression often accompanies the pain of proctalgia fugax but is
not thought to be the primary cause. The symptoms of proctalgia
fugax can be so severe as to limit the patients ability to perform
activities of daily living.
Signs and Symptoms
The physical examination of a patient with proctalgia fugax is usu-
ally normal. The patient may be depressed or appear anxious. Rectal
examination is normal, although deep palpation of the surround-
ing musculature may trigger paroxysms of pain. The patient often
reports that he or she can abort the attack of pain by placing a finger
in the rectum. Rectal suppositories also may interrupt the attacks.
Testing
Similar to the physical examination, testing in patients with proct-
algia fugax is usually normal. Because of the risk for overlook-
ing rectal malignancy that may be responsible for pain that may
be attributed to a benign cause, by necessity proctalgia fugax is
238
a diagnosis of exclusion. Rectal examination is mandatory in all
patients thought to have proctalgia fugax. Sigmoidoscopy or colo-
noscopy is strongly recommended in such patients. Testing of the
stool for occult blood is indicated. Screening laboratory studies,
consisting of a complete blood cell count, automated chemistries,
and erythrocyte sedimentation rate, should be performed. Mag-
netic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT)
of the pelvis should be considered in all patients with proctalgia
fugax to rule out occult pathology (Figure 82-2). If psychological
problems are suspected or the patient has a history of sexual abuse,
psychiatric evaluation is indicated concurrently with laboratory
and radiographic testing.
Differential Diagnosis
As mentioned previously, because of the risk for overlooking seri-
ous pathology of the anus and rectum, proctalgia fugax must be
a diagnosis of exclusion. The clinician first must rule out rectal
malignancy to avoid disaster. Proctitis can mimic the pain of proct-
algia fugax and can be diagnosed on sigmoidoscopy or colonos-
copy. Hemorrhoids usually manifest with bleeding associated with
pain and can be distinguished from proctalgia fugax on physical
examination. Prostadynia sometimes may be confused with proct-
algia fugax, but the pain is more constant, more dull, and aching.
Treatment
Initial treatment of proctalgia fugax should include a combina-
tion of simple analgesics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors. If these medi-
cations do not control the symptoms adequately, a tricyclic anti-
depressant or gabapentin should be added. Traditionally, tricyclic
antidepressants have been a mainstay in the palliation of pain second-
ary to proctalgia fugax. Controlled studies have shown the efficacy
of amitriptyline for this indication. Other tricyclic antidepressants,
including nortriptyline and desipramine, also have been shown to be
clinically useful. This class of drugs is associated with significant anti-
cholinergic side effects, including dry mouth, constipation, sedation,
and urinary retention. These drugs should be used with caution in
patients with glaucoma, cardiac arrhythmia, and prostatism.
To minimize side effects and encourage compliance, the pri-
mary care physician should start amitriptyline or nortriptyline at

Rectum
Anal canal
Figure 82-1 The pain of proctalgia fugax is sharp or gripping and severe. Increased stress and sitting for prolonged periods can increase the
frequency and intensity of attacks.
Figure 82-2 Ulcerative colitis. The bowel wall of the rectum and sig-
moid colon is minimally thickened with a target appearance (arrow-
heads). (From Haaga JR, Lanzieri CF, Gilkeson RC, editors: CT and MR
imaging of the whole body, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2003, Mosby, p 1245.)
a 10-mg dose at bedtime. The dose can be titrated upward to 25
mg at bedtime, as side effects allow. Upward titration of dosage
in 25-mg increments can be done each week as side effects allow.
Even at lower doses, patients generally report a rapid improve-
ment in sleep disturbance and begin to experience some pain relief
in 10 to 14 days. If the patient does not experience any improve-
ment in pain as the dose is being titrated upward, the addition
of gabapentin alone or in combination with nerve blocks of the
intercostal nerves with local anesthetics, steroid, or both is recom-
mended. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, such as fluox-
etine, also have been used to treat the pain of diabetic neuropathy;
82 Proctalgia Fugax 239
although better tolerated than the tricyclic antidepressants, they
seem to be less efficacious.
If antidepressant compounds are ineffective or contraindi-
cated, gabapentin is a reasonable alternative. Gabapentin should
be started with a 300-mg dose at bedtime for 2 nights. The patient
should be cautioned about potential side effects, including dizzi-
ness, sedation, confusion, and rash. The drug is increased in 300-
mg increments, given in equally divided doses over 2 days, as side
effects allow, until pain relief is obtained or a total dose of 2400
mg daily is reached. At this point, if the patient has experienced
partial pain relief, blood values are measured, and the drug is care-
fully titrated upward using 100-mg tablets. More than 3600 mg
daily rarely is required.
Local application of heat and cold also may be beneficial to
provide symptomatic relief of the pain of proctalgia fugax. The
use of bland rectal suppositories may help provide symptomatic
relief. For patients who do not respond to these treatment modali-
ties, injection of the peroneal nerves or caudal epidural nerve block
using a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step.
Anecdotal reports indicate that calcium channel blockers, topical
nitroglycerin, and inhalation of albuterol provide symptomatic
relief of the pain of proctalgia fugax.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major problem in the care of patients thought to have
proctalgia fugax is the failure to identify potentially serious
pathology of the anus or rectum secondary to primary tumor or
invasion of these structures by pelvic tumor. Although uncom-
mon, occult rectal infection remains a possibility, especially in
240 SECTION 9 Pelvic Pain Syndromes

an immunocompromised patient with cancer. Early detection of SUGGESTED READINGS

infection is crucial to avoid potentially life-threatening sequelae.
Clinical Pearls
Proctalgia fugax is a distressing disease for patients. The
paroxysms of pain may occur without warning and make
the patient afraid to leave the house. The main focus of
the clinician caring for a patient with proctalgia fugax is
to ensure that occult malignancy has not been overlooked.
Given the psychological implications of pain involving the
genitals and rectum, the clinician should not overlook the
possibility of psychological abnormality in patients with
pain in the rectum.
Bharucha AE, Wald A, Enck P, Rao A: Functional anorectal disorders, Gastroen-
terology 130:15101518, 2006.
Karras JD, Angelo G: Proctalgia fugax, Am J Surg 82:616625, 1951.
Vincent C: Anorectal pain and irritation: anal fissure, levator syndrome, proctalgia
fugax, and pruritus ani, Prim Care 26:5368, 1999.
Waldman SD: Proctalgia fugax. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review, Philadelphia,
2009, Saunders, pp 307308.
Weizman Z, Binsztok M: Proctalgia fugax in teenagers, J Pediatr 114:813814,
1989.
Chapter 83
PROSTATODYNIA
ICD-9 CODE 608.9
ICD-10 CODE R10.2
The Clinical Syndrome
Prostatodynia is an uncommon cause of perineal pain in men.
Also known as chronic nonbacterial prostatitis and chronic pel-
vic pain syndrome, prostatodynia probably is not a single clini-
cal entity, but rather the conglomeration of a variety of disorders
that can cause pain in this anatomical region. Included in these
disorders are chronic infections of the prostate, chronic inflam-
mation of the prostate without demonstrable infection, bladder
outflow abnormalities, pelvic floor muscle disorders, reflex sym-
pathetic dystrophy, and psychogenic causes. All have in common
the ability to cause chronic, ill-defined perineal pain, which is the
hallmark of prostatodynia.
The pain of prostatodynia is characterized by dull, aching,
or burning pain of the perineum and underlying structures
(Figure 83-1). The intensity of pain is mild to moderate and
may worsen with urination or sexual activity. The pain may be
referred to the penis, testicles, scrotum, or inner thigh. Irritative
urinary outflow symptoms and sexual dysfunction often coex-
ist with the pain of prostatodynia. The history of all patients
with chronic prostatodynia should include specific questioning
regarding a history of sexual abuse.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical examination of patients with acute prostatodynia is
directed at identifying acute bacterial infection of the prostate,
urinary tract, or both. Patients with acute orchitis secondary to
infections, including sexually transmitted diseases, have a prostate
that is exquisitely tender to palpation. For patients with chronic
prostatodynia, the physical findings are often nonspecific, with
the prostate mildly tender to palpation, unless specific pathologi-
cal processes are present. Allodynia of the perineum also often is
present. Prostate malignancy always should be considered in any
patient presenting with prostatodynia. Physical findings in this
setting vary, but prostate enlargement is often an early finding.
Extraprostate pathological processes can occur with the pri-
mary symptom of prostatodynia. One of the most common causes
of prostatodynia of extraprostate origin is malignancy involving
pelvic contents other than the prostate. Tumor involving the lum-
bar plexus, cauda equina, or hypogastric plexus rarely can mani-
fest as pain localized to the prostate and perineum. Postradiation
neuropathy can occur after radiation therapy for the treatment of
malignancy of the prostate and rectum and can mimic the pain of
prostatodynia.
Testing
Digital examination of the prostate is the cornerstone of the
diagnosis of patients with prostatodynia. Careful examination
for tenderness, nodules, or tumor is crucial to avoid overlooking
prostatic malignancy. Ultrasound examination of the prostate is
indicated in all patients with prostatodynia. If any question of
occult malignancy of the prostate or pelvic contents exists, mag-
netic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT) of
the pelvis is mandatory, as is laboratory determination of prostate-
specific antigen level (Figure 83-2). Acute infection of the pros-
tate can elevate the prostate-specific antigen level. Urinalysis to
rule out urinary tract infection is indicated in all patients with
prostatodynia. The role of laboratory examination of postpros-
tatic massage prostatic fluid in the evaluation of prostatodynia is
unclear, although anecdotal reports exist of the consistent finding
of an elevated uric acid level in the prostatic fluid of patients with
prostatodynia.
Electromyography helps distinguish radiation neuropathy
from lumbar plexopathy or lumbar radiculopathy. Based on the
patients clinical presentation, additional tests, including com-
plete blood cell count, uric acid, erythrocyte sedimentation rate,
and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. MRI of the
lumbar plexus is indicated if tumor or hematoma is suspected.
Differential Diagnosis
Extraprostate pathology, including reflex sympathetic dystrophy
and lesions of the lumbar plexus, nerve roots, and spinal cord,
can mimic the pain of prostatodynia and must be included in the
differential diagnosis. As mentioned earlier, because of the disas-
trous results of missing a diagnosis of prostatic malignancy when
evaluating and treating patients thought to have prostatodynia, it
is mandatory that malignancy be high on the list of differential
diagnostic possibilities (Figure 83-3). It is also important to cor-
rectly diagnose any underlying causes of prostatitis because some
are readily amenable to treatment with antibiotics (Table 83-1).
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain associated with prostatodynia should
include a combination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors. The local
application of heat and cold with sitz baths also may be beneficial.
241
242 SECTION 9 Pelvic Pain Syndromes
Sitz bath
Figure 83-1 The pain of prostatodynia is characterized by dull, aching, or burning pain of the perineum and underlying structures.
Figure 83-2 Coronal T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging of
the prostate in a patient with a prostate-specific antigen level of 9.2,
Gleason cancer score of 7 on biopsy, and organ-confined disease on
digital rectal examination. The patient was being assessed for radical
prostatectomy. Low T2 signal intensity is seen extending into the left
seminal vesicle (arrow), consistent with T3B disease. In view of this
unequivocal finding, the patient opted to undergo radiation treat-
ment instead of surgery. (From Edelman RR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB,
etal, editors: Clinical magnetic resonance imaging, 3rd ed, Philadel-
phia, 2006, Saunders, p 2925.)
Prostate
Urethra
Penis
Testicle
Scrotum
Figure 83-3 Prostate cancer (arrows) infiltrating and displacing the nor-
mal high signal intensity peripheral zone. The fibrous prostate capsule
is intact, separating the cancer from the high signal intensity lateral
periprostatic venous plexus. (From Stark DD, Bradley WG Jr: Magnetic
resonance imaging, 3rd ed, St Louis, 1999, Mosby, p 626.)
An arbitrary treatment course of antibiotics, such as doxycycline
100 mg twice daily for 2 weeks, may be worth trying, even though
urine cultures are negative. Anecdotal reports of decreased pain
after treatment with allopurinol make this drug a consideration
for patients who continue to have pain. For patients who do not
respond to these treatment modalities, caudal epidural nerve
 83 Prostatodynia 243

TABLE 83-1
Distinguishing Features of Prostate Syndromes
Prostatic Fluid
Prostate Response to Impaired
Syndrome Confirmed UTI Examination WBC Culture Antibiotics Urinary Flow
Acute bacterial Yes Tender, warm Yes Yes Yes Yes
prostatitis
Chronic bacterial Usually Varied Yes Yes Slow
prostatitis
Nonbacterial No Varied Yes No Poor
prostatitis
Prostatodynia No Usually normal No No No Yes
From Lummus WE, Thompson I: Prostatitis, Emerg Med Clin North Am 19:691707, 2001.
UTI, Urinary tract infection.

blocks with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next
step. Psychological evaluation and interventions should occur
concurrently with the aforementioned treatment modalities, given
the high incidence of coexistent psychological issues associated
with all pelvic pain syndromes.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major pitfalls in the care of a patient with prostatodynia are
threefold: (1) the misdiagnosis of extraprostate pathological pro-
cesses responsible for the patients pain, (2) the failure to identify
prostate malignancy, and (3) the failure to address the psychologi-
cal issues surrounding the patients pain.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Lummus WE, Thompson I: Prostatitis, Emerg Med Clin North Am 19:691707,
2001.
Rarbalias GA: Prostatodynia or painful male urethral syndrome? Urology
36:146153, 1990.
Turner JA, Hauge S, Von Korff M, et al: Primary care and urology patients
with the male pelvic pain syndrome: symptoms and quality of life, J Urol
167:17681773, 2002.
Wesselmann U, Burnett AL, Heinberg LJ: The urogenital and rectal pain
syndromes, Pain 73:269294, 1997.

Clinical Pearls
The clinician should be aware that the relationship of the
genitalia to the male psyche presents some unique chal-
lenges for the clinician treating patients with prostatodynia.
The behavioral and psychological issues must be addressed
concurrently with the medical issues if treatment is to be
successful. The possibility for prostate malignancy is ever
present and should be carefully sought in all patients with
prostatodynia.
Chapter 84
GLUTEUS MAXIMUS PAIN
SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 729.1
ICD-10 CODE M79.1
The Clinical Syndrome
The primary function of the gluteus maximus muscle is as a hip
extensor. The gluteus maximus muscle has its origin at the pos-
terior aspect of the dorsal ilium, the posterior superior iliac crest,
the posterior inferior aspect of the sacrum and coccyx, and the
sacrotuberous ligament (Figure 84-1). The muscle inserts on the
fascia lata at the iliotibial band and the gluteal tuberosity on the
femur. The muscle is innervated by the inferior gluteal nerve. The
Gluteus maximus m.
Figure 84-1 The primary function of the gluteus maximus muscle is as a
hip extensor. It originates at the posterior aspect of the dorsal ilium, the
posterior superior iliac crest, the posterior inferior aspect of the sacrum
and coccyx, and the sacrotuberous ligament.
244
gluteus maximus muscle is susceptible to trauma and to wear and
tear from overuse and misuse and may develop myofascial pain
syndrome, which also may be associated with gluteal bursitis. The
pain of myofascial pain syndrome most often occurs as a result of
repetitive microtrauma to the muscle from activities such as run-
ning on soft surfaces and overuse of exercise equipment or other
repetitive activities that require hip extension. Blunt trauma to
the muscle also may incite gluteus maximus myofascial pain syn-
drome.
Myofascial pain syndrome is a chronic pain syndrome that
affects a focal or regional portion of the body. The sine qua
non of myofascial pain syndrome is the finding of myofascial
trigger points on physical examination. Although these trigger
points generally are localized to the regional part of the body
affected, the pain of myofascial pain syndrome often is referred
to other anatomical areas. This referred pain often is misdiag-
nosed or attributed to other organ systems, leading to extensive
evaluations and ineffective treatment. Patients with myofascial
pain syndrome involving the gluteus maximus often have pri-
mary pain in the medial and lower aspects of the muscle that
is referred across the buttocks and into the coccygeal area (Fig-
ure 84-2). Taut bands of muscle fibers often are identified when
myofascial trigger points are palpated. Despite this consistent
physical finding in patients who have myofascial pain syndrome,
the pathophysiology of the myofascial trigger point remains elu-
sive, although many theories have been advanced. Common to
all of these theories is the belief that trigger points are the result
of microtrauma to the affected muscle. This microtrauma may
occur as a single injury to the affected muscle or as the result of
repetitive microtrauma or chronic deconditioning of the agonist
and antagonist muscle unit.
In addition to muscle trauma, a variety of other factors seem to
predispose the patient to develop myofascial pain syndrome. The
weekend athlete who subjects his or her body to unaccustomed
physical activity often develops myofascial pain syndrome. Poor
posture while sitting at a computer keyboard or while watching
television also has been implicated as a predisposing factor to the
development of myofascial pain syndrome. Previous injuries may
result in abnormal muscle function and predispose to the sub-
sequent development of myofascial pain syndrome. All of these
predisposing factors may be intensified if the patient also has poor
nutritional status or coexisting psychological or behavioral abnor-
malities, including chronic stress and depression. The muscles of
the low back and hip seem to be particularly susceptible to stress-
induced myofascial pain syndrome.
Stiffness and fatigue often coexist with the pain of myofascial
pain syndrome, increasing the functional disability associated
with this disease and complicating its treatment. Myofascial pain

syndrome may occur as a primary disease state or may occur in
conjunction with other painful conditions, including radiculopa-
thy and chronic regional pain syndromes. Psychological or behav-
ioral abnormalities, including depression, frequently coexist with
the muscle abnormalities associated with myofascial pain syn-
drome. Treatment of these psychological and behavioral abnor-
malities must be an integral part of any successful treatment plan
for myofascial pain syndrome.
Signs and Symptoms
The trigger point is the pathognomonic lesion of myofascial pain
and is thought to be the result of microtrauma to the affected
muscles. This pathological lesion is characterized by a local point
of exquisite tenderness in affected muscle. Mechanical stimulation
of the trigger point by palpation or stretching produces not only
intense local pain but also referred pain. In addition to this local
and referred pain, an involuntary withdrawal of the stimulated
muscle, termed the jump sign, often occurs. The jump sign also is
characteristic of myofascial pain syndrome. Patients with gluteus
maximus pain syndrome exhibit trigger points in the medial and
lower aspects of the muscle that are referred across the buttocks
and into the coccygeal area.
Testing
No specific test exists for gluteus maximus pain syndrome. Testing
is aimed primarily at identifying occult pathological conditions or
other diseases that may mimic myofascial pain syndrome (see dis-
cussion of differential diagnosis). Plain radiographs help delineate
bony abnormality of the pelvis and hip, including arthritis, avas-
cular necrosis of the hip, fracture, congenital abnormalities, and
tumor. All patients with the recent onset of myofascial pain syn-
drome should undergo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the
lumbar spine and pelvis to rule out occult pathological processes
(Figure 84-3). Screening laboratory tests, consisting of complete
blood count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, antinuclear antibody
Trigger point
Referred pain
Gluteus maximus m.
Figure 84-2 Injection technique to relieve gluteus maximus pain. (From Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management injection techniques, 2nd ed, Phila-
delphia, 2007, Saunders, p 379.)
84 Gluteus Maximus Pain Syndrome 245
testing, and automated blood chemistry testing, should be per-
formed to rule out occult inflammatory arthritis, infection, and
tumor.
Differential Diagnosis
Gluteus maximus pain syndrome is a clinical diagnosis of exclu-
sion supported by a combination of clinical history, physical
examination, radiography, and MRI. Pain syndromes that may
mimic gluteus maximus pain syndrome include lumbosacral
radiculopathy and plexopathy, stress fractures of the pelvis and
hip, muscle strain, inflammatory arthritis, and disorders of the
lumbar spinal cord, roots, plexus, and nerves. Intrapelvic tumors
also may mimic the clinical presentation of gluteus maximus pain
syndrome.
Treatment
Gluteus maximus pain syndrome is best treated with a multi-
modality approach. Physical therapy, including correction of
functional abnormalities (e.g., poor posture, improper chair or
computer height) and the use of heat modalities and deep sedative
massage, combined with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) and skeletal muscle relaxants, represents a reasonable
starting point. If these treatments fail to provide rapid symptom-
atic relief, local trigger point injection of local anesthetic and ste-
roid into the myofascial trigger point area is a reasonable next step.
Underlying diffuse muscle pain and sleep disturbance and depres-
sion are best treated with a tricyclic antidepressant compound,
such as nortriptyline, which can be started at a single bedtime
dose of 25 mg.
When performing trigger point injections, careful prepara-
tion of the patient before trigger point injection helps optimize
results. Trigger point injections are directed at the primary trig-
ger point, rather than in the area of referred pain. It should be
explained to the patient that the goal of trigger point injection is
to block the trigger of the persistent pain and, it is hoped, provide
246 SECTION 9 Pelvic Pain Syndromes

A B
Figure 84-3 Gluteal intramuscular hematoma. A, Axial T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. Subacute left gluteal region hematoma manifests
as a hyperintense rim, consistent with the presence of methemoglobin. B, Axial T2-weighted image. The left gluteal hematoma exhibits a hyper-
intense signal pattern. (From Edelman RR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB, et al, editors: Clinical magnetic resonance imaging, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2006,
Saunders, p 3387.)

long-lasting relief. It is important that the patient understand

that for most patients with myofascial pain syndrome, more
Clinical Pearls
than one treatment modality is required to provide optimal pain
relief. The use of the prone or lateral position when identify-
ing and marking trigger points and when performing the actual
trigger point injection helps decrease the incidence of vasovagal
reactions. The skin overlying the trigger point to be injected
always should be prepared with antiseptic solution before injec-
tion to avoid infection.
After the goals of trigger point injection are explained to the
patient and proper preparation of the patient has been carried
out, the trigger point to be injected is identified again by palpa-
tion with the sterile gloved finger (see Figure 84-2). A syringe
containing 10 mL of 0.25% preservative-free bupivacaine and
40 mg of methylprednisolone to be injected is attached to a
25-gauge needle of a length adequate to reach the trigger point.
A volume of 0.5 to 1 mL of solution is injected into each trig-
ger point. The patient should be informed that two to five
treatment sessions may be required to abolish the trigger point
completely.
Complications and Pitfalls
The proximity to the sciatic nerve makes it imperative that this
procedure be performed only by clinicians well versed in the
regional anatomy and experienced in performing interventional
pain management techniques. Many patients also complain of a
transient increase in pain after injection of trigger points. If long
needles are used, damage to the retroperitoneal organs also may
occur.
Trigger point injections are an extremely safe procedure if
careful attention is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy
in the areas to be injected. Care must be taken to use sterile
technique to avoid infection; universal precautions should
be used to avoid risk to the operator. Most side effects of
trigger point injection are related to needle-induced trauma
to the injection site and underlying tissues. The incidence
of ecchymosis and hematoma formation can be decreased
if pressure is placed on the injection site immediately after
trigger point injection. The avoidance of overly long needles
helps decrease the incidence of trauma to underlying struc-
tures. Special care must be taken to avoid pneumothorax
when injecting trigger points in proximity to the underly-
ing pleural space. The antidepressant compounds represent
the primary pharmacological treatment for myofascial pain
syndrome. Tricyclic antidepressants are thought to be more
effective than selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in the
treatment of this painful condition. The precise mechanism
of action of the antidepressant compounds in the treatment
of myofascial pain syndrome is unknown. Some investiga-
tors believe that the primary effect of this class of drugs is
to treat the underlying depression present in many patients
with myofascial pain syndrome. Drugs such as amitriptyline
and nortriptyline represent good first choices and should be
given as a single bedtime dose, starting with 10 to 25 mg
and titrating upward as side effects allow.
 84 Gluteus Maximus Pain Syndrome 247

SUGGESTED READINGS Marsh M: Milnacipran. The comprehensive pharmacology reference, Philadelphia, 2008,
Elsevier, pp 14.
Arnold LM: The pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment of fibromyalgia, Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management injection techniques, Philadelphia, 2007,
Psychiatr Clin North Am 33:375408, 2010. Saunders, pp 378380.
Bradley LA: Pathophysiology of fibromyalgia, Am J Med 122(Suppl 1):S22S30,
2009.
Imamura M, Cassius DA, Fregni F: Fibromyalgia: from treatment to rehabilita-
tion, Eur J Pain Suppl 3:117122, 2009.
Chapter 85
GLUTEUS MEDIUS SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 729.1
ICD-10 CODE M79.7
The Clinical Syndrome
The gluteus medius muscles primary function is as a hip abduc-
tor, and the muscle also assists in medial and lateral rotation of the
hip. The gluteus medius muscle finds its origin at the dorsal ilium
just below the iliac crest. The gluteus medius muscle is susceptible
to the development of myofascial pain syndrome. Such pain most
often occurs as a result of repetitive microtrauma to the muscle
from activities such as running on soft surfaces and overuse of
exercise equipment or other repetitive activities that require hip
abduction (Figure 85-1). Blunt trauma to the muscle may also
incite gluteus medius myofascial pain syndrome.
Myofascial pain syndrome is a chronic pain syndrome that
affects a focal or regional portion of the body. The sine qua non of
myofascial pain syndrome is the finding of myofascial trigger points
on physical examination. Although these trigger points generally
Figure 85-1 Gluteus medius syndrome usually results from repetitive
microtrauma to the muscle during such activities as running on soft
surfaces, overuse of exercise equipment, or other repetitive activities
that require hip extension.
248
are localized to the regional part of the body affected, the pain
of myofascial pain syndrome often is referred to other anatomi-
cal areas. This referred pain often is misdiagnosed or attributed
to other organ systems, thereby leading to extensive evaluations
and ineffective treatment. Patients with myofascial pain syndrome
involving the gluteus medius often have primary pain along the
posterior iliac crest that is referred down the buttocks across the
sacroiliac joint and into the posterior lower extremity.
The trigger point is the pathognomonic lesion of myofascial
pain and is thought to be the result of microtrauma to the affected
muscles. This pathological lesion is characterized by a local point
of exquisite tenderness in affected muscle. Mechanical stimulation
of the trigger point by palpation or stretching produces not only
intense local pain but also referred pain. In addition to this local
and referred pain, often an involuntary withdrawal of the stimu-
lated muscle, termed a jump sign, occurs. The jump sign also is
characteristic of myofascial pain syndrome. Patients with gluteus
medius syndrome will exhibit a trigger point along the posterior
iliac crest.
Taut bands of muscle fibers often are identified when myo-
fascial trigger points are palpated. In spite of this consistent
physical finding in patients with myofascial pain syndrome, the
pathophysiology of the myofascial trigger point remains elusive,
although many theories have been advanced. Common to all
of these theories is the belief that trigger points are the result of
microtrauma to the affected muscle. This microtrauma may occur
as a single injury to the affected muscle or as the result of repeti-
tive microtrauma or chronic deconditioning of the agonist and
antagonist muscle unit.
In addition to muscle trauma, a variety of other factors seem to
predispose the patient to develop myofascial pain syndrome. The
weekend athlete who subjects his or her body to unaccustomed
physical activity often may develop myofascial pain syndrome.
Poor posture while sitting at a computer keyboard or while watch-
ing television also has been implicated as a predisposing factor
to the development of myofascial pain syndrome. Previous inju-
ries may result in abnormal muscle function and predispose to
the subsequent development of myofascial pain syndrome. All of
these predisposing factors may be intensified if the patient also has
poor nutritional status or coexisting psychological or behavioral
abnormalities, including chronic stress and depression. The glu-
teus medius muscle seems to be particularly susceptible to stress-
induced myofascial pain syndrome.
Stiffness and fatigue often coexist with the pain of myofas-
cial pain syndrome, increasing the functional disability associ-
ated with this disease and complicating its treatment. Myofascial
pain syndrome may occur as a primary disease state or in con-
junction with other painful conditions, including radiculopathy

and chronic regional pain syndromes. Psychological or behavioral
abnormalities, including depression, frequently coexist with the
muscle abnormalities associated with myofascial pain syndrome.
Treatment of these psychological and behavioral abnormalities
must be an integral part of any successful treatment plan for myo-
fascial pain syndrome.
Signs and Symptoms
The trigger point is the pathological lesion of gluteus medius syn-
drome, and it is characterized by a local point of exquisite ten-
derness in gluteus medius muscle. Mechanical stimulation of the
trigger point by palpation or stretching produces both intense
local pain in the medial and lower aspects of the muscle and
referred primary pain along the posterior iliac crest that is referred
down the buttocks across the sacroiliac joint and into the posterior
lower extremity. In addition, the jump sign is often present.
Testing
Biopsies of clinically identified trigger points have not revealed
consistently abnormal histological findings. The muscle hosting
the trigger points has been described as moth eaten and as con-
taining waxy degeneration. Increased plasma myoglobin has
been reported in some patients with gluteus medius syndrome, but
this finding has not been corroborated by other investigators. Elec-
trodiagnostic testing has revealed an increase in muscle tension in
some patients, but again, this finding has not been reproducible.
Because of the lack of objective diagnostic testing, the clinician
must rule out other coexisting disease processes that may mimic
gluteus medius syndrome (see discussion of differential diagnosis).
Differential Diagnosis
The diagnosis of gluteus medius syndrome is based on clinical
findings rather than specific laboratory, electrodiagnostic, or
radiographic testing. For this reason, a targeted history and physi-
cal examination, with a systematic search for trigger points and
identification of a positive jump sign, must be carried out in every
A B
Figure 85-2 Possible entrapment of the superior gluteal nerve. A, Transverse, T1-weighted, spin echo magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) shows
denervation hypertrophy of the tensor fasciae latae muscle (arrow). B, Similar hypertrophy and high signal intensity are seen in the muscle (arrow)
on transverse, fat-suppressed, T1-weighted, spin echo MRI obtained after intravenous gadolinium administration. (From Resnick D: Diagnosis of bone
and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 3551.)
85 Gluteus Medius Syndrome 249
patient thought to have gluteus medius syndrome. It is incumbent
on the clinician to rule out other coexisting disease processes that
may mimic gluteus medius syndrome, including primary inflam-
matory muscle disease, primary hip pathological processes, glu-
teal bursitis, and superior cluneal and gluteal nerve entrapment
(Figure 85-2). The use of electrodiagnostic and radiographic test-
ing can identify coexisting pathological conditions such as rectal
or pelvic tumors or lumbosacral nerve lesions. The clinician must
also identify coexisting psychological and behavioral abnormali-
ties that may mask or exacerbate the symptoms associated with
gluteus medius syndrome.
Treatment
Treatment is focused on eliminating the myofascial trigger and
achieving relaxation of the affected muscle. It is hoped that inter-
rupting the pain cycle in this way will allow the patient to obtain
prolonged pain relief. The mechanism of action of the treatment
modalities used is poorly understood, so an element of trial and
error is involved in developing a treatment plan.
Conservative therapy consisting of trigger point injection with
local anesthetic or saline is the initial treatment of gluteus medius
syndrome. Because underlying depression and anxiety are present
in many patients, antidepressants are an integral part of most treat-
ment plans. Other methods, including physical therapy, therapeu-
tic heat and cold, transcutaneous nerve stimulation, and electrical
stimulation, may be helpful on a case-by-case basis. For patients
who do not respond to these traditional measures, consideration
should be given to the use of botulinum toxin type A. Although
not currently approved by the Food and Drug Administration for
this indication, the injection of minute quantities of botulinum
toxin type A directly into trigger points has been successful in the
treatment of persistent gluteus medius syndrome.
Complications and Pitfalls
Trigger point injections are extremely safe if careful attention is
paid to the clinically relevant anatomy. Sterile technique must
be used to avoid infection, along with universal precautions to
250 SECTION 9 Pelvic Pain Syndromes

minimize any risk to the operator. Most complications of trigger SUGGESTED READINGS
point injection are related to needle-induced trauma at the injec- Arnold LM: The pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment of fibromyalgia, Psychiatr
tion site and in underlying tissues. The incidence of ecchymosis Clin North Am 33:375408, 2010.
and hematoma formation can be decreased if pressure is applied Bradley LA: Pathophysiology of fibromyalgia, Am J Med 122(Suppl 1):S22S30,
2009.
to the injection site immediately after injection. The avoidance Imamura M, Cassius DA, Fregni F: Fibromyalgia: from treatment to rehabilitation,
of overly long needles can decrease the incidence of trauma to Eur J Pain Suppl 3:117122, 2009.
underlying structures. Special care must be taken to avoid trauma Marsh M: Milnacipran, The comprehensive pharmacology reference, Philadelphia, 2008,
to the sciatic nerve. Elsevier, pp 14.
Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management injection techniques, Philadelphia, 2007,
Saunders, pp 378380.

Clinical Pearls
Although gluteus medius syndrome is a common disorder,
it is often misdiagnosed. Therefore, in patients thought
to have gluteus medius syndrome, a careful evaluation to
identify underlying disease processes is mandatory. Gluteus
medius syndrome often coexists with a variety of somatic
and psychological disorders.
Chapter 86
ORCHIALGIA
ICD-9 CODE 608.9
ICD-10 CODE R10.2
The Clinical Syndrome
Orchialgia, or testicular pain, can be a difficult clinical situation
for the patient and clinician because of the unique significance the
testicle has as part of the male psyche. This fact is crucial if the cli-
nician is to evaluate and treat successfully patients with orchialgia.
Acute orchialgia represents a medical emergency and may be the
result of trauma, infection, or inflammation of the testes or tor-
sion of the testes and spermatic cord. Chronic orchialgia is defined
as testicular pain that is of more than 3 months duration and
significantly interferes with the patients activities of daily living.
Chronic orchialgia can be the result of pathological processes that
are extrascrotal in origin (e.g., ureteral calculi, inguinal hernia,
ilioinguinal or genitofemoral nerve entrapment), diseases of the
lumbar spine and roots, or pathological processes that are intra-
scrotal in origin (e.g., chronic epididymitis, hydrocele, varicocele).
The history of all patients with chronic orchialgia should include
specific questioning regarding a history of sexual abuse.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical examination of patients with acute orchialgia is directed
at identifying acute torsion of the testes and spermatic cord, which
is a surgical emergency. Patients with acute orchitis secondary to
infections, including sexually transmitted diseases, present with
testes that are exquisitely tender to palpation. For patients with
chronic orchialgia, the physical findings are often nonspecific, with
the testicle mildly tender to palpation, unless specific pathological
processes are present (Figure 86-1). Patients with chronic testicu-
lar pain secondary to varicocele present with a scrotum that feels
like a bag of worms. Patients with chronic epididymitis pres-
ent with tenderness that is localized to the epididymis. Testicular
malignancy always should be considered in any patient presenting
with orchialgia. Physical findings in this setting vary, but testicular
enlargement is often an early finding.
As mentioned earlier, extrascrotal pathological processes also
can manifest with the primary symptom of orchialgia. One of the
most common causes of orchialgia of extrascrotal origin is ilioin-
guinal or genitofemoral neuralgia. Ilioinguinal neuralgia manifests
as a sensory deficit in the inner thigh and scrotum in the distribu-
tion of the ilioinguinal nerve. Weakness of the anterior abdominal
wall musculature may be present. Tinels sign may be elicited by
tapping over the ilioinguinal nerve at the point it pierces the trans-
verse abdominis muscle. A patient with ilioinguinal or genitofem-
oral neuralgia may assume a bent-forward novice skiers position
to eliminate pressure on the affected nerve.
Testing
Ultrasound examination of the scrotal contents is indicated in all
patients with orchialgia. Radionucleotide and Doppler studies are
indicated if vascular compromise is suspected. Transillumination
of the scrotal contents also can help identify varicocele. Electro-
myography helps distinguish ilioinguinal nerve entrapment from
lumbar plexopathy, lumbar radiculopathy, and diabetic polyneu-
ropathy. Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional
tests, including complete blood cell count, uric acid level, eryth-
rocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may
be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the lumbar
plexus and pelvis is indicated if tumor or hematoma is suspected
(Figure 86-2).
Differential Diagnosis
Extrascrotal pathology, including inguinal hernia, ilioinguinal neu-
ralgia, and lesions of the lumbar plexus, nerve roots, and spinal cord,
can mimic the pain of orchialgia and must be included in the dif-
ferential diagnosis, as can a variety of systemic diseases (Table 86-1).
Considerable intrapatient variability exists in the anatomy of the
ilioinguinal and genitofemoral nerves, which can result in variation
in patients clinical presentation. The ilioinguinal nerve is a branch
of the L1 nerve root with contribution from T12 in some patients.
The nerve follows a curvilinear course that takes it from its origin of
the L1 and occasionally T12 somatic nerves to inside the concavity
of the ilium. The ilioinguinal nerve continues anteriorly to perforate
the transverse abdominis muscle at the level of the anterior supe-
rior iliac spine. The nerve may interconnect with the iliohypogastric
nerve as it continues along its course medially and inferiorly, where
it accompanies the spermatic cord through the inguinal ring and
into the inguinal canal. The distribution of the sensory innervation
of the ilioinguinal nerves varies among patients because considerable
overlap may occur with the iliohypogastric nerve. In general, the
ilioinguinal nerve provides sensory innervation to the upper portion
of the skin of the inner thigh and the root of the penis and upper
scrotum in men.
Treatment
Many treatments have been advocated for orchialgia, with vary-
ing degrees of success (Table 86-2). Initial treatment of the pain
251
252 SECTION 9 Pelvic Pain Syndromes

Testicle

Figure 86-1 For patients with chronic orchialgia, the physical findings are often nonspecific, with the testicle mildly tender to palpation unless specific
pathological processes are present.

TABLE 86-1
Causes of Chronic Orchialgia
Diabetic neuropathy
Epididymal cyst/spermatocele
Epididymitis
Infectious (e.g., Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhea, Urea-
plasma urealyticum, coliform bacteria)
Noninfectious (e.g., reflux of urine)
Fourniers gangrene
Henoch-Schnlein purpura
Hydrocele
Idiopathic swelling
Inguinal hernia
Interstitial cystitis
Nephrolithaisis in the mid-ureter
Orchitis (e.g., mumps)
Polyarteritis nodosa
Previous surgical interventions (e.g., vasectomy, herniorrhaphy,
scrotal procedures)
Prostatitis
Psychogenic (e.g., history of sexual abuse, relationship stress)
Referred pain from abdomen or pelvis resulting from entrapment of
Figure 86-2 Tumor in an undescended testis. Computed tomography genitofemoral or ilioinguinal nerve roots (T10-L1), with or without
scan through the pelvis shows a large cystic-necrotic mass (M) invading a history of surgery
the left iliopsoas muscles. Excision revealed testicular teratoma within a Testicular torsion or torsion of the appendix testis (intermittent)
nodal mass. (From Haaga JR, Lanzieri CF, Gilkeson RC, editors: CT and MR Testicular vasocongestion from sexual arousal without ejaculation
imaging of the whole body, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2003, Mosby, p 1727.) Trauma
Tumor (e.g., testicle, epididymis, spermatic cord)
Statin use
Varicocele
Vasectomy (postvasectomy pain syndrome)
From Heidelbaugh JJ: Academic mens health: case studies in clinical practice:
chronic orchialgia, J Mens Health 6:220225, 2009.

TABLE 86-2
Treatment Options for Chronic Testicular Pain
Nonsurgical management
Antibiotics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Alpha-adrenergic antagonists
Tricyclic antidepressants, gabapentin, carbamazepine
Allopurinol
Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation
Pulsed radiofrequency
Minimal invasive treatment options
Needle aspiration or enucleation of cystic lesion that might be
relevant to the site of pain
Local anesthetic infiltration of the spermatic cord with or without
methylprednisolone
Local anesthetic infiltration of the pelvic plexus under transrectal
ultrasound guidance
Direct intraprostatic injection of antibiotic and methylprednisolone
Surgical intervention
Denervation of the spermatic cord
Vasovasostomy or vasoepididymostomy in the postvasectomy pain
syndrome
Orchiectomy
From Granitsiotis P, Kirk D: Chronic testicular pain: an overview, Eur Urol
45:430436, 2004.
associated with orchialgia should include a combination of non-
steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of
heat and cold may be beneficial. The use of supportive undergar-
ments or an athletic supporter may provide symptomatic relief.
For patients who do not respond to these treatment modalities,
injection of the spermatic cord or ilioinguinal and genitofemoral
nerves with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next
step. If the symptoms of orchialgia persist, surgical exploration of
the scrotal contents should be considered. Psychological evalua-
tion and interventions should take place concurrently with the
previously mentioned treatment modalities.
86 Orchialgia 253
Complications and Pitfalls
The major pitfalls in the care of a patient with orchialgia are four-
fold: (1) the misdiagnosis of extrascrotal pathology responsible for
the patients pain, (2) the failure to identify testicular malignancy,
(3) the failure to identify vascular compromise or infectious causes
of acute orchialgia, and (4) the failure to address the psychological
issues surrounding the patients pain.
Clinical Pearls
The clinician should be aware that the relationship of the
genitalia to the male psyche presents some unique chal-
lenges when treating patients suffering from orchialgia.
The behavioral and psychological issues must be addressed
concurrently with the medical issues if treatment is to be
successful. The possibility for testicular malignancy is ever
present and should be carefully sought in all patients with
orchialgia.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Christiansen CG, Sandlow JI: Testicular pain following vasectomy: a review of
postvasectomy pain syndrome, J Androl 24:293298, 2003.
Heidelbaugh JJ: Academic mens health: case studies in clinical practice: chronic
orchialgia, J Mens Health 6:220225, 2009.
Linnebur S, Hiatt WH: Probable statin-induced testicular pain, Ann Pharmacother
41:138142, 2007.
Masarani M, Cox R: The aetiology, pathophysiology and management of chronic
orchialgia, BJU Int 91:435437, 2003.
Waldman SD: Orchialgia. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review, Philadelphia,
2009, Saunders, pp 304305.
Wampler SM, Llanes M: Common scrotal and testicular problems primary care,
Clin Office Pract 37:613626, 2010.
Wesselman U, Burnett AL, Heinburg LJ: The urogenital and rectal pain syndromes,
Pain 73:269294, 1997.
Chapter 87
VULVODYNIA
ICD-9 CODE 625.9
ICD-10 CODE R10.2
The Clinical Syndrome
Vulvodynia is an uncommon cause of pelvic pain encountered
in clinical practice. Vulvodynia probably is not a single clini-
cal entity, but rather the conglomeration of a variety of disor-
ders that can cause pain in this anatomical region. Included in
these disorders are chronic infections of the female urogenital
tract; chronic inflammation of the skin and mucosa of the vulva
without demonstrable bacterial, viral, or fungal infection; and
bladder abnormalities, including interstitial cystitis, pelvic floor
muscle disorders, reflex sympathetic dystrophy, and psychogenic
causes. All of these disorders have in common the ability to
cause chronic, ill-defined pain of the vulva that is the hallmark
of vulvodynia.
The pain of vulvodynia is characterized by dull, stinging, aching,
or burning pain of the vulva. The intensity of pain is mild to mod-
erate and may worsen with bathing, urination, or sexual activity.
The pain may be referred to the perineum, rectum, or inner thigh.
Irritative urinary outflow symptoms and sexual dysfunction often
coexist with the pain of vulvodynia, with vulvodynia being one
of the leading causes of dyspareunia (Figure 87-1). All patients
with chronic vulvodynia should be questioned regarding a history
of sexual abuse, sexually transmitted diseases, and psychological
abnormalities related to sexuality.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical examination of patients with acute vulvodynia is directed
at identifying acute infections of the vulva, urinary tract, or both
that may be readily treatable. Patients with acute infections, includ-
ing yeast infections and sexually transmitted diseases, have a vulva
that is irritated, inflamed, raw to the touch, and tender to palpa-
tion. For patients with chronic vulvodynia, the physical findings
are often nonspecific, with the vulva mildly tender to palpation
and an otherwise normal pelvic examination. Changes of the skin
and mucous membranes of the vulva resulting from herpes infec-
tion, chronic itching, irritation, or douching also may be present.
In a few patients with vulvodynia, spasm of the muscles of the
pelvic floor may be shown on pelvic examination. Allodynia of the
vulva and perineum may be present, especially if the patient has a
history of trauma, such as surgery, radiation therapy, or straddle
injuries. Vulva malignancy always should be considered in any
patient with vulvodynia.
254
Extravulvar pathological processes can manifest with the pri-
mary symptom of vulvodynia. One of the most common causes
of vulvodynia of extravulvar origin is malignancy involving the
pelvic contents other than the vulva. Tumor involving the lum-
bar plexus, cauda equina, or hypogastric plexus rarely can mani-
fest as pain localized to the vulva and perineum. Postradiation
neuropathy can occur after radiation therapy for the treatment of
malignancy of the vulva and rectum and can mimic the pain of
vulvodynia. Ilioinguinal or genitofemoral entrapment neuropathy
also can manifest clinically as vulvodynia.
Testing
Pelvic examination is the cornerstone of the diagnosis of patients
with vulvodynia. Careful examination for infection, cutaneous or
mucosal abnormalities, tenderness, muscle spasm, or tumor is cru-
cial to avoid overlooking vulvar malignancy. Ultrasound examina-
tion of the pelvis is indicated in all patients with vulvodynia. If any
question of occult malignancy of the vulva or pelvic contents exists,
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography
(CT) of the pelvis is mandatory to rule out malignancy or disease of
the pelvic organs, such as endometriosis, which may be responsible
for the pain symptoms (Figure 87-2). Urinalysis to rule out urinary
tract infection also is indicated in all patients with vulvodynia. Cul-
ture for sexually transmitted diseases, including herpes, is indicated
in the evaluation of all patients thought to have vulvodynia.
Electromyography helps distinguish entrapment neuropathy of
the genitofemoral or ilioinguinal nerves from lumbar plexopathy or
lumbar radiculopathy. Based on the patients clinical presentation,
additional tests, including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte
sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indi-
cated. MRI of the lumbar plexus is indicated if tumor or hematoma
is suspected.
Differential Diagnosis
Extravulvar pathological findings, including reflex sympathetic dys-
trophy and lesions of the lumbar plexus, nerve roots, and spinal
cord, can mimic the pain of vulvodynia and must be included in
the differential diagnosis. As mentioned earlier, because of the disas-
trous results of missing a diagnosis of pelvic or vulvar malignancy
when evaluating and treating patients thought to have vulvodynia,
it is mandatory that malignancy be high on the list of differential
diagnostic possibilities.
Treatment
A variety of treatments have been advocated in the treatment of
vulvodynia with varying degrees of success (Tables 87-1 and 87-2).

Figure 87-1 The pain of vulvodynia is characterized by dull, stinging, aching, or burning pain of the vulva. The pain may be referred to the perineum,
rectum, or inner thigh.
Initial treatment of the pain associated with vulvodynia should
include implementation of the approaches listed in Table 87-1
along with a combination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors. Local applica-
tion of heat and cold with sitz baths may be beneficial. An arbitrary
treatment course of antibiotics, such as doxycycline 100 mg twice
daily for 2 weeks, may be worth trying, even though urine cultures
are negative. A course of treatment for vaginal yeast infection con-
currently with the antibiotics also should be considered. Anecdotal
reports of decreased pain after treatment with adjuvant analgesics
such as a tricyclic antidepressant (e.g., nortriptyline 25 mg at bed-
time and titrating upward as side effects allow) or gabapentin make
these drugs a consideration for patients who continue to have pain
in the absence of demonstrable treatable disease.
For patients who do not respond to these treatment modalities,
caudal epidural nerve blocks with a local anesthetic and steroid may
be a reasonable next step. If the symptoms of vulvodynia persist,
laparoscopy should be considered. Psychological evaluation and
interventions should take place concurrently with the previously
mentioned treatment modalities given the high incidence of coexis-
tent psychological issues associated with all pelvic pain syndromes.
87 Vulvodynia 255
Rectum
Bladder
Perineum
Vulva
Inner thigh
Complications and Pitfalls
The major pitfalls in the care of a patient with vulvodynia are
threefold: (1) the misdiagnosis of extravulvar pathological pro-
cesses responsible for the patients pain, (2) the failure to identify
vulvar or pelvic malignancy or both, and (3) the failure to address
the psychological issues surrounding the patients pain.
Clinical Pearls
The clinician should be aware that the relationship of
the genitalia to the female psyche presents some unique
challenges when treating patients with vulvodynia. The
behavioral and psychological issues must be addressed
concurrently with the medical issues if treatment is to be
successful. The possibility for vulvar or pelvic malignancy
is ever present and should be carefully sought out in all
patients with vulvodynia.
256 SECTION 9 Pelvic Pain Syndromes

A B

C D
Figure 87-2 A 41-year-old woman with chronic pelvic pain and a suspicious multicystic pelvic mass at sonography. A, Axial T2-weighted magnetic
resonance imaging shows a complex cystic mass associated with normal hyperintense follicles at the right posterior (large arrow) and anterior left side
suggesting a bilateral adnexal origin. Shadowing of the left part of the cyst suggests blood products. The anterior rectal wall is abnormally thickened
and contains hyperintense spots (small arrow). B, Axial T1-weighted image at the same level as in A shows hyperintense portions (asterisks). C, Fat-
suppressed T1-weighted image shows that the hyperintense areas seen in B persist, confirming the suspicion of bilateral endometrioma. Multiple
smaller, high-intensity foci are better seen with fat suppression (arrows). D, Sagittal T2-weighted image confirms abnormal thickening of the anterior
rectal wall posterior to the ovary (arrow) and a hypointense nodule in the pouch of Douglas posterior to the cervix (asterisk). Subsequent laparotomy
with bilateral oophorectomy and anterior rectal resection confirmed bilateral endometriomas (8 cm rectal and 2 cm peritoneal endometriosis of the
pouch of Douglas), associated with functional ovarian cysts. (From Edelman RR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB, etal, editors: Clinical magnetic resonance
imaging, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 2980.)

TABLE 87-1
First-Line Treatment Options for Vulvodynia
Cease use of potentially irritating perfumed soaps, lotions, sprays,
or douches
After urination, rinse vulvar skin with distilled water
Rinse all underwear in a separate cycle with only water after
laundering with detergent
Do not use fabric softener on underwear
Use only 100% cotton menstrual pads and tampons
Wear only 100% cotton underwear and stockings, not nylon
pantyhose
Bathe in water with oatmeal, baking soda, Aveeno, or sitz baths
with tea; no bubble baths; cold compresses
Lubricate with vitamin E oil or vegetable oil, Desitin, or A&D
ointment
From Glazer HI, Ledger WJ: Clinical management of vulvodynia, Rev Gynaecol
Pract 2:8390, 2002.
 87 Vulvodynia 257

TABLE 87-2 SUGGESTED READINGS

Edwards L: New concepts in vulvodynia, Am J Obstet Gynecol 189(Suppl 1):S24S30,
Specific Treatment Options for Vulvodynia 2003.
Treat abnormal visible conditions such as infections, dermatoses, Glazer HI, Ledger WJ: Clinical management of vulvodynia, Rev Gynaecol Pract
and both malignant and premalignant conditions 2:8390, 2002.
Groysman V: Vulvodynia: new concepts and review of the literature, Dermatol
Vulvar care measures; avoidance of irritants
Clin 28:681696, 2010.
Topical medications Masheb RM, Nash JM, Brondolo E, Kerns RD: Vulvodynia: an introduction and
Lidocaine 5% jelly at introitus at bedtime critical review of a chronic pain condition, Pain 86:310, 2000.
Nitroglycerine
Amitriptyline 2%, baclofen 2% ( ketofen 2%)
Capsaicin
Oral medications
Antidepressant class
Tricyclic medications (150 mg/day)
Venlafaxine extended release (150 mg/day)
Duloxetine (60 mg twice daily)
Anticonvulsant class
Gabapentin (3600 mg/day)
Pregabalin (300 twice daily)
Injections
Triamcinolone 10 mg/mL, 0.2-0.4 mL into trigger point
Botulinum toxin A injections
Intralesional interferon- (no longer used)
Pelvic floor physical therapy
Pelvic floor surface electromyography and biofeedback
Low-oxalate diet with calcium citrate supplementation
(controversial)
Cognitive behavioral therapy, sexual counseling
Surgery (for vestibulodynia only) localized excision, vestibulectomy,
or perineoplasty
From Groysman V: Vulvodynia: new concepts and review of the literature, Derma-
tol Clin 28:681696, 2010.
Chapter 88

CLITORAL PRIAPISM

ICD-9 CODE 625.8
ICD-10 CODE N94.89
The Clinical Syndrome
In health, an integral part of the human sexual response is tumes-
cence of the penis in males and the clitoris and vulva in females,
known as erection. The physiological process that results in tumes-
cence is the result of a complex interplay of the parasympathetic
and sympathetic nervous system and vasoactive neurotransmitters,
including prostaglandin E1 and the vasoactive intestinal polypep-
tide, as well as nitric oxide. Rarely, tumescence of the penis and
clitoris can occur in the absence of sexual arousal and can be the
result of systemic disease, for example, sickle cell disease or drugs
such as sildenafil and trazodone (Table 88-1). Occasionally, no
causative factor can be identified. If the duration of tumescence
is prolonged, it is termed priapism. Although most attention has
been paid to cases of priapism occurring in males, more recently
cases of clitoral priapism have been identified as an uncommon
cause of female pelvic pain.
Signs and Symptoms
Priapism of the clitoris is defined as a painful and often pro-
longed erection of the clitoris in the absence of sexual arousal
(Figure 88-1). The erection may last from minutes to hours and
is often described as painful, with the pain being characterized
as burning and often involving not only the clitoris but also the
vulva. The patient may be hesitant to describe the exact nature
or location of the painful erection because of embarrassment or
a lack of understanding as to what is actually causing the pain.
Often, the patient may report a painful swelling of her vagina
and attribute her symptoms to an insect bite, urinary tract or
vaginal infection, or allergic reaction. On physical examination,
the examiner will note that the clitoris is erect and firm, with the
glans of the clitoris retracted beneath the engorged clitoral hood.
Rubor is often present, as well as significant allodynia. Vaginal
transudation, which is seen as part of female sexual arousal, is
usually absent. It should be noted that enlargement of the clitoris
has other causes, some of which are painful and some not, such
as infiltrative tumors (Table 88-2).
Testing
Pelvic examination is the cornerstone of the diagnosis of patients
with vulvodynia. Careful examination for infection, cutaneous
or mucosal abnormalities, tenderness, muscle spasm, or tumor
is crucial to avoid overlooking clitoral, vulvar, or pelvic malig-
nancy. Ultrasound examination of the pelvis is indicated in all
patients with clitoral priapism. If any question exists regard-
ing occult malignancy of the vulva or pelvic contents, magnetic

TABLE 88-1
Drugs Implicated in Priapism in Men and Women
Trazodone
Bupropion

Risperidone
Olanzapine
Fluoxetine
Bromocriptine
Nefazodone
Citalopram
Papaverine
Cocaine
Sildenafil
Vardenafil Figure 88-1 Clitoral tumescence. (From Bruni V, Pontello V, Dei M, etal:
Hemangioma of the clitoris presenting as clitoromegaly: a case report,
Tadalafil J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 22:el37e138, 2009.)

258

resonance imaging (MRI) or computed tomography (CT) of the
pelvis is mandatory to rule out malignancy or disease of the pelvic
organs that may be responsible for the symptoms (Figure 88-2).
Urinalysis to rule out urinary tract infection also is indicated in
all patients with vulvodynia. Culture for sexually transmitted
diseases, including herpes, is indicated in the evaluation of all
patients thought to have clitoral priapism.
Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests,
including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. MRI and
electromyography of the lumbar plexus are indicated if tumor or
hematoma is suspected.
TABLE 88-2
Causes of Clitoromegaly
Congenital
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, classical
Ambiguous genitalia, isolated or in syndromic conditions
Acquired
Hormonal
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, late onset
Ovarian or adrenal tumors (androgen secreting)
Iatrogenic androgen exposure
Nonhormonal
Neurofibromatosis
Epidermoid cyst (spontaneous or traumatic, female genital
mutilation)
Hemangioma of the clitoris or the prepuce
Metastatic infiltration
Idiopatic
Modified from Bruni V, Pontello V, Dei M, etal: Hemangioma of the clitoris
presenting as clitoromegaly: a case report, J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol
22:el37e138, 2009.
Figure 88-2 Clitoral carcinoma. (From Matsuo K, Hew KE, Im DD, Rosen-
shein NB: Clitoral metastasis of anal adenocarcinoma associated with rec-
tovaginal fistula in long standing Crohns disease, Eur J Obstet Gynecol
Reprod Biol 144:182183, 2009.)
88 Clitoral Priapism 259
Differential Diagnosis
Extravulvar pathological findings, including reflex sympathetic
dystrophy and lesions of the lumbar plexus, nerve roots, and spi-
nal cord, can mimic the pain of vulvodynia and must be included
in the differential diagnosis. As mentioned earlier, because of the
disastrous results of missing a diagnosis of pelvic or vulvar malig-
nancy when evaluating and treating patients thought to have vul-
vodynia, it is mandatory that malignancy be high on the list of
differential diagnostic possibilities.
Treatment
The foundation of treatment of clitoral priapism is to first iden-
tify the factor responsible for the symptoms and then immediately
remove it. Because the vast majority of cases of both male and
female priapism are drug induced, a careful drug history looking at
both legal and illegal drugs is mandatory (see Table 88-1). A his-
tory of spider bite or painful insect stings also should be ascertained
because the venom of both black widow spiders and scorpions can
cause priapism. Empiric treatment with alpha-adrenergic drugs
such as phenylephrine and phenylpropanolamine should be initi-
ated with careful monitoring of the patients cardiovascular status.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major pitfalls in the care of a patient with clitoral priapism are
threefold: (1) the misdiagnosis of extraclitoral pathological pro-
cesses responsible for the pain, (2) the failure to identify clitoral or
vulvar or pelvic malignancy or both, and (3) the failure to address
the psychological issues surrounding the pain.
Clinical Pearls
The most common cause of clitoral priapism is drug-induced
clitoral dysfunction. The clinician should be aware that the
relationship of the genitalia to the female psyche presents
some unique challenges when treating patients with clitoral
priapism. The behavioral and psychological issues must be
addressed concurrently with the medical issues if treatment
is to be successful. The possibility for vulvar or pelvic malig-
nancy is ever present and should be carefully sought in all
patients thought to have clitoral priapism.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Compton MT, Miller AH: Priapism associated with conventional and atypical
antipsychotic medications: a review, J Clin Psychiatry 62:362366, 2001.
Fedele L, Fontana E, Bianchi S, Frontino G, Berlanda N: An unusual case of clito-
romegaly, Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 140:287288, 2008.
Gharahbaghian L: Clitoral priapism with no known risk factors, West J Emerg Med
9:235237, 2008.
Levin R, Riley A: The physiology of human sexual function, Psychiatry 6:9094,
2007.
Rosenberg I, Aniskin D, Bernay L: Psychiatric treatment of patients predisposed to
priapism induced by quetiapine, trazodone and risperidone: a case report, Gen
Hosp Psychiatry 31:98, 2009.
Chapter 89

GLUTEAL BURSITIS

ICD-9 CODE 726.5 Testing

ICD-10 CODE M70.70
The Clinical Syndrome
Gluteal bursitis is an uncommon cause of buttock pain that is
frequently misdiagnosed as primary hip pathological conditions.
A patient with gluteal bursitis frequently reports pain at the
upper outer quadrant of the buttock and with resisted abduction
and extension of the lower extremity. The pain is localized to the
area over the upper outer quadrant of the buttock, with referred
pain noted into the sciatic notch. Often, the patient is unable to
sleep on the affected hip and may report a sharp, catching sensa-
tion when extending and abducting the hip, especially on first
awakening.
The gluteal bursae lie between the gluteal maximus, medius,
and minimus muscles and between these muscles and the
underlying bone. These bursae may exist as a single bursal sac
or in some patients may exist as a multisegmented series of
sacs that may be loculated. The gluteal bursae are vulnerable
to injury from acute trauma and repeated microtrauma. The
action of the gluteus maximus muscle includes the flexion of
trunk on thigh when maintaining a sitting position when riding
a horse (Figure 89-1). This action can irritate the gluteal bursae
and result in pain and inflammation. Acute injuries frequently
take the form of direct trauma to the bursa from falls directly
onto the buttocks or repeated intramuscular injections and from
overuse such as running for long distances, especially on soft
or uneven surfaces. If the inflammation of the gluteal bursae
becomes chronic, calcification of the bursae may occur.
Plain radiographs of the hip may reveal calcification of the bursa
and associated structures consistent with chronic inflammation.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is indicated if occult mass or
tumor of the hip is suspected. Electromyography should be per-
formed if neurological findings are present to rule out plexopa-
thy, radiculopathy, or nerve entrapment syndromes of the lower
extremity. Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional
tests, including complete blood cell count; human leukocyte anti-
gen (HLA) B-27 testing; automated serum chemistries, including
uric acid; erythrocyte sedimentation rate; and antinuclear antibody
testing, may be indicated. The injection technique described here
serves as a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver for patients with
gluteal bursitis.
Differential Diagnosis
Gluteal bursitis is often misdiagnosed as sciatica or attributed to
primary hip pathological processes. Radiographs of the hip and
electromyography help distinguish gluteal bursitis from radiculop-
athy of pain emanating from the hip. Most patients with a lumbar
radiculopathy have back pain associated with reflex, motor, and
sensory changes, whereas patients with gluteal bursitis have only
secondary back pain and no neurological changes. Piriformis syn-
drome sometimes may be confused with gluteal bursitis, but can

Signs and Symptoms

Physical examination of patients with gluteal bursitis may reveal
point tenderness in the upper outer quadrant of the buttocks.
Passive flexion and adduction and active resisted extension and
abduction of the affected lower extremity reproduce the pain.
Sudden release of resistance during this maneuver markedly
increases the pain.
Examination of the hip and sacroiliac joint is normal. Careful
neurological examination of the affected lower extremity should
reveal no neurological deficits. If neurological deficits are present,
evaluation for plexopathy, radiculopathy, or entrapment neu- Figure 89-1 The action of the gluteus maximus muscle includes the
ropathy should be undertaken. These neurological symptoms can flexion of trunk on thigh when maintaining a sitting position when
coexist with gluteal bursitis, confusing the clinical diagnosis. riding a horse.

260

be distinguished by the presence of motor and sensory changes
involving the sciatic nerve. These motor and sensory changes are
limited to the distribution of the sciatic nerve below the sciatic
notch. Lumbar radiculopathy and sciatic nerve entrapment may
coexist as the double crush syndrome. The pain of gluteal bur-
sitis may cause alteration of gait, which may result in secondary
back and radicular symptoms that may coexist with this entrap-
ment neuropathy.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with gluteal bursitis should include a combination of nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)
inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of heat and cold
may be beneficial. The repetitive movements that incite the syn-
drome should be avoided. For patients who do not respond to
these treatment modalities, injection of gluteal bursa with a local
anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step.
To inject the gluteal bursae, the patient is placed in the lateral
position with the affected side up and the affected leg flexed at the
knee. Preparation with antiseptic solution of the skin overlying
the upper outer quadrant of the buttocks is carried out. A syringe
containing 4 mL of 0.25% preservative-free bupivacaine and 40
mg of methylprednisolone is attached to a 25-gauge, 112-inch
needle. The point of maximal tenderness within the upper, outer
quadrant of the buttocks is identified with a sterile gloved finger.
Before needle placement, the patient should be advised to say
There! immediately if he or she feels a paresthesia into the lower
Gluteal
medius
Ilium
Gluteal
maximus
Gluteal
minimus
Gluteal
bursae
Sciatic
nerve
Figure 89-2 Injection technique to relieve the pain resulting from gluteal
bursitis.
89 Gluteal Bursitis 261
extremity, indicating that the needle has impinged on the sciatic
nerve. Should a paresthesia occur, the needle should be withdrawn
immediately and repositioned more medially. The needle is care-
fully advanced perpendicular to the skin at the previously identi-
fied point until it impinges on the wing of the ilium (Figure 89-2).
Care must be taken to keep the needle medial and not to advance
it laterally, or it could impinge on the sciatic nerve. After careful
aspiration and if no paresthesia is present, the contents of the
syringe are gently injected into the bursa. Minimal resistance to
injection should be felt.
Complications and Pitfalls
The proximity to the sciatic nerve makes it imperative that this
procedure be performed only by clinicians well versed in the
regional anatomy and experienced in performing injection tech-
niques. Many patients also report a transient increase in pain after
injection of the bursae.
Clinical Pearls
This injection technique is extremely effective in the treat-
ment of gluteal bursitis. It is a safe procedure if careful atten-
tion is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy in the areas
to be injected. Care must be taken to use sterile technique
to avoid infection and universal precautions to avoid risk to
the operator. Most side effects of this injection technique
are related to needle-induced trauma to the injection site
and underlying tissues. The incidence of ecchymosis and
hematoma formation can be decreased if pressure is placed
on the injection site immediately after injection. The avoid-
ance of overly long needles helps decrease the incidence of
trauma to underlying structures. Special care must be taken
to avoid trauma to the sciatic nerve.
The use of physical modalities, including local heat and
gentle stretching exercises, should be introduced several
days after the patient undergoes this injection technique.
Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they would
exacerbate the symptoms. Simple analgesics, NSAIDs, and
antimyotonic agents such as tizanidine may be used concur-
rently with this injection technique.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bancroft LW, Peterson JJ, Kransdorf MJ: Cysts, geodes, and erosions, Radiol Clin
North Am 42:7387, 2004.
Hodnett PA, Shelly MJ, MacMahon PJ, Kavanagh EC, Eustace SJ: MR imaging of
overuse injuries of the hip, MRI Clin North Am 17:667679, 2009.
Tibor LM, Sekiya JK: Differential diagnosis of pain around the hip joint, Arthroscopy
24:14071421, 2008.
Waldman SD: Injection technique for gluteal bursitis. In Waldman SD, editor:
Pain review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 549551.
Waldman SD: The gluteal bursa. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review, Philadel-
phia, 2009, Saunders, pp 139140.
Chapter 90
LEVATOR ANI PAIN SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 729.1
ICD-10 CODE M79.7
The Clinical Syndrome
The primary function of the levator ani muscle is active support
of the pelvic contents, compressing the urethra and vagina by ele-
vating the pelvic floor, and maintaining a physiological anorectal
angle by pulling the anorectal junction forward. The levator ani
muscle originates at the posterior surface of the body of the pubis,
the fascia of the obturator internus muscle, and the ischial spine
(Figure 90-1). The muscle inserts on the anococcygeal raphe and
coccyx. The muscle is innervated by the branches of the ventral
primary rami of spinal nerves S3-4. The levator ani muscle is sus-
ceptible to trauma and to wear and tear from overuse and misuse.
It may develop myofascial pain syndrome that may also be associ-
ated with gluteal bursitis and coccygodynia, which may confuse
the clinical picture further.
Myofascial pain syndrome is a chronic pain syndrome that
affects a focal or regional portion of the body. The sine qua non
of myofascial pain syndrome is the finding of myofascial trigger
points on physical examination. Although these trigger points
generally are localized to the regional part of the body affected,
the pain of myofascial pain syndrome often is referred to other
anatomical areas. This referred pain often is misdiagnosed or
Levator ani m.
Figure 90-1 The levator ani muscle originates at the posterior surface of
the body of the pubis, the fascia of the obturator internus muscle, and
the ischial spine.
262
attributed to other organ systems, leading to extensive evalua-
tions and ineffective treatment. Patients with levator ani syndrome
exhibit a trigger point along the rectum or perineum (Figure 90-2).
Taut bands of muscle fibers often are identified when myofascial
trigger points are palpated. Despite this consistent physical finding
in patients who have myofascial pain syndrome, the pathophysiol-
ogy of the myofascial trigger point remains elusive, although many
theories have been advanced. Common to all of these theories is
the thought that trigger points are the result of microtrauma to the
affected muscle. This microtrauma may occur as a single injury to
the affected muscle or may occur as the result of repetitive micro-
trauma or chronic deconditioning of the agonist and antagonist
muscle unit.
In addition to muscle trauma, a variety of other factors seem to
predispose the patient to develop myofascial pain syndrome. The
weekend athlete who subjects his or her body to unaccustomed
physical activity often develops myofascial pain syndrome. Poor
posture while sitting at a computer keyboard or while watching
television also has been implicated as a predisposing factor to the
Inflamed levator ani m.
Trigger point
Referred pain
Figure 90-2 Patients with levator ani syndrome exhibit a trigger point
along the rectum or perineum. (From Waldman SD: Atlas of pain manage-
ment injection techniques, 2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders, p 385.)
 90 Levator Ani Pain Syndrome 263

development of myofascial pain syndrome. Previous injuries may
result in abnormal muscle function and predispose to the sub-
sequent development of myofascial pain syndrome. All of these
predisposing factors may be intensified if the patient also has poor
nutritional status or coexisting psychological or behavioral abnor-
malities, including chronic stress and depression. The levator
ani muscle seems to be particularly susceptible to stress-induced
myofascial pain syndrome.
Stiffness and fatigue often coexist with the pain of myofascial
pain syndrome, increasing the functional disability associated with
this disease and complicating its treatment. Myofascial pain syn-
drome may occur as a primary disease state or may occur in con-
junction with other painful conditions, including radiculopathy
and chronic regional pain syndromes. Psychological or behavioral
abnormalities, including depression, frequently coexist with the
muscle abnormalities associated with myofascial pain syndrome.
Treatment of these psychological and behavioral abnormalities
must be an integral part of any successful treatment plan for myo-
fascial pain syndrome.
Signs and Symptoms
The trigger point is the pathognomonic lesion of myofascial pain
and is thought to be the result of microtrauma to the affected
muscles. This pathological lesion is characterized by a local point
of exquisite tenderness in affected muscle. Mechanical stimula-
tion of the trigger point by palpation or stretching produces not
only intense local pain but also referred pain. In addition to this
local and referred pain, an involuntary withdrawal of the stimu-
lated muscle, termed a jump sign, may occur. The jump sign also
is characteristic of myofascial pain syndrome. Patients with glu-
teus medius syndrome exhibit a trigger point along the rectum or
perineum (see Figure 90-2).
Testing
No specific test exists for levator ani pain syndrome. Testing
is aimed primarily at identifying occult pathological conditions
or other diseases that may mimic myofascial pain syndrome
(see discussion of differential diagnosis). Plain radiographs
help delineate bony abnormality of the pelvis and hip, includ-
ing arthritis, avascular necrosis of the hip, fracture, congenital
abnormalities, and tumor. All patients with recent onset of
myofascial pain syndrome should undergo magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) of the lumbar spine and pelvis to rule out occult
pathological processes. Screening laboratory tests, consisting of
complete blood count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, antinu-
clear antibody testing, and automated blood chemistry testing,

A B

C
Figure 90-3 Crohns disease with enterorectal fistula. A, Small-bowel follow-through examination shows an enterorectal fistula (arrow). B, Com-
puted tomography (CT) scan shows diffuse pericolonic, perirectal, and perienteric inflammatory infiltrates with bowel wall thickening of pelvic ileal
loops. C, Gadolinium-enhanced MR image shows marked contrast enhancement in the thickened rectal wall (arrows) and inflammatory tissues
(arrowheads) surrounding the fistula. (From Haaga JR, Lanzieri CF, Gilkeson RC, editors: CT and MR imaging of the whole body, 4th ed, Philadelphia,
2003, Mosby, p 1244.)
264 SECTION 9 Pelvic Pain Syndromes
should be performed to rule out occult inflammatory arthritis,
infection, and tumor.
Differential Diagnosis
Levator ani pain syndrome is a clinical diagnosis of exclusion
supported by a combination of clinical history, physical exami-
nation, radiography, and MRI. Pain syndromes that may mimic
levator ani pain syndrome include lumbosacral radiculopathy and
plexopathy; stress fractures of the pelvis and hip; myofascial pain
syndromes such as gluteus medius pain syndrome; pelvic floor
muscle strain; inflammatory arthritis; and disorders of the lumbar
spinal cord, roots, plexus, and nerves. Intrapelvic tumors also may
mimic the clinical presentation of gluteus medius pain syndrome
(Figure 90-3).
Treatment
Levator ani pain syndrome is best treated with a multimodality
approach. Physical therapy, including correction of functional
abnormalities (e.g., poor posture, improper chair or computer
height) and use of heat modalities and deep sedative massage,
combined with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
and skeletal muscle relaxants is a reasonable starting point. If these
treatments fail to provide rapid symptomatic relief, local trigger
point injection of local anesthetic and steroid into the myofas-
cial trigger point area is a reasonable next step. Underlying diffuse
muscle pain, sleep disturbance, and depression are best treated
with a tricyclic antidepressant compound, such as nortriptyline,
which can be started at a single bedtime dose of 25 mg.
When performing trigger point injections, careful preparation
of the patient before trigger point injection helps optimize results.
Trigger point injections are directed at the primary trigger point,
rather than in the area of referred pain. It should be explained
to the patient that the goal of trigger point injection is to block
the trigger of the persistent pain and, it is hoped, provide long-
lasting relief. It is important that the patient understand that with
most patients who have myofascial pain syndrome, more than one
treatment modality is required to provide optimal pain relief. The
use of the prone or lateral position when identifying and marking
trigger points and when performing the actual trigger point injec-
tion helps decrease the incidence of vasovagal reactions. The skin
overlying the trigger point to be injected always should be pre-
pared with antiseptic solution before injection to avoid infection.
Complications and Pitfalls
The proximity to the rectum, vagina, and pelvic viscera makes it
imperative that this procedure be performed only by clinicians
well versed in the regional anatomy and experienced in perform-
ing interventional pain management techniques. Many patients
also report a transient increase in pain after injection of trigger
points. If long needles are used, damage to the retroperitoneal
organs also may occur.
Clinical Pearls
Trigger point injections are an extremely safe procedure if
careful attention is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy
in the areas to be injected. Care must be taken to use ster-
ile technique to avoid infection and universal precautions
to avoid risk to the operator. Most side effects of trigger
point injection are related to needle-induced trauma to
the injection site and underlying tissues. The incidence of
ecchymosis and hematoma formation can be decreased if
pressure is placed on the injection site immediately after
trigger point injection. The avoidance of overly long nee-
dles helps decrease the incidence of trauma to underlying
structures. Special care must be taken to avoid pneumo-
thorax when injecting trigger points in proximity to the
underlying pleural space. The antidepressant compounds
represent the primary pharmacological treatment for
myofascial pain syndrome. Tricyclic antidepressants are
thought to be more effective than selective serotonin reup-
take inhibitors in the treatment of this painful condition.
The precise mechanism of action of the antidepressant
compounds in the treatment of myofascial pain syndrome
is unknown. Some investigators believe that the primary
effect of this class of drugs is to treat the underlying depres-
sion that is present in many patients who have myofas-
cial pain syndrome. Drugs such as amitriptyline and
nortriptyline represent good first choices and should be
given as a single bedtime dose, starting with 10 to 25 mg
and titrating upward as side effects allow.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Arnold LM: The pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment of fibromyalgia,
Psychiatr Clin North Am 33:375408, 2010.
Bradley LA: Pathophysiology of fibromyalgia, Am J Med 122(Suppl 1):S22S30,
2009.
Imamura M, Cassius DA, Fregni F: Fibromyalgia: from treatment to rehabilitation,
Eur J Pain Suppl 3:117122, 2009.
Shobeiri SA, Chesson RR, Gasser RF: The internal innervation and morphology of
the human female levator ani muscle, Am J Obstet Gynecol 199:686.e1686.e6,
2008.
Singh K, Reid WMN, Berger LA: Magnetic resonance imaging of normal levator
ani anatomy and function, Obstet Gynecol 99:433438, 2002.
SECTION 10 Hip and Lower Extremity Pain Syndromes
Chapter 91
AVASCULAR NECROSIS OF THE HIP
ICD-9 CODE 733.40
ICD-10 CODE M87.00
The Clinical Syndrome
Avascular necrosis of the hip is an often missed diagnosis. It is
also known as osteonecrosis. Similar to the scaphoid, the hip is
extremely susceptible to this disease because of its tenuous blood
supply. The blood supply of the hip is easily disrupted, often leav-
ing the proximal portion of the bone without nutrition, thereby
leading to osteonecrosis. Avascular necrosis of the hip is a disease
of the fourth and fifth decades of life and is more common in
men, with an 8:1 male-to-female preponderance (Figure 91-1),
except for patients with avascular necrosis of the hip secondary to
Figure 91-1 Avascular necrosis of the hip is a disease of the fourth and
fifth decades of life and is more common in men, with an 8:1 male-to-
female ratio.
collagen-vascular disease. The disease is bilateral in 50% to 55%
of cases.
Predisposing factors to avascular necrosis of the hip are listed
in Table 91-1 and include trauma to the proximal femur and
acetabulum; corticosteroid use; Cushings disease; alcohol abuse;
connective tissue diseases, especially systemic lupus erythema-
tous; osteomyelitis; human immunodeficiency virus (HIV); organ
transplantation; Legg-Calv-Perthes disease; hemoglobinopathies,
including sickle cell disease; hyperlipidemia; gout; renal failure;
pregnancy; and radiation therapy involving the femoral head. A
patient with avascular necrosis of the hip reports pain over the
affected hip or hips, which may radiate into the groin, buttocks,
and proximal lower extremity. The pain is deep and aching,
and the patient often reports a catching sensation with range of
motion of the affected hip or hips. Range of motion decreases as
the disease progresses.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical examination of patients with avascular necrosis of the hip
reveals pain to deep palpation of the hip joint. The pain becomes
TABLE 91-1
Predisposing Factors for Avascular Necrosis of the Hip
Trauma to proximal femur and acetabulum
Corticosteroid use
Cushings disease
Alcohol abuse
Connective tissue diseases, especially systemic lupus erythematosus
Osteomyelitis
Human immunodeficiency virus
Organ transplantation
Legg-Calv-Perthes disease
Hemoglobinopathies, including sickle cell disease
Hyperlipidemia
Gout
Renal failure
Pregnancy
Radiation therapy
265
266 SECTION 10 Hip and Lower Extremity Pain Syndromes

B C
Figure 91-2 Osteonecrosis of the right hip in a 35-year-old man. A left hip replacement was performed because of advanced osteonecrosis and
secondary osteoarthritis. A, Coronal T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging. A well-defined reactive rim surrounds a zone of osteonecrosis that
appears isointense with normal fatty marrow. B, Axial T2-weighted image. The region of femoral head osteonecrosis remains relatively isointense with
normal marrow. C, Coronal fat-saturated T2-weighted image. The double line sign represents an inner hyperintense component, corresponding with
hypervascular granulation tissue and fibrovascular proliferation, and an outer, hypointense, fibrotic band. (From Edelman RR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB,
etal, editors: Clinical magnetic resonance imaging, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 3369.)

worse with passive range of motion and weight bearing on a single
extremity. A click or crepitus may be appreciated by the examiner
when putting the hip joint through range of motion. A Tren-
delenburg gait may be noted, and decreased range of motion is
invariably present.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with avascular
necrosis of the hip to rule out underlying occult bony pathological
processes and identify sclerosis and fragmentation of the femoral
head, although early in the course of the disease, plain radio-
graphs are unreliable. Based on the patients clinical presentation,
additional tests, including complete blood cell count, uric acid,
erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing,
may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the hip is
indicated in all patients suspected to have avascular necrosis of the
hip or if other causes of joint instability, infection, or tumor are
suspected (Figures 91-2 and 91-3). Administration of gadolinium
followed by postcontrast imaging may help delineate the adequacy
of blood supply, with contrast enhancement of the proximal hip
being a good prognostic sign. Electromyography is indicated if
coexistent lumbar radiculopathy, plexopathy, or both are sus-
pected. A gentle injection of the hip joint with small volumes of
local anesthetic provides immediate improvement of the pain and
helps show the nidus of the patients pain is, in fact, the hip. Ulti-
mately, total joint replacement is required in most patients with
avascular necrosis of the hip.

A form of total joint arthroplasty is the treatment of choice.
B especially if any of the predisposing factors listed in Table
Figure 91-3 Osteonecrosis of the left hip with subchondral osseous col-
lapse and osteoarthritis. A, Coronal T1-weighted magnetic resonance
imaging. Decreased marrow signal intensity is identified within the
superior lateral aspect of the left femoral head and the adjacent lateral
aspect of the acetabulum. Lateral subluxation of the femoral head also is
present. B, Coronal fat-saturated T2-weighted image. Flattening of the
articular surface of the superior lateral portion of the left femoral head
is evident, indicating subchondral osseous collapse. Increased marrow
signal intensity involving the lateral acetabulum and the proximal femur
is observed, which is compatible with reactive edema and fibrovascular
proliferation. A large left hip joint effusion also is present. (From Edelman
RR, Hesselink JR, Zlatkin MB, et al, editors: Clinical magnetic resonance
imaging, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 3371.)
Differential Diagnosis
Coexistent arthritis and gout of the hip joints, bursitis, and ten-
dinitis may coexist with avascular necrosis of the hips and exac-
erbate the pain and disability of the patient. Tears of the labrum,
ligament tears, bone cysts, bone contusions, bone fractures, and
91 Avascular Necrosis of the Hip 267
occult metastatic disease also may mimic the pain of avascular
necrosis of the hip.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with avascular necrosis of the hip should include a combination
of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxy-
genase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and decreased weight bearing of the
affected hip or hips. Local application of heat and cold may be
beneficial. For patients who do not respond to these treatment
modalities, an injection of a local anesthetic into the hip joint
may be a reasonable next step to provide palliation of acute pain.
Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they would exac-
erbate the patients symptoms. Ultimately, surgical repair in the
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to treat significant avascular necrosis of the hip surgi-
cally usually results in continued pain and disability and in most
patients leads to ongoing damage to the hip (see Figure 91-2).
Injection of the joint with local anesthetic is a relatively safe tech-
nique if the clinician is attentive to detail, specifically using small
amounts of local anesthetic and avoiding high injection pressures,
which may damage the joint further. Another complication of
this injection technique is infection. This complication should be
exceedingly rare if the clinician adheres to strict aseptic technique.
Approximately 25% of patients report a transient increase in pain
after this injection technique and should be warned of such.
Clinical Pearls
Avascular necrosis of the hip is a diagnosis that is often
missed, leading to much unnecessary pain and disability.
The clinician should include avascular necrosis of the hip
in the differential diagnosis with all patients with hip pain,
91-1 are present. Coexistent arthritis, tendinitis, and gout
may contribute to the pain and may require additional treat-
ment. The use of physical modalities, including local heat
and cold and decreased weight bearing, may provide symp-
tomatic relief. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because
they would exacerbate the symptoms and may cause further
damage to the hip. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may be
used concurrently with this injection technique.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Israelite CL, Garino JP: Osteonecrosis of the hip, Semin Arthroplasty 16:2732,
2005.
Malizos KN, Karantanas AH, Varitimidis SE, etal: Osteonecrosis of the femoral
head: etiology, imaging and treatment, Eur J Radiol 63:1628, 2007.
Waldman SD: Osteonecrosis of the hip. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors:
Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 339341.
Zibis AH, Karantanas AH, Roidis NT, etal: The role of MR imaging in staging
femoral head osteonecrosis, Eur J Radiol 63:39, 2007.
Chapter 92
PSOAS BURSITIS
ICD-9 CODE 727.3
ICD-10 CODE M71.50
The Clinical Syndrome
Psoas bursitis is an uncommon cause of hip and groin pain that is
frequently misdiagnosed in clinical practice. A patient with psoas
bursitis frequently reports pain in the groin. The pain is localized to
the area just below the crease of the groin anteriorly, with referred
pain noted into the hip joint. Often, the patient is unable to sleep
on the affected hip and may report a sharp, catching sensation with
range of motion of the hip.
The psoas muscle flexes the thigh on the trunk or, if the thigh is
fixed, flexes the trunk on the thigh as when moving from a supine
to a sitting position. This action can irritate the psoas bursa, as
can repeated trauma from repetitive activity, including running
Figure 92-1 The psoas muscle flexes the thigh on the trunk or, if the thigh is fixed, flexes the trunk on the thigh as when moving from a supine to
a sitting position. This action can irritate the psoas bursa, as can repeated trauma from repetitive activity, including running up stairs or overuse of
exercise equipment for lower extremity strengthening.
268
up stairs or overuse of exercise equipment for lower extremity
strengthening (Figure 92-1). The psoas muscle is innervated by
the lumbar plexus. The psoas bursa lies medially in the femoral
triangle between the psoas tendon and the anterior aspect of the
neck of the femur. This bursa may exist as a single bursal sac or
in some patients may exist as a multisegmented series of sacs that
may be loculated in nature. The psoas bursa is vulnerable to injury
from acute trauma and repeated microtrauma. Acute injuries fre-
quently take the form of direct trauma to the bursa from seat belt
injuries and from overuse injuries requiring repeated hip flexion,
such as javelin throwing and ballet. If the inflammation of the
psoas bursa becomes chronic, calcification of the bursa may occur.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical examination may reveal point tenderness in the upper
thigh just below the crease of the groin in patients with psoas bur-
sitis. Passive flexion, adduction, and abduction and active resisted
flexion and adduction of the affected lower extremity reproduce
the pain. Sudden release of resistance during this maneuver
Psoas muscle
Psoas bursa

markedly increases the pain. Examination of the hip is normal,
unless there is coexistent internal derangement of the hip.
Testing
Plain radiographs of the hip may reveal calcification of the bursa
and associated structures consistent with chronic inflammation
(Figure 92-2). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is indicated
if occult mass, abscess, or tumor of the hip or groin is suspected.
Complete blood cell count and automated chemistry profile,
including uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and anti-
nuclear antibody testing, are indicated if collagen-vascular disease
is suspected. Injection of the psoas bursa with a local anesthetic
and steroid serves as a diagnostic maneuver and a therapeutic
maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
Psoas bursitis is often misdiagnosed as an inguinal hernia or
attributed to a primary hip pathological process. Radiographs of
the hip and electromyography help distinguish psoas bursitis from
radiculopathy of pain emanating from the hip. Most patients
with lumbar radiculopathy have back pain associated with reflex,
motor, and sensory changes, whereas patients with psoas bursi-
tis have only secondary back pain as a result of altered gait and
no neurological changes. Femoral diabetic neuropathy sometimes
may be confused with psoas bursitis, but can be distinguished by
the presence of motor and sensory changes involving the femoral
C B
Figure 92-2 Tuberculous spondylitis: Psoas abscess. A, The typical appearance of bilateral and fusiform psoas abscesses is illustrated in a cross-
sectional drawing through a lumbar vertebral body. B, A large left noncalcified psoas abscess (arrows) can be seen. C, Diffusely calcified psoas
abscesses are noted in association with spinal abnormalities. (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and Joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002,
Saunders, p 2530.)
92 Psoas Bursitis 269
nerve. These motor and sensory changes are limited to the distri-
bution of the femoral nerve below the inguinal ligament. Ilioin-
guinal and genitofemoral neuropathy also can be confused with
psoas bursitis. Lumbar radiculopathy and these nerve entrapments
may coexist as the double crush syndrome. The pain of psoas
bursitis also may cause alteration of gait, which may result in sec-
ondary back and radicular symptoms that may coexist with this
entrapment neuropathy.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with psoas bursitis should include a combination of nonste-
roidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of
heat and cold also may be beneficial. The repetitive movements
that incite the syndrome should be avoided. For patients who do
not respond to these treatment modalities, injection of the psoas
bursa with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable
next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
The proximity to the femoral nerve of the psoas bursa makes it
imperative that the injection procedure be done only by clinicians
well versed in the regional anatomy and experienced in perform-
ing injection techniques. Many patients report a transient increase
in pain after injection of the bursa.
270 SECTION 10 Hip and Lower Extremity Pain Syndromes

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Ilizaliturri VM Jr, Camacho-Galindo J, Evia Ramirez AN, etal: Soft tissue pathol-
It is important to rule out other causes of groin pain, includ- ogy around the hip, Clin Sports Med 30:391415, 2011.
ing inguinal hernia and entrapment neuropathies of the Patel K, Wallace R, Busconi BD: Radiology, Clin Sports Med 30:239283, 2011.
Valeriano-Marcet J, Carter JD, Vasey FB: Soft tissue disease, Rheum Dis Clin
ilioinguinal, genitofemoral, and femoral nerves. Injection North Am 29:7788, 2003.
of the psoas bursa is extremely effective in the treatment of Waldman SD: Injection technique for psoas bursitis. In Waldman SD, editor:
psoas bursitis. Special care must be taken to avoid trauma Pain review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 551552.
to the femoral nerve.
The use of physical modalities, including local heat and
gentle stretching exercises, should be introduced several
days after the patient undergoes this injection technique.
Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they would
exacerbate the symptoms. Simple analgesics, NSAIDs, and
antimyotonic agents such as tizanidine may be used concur-
rently with injection of the bursa.
Chapter 93

FEMORAL NEUROPATHY

(MRI) of the spine and pelvis is indicated if tumor or hematoma

ICD-9 CODE 355.8
ICD-10 CODE G57.90
The Clinical Syndrome
Femoral neuropathy is an uncommon cause of anterior thigh and
medial calf pain that has many causes. Femoral neuropathy may
be due to compression by tumor, retroperitoneal hemorrhage, or
abscess. Stretch injuries to the femoral nerve as it passes under the
inguinal ligament from extreme extension or flexion at the hip
also may produce the symptoms of femoral neuropathy. Direct
trauma to the nerve from surgery or during cardiac catheteriza-
tion and diabetes, which can produce vascular lesions of the nerve
itself, also can produce this clinical syndrome.
A patient with femoral neuropathy has pain that radiates into
the anterior thigh and midcalf and is associated with weakness
of the quadriceps muscle. This weakness can result in significant
functional deficit, with the patient unable to extend the knee fully,
which can allow the knee to buckle, resulting in inexplicable falls.
A patient with femoral neuropathy also may experience weakness
of the hip flexors, making walking up stairs quite difficult.
is suspected (Figure 93-3). Injection of the femoral nerve at the
femoral triangle serves as a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
It is difficult to separate femoral neuropathy from an L4 radiculopa-
thy on purely clinical grounds. Subtle differences may exist because
the L4 radiculopathy may manifest with sensory changes into the
foot and weakness of the dorsiflexors of the foot. Intrapelvic or ret-
roperitoneal tumor or hematoma may compress the lumbar plexus
and mimic the clinical presentation of femoral neuropathy.
Treatment
Mild cases of femoral neuropathy usually respond to conserva-
tive therapy, and surgery should be reserved for more severe cases.
Femoral
nerve
Inguinal
ligament

Signs and Symptoms

The patient with femoral neuropathy has pain that radiates into
the anterior thigh and medial calf (Figure 93-1). This pain may be
paresthetic or burning; the intensity is moderate to severe. Weak- Quadriceps
ness of the quadriceps muscle can be quite marked, and over time muscles
atrophy of the quadriceps may occur, especially in patients with
diabetes (Figure 93-2). Patients with femoral neuropathy may
report a sunburned feeling over the anterior thigh. Patients also
may report that the knee feels like it is giving way.

Testing
Electromyography can help identify the exact source of neurologi-
cal dysfunction and clarify the differential diagnosis and should be
the starting point of the evaluation of all patients thought to have
femoral neuropathy. Plain radiographs of the spine, hip, and pelvis
are indicated in all patients with femoral neuropathy to rule out
occult bony pathological conditions. Based on the patients clinical
presentation, additional tests, including complete blood cell count,
uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear Figure 93-1 Patients with femoral neuropathy present with pain that
antibody testing, may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging radiates into the anterior thigh and medial calf.

271
272 SECTION 10 Hip and Lower Extremity Pain Syndromes

Initial treatment of femoral neuropathy should consist of treat-

ment with simple analgesics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs), or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and
avoidance of repetitive activities that exacerbate the symptoms.
If diabetes is thought to be the cause of the patients femoral
neuropathy, tight control of blood glucose levels is mandatory.
Avoidance of repetitive activities thought to be responsible for the
exacerbation of femoral neuropathy (e.g., repetitive hip extension
and flexion) also helps ameliorate the symptoms. If the patient
fails to respond to these conservative measures, a next reasonable
step is injection of the femoral nerve with a local anesthetic and
steroid.

Complications and Pitfalls

It is imperative that the clinician rule out causes of femoral neu-
ropathy that, if undiagnosed, could harm the patient, such as
uncontrolled diabetes and retroperitoneal or pelvic tumor. The
main side effect of femoral nerve block is postblock ecchymosis
and hematoma. The potential exists for needle-induced trauma to
the femoral nerve. By advancing the needle slowly and then with-
drawing the needle slightly away from the nerve, needle-induced
trauma to the femoral nerve can be avoided.

Clinical Pearls
Figure 93-2 Amyotrophy of the left quadriceps femoris. (From Jellad A,
Boudokhane S, Ezzine S, etal: Femoral neuropathy caused by compressive
iliopsoas hydatid cyst: a case report and review of the literature, Joint Bone
Spine 77:371372, 2010.)
Femoral neuropathy always should be differentiated from
lumbar plexopathy and radiculopathy of the nerve roots,
which sometimes may mimic femoral nerve compression.
Lumbar radiculopathy and femoral nerve entrapment
may coexist in the double crush syndrome. The double
crush syndrome is seen most commonly with median nerve
entrapment at the wrist.
Injection of the femoral nerve is a simple and safe tech-
nique in the evaluation and treatment of the previously
mentioned painful conditions. Careful neurological exami-
nation to identify preexisting neurological deficits that may
later be attributed to the nerve block should be performed
on all patients before beginning femoral nerve block, espe-
cially in patients with clinical symptoms of diabetes or clini-
cally significant femoral neuropathy.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Busis NA: Femoral and obturator neuropathies, Neurol Clin 17:633653, 1999.
Hsin HT, Hwang JJ: Isolated femoral nerve neuropathy after intra-aortic balloon
pump treatment, J Formos Med Assoc 106:S29S32, 2007.
Parmer SS, Carpenter JP, Fairman RM, etal: Femoral neuropathy following ret-
Figure 93-3 T2-Weighted coronal magnetic resonance imaging show-
roperitoneal hemorrhage: case series and review of the literature, Ann Vasc Surg
ing the hematoma as an area of increased signal intensity in the mus-
20:536540, 2006.
cle belly (arrowhead). Fascial edema/hemorrhage is depicted as linear
Seijo-Martnez M, Castro del Ro M, Fontoira E, Fontoira M: Acute femoral neu-
hyperintensity. An ill-defined area of high signal intensity can be seen
ropathy secondary to an iliacus muscle hematoma, J Neurol Sci 209:119122,
at the distal myotendinous junction of the left psoasiliacus complex,
2003.
indicating a partial injury (arrow). (From Seijo-Martnez M, Castro del Ro
M, Fontoira E, Fontoira M: Acute femoral neuropathy secondary to an iliacus
muscle hematoma, J Neurol Sci 209:119122, 2003.)
Chapter 94
SAPHENOUS NEURALGIA
ICD-9 CODE 355.8
ICD-10 CODE G57.90
The Clinical Syndrome
Saphenous neuralgia is an uncommon cause of medial calf pain
that may occur after vascular surgery on the lower extremity
(Figure 94-1). With the increased number of total knee arthro-
plasties being performed, trauma to the infrapatellar branch of
the saphenous nerve may cause damage, producing pain and
numbness over the patellar tendon. Patients with saphenous
neuralgia often experience the medial pseudoclaudication type
of pain that may confuse the clinical evaluation and lead the
clinician to suspect lumbar spinal stenosis. Saphenous neuralgia
also may be due to compression of the nerve by tumor, hemor-
rhage, or abscess. This compression usually occurs at the level
at which the nerve exits from Hunters canal. Stretch injuries to
the saphenous nerve also can occur at this point. The nerve is
subject to compression as it crosses to the medial knee. Compres-
sion of the saphenous nerve at the knee is known as surfers knee
because of compression of the saphenous nerve by the edge of
the surfboard. Diabetes can affect the saphenous nerve, but this
is usually in conjunction with neuropathy of the other nerves of
the lower extremity.
Signs and Symptoms
A patient with saphenous neuralgia presents with pain that radi-
ates into the medial calf to the medial malleolus (Figure 94-2).
This pain may be paresthetic or burning; the intensity is moderate
to severe. There is no motor deficit associated with saphenous neu-
ropathy, unless the spinal nerve roots or plexus or other peripheral
nerves are involved. Patients with saphenous neuralgia may report
a sunburned feeling over the distribution of the saphenous nerve.
Testing
Electromyography can help identify the exact source of neurologi-
cal dysfunction and clarify the differential diagnosis and should
be the starting point of the evaluation of all patients suspected
to have saphenous neuralgia. Plain radiographs of the spine, hip,
pelvis, and femur are indicated in all patients who present with
saphenous neuralgia to rule out occult bony pathological pro-
cesses. Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional
tests, including complete blood cell count, uric acid level, erythro-
cyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be
indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the spine, pelvis,
and proximal lower extremity is indicated if tumor or hematoma
is suspected. Injection of the saphenous nerve with a local anes-
thetic and steroid as it exits Hunters canal serves as a diagnostic
and therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
It is difficult to separate saphenous neuralgia from a lumbar radic-
ulopathy on purely clinical grounds, and electromyography is
strongly recommended. Electromyography and nerve conduction
testing also help rule out the presence of peripheral neuropathy.
Intrapelvic or retroperitoneal tumor or hematoma may compress
the lumbar plexus and mimic the clinical presentation of saphe-
nous neuralgia.
Treatment
Mild cases of saphenous neuralgia usually respond to conservative
therapy, and surgery should be reserved for more severe cases. Ini-
tial treatment of saphenous neuralgia should consist of treatment
with simple analgesics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs), or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and avoid-
ance of repetitive activities that exacerbate the symptoms. If diabe-
tes is thought to be the cause of the patients saphenous neuralgia,
tight control of blood glucose levels is mandatory. Avoidance of
repetitive activities thought to be responsible for the exacerbation
of saphenous neuralgia helps ameliorate the symptoms. The use
of gabapentin or a tricyclic antidepressant such as nortriptyline
as an adjuvant analgesic also may help ameliorate the symptoms
of saphenous neuralgia. If the patient fails to respond to these
conservative measures, a next reasonable step is injection of the
saphenous nerve with a local anesthetic and steroid. Ultrasound
guidance may be useful in patients in whom anatomical land-
marks are difficult to identify (Figure 94-3).
Complications and Pitfalls
It is imperative that the clinician rule out causes of saphenous
neuralgia that, if undiagnosed, could harm the patient, such as
uncontrolled diabetes and retroperitoneal or pelvic tumor. The
main side effect of saphenous nerve block is postblock ecchymosis
and hematoma. Potential exists for needle-induced trauma to the
saphenous nerve. By advancing the needle slowly and then with-
drawing the needle slightly away from the nerve, needle-induced
trauma to the saphenous nerve can be avoided.
273
274 SECTION 10 Hip and Lower Extremity Pain Syndromes

Sartorius

Gracilis SSV GSV

A B

Medial condyle
of femur
Femur

Tibia

Tibia

D
Figure 94-1 Axial T1-weighted (A) and PD-weighted fat-suppressed (B) images, sagittal PD-weighted fat-suppressed (C) and ultrasound (arrows
delineate postsurgical neuroma) (D) images of a right knee. Postsurgery neuroma of the sartorial branch of the saphenous nerve at the point where
it becomes superficial between the sartorius (S) and gracilis (G) tendons. GSV, Great saphenous vein; SSV, small saphenous vein. (From Damarey B,
Demondion X, Wavreille G, etal: Imaging of the nerves of the knee region, Eur J Radiol 82:27-37, 2013.)
 94 Saphenous Neuralgia 275

Saphenous
nerve

Patellar
tendon

Medial
malleolus

Figure 94-2 Patients with saphenous neuralgia present with pain that radiates into the medial calf to the medial malleolus.

Local anesthetic Sartorius muscle

Posterior
Anterior

A
Vastus medialis Needle Subsartorial Femoral
muscle tip plexus artery
Sartorius muscle Subsartorial plexus
Posterior
Anterior

B
Vastus medialis Local Femoral
muscle anesthetic artery
Figure 94-3 Image sequence showing subsartorial block of the saphenous nerve in the midthigh with the sartorius muscle and subsartorial plexus
imaged in short-axis view. An in-plane approach is demonstrated in which the needle tip is placed through the sartorius muscle, targeting the fascial
plane on the anterior side of the femoral artery (A). In this example, after injection, the local anesthetic is distributed around a single nerve complex
underneath the sartorius muscle (B). (From Gray AT: Atlas of ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia, Philadelphia, 2010, Saunders, p 158.)
276 SECTION 10 Hip and Lower Extremity Pain Syndromes

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Dayan V, Cura L, Cubas S, Carriquiry G: Surgical anatomy of the saphenous
Saphenous neuralgia always should be differentiated from nerve, Ann Thorac Surg 85:896900, 2008.
lumbar plexopathy and radiculopathy of the nerve roots, Iizuka M, Yao R, Wainapel S: Saphenous nerve injury following medial knee joint
injection: a case report, Arch Phys Med Rehabil 86:20622065, 2005.
which may sometimes mimic saphenous nerve compression. Kalenak A: Saphenous nerve entrapment, Oper Tech Sports Med 4045, 1996.
Lumbar radiculopathy and saphenous nerve entrapment Mountney J, Wilkinson GAL: Saphenous neuralgia after coronary artery bypass
may coexist in the double crush syndrome. The double grafting, Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 16:440443, 1999.
crush syndrome is seen most commonly with median nerve Waldman SD: Saphenous nerve block at the knee. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain
entrapment at the wrist. review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 573574.
Injection of the saphenous nerve is a simple and safe
technique in the evaluation and treatment of the aforemen-
tioned painful conditions. Careful neurological examina-
tion to identify preexisting neurological deficits that later
may be attributed to the nerve block should be performed
on all patients before beginning saphenous nerve block,
especially in patients with clinical symptoms of diabetes or
clinically significant saphenous neuralgia.
Chapter 95

OBTURATOR NEURALGIA

ICD-9 CODE 355.8 Differential Diagnosis

ICD-10 CODE G57.90
The Clinical Syndrome
Obturator neuralgia is an uncommon cause of medial thigh pain
that does not extend below the knee and occurs most often after
trauma. Pelvic fractures, gunshot wounds, and occasionally child-
birth have been implicated in the evolution of obturator neural-
gia. With the increased number of total hip arthroplasties being
performed, trauma to the branches of the obturator nerve may
occur, producing pain and numbness over the medial thigh.
Obturator neuralgia also may be due to compression of the nerve
by tumor, hemorrhage, bone cement from total hip arthroplas-
ties, endometriosis, or abscess. Stretch injuries to the obturator
nerve can cause the symptoms of obturator neuralgia. Diabetes
can affect the obturator nerve, but this is usually in conjunction
with neuropathy of the other nerves of the lower extremity, espe-
cially the femoral nerve.
Signs and Symptoms
It is sometimes difficult to separate obturator neuralgia from a
lumbar plexopathy or radiculopathy on purely clinical grounds,
and electromyography is strongly recommended. Electromyogra-
phy and nerve conduction testing also help rule out the presence
of peripheral neuropathy. Intrapelvic or retroperitoneal tumor or
hematoma may compress the lumbar plexus and mimic the clini-
cal presentation of obturator neuralgia (Figure 95-3).
Treatment
Mild cases of obturator neuralgia usually respond to conservative
therapy, and surgery should be reserved for more severe cases. Ini-
tial treatment of obturator neuralgia should consist of treatment
with simple analgesics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
(NSAIDs), or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and avoidance
Obturator
nerve

A patient with obturator neuralgia presents with pain that radiates

into the medial thigh and, except in rare patients, does not extend
below the knee (Figure 95-1). This pain may be paresthetic or
burning, and the intensity is moderate to severe. No significant
feeling of sunburn over the distribution of the obturator nerve has
been reported.

Testing
Electromyography can help identify the exact source of neurologi-
cal dysfunction and clarify the differential diagnosis and should
be the starting point of the evaluation of all patients thought to
have obturator neuralgia. Plain radiographs of the spine, hip, pel-
vis, and proximal femur are indicated in all patients with obtu-
rator neuralgia to rule out occult bony pathology. Based on the
patients clinical presentation, additional tests, including com-
plete blood cell count, uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Mag-
netic resonance imaging (MRI) of the spine, pelvis, and proximal
lower extremity is indicated if tumor or hematoma is suspected
(Figure 95-2). Injection of the obturator nerve with a local anes- Figure 95-1 Patients with obturator neuralgia have pain that radiates
thetic and steroid serves as a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver. into the medial thigh and does not extend below the knee.

277
 Sigmoid colon

Endometriosis tumor in
right obturator fossae Left obturator nerve

Figure 95-2 Transversal magnetic resonance image of the pelvis, with entrapment of the obturator nerve on the right side. (From Langebrekke A,
Qvigstad E: Endometriosis entrapment of the obturator nerve after previous cervical cancer surgery, Fertil Steril 91:622623, 2009.)

B C
Figure 95-3 Skeletal metastasis: Medulloblastoma. A, Radiograph of the pelvis was obtained in a 23-year-old woman 2 years after a craniotomy with
excision of a medulloblastoma. Patchy osteosclerosis is evident in the left iliac crest, right acetabulum, symphyseal regions, ischial tuberosities, and
left femoral neck. B, After the removal of a medulloblastoma in a 20-year-old man, extensive osteoblastic metastases developed in the spine and,
as shown here, throughout the pelvic bones and proximal portions of the femora. C, In a 12-year-old boy who had undergone excision of a medul-
loblastoma, widespread osteoblastic skeletal metastases developed, shown here in the tubular bones of the lower extremity. (From Resnick D, editor:
Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 4313.)
 95 Obturator Neuralgia 279

of repetitive activities that exacerbate the symptoms. If diabetes is SUGGESTED READINGS

thought to be the cause of the patients obturator neuralgia, tight
control of blood glucose levels is mandatory. Avoidance of repeti-
tive activities thought to be responsible for the exacerbation of
obturator neuralgia also helps ameliorate the symptoms. The use
of gabapentin or a tricyclic antidepressant such as nortriptyline as
an adjuvant analgesic also may help ameliorate the symptoms of
obturator neuralgia. If the patient fails to respond to these conser-
vative measures, a reasonable next step is injection of the obtura-
tor nerve with a local anesthetic and steroid.
Cardosi RJ, Cox CS, Hoffman MS: Postoperative neuropathies after major pelvic
surgery, Obstet Gynecol 100:240244, 2002.
Langebrekke A, Qvigstad E: Endometriosis entrapment of the obturator nerve
after previous cervical cancer surgery, Fertil Steril 91:622623, 2009.
Toth C: Peripheral nerve injuries attributable to sport and recreation, Phys Med
Rehabil Clin North Am 20:77100, 2009.
Toussaint CP, Perry EC III, Pisansky MT, Anderson DE: Whats new in the
diagnosis and treatment of peripheral nerve entrapment, Neuropath Neurol Clin
28:9791004, 2010.
Waldman SD: Obturator nerve block. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review, Phila-
delphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 565566.

Complications and Pitfalls

It is imperative that the clinician rule out causes of obturator
neuralgia that, if undiagnosed, could harm the patient, such as
uncontrolled diabetes and retroperitoneal or pelvic tumor. The
main side effect of obturator nerve block is postblock ecchymosis
and hematoma. Potential exists for needle-induced trauma to the
obturator nerve. By advancing the needle slowly and then with-
drawing the needle slightly away from the nerve, needle-induced
trauma to the obturator nerve can be avoided.

Clinical Pearls
Obturator neuralgia always should be differentiated from
lumbar plexopathy and radiculopathy of the nerve roots
that may sometimes mimic obturator nerve compression.
Lumbar radiculopathy and obturator nerve entrapment
may coexist in the double crush syndrome. The double
crush syndrome is seen most commonly with median nerve
entrapment at the wrist.
Injection of the obturator nerve is a simple and safe
technique in the evaluation and treatment of the previously
mentioned painful conditions. Careful neurological exami-
nation to identify preexisting neurological deficits that may
later be attributed to the nerve block should be performed
on all patients before beginning obturator nerve block,
especially in patients with clinical symptoms of diabetes or
clinically significant obturator neuralgia.
Chapter 96

ADDUCTOR TENDINITIS

hip joint, creating additional pain and functional disability. Neu-

rological examination of the hip and lower extremity is normal,
ICD-9 CODE 726.90 unless there has been concomitant stretch injury to the plexus or
obturator nerve.
ICD-10 CODE M77.9
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with hip, thigh, and
groin pain. Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional
The Clinical Syndrome tests, including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimen-
The increased use of exercise equipment in gyms for lower tation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated.
extremity strengthening has resulted in an increased incidence of Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound imaging of
adductor tendinitis. The adductor muscles of the hip include the the hip and pelvis are indicated if aseptic necrosis or occult mass
gracilis, adductor longus, adductor brevis, and adductor magnus is suspected and to help confirm the diagnosis. Radionucleotide
muscles. The adductor function of these muscles is innervated by bone scanning should be considered if the possibility of occult
the obturator nerve, which is susceptible to trauma from pelvic fracture of the pelvis is being considered. Electromyography can
fractures and compression by tumor. The tendons of the adductor help rule out compression neuropathy or trauma of the obturator
muscles of the hip have their origin along the pubis and ischial nerve and rule out plexopathy and radiculopathy. Injection of the
ramus, and it is at this point that tendinitis frequently occurs. insertion of the adductor tendons serves as a diagnostic maneuver
These tendons and their associated muscles are susceptible and a therapeutic maneuver.
to the development of tendinitis owing to overuse or trauma
secondary to stretch injuries. Inciting factors include the vigor-
ous use of exercise equipment for lower extremity strengthening
and acute stretching of the musculotendinous units as a result of
sports injuries, such as sliding into bases when playing baseball.
The pain of adductor tendinitis is sharp, constant, and severe,
with sleep disturbance often reported. The patient may attempt
to splint the inflamed tendons by adopting an adductor lurch
type of gaitshifting the trunk of the body over the affected
extremity when walking. In addition to the previously described
pain, patients with adductor tendinitis often experience a gradual
decrease in functional ability, with decreasing hip range of motion,
making simple everyday tasks such as getting in or out of an auto- Adductor longus
mobile quite difficult. With continued disuse, muscle wasting
may occur, and an adhesive capsulitis of the hip may develop. Gracilis

Sartorius
Signs and Symptoms
Vastus medialis
On physical examination, a patient with adductor tendinitis
reports pain on palpation of the origins of the adductor tendons.
Active resisted adduction and passive abduction reproduce the Adductor magnus
pain (Figure 96-1). Patients with adductor tendinitis also exhibit
a positive Waldman knee squeeze test for adductor tendinitis.
For this test, the patient places a tennis ball between the knees
and gently holds it there (Figure 96-2, A). The patient is asked to
squeeze the ball as hard as possible. Patients with adductor tendi-
nitis reflexively abduct their knees, causing the tennis ball to fall Figure 96-1 The patient with adductor tendinitis reports pain on palpa-
(Figure 96-2, B). Tendinitis of the musculotendinous unit of the tion of the origins of the adductor tendons. Active resisted adduction
hip frequently coexists with bursitis of the associated bursa of the and passive abduction reproduce the pain.

280
 96 Adductor Tendinitis 281

Tennis
ball

A B
Figure 96-2 Patients with adductor tendinitis also exhibit a positive Waldman knee squeeze test for adductor tendinitis. A, The patient places a ten-
nis ball between the knees and gently holds it there. B, Patients with adductor tendinitis reflexively abduct their knees, causing the tennis ball to fall.
(From Waldman SD: Physical diagnosis of pain: an atlas of signs and symptoms, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, pp 306307.)

Differential Diagnosis anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)

Internal derangement of the hip may mimic the clinical presenta-
tion of adductor tendinitis. Occasionally, indirect inguinal hernia
can produce pain that can be confused with adductor tendinitis. If
trauma has occurred, consideration of the possibility of occult pel-
vic fracture, especially in individuals with osteopenia or osteopo-
rosis, should be entertained, and radionucleotide bone scanning
should be obtained. Avascular necrosis of the hip also may pro-
duce hip pain that can mimic the clinical presentation of adductor
tendinitis. Entrapment neuropathy or stretch injury to the ilioin-
guinal, genitofemoral, and obturator nerves and plexopathy and
radiculopathy should be considered if the physical finding of neu-
rological deficit is identified in patients thought to have adductor
tendinitis, because all of these clinical entities may coexist.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated with
adductor tendinitis should include a combination of nonsteroidal
inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of heat and cold
may be beneficial. For patients who do not respond to these treat-
ment modalities, injection of the insertion of the adductor tendons
of the hip with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable
next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
If trauma is present, the possibility of occult pelvic fracture always
should be considered, as should the possibility of occult malig-
nancy of the pelvis or hip. Trauma to the adductor tendons from
injection of the tendinous insertion remains a possibility. Tendons
that are highly inflamed or previously damaged are subject to rup-
ture if they are directly injected. This complication can be greatly
decreased if the clinician uses gentle technique and stops injecting
immediately if significant resistance to injection is encountered.
Approximately 25% of patients report a transient increase in pain
after this injection technique; patients should be warned of this
possibility.
282 SECTION 10 Hip and Lower Extremity Pain Syndromes

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Jrvinen M, Orava S, Kujala UM: Groin pain (adductor syndrome), Oper Techn
The proper use of exercise equipment can greatly reduce Sports Med 5:133137, 1997.
the incidence of adductor tendinitis. Injection of the adduc- Morelli V, Weaver V: Groin injuries and groin pain in athletes, part 1, Prim Care
32:163183, 2005.
tor tendons is extremely effective in the treatment of pain Morelli V, Espinoza L: Groin injuries and groin pain in athletes, part 2, Prim Care
secondary to the previously mentioned causes of hip pain. 32:185200, 2005.
Gentle injection technique decreases the incidence of trau- Noesberger B, Eichenberger AR: Overuse injuries of the hip and snapping hip
matic rupture of the tendons owing to injection. Coexistent syndrome, Oper Techn Sports Med 5:138142, 1997.
bursitis and arthritis may contribute to hip pain and may Waldman SD: Adductor tendinitis. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors:
Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 355356.
require additional treatment with a more localized injection
of a local anesthetic and depot steroid. The use of physical
modalities, including local heat and gentle range-of-motion
exercises, should be introduced several days after the patient
undergoes this injection technique for hip pain. Vigorous
exercises should be avoided because they would exacerbate
the symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may be used
concurrently with this injection technique.
Chapter 97
ILIOPECTINATE BURSITIS
ICD-9 CODE 726.5
ICD-10 CODE M77.9
The Clinical Syndrome
A patient with iliopectinate bursitis frequently reports pain in the
anterior hip and groin. The pain is localized to the area just below
the crease of the groin anteriorly, with referred pain noted into
the hip joint and anterior pelvis. Often, the patient is unable to
sleep on the affected hip and may report a sharp, catching sen-
sation with range of motion of the hip. Iliopectinate bursitis often
coexists with arthritis of the hip joint.
The iliopectinate bursa lies between the psoas and iliacus mus-
cles and the iliopectinate eminence. The iliopectinate eminence is
Figure 97-1 The iliacus muscle flexes the thigh on the trunk or, if the thigh is fixed, flexes the trunk on the thigh, as when moving from a supine to
sitting position. This action can irritate the iliopectinate bursa, as can repeated trauma from repetitive activity, including sit-ups or overuse of exercise
equipment for lower extremity strengthening.
the point at which the ilium and the pubis bone merge. The psoas
and iliacus muscles join at the lateral side of the psoas, and the
combined fibers are referred to as the iliopsoas muscle. Similar to
the psoas, the iliacus flexes the thigh on the trunk or, if the thigh
is fixed, flexes the trunk on the thigh, as when moving from a
supine to sitting position. This action can irritate the iliopectinate
bursa, as can repeated trauma from repetitive activity, includ-
ing sit-ups or overuse of exercise equipment for lower extremity
strengthening (Figure 97-1). The iliacus muscle is innervated by
the femoral nerve.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical examination may reveal point tenderness in the upper
thigh just below the crease of the groin. Passive flexion, adduc-
tion, and abduction and active resisted flexion and adduction of
the affected lower extremity reproduce the pain. Sudden release
of resistance during this maneuver markedly increases the pain.
Iliopsoas m.
Gluteus medius m.
Inflamed
iliopectineal
bursa
283
284 SECTION 10 Hip and Lower Extremity Pain Syndromes
Examination of the hip and of the sacroiliac joint is normal.
Careful neurological examination of the affected lower extrem-
ity should reveal no neurological deficits. If neurological deficits
are present, evaluation for plexopathy, radiculopathy, or entrap-
ment neuropathy should be undertaken. These neurological
symptoms can coexist with iliopectinate bursitis, confusing the
clinical diagnosis.
Testing
Plain radiographs of the hip may reveal calcification of the bursa
and associated structures consistent with chronic inflamma-
tion. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is indicated if occult
mass or tumor of the hip or groin is suspected and help confirm
the diagnosis (Figure 97-2). The injection technique described
subsequently serves as a diagnostic maneuver and a therapeutic
maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
Iliopectinate bursitis is often attributed to primary hip or groin
pathological conditions. Radiographs of the hip and pelvis com-
bined with electromyography help distinguish iliopectinate bursi-
tis from radiculopathy or plexopathy from pain emanating from
the hip. Most patients with a lumbar radiculopathy have back
pain associated with reflex, motor, and sensory changes, whereas
patients with iliopectinate bursitis have only secondary back pain
and no neurological changes. Ilioinguinal or genitofemoral neu-
ralgia sometimes may be confused with iliopectinate bursitis,
but can be distinguished by the presence of motor and sensory
changes involving these nerves. Lumbar radiculopathy and ilioin-
guinal nerve entrapment may coexist as the double crush syn-
drome. The pain of iliopectinate bursitis may cause alteration of
gait, which may result in secondary back and radicular symptoms
that may coexist with less common forms of bursitis.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with iliopectinate bursitis should include a combination of non-
steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of
Figure 97-2 Skeletal metastasis: Pelvisloss of supra-acetabular line.
Loss of the supra-acetabular line (arrow) on the right side confirms the
presence of an adjacent osteolytic lesion. Compare with the opposite
uninvolved hip. (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint dis-
orders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 4299.)
heat and cold may be beneficial. The repetitive movements that
incite the syndrome should be avoided. For patients who do not
respond to these treatment modalities, injection of the iliopecti-
nate bursa with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable
next step.
The goals of this injection technique are first explained to
the patient. The patient is placed in the supine position, and the
pulsation of the femoral artery at the midpoint of the inguinal
ligament is identified. At a point 212 inches down and 312 inches
lateral to these femoral arterial pulsations lies the entry point of
the needle. This point should be at the lateral edge of the sartorius
muscle. Proper preparation with antiseptic solution of the skin
overlying this point is done. A syringe containing 9 mL of 0.25%
preservative-free bupivacaine and 40 mg of methylprednisolone is
attached to a 25-gauge, 312-inch needle.
Before needle placement, the patient should be advised to say
There! as soon as a paresthesia into the lower extremity is felt,
indicating that the needle has impinged on the femoral nerve. If a
paresthesia occurs, the needle should be withdrawn immediately
and repositioned more laterally. The needle is advanced carefully
through the previously identified point at a 45-degree angle ceph-
alad to allow the needle to pass safely beneath the femoral artery,
vein, and nerve. The needle is advanced slowly to avoid trauma
to the femoral nerve until it hits the bone at the point where the
ilium and pubis bones merge (Figure 97-3). The needle is with-
drawn out of the periosteum, and after careful aspiration for blood
and if no paresthesia is present, the contents of the syringe are
gently injected into the bursa. There should be minimal resistance
to injection.
Complications and Pitfalls
The proximity to the femoral artery, vein, and nerve makes it
imperative that this procedure be done only by clinicians well
versed in the regional anatomy and experienced in perform-
ing injection techniques. Many patients also report a transient
increase in pain after injection of the iliopectinate bursa.
Psoas major m.
Femoral n.
Femoral a.
inflamed iliopectineal bursa
Psoas major m.
Femoral v.
Figure 97-3 Injection technique to relieve the pain resulting from ilio-
pectinate bursitis. (From Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management injec-
tion techniques, 2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders, p 359.)
 97 Iliopectinate Bursitis 285

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Morelli V, Weaver V: Groin injuries and groin pain in athletes, part 1, Prim Care
This injection technique is extremely effective in the treat- 32:163183, 2005.
ment of iliopectinate bursitis. The technique is a safe pro- Morelli V, Espinoza L: Groin injuries and groin pain in athletes, part 2, Prim Care
32:185200, 2005.
cedure if careful attention is paid to the clinically relevant Noesberger B, Eichenberger AR: Overuse injuries of the hip and snapping hip
anatomy in the areas to be injected. Care must be taken syndrome, Oper Techn Sports Med 51385142, 1997.
to use sterile techniques to avoid infection and universal Waldman SD: Injection technique for iliopectineal bursitis. In Waldman SD,
precautions to avoid risk to the operator. Most side effects editor: Pain review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 553554.
of this injection technique are related to needle-induced
trauma to the injection site and underlying tissues. The
incidence of ecchymosis and hematoma formation can be
decreased if pressure is placed on the injection site immedi-
ately after injection. The avoidance of overly long needles
helps decrease the incidence of trauma to underlying struc-
tures. Special care must be taken to avoid trauma to the
sciatic nerve.
The use of physical modalities, including local heat and
gentle stretching exercises, should be introduced several
days after the patient undergoes this injection technique.
Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they would
exacerbate the symptoms. Simple analgesics, NSAIDs, and
antimyotonic agents such as tizanidine may be used concur-
rently with this injection technique.
Chapter 98
SNAPPING HIP SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 727.09
ICD-10 CODE M65.80
The Clinical Syndrome
Snapping hip syndrome, which is also known as coxa sultans, is a
constellation of symptoms that includes a snapping sensation in
the lateral hip associated with sudden, sharp pain in the area of the
greater trochanter. The snapping sensation and pain are the result
of the iliopsoas tendon subluxing over the greater trochanter or
iliopectinate eminence (Figure 98-1). The symptoms of snapping
hip syndrome occur most commonly when the patient rises from
a sitting to a standing position or when walking briskly. Often,
trochanteric bursitis coexists with snapping hip syndrome, further
increasing the patients pain and disability. The trochanteric bursa
lies between the greater trochanter and the tendon of the gluteus
medius and the iliotibial tract (Figures 98-2 and 98-3).
Signs and Symptoms
Physical examination reveals that the patient can recreate the
snapping and pain by moving from a sitting to a standing posi-
tion and adducting the hip (Figure 98-4). Point tenderness over
the trochanteric bursa indicating trochanteric bursitis also is often
present. If the patient has a significant component of trochan-
teric bursitis, he or she has a positive resisted abduction release
test. This test is performed by having the patient assume the lat-
eral position with the unaffected leg down. The examiner firmly
grasps the patients lateral thigh and has the patient abduct the hip
against the examiners resistance (Figure 98-5, A). The examiner
suddenly releases the resistance against the patients active abduc-
tion (Figure 98-5, B). This sudden release of resistance markedly
increases the pain over the greater trochanter if the patient has
trochanteric bursitis.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with pain thought
to be emanating from the hip to rule out occult bony pathologi-
cal processes and tumor. Based on the patients clinical presenta-
tion, additional tests may be indicated, including complete blood
count, prostate-specific antigen, erythrocyte sedimentation rate,
and antinuclear antibody testing. Magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) and ultrasound imaging of the affected hip are indicated
286
if occult mass or aseptic necrosis is suspected and to help confirm
the diagnosis. The following injection technique serves as a diag-
nostic and therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
Snapping hip syndrome frequently coexists with trochanteric
bursitis and arthritis of the hip, which may require specific treat-
ment to provide palliation of pain and return of function. Occa-
sionally, snapping hip syndrome can be confused with meralgia
paresthetica because both manifest with pain in the lateral thigh.
The two syndromes can be distinguished by the fact that patients
with meralgia paresthetica do not have any of the previously men-
tioned physical findings associated with snapping hip syndrome
and have decreased sensation in the distribution of the lateral fem-
oral cutaneous nerve (Figure 98-6). Electromyography helps sort
out confusing clinical presentations. The clinician must consider
the potential for primary or secondary tumors of the hip in the
differential diagnosis of snapping hip syndrome.
Treatment
A short course of conservative therapy consisting of simple anal-
gesics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), or
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors is a reasonable first step
in the treatment of patients with snapping hip syndrome. The
patient should be instructed to avoid repetitive activity that may
be responsible for the development of snapping hip syndrome,
such as running on sand. If the patient does not experience rapid
improvement, the following injection technique is a reasonable
next step.
The patient is placed in the lateral decubitus position with
the affected side up. The midpoint of the greater trochanter is
identified. Proper preparation with antiseptic solution of the skin
overlying this point is carried out. A syringe containing 2 mL of
0.25% preservative-free bupivacaine and 40 mg of methylpred-
nisolone is attached to a 25-gauge, 312-inch needle.
Before needle placement, the patient should be advised to
say There! as soon as a paresthesia into the lower extremity
is felt, indicating that the needle has impinged on the sciatic
nerve. If a paresthesia occurs, the needle should be withdrawn
immediately and repositioned more laterally. The needle is
advanced carefully through the previously identified point at a
right angle to the skin, directly toward the center of the greater
trochanter. The needle is advanced slowly to avoid trauma to
the sciatic nerve until it hits the bone (Figure 98-7). The needle
is withdrawn out of the periosteum, and after careful aspiration
for blood and, if no paresthesia is present, the contents of the
 98 Snapping Hip Syndrome 287

Iliopsoas m.

Gluteus medius m. Tensor fasciae

latae m.
Deep trochanteric
bursa

Superficial
Iliopsoas bursa trochanteric
bursa
Iliotibial tract

Inflamed superficial
trochanteric bursa

Gluteus medius m.
Tensor fasciae
latae m.

Superficial
trochanteric
Iliotibial tract bursa

Figure 98-1 The snapping sensation and pain are the result of the iliopsoas tendon subluxing over the greater trochanter or iliopectinate eminence.

syringe are gently injected. There should be minimal resistance
to injection.
Complications and Pitfalls
Care must be taken to rule out other conditions that may
mimic the pain of snapping hip syndrome. The main pitfall
of the described nerve block is proximity to the sciatic nerve,
which makes it imperative that this procedure be done only by
clinicians well versed in the regional anatomy and experienced
in performing injection techniques. Many patients report a
transient increase in pain after this injection technique. Infec-
tion, although rare, can occur, and careful attention to sterile
technique is mandatory.
 Gluteus medius
muscle

Gluteus maximus
muscle

Trochanteric bursa

Greater trochanter
Figure 98-2 The symptoms of snapping
hip syndrome occur most commonly when
the patient rises from a sitting to a standing
position or when walking briskly. Often, tro-
chanteric bursitis coexists with snapping hip
syndrome, increasing the patients pain and
disability further. The type of pain often mim-
ics sciatica. (From Waldman SD: Atlas of com-
mon pain syndromes, 3rd ed, Philadelphia,
2012, Saunders, p 297.)

Gluteus
medius m
Piriformis m & t
Iliotibial tract Coccygeus m
Sciatic n
Ischium, spine
Sup gemellus m
Obturator internus
Greater trochanter m&t

Inf gemellus m

Ischium
Semimembranosus t
Vastus lateralis m

Quadratus femoris m Sciatic n

Gluteus minimus m

Gluteus medius m
Piriformis m
Sciatic n
Iliotibial tract Ischium, spine
Sup gemellus m
Inf gemellus m
Greater trochanter Obturator internus
m and t
Gluteus
maximus m
Ischium
Vastus lateralis m Semimembranosus t

Figure 98-3 The trochanteric bursa lies between the greater trochanter and the tendon of the gluteus medius and the iliotibial tract. Inf, Inferior; m,
muscle; n, nerve; t, tendon. (From Kang HS, Ahn JM, Resnick D, editors: MRI of the extremities, 2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 221.)
 98 Snapping Hip Syndrome 289

Figure 98-4 Physical examination reveals that the patient can recreate
the snapping and pain by moving from a sitting to a standing position
and adducting the hip. (From Waldman SD: Physical diagnosis of pain:
an atlas of signs and symptoms, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 320.)

A B
Figure 98-5 Resisted abduction release test is performed by having the patient assume the lateral position with the unaffected leg down. A, The
examiner firmly grasps the patients lateral thigh and has the patient abduct the hip against the examiners resistance. B, The examiner suddenly
releases the resistance against the patients active abduction. (From Waldman SD: Physical diagnosis of pain: an atlas of signs and symptoms, Philadel-
phia, 2006, Saunders, p 316.)
290 SECTION 10 Hip and Lower Extremity Pain Syndromes

Lat. femoral
cutaneous n.

Greater trochanter

Iliotibial band
Inguinal ligament

Figure 98-6 Occasionally, snapping hip syndrome can be confused

with meralgia paresthetica because both manifest with pain in the lat-
eral thigh. (From Waldman SD: Physical diagnosis of pain: an atlas of
signs and symptoms, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 279.)

Clinical Pearls
Snapping hip syndrome frequently coexists with trochan-
teric bursitis and arthritis of the hip, which may require
specific treatment to provide palliation of pain and return
of function. This injection technique is extremely effective
in the treatment of snapping hip syndrome. It is a safe pro-
cedure if careful attention is paid to the clinically relevant
anatomy in the areas to be injected. Most side effects of this
injection technique are related to needle-induced trauma to
the injection site and underlying tissues. Special care must
be taken to avoid trauma to the sciatic nerve.
The use of physical modalities, including local heat and
gentle stretching exercises, should be introduced several
days after the patient undergoes this injection technique.
Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they would
exacerbate the symptoms. Simple analgesics, NSAIDs, and
antimyotonic agents may be used concurrently with this
injection technique.
Figure 98-7 Injection technique to relieve the pain of snapping hip syn-
drome. (From Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management injection tech-
niques, 2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders, p 368.)
SUGGESTED READINGS
Allen WC, Cope R: Coxa saltans: the snapping hip revisited, J Am Acad Orthop
Surg 3:303308, 1995.
Byrd WT: Snapping hip, Oper Techn Sports Med 13:4654, 2005.
Fery A, Sommelet J: The snapping hip: late results of 24 surgical cases, Int Orthop
12:277282, 1988.
Ilizaliturri VM Jr, Camacho-Galindo J, Ramirez ANE, Lizette Y, etal: Soft tissue
pathology around the hip, Clin Sports Med 30:391415, 2011.
Waldman SD: Snapping hip. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging
of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 365366.
SECTION 11 Knee Pain Syndromes

Chapter 99

TIBIOFIBULAR PAIN SYNDROME

joint. With continued disuse, muscle weakness and wasting may

ICD-9 CODE 715.96 occur, and loss of support from the muscles and ligaments eventu-
ally makes the tibiofibular joint unstable. This instability is most
evident when the patient attempts to walk on uneven surfaces or
ICD-10 CODE M17.9 climb stairs (Figure 99-1).

Testing
The Clinical Syndrome Plain radiographs of the knee are indicated in all patients with
Tibiofibular joint pain is most often the result of arthritis of tibiofibular joint pain. Based on the patients clinical presentation,
the joint. Osteoarthritis of the joint is the most common form additional tests, including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte
of arthritis that results in tibiofibular joint pain. Rheumatoid
arthritis and posttraumatic arthritis also are common causes of
tibiofibular pain secondary to arthritis. The tibiofibular joint
is frequently damaged from falls with the foot fully medially
rotated and the knee flexed, and such trauma frequently results
in posttraumatic arthritis. Less common causes of arthritis- Posterior knee
induced tibiofibular pain include collagen-vascular diseases,
infection, villonodular synovitis, and Lyme disease. In addition
to arthritis, the tibiofibular joint is susceptible to the develop-
ment of tendinitis, bursitis, and disruption of the ligaments, car-
tilage, and tendons, all of which may cause pain and functional
disability.
Most patients with tibiofibular pain secondary to osteoarthritis
and posttraumatic arthritis report pain localized around the tibio-
fibular joint and the lateral aspect of the knee. Activity, especially
involving flexion and medial rotation of the knee, makes the pain
worse; rest and heat provide some relief. The pain is constant and
characterized as aching. The pain may interfere with sleep.
Osteoarthritis of
Signs and Symptoms tibiofibular joint

Examination of the knee in patients with tibiofibular joint pain

reveals tenderness to palpation of the lateral aspect of the knee.
Some patients report a grating or popping sensation with use of
the joint, and crepitus may be present on physical examination. In
addition to the previously mentioned pain, patients with arthri-
tis of the tibiofibular joint often experience a gradual decrease
in functional ability with decreasing tibiofibular joint range of
motion, making simple everyday tasks such as walking, climbing
stairs, and getting in and out of an automobile difficult. Morn-
ing stiffness and stiffness after sitting for prolonged periods are
commonly reported by patients with arthritis of the tibiofibular
Fibula
Tibia
Figure 99-1 Patients with tibiofibular joint pain as a result of arthritis
often experience a gradual decrease in functional ability with decreasing
tibiofibular joint range of motion, making simple everyday tasks such as
walking, climbing stairs, and getting in and out of an automobile quite
difficult.

291
292 SECTION 11 Knee Pain Syndromes
sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indi-
cated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the tibiofibular joint
is indicated if aseptic necrosis or occult mass or tumor is suspected
and to help confirm the diagnosis. Bone scan may be useful to
identify occult stress fractures involving the joint, especially if
trauma has occurred.
Differential Diagnosis
The tibiofibular joint is susceptible to the development of arthri-
tis from a variety of conditions that have in common the ability
to damage the joint cartilage. Acute infectious arthritis usually is
accompanied by significant systemic symptoms, including fever
and malaise, and should be easily recognized by an astute clini-
cian and treated appropriately with culture and antibiotics, rather
than with injection therapy. The collagen-vascular diseases gener-
ally manifest as a polyarthropathy rather than a monarthropathy
limited to the tibiofibular joint, although tibiofibular pain second-
ary to collagen-vascular disease responds well to the intra-articular
injection technique described subsequently. Lumbar radiculopa-
thy may mimic the pain and disability associated with arthritis of
the tibiofibular joint. In patients with lumbar radiculopathy, the
knee examination should be negative. Entrapment neuropathies,
such as meralgia paresthetica, and bursitis of the knee also may
confuse the diagnosis; both may coexist with arthritis of the tib-
iofibular joint. Primary and metastatic tumors of the femur and
spine also may manifest clinically in a manner analogous to arthri-
tis of the knee.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associ-
ated with arthritis of the knee should include a combina-
tion of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy.
Local application of heat and cold may be beneficial. For
patients who do not respond to these treatment modalities, an
intra-articular injection of a local anesthetic and steroid may be
a reasonable next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to identify primary or metastatic tumor of the knee or
spine that is responsible for the patients pain may yield disastrous
results. The major complication of intra-articular injection of the
knee is infection. This complication should be exceedingly rare if
strict aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25% of patients
report a transient increase in pain after intra-articular injection of
the knee joint; patients should be warned of this possibility.
Clinical Pearls
Coexistent bursitis and tendinitis may contribute to tib-
iofibular pain and may require additional treatment with
more localized injection of a local anesthetic and depot ste-
roid. Injection of the tibiofibular joint is extremely effective
in the treatment of pain secondary to the previously men-
tioned causes of arthritis of the knee joint. This technique is
a safe procedure if careful attention is paid to the clinically
relevant anatomy in the areas to be injected. Care must be
taken to use sterile technique to avoid infection and uni-
versal precautions to avoid risk to the operator. The use of
physical modalities, including local heat and gentle range-
of-motion exercises, should be introduced several days after
the patient undergoes this injection technique for knee
pain. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they
would exacerbate the symptoms.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bozkurt M, Ylmaz E, Akseki D, Havtcolu H: Gnal : The evaluation of
the proximal tibiofibular joint for patients with lateral knee pain, Knee 11:
307312, 2004.
ztuna V, Yldz A, zer C, etal: Involvement of the proximal tibiofibular joint
in osteoarthritis of the knee, Knee 10:347349, 2003.
Rethnam U, Sinha A: Instability of the proximal tibiofibular joint, an unusual
cause for knee pain, Injury Extra 37:190192, 2006.
Waldman SD: Arthritis pain of the knee. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review,
Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, p 316.
Waldman SD: Functional anatomy of the knee. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain
review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 144149.
Chapter 100
JUMPERS KNEE
ICD-9 CODE 727.09
ICD-10 CODE M65.80
The Clinical Syndrome
Jumpers knee is characterized by pain at the inferior or superior
pole of the patella; it occurs in 20% of jumping athletes at some
point in their careers. The pain may affect one or both knees and
affects men twice as commonly as women when just one knee is
affected. It is usually the result of overuse or misuse of the knee
joint, such as running, jumping, or overtraining on hard surfaces,
or direct trauma to the quadriceps or patellar tendon from kicks
or head butts during football or kickboxing. Weak or poor quad-
riceps and hamstring muscle flexibility and congenital variants of
the anatomy of the knee, such as patella alta or baja and limb
length discrepancies, also have been implicated as risk factors for
the development of jumpers knee.
Jumpers knee is a repetitive stress disorder that causes ten-
dinosis of the quadriceps and patellar tendons and is a clinical
entity distinct from tendinitis of the quadriceps or patellar ten-
dons or quadriceps expansion syndrome, which may coexist with
jumpers knee and confuse the clinical picture. It is postulated
that the strong eccentric contraction of the quadriceps muscle to
strengthen the knee joint during landing is the inciting factor dur-
ing jumping, rather than the jump itself. The quadriceps tendon
also is subject to acute calcific tendinitis, which may coexist with
acute strain injuries and the more chronic changes of jumpers
knee. Calcific tendinitis of the quadriceps has a characteristic
radiographic appearance of whiskers on the anterosuperior patella.
Patients with jumpers knee have pain over the superior or infe-
rior pole (or both) of the sesamoid. In contrast to quadriceps expan-
sion syndrome, which has a predilection for the medial side of the
superior pole of the patella, jumpers knee affects the medial and
the lateral sides of the quadriceps and the patellar tendons (Figure
100-1). The patient notes increased pain on walking down slopes
or down stairs. Activity using the knee, especially jumping, worsens
the pain; rest and heat provide some relief. The pain is constant and
is characterized as aching. The pain may interfere with sleep.
Signs and Symptoms
On physical examination, tenderness of the quadriceps tendon
or patellar tendon or both is noted, and a joint effusion may be
present. Active resisted extension of the knee reproduces the pain.
Coexistent suprapatellar and infrapatellar bursitis, tendinitis,
arthritis, or internal derangement of the knee may confuse the
clinical picture after trauma to the knee joint (Figure 100-2).
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with knee pain.
Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests may
be indicated, including complete blood count, erythrocyte sedi-
mentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing. Magnetic reso-
nance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound imaging of the knee are
indicated if jumpers knee is suspected, because they readily show
the tendinosis of the quadriceps or patellar tendons responsible
for this common pain syndrome (Figure 100-3). Bone scan may
be useful to identify occult stress fractures involving the joint,
especially if trauma has occurred.
Differential Diagnosis
The most common cause of anterior knee pain is arthritis of the
knee; this should be readily identifiable on plain radiographs of
the knee and may coexist with jumpers knee. Another com-
mon cause of anterior knee pain that may mimic or coexist with
jumpers knee is suprapatellar or superficial and deep patellar
bursitis. Internal derangement of the knee or torn medial menis-
cus also may confuse the clinical diagnosis, but should be readily
identifiable on MRI of the knee.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated with
jumpers knee should include a combination of nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhib-
itors and physical therapy. Local application of heat and cold also
may be beneficial. For patients who do not respond to these treat-
ment modalities, injection of the suprapatellar and infrapatellar space
with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complication of injection of jumpers knee is infec-
tion. This complication should be exceedingly rare if strict aseptic
technique is followed. Approximately 25% of patients report a
transient increase in pain after injection of the quadriceps tendon
of the knee, and patients should be warned of this possibility. The
clinician also should identify coexistent internal derangement of
the knee, primary and metastatic tumors, and infection, which, if
undiagnosed, may yield disastrous results.
293
294 SECTION 11 Knee Pain Syndromes

Figure 100-1 Patients with jumpers knee present with pain over the superior or inferior pole (or both) of the sesamoid. Jumpers knee affects the
medial and the lateral sides of the quadriceps and the patellar tendons.

Inflamed and swollen deep

infrapatellar bursa

Figure 100-2 On physical examination, tenderness of the quadriceps

tendon, patellar tendon, or both is noted. Active resisted extension of
the knee reproduces the pain. (From Waldman SD: Atlas of pain manage-
ment injection techniques, 2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2007, Saunders, p 463.)

A B
Figure 100-3 Chronic patellar tendinosis. Sagittal intermediate-
weighted (TR/TE, 2200/30) (A) and T2-weighted (TR/TE, 2200/80) (B)
spin echo magnetic resonance imaging show marked thickening of the
entire patellar tendon, more pronounced in the middle and distal seg-
ments, and indistinctness of the anterior margin of the tendon. (From
Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia,
2002, Saunders, p 3236.)
100 Jumpers Knee 295
Clinical Pearls
Injection of the knee is extremely effective in the treatment
of pain secondary to the previously mentioned causes of
jumpers knee. Coexistent bursitis, tendinitis, arthritis, and
internal derangement of the knee may contribute to the
patients pain and may require additional treatment with
more localized injection of local anesthetic and depot ste-
roid preparation. Injection of jumpers knee is safe if careful
attention is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy in the
areas to be injected. Care must be taken to use sterile tech-
nique to avoid infection; universal precautions should be
used to avoid risk to the operator. The incidence of ecchy-
mosis and hematoma formation can be decreased if pressure
is placed on the injection site immediately after injection.
The use of physical modalities, including local heat and
gentle range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced
several days after the patient undergoes this injection tech-
nique for tibiofibular pain. Vigorous exercises should be
avoided because they would exacerbate the symptoms. Sim-
ple analgesics and NSAIDs may be used concurrently with
this injection technique.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Benjamin M, Kumai T, Milz S, etal: The skeletal attachment of tendons: tendon
entheses, Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 133:931945, 2002.
Draghi F, Danesino GM, Coscia D, Precerutti M, Pagani C: Overload syndromes
of the knee in adolescents: sonographic findings, J Ultrasound 11:151157, 2008.
Eifert-Mangine M, Brewster C, Wong M, etal: Patellar tendinitis in the recre-
ational athlete, Sports Med Rehabil Series 15:13591367, 1992.
Fritschy D: Jumpers knee, Oper Techn Sports Med 5:150152, 1997.
Terslev L, Qvistgaard E, Torp-Pedersen S, et al: Ultrasound and power Dop-
pler findings in jumpers knee: preliminary observations, Eur J Ultra-
sound1318313189, 2001.
Chapter 101

SEMIMEMBRANOSUS INSERTION
SYNDROME

the gastrocnemius muscle, the medial femoral epicondyle, and the

ICD-9 CODE 726.90
ICD-10 CODE M77.9
The Clinical Syndrome
Semimembranosus insertion syndrome is a constellation of symp-
toms including a localized tenderness over the posterior aspect
of the medial knee joint, with severe pain elicited on palpation
of the attachment of the semimembranosus muscle at the poste-
rior medial condyle of the tibia (Figure 101-1). Semimembrano-
sus insertion syndrome occurs most commonly after overuse or
misuse of the knee, often after overaggressive exercise regimens.
Direct trauma to the posterior knee by kicks or tackles during
football also may result in the development of semimembranosus
insertion syndrome (Figure 101-2). Coexistent inflammation of
the semimembranosus bursa that lies between the medial head of
semimembranosus tendon may exacerbate the pain of semimem-
branosus insertion syndrome.
The semimembranosus muscle has its origin from the ischial
tuberosity and inserts into a groove on the medial surface of the
medial condyle of the tibia (see Figure 101-1). The semimem-
branosus muscle flexes and medially rotates the leg at the knee
and extends the thigh at the hip joint. A fibrous extension of the
muscle called the oblique popliteal ligament extends upward
and laterally to provide support to the posterior knee joint. This
ligament and the tendinous insertion of the muscle are prone to
development of inflammation from overuse, misuse, or trauma.
The semimembranosus muscle is innervated by the tibial por-
tion of the sciatic nerve. The common peroneal nerve is in prox-
imity to the insertion of the semimembranosus muscle, with the
tibial nerve lying more medial. The popliteal artery and vein
lie in the middle of the joint. Also serving as a source of pain
in the posterior knee is the semimembranosus bursa, which
lies between the medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle, the
medial femoral epicondyle, and the semimembranosus tendon.

Semimembranosus
m&t
Vastus medialis
m

Med sup
genicular a

Adductor magnus t
Med femoral
condyle
Semitendinosus t
Med patellar
Gracilis t
retinaculum
Sartorius t

Tibial collateral lig Greater

& joint capsule saphenous v
Gastrocnemius m,
med head
Figure 101-1 Anatomy of the knee joint. a, Artery; m, muscle; n, nerve; t, tendon; v, vein. (From Kang HS, Ahn JM, Resnick D, editors: MRI of the
extremities, 2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 325.)

296
 101 Semimembranosus Insertion Syndrome 297

Semimembranosus

Femur

Tibia

Fibula

Figure 101-2 Direct trauma to the posterior knee by kicks or tackles may cause semimembranosus insertion syndrome to develop. Semimembrano-
sus insertion syndrome is a constellation of symptoms including localized tenderness over the posterior aspect of the medial knee joint, with severe
pain elicited on palpation of the attachment of the semimembranosus muscle at the posterior medial condyle of the tibia. (Modified from Waldman
SD: Atlas of pain management injection techniques, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2013, Saunders, p 353.)

Signs and Symptoms Differential Diagnosis

On physical examination, the patient exhibits point tenderness
over the attachment of the semimembranosus muscle at the pos-
terior medial condyle of the tibia. The patient may feel tender-
ness over the posterior knee and exhibits a positive twist test for
semimembranosus insertion syndrome (Figure 101-3). The twist
test is performed by placing the knee in 20 degrees of flexion and
passively rotating the flexed knee. The test is positive if the pain is
reproduced. Internal derangement of the knee also may be present
and should be searched for on examination of the knee.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with pain thought
to be emanating from semimembranosus insertion syndrome to
rule out occult bony pathology, including tibial plateau fractures
and tumor. Based on the patients clinical presentation, addi-
tional tests may be indicated, including complete blood count,
prostate-specific antigen, sedimentation rate, and antinuclear
antibody testing. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the knee
is indicated if internal derangement, occult mass, or tumor is sus-
pected as well as to confirm the diagnosis of semimembranosus
insertion syndrome (Figure 101-4). Radionucleotide bone scan-
ning may be useful to rule out stress fractures not seen on plain
radiographs. Injection of the semimembranosus insertions with
local anesthetic and steroid may serve as a diagnostic and thera-
peutic maneuver.
Internal derangement of the knee and a ruptured Bakers cyst may
mimic the clinical presentation of semimembranosus insertion
syndrome. If trauma has occurred, the possibility of occult tibial
plateau fracture, especially in patients with osteopenia or osteo-
porosis, should be considered, and radionucleotide bone scanning
should be obtained. Villonodular synovitis and hemarthrosis of
the knee may produce knee pain that can mimic the clinical pre-
sentation of semimembranosus insertion syndrome. Entrapment
neuropathy or stretch injury or both to the tibial branch of the
sciatic nerve and common peroneal nerve, plexopathy, and radic-
ulopathy should be considered if there is the physical finding of
neurological deficit in patients thought to have semimembrano-
sus insertion syndrome because all of these clinical entities may
coexist.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability asso-
ciated with semimembranosus insertion syndrome should
include a combination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and
physical therapy. Local application of heat and cold may be
beneficial. For patients who do not respond to these treatment
modalities, the injection of the semimembranosus insertion
with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next
step.
298 SECTION 11 Knee Pain Syndromes

Complications and Pitfalls

If trauma is present, the possibility of occult fracture always
should be considered, as should the possibility of occult malig-
nancy of the distal femur or proximal tibia and fibula. Trauma
to the tendons of the knee from injection of the tendinous
insertion is a possibility. Tendons that are highly inflamed or
previously damaged are subject to rupture if they are directly
injected. This complication can be greatly decreased if the cli-
nician uses gentle technique and stops injecting immediately
if significant resistance to injection is encountered. Approxi-
mately 25% of patients report a transient increase in pain after
this injection technique, and patients should be warned of this
possibility.

Figure 101-3 Twist test for semimembranosus insertion syndrome.

(From Waldman SD: Physical diagnosis of pain: an atlas of signs and
symptoms, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 347.)
 101 Semimembranosus Insertion Syndrome 299

A C

B D

E
Figure 101-4 Injury to the semimembranosus insertion. A, Sagittal fat-suppressed proton density weighted fast spin echo (PDW FSE) image showing
bone bruising in the posteromedial tibial plateau and a hypointense fracture line (arrowheads). B, Axial fat-suppressed PDW FSE image showing com-
plete absence of the main semimembranosus tendon (arrow). C, Sagittal fat-suppressed PDW FSE image showing edema around the tibial insertions
of the semimembranosus tendon (arrows). D, Sagittal fat-suppressed PDW FSE image showing thickening and edema of the posteromedial capsule
(arrows). E, Sagittal T1-weighted spin echo image showing marked thickening and intermediate signal intensity within the tibial insertions of semi-
membranosus (arrows). (From House CV, Connell DA, Saifuddin A: Posteromedial corner injuries of the knee, Clin Radiol 62:539546, 2007.)
300 SECTION 11 Knee Pain Syndromes
Clinical Pearls
The proper use of exercise equipment can greatly reduce
the incidence of semimembranosus insertion syndrome.
Injection of the semimembranosus tendon insertion is
extremely effective in the treatment of pain secondary to
the previously mentioned causes of knee pain. Gentle injec-
tion technique decreases the incidence of traumatic rupture
of the tendons as a result of injection. Coexistent bursitis
and arthritis also may contribute to knee pain and may
require additional treatment with a more localized injection
of a local anesthetic and depot steroid. The use of physical
modalities, including local heat and gentle range-of-motion
exercises, should be introduced several days after the patient
undergoes this injection technique for knee pain. Vigorous
exercises should be avoided because they would exacerbate
the symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may be used
concurrently with this injection technique.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bencardino JT, Rosenber ZS, Brown RR, et al: Traumatic musculotendinous
injuries of the knee: diagnosis with MR imaging, Radiographics 20:S103S120,
2000.
Chan KK, Resnick D, Goodwin D, et al: Posteromedial tibial plateau injury
including avulsion fracture of the semimembranosus tendon insertion site:
ancillary sign of anterior cruciate ligament tear at MR imaging, Radiology
211:754758, 1999.
El-Dieb A, Yu JS, Huang G-S, Farooki S: Pathologic conditions of the ligaments
and tendons of the knee, Radiol Clin North Am 40:10611079, 2002.
House CV, Connell DA, Saifuddin A: Posteromedial corner injuries of the knee,
Clin Radiol 62:539546, 2007.
Waldman SD: Functional anatomy of the knee. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain
review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 144149.
Chapter 102
CORONARY LIGAMENT STRAIN
ICD-9 CODE 844.8
ICD-10 CODE S83.8X9A
The Clinical Syndrome
Strain of the coronary ligaments is an often overlooked cause of
medial knee pain and can cause significant pain and functional
disability. The coronary ligaments are thin bands of fibrous tis-
sue that anchor the medial meniscus to the tibial plateau. The
coronary ligaments are actually extensions of the joint capsule.
These ligaments are susceptible to disruption owing to trauma
from forced rotation of the knee. The medial portion of the liga-
ment is most commonly damaged.
Patients with coronary ligament syndrome have pain over the
medial joint and increased pain on passive external rotation of the
knee. Activity, especially involving flexion and external rotation
Figure 102-1 Patients with coronary ligament syndrome have pain over the medial joint and increased pain on passive external rotation of the knee.
Activity, especially involving flexion and external rotation of the knee, often makes the pain worse.
of the knee, makes the pain worse (Figure 102-1); rest and heat
provide some relief. The pain is constant and characterized as ach-
ing; it may interfere with sleep. Coexistent bursitis, tendinitis,
arthritis, or internal derangement of the knee, in particular of the
medial meniscus, may confuse the clinical picture after trauma to
the knee joint.
Signs and Symptoms
Patients with coronary ligament strain invariably have a history of
a rotation injury to the knee. On physical examination, the patient
exhibits medial joint tenderness and a marked increase in pain
with passive external rotation of the knee. A joint effusion may be
present. Subtle knee instability is hard to detect on physical exami-
nation because of splinting of the knee as a result of the amount of
pain associated with this injury. The neurological examination of
a patient with coronary ligament strain is normal. As mentioned
previously, coexistent bursitis, tendinitis, arthritis, or internal
derangement of the knee, in particular of the medial meniscus,
may render a diagnosis on a purely clinical basis difficult.
Articular portion of
femur
Medial portion
of coronary ligament
Tibia
301
302 SECTION 11 Knee Pain Syndromes
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with coronary liga-
ment syndrome pain. Based on the patients clinical presentation,
additional tests, including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte
sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indi-
cated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the knee is indicated
to quantify the extent of internal derangement of the knee and to
rule out occult mass or tumor. Bone scan may be useful to identify
occult stress fractures involving the joint, especially if significant
trauma has occurred. Arthroscopy may ultimately be required as a
diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
The most common cause of medial knee pain is degenerative
arthritis of the knee. Other pathological processes may mimic
the pain and functional disability of coronary ligament strain.
Lumbar radiculopathy may cause pain and disability similar to
that of coronary ligament strain. In such patients, back pain is
usually present, and the knee examination should be negative.
Entrapment neuropathies of the lower extremity, such as femoral
neuropathy, and bursitis of the knee also may confuse the diagno-
sis; both of these conditions may coexist with coronary ligament
strain. Primary and metastatic tumors of the femur and spine also
may manifest in a manner analogous to coronary ligament strain.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associ-
ated with coronary ligament strain should include a combina-
tion of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local
application of heat and cold may be beneficial. For patients who
do not respond to these treatment modalities, injection of the
coronary ligament with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a
reasonable next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to identify primary or metastatic tumor of the knee
or spine that is responsible for the pain may yield disastrous
results. The major complication of injection of the coronary
ligament is infection. This complication should be exceedingly
rare if strict aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25%
of patients report a transient increase in pain after injection of
the coronary ligament, and patients should be warned of this
possibility.
Clinical Pearls
Coexistent bursitis and tendinitis may contribute to knee
pain and may require additional treatment with more local-
ized injection of a local anesthetic and depot steroid. Injec-
tion of the coronary ligament is extremely effective in the
treatment of pain secondary to coronary ligament strain.
This technique is a safe procedure if careful attention is paid
to the clinically relevant anatomy in the areas to be injected.
The use of physical modalities, including local heat and
gentle range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced
several days after the patient undergoes this injection tech-
nique for knee pain. Vigorous exercises should be avoided
because they would exacerbate the patients symptoms.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Colletti JE, Kilgore KP, Derrick J: Traumatic knee pain, Ann Emerg Med
53(403):409, 2009.
El-Khoury GY, Usta HY, Berger RA: Meniscotibial (coronary) ligament tears, Ske-
let Radiol 11:191196, 1984.
Lougher L, Southgate CRW, Holt MD: Coronary ligament rupture as a cause of
medial knee pain, Arthroscopy 19:e157e158, 2003.
Parvizi J, Kim GK: Knee ligament injuries, In Parvizi J (ed) High yield orthopaedics,
Philadelphia, 2010, Saunders, pp 261264.
Chapter 103
BREASTSTROKERS KNEE
ICD-9 CODE 717.82
ICD-10 CODE M23.50
The Clinical Syndrome
Breaststrokers knee is characterized by pain at the medial aspect
of the knee joint. It is the result of repetitive trauma to the medial
collateral ligament from excessive valgus and rotational torque
forces placed on the medial knee during the whip kick. The
whip kick is used by competitive swimmers when performing
the breaststroke and even when performed correctly subjects the
medial collateral ligament and medial meniscus to high levels of
valgus stress as the leg is rapidly extended and rotated while at the
same time compressing the lateral compartment (Figure 103-1).
Over time, repetitive microtrama to the medial collateral liga-
ment results in laxity, joint dysfunction, and pain. The medial
collateral ligament, which is also known as the tibial collateral
ligament, is a broad, flat, bandlike ligament that runs from the
medial condyle of the femur to the medial aspect of the shaft of
the tibia, where it attaches just above the groove where the semi-
membranosus muscle attaches (Figure 103-2). It also attaches
to the edge of the medial semilunar cartilage. The ligament is
susceptible to strain at the joint line or avulsion at its origin or
insertion.
Figure 1031 The whip kick subjects the knee to extreme valgus torque and rotational forces and compression of the lateral compartment, resulting
in repetitive microtrauma to the knee.
Signs and Symptoms
Patients with breaststrokers knee have pain over the medial joint
and increased pain on passive valgus and external rotation of the
knee. Activity, especially flexion and external rotation of the knee,
makes the pain worse, whereas rest and heat provide some relief.
The pain is constant and is characterized as aching; it may inter-
fere with sleep. Patients with injury to the medial collateral liga-
ment may report locking or popping with flexion of the affected
knee. Coexistent bursitis, tendinitis, arthritis, or internal derange-
ment of the knee may confuse the clinical picture after trauma to
the knee joint.
On physical examination, patients with injury to the medial
collateral ligament exhibit tenderness along the course of the
ligament from the medial femoral condyle to its tibial inser-
tion and tenderness and over the medial femoral intercondylar
ridge and under the medial facet of the patella. If the ligament is
avulsed from its bony insertions, tenderness may be localized to
the proximal or distal ligament, whereas patients with strain of
the ligament have more diffuse tenderness. Patients with severe
injury to the ligament may exhibit joint laxity when valgus
and varus stress is placed on the affected knee (Figure 103-3).
Because pain may produce muscle guarding, magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) of the knee may be necessary to confirm the
clinical impression. Joint effusion and swelling may be present
with injury to the medial collateral ligament, but these findings
are also suggestive of intra-articular damage. Again, MRI can
confirm the diagnosis.
303
304 SECTION 11 Knee Pain Syndromes

Quadriceps t Patella Infrapatellar fat body

Lat patellar
retinaculum
Med patellar
retinaculum
Vastus lateralis t

Lat femoral
condyle

Iliotibial tract Tibial collateral lig

Ant cruciate lig
Popliteus t
Med femoral
Fibular collateral lig condyle
Biceps femoris m and t Post cruciate lig
Gastrocnemius, Greater
lat head and saphenous v
plantaris mm
Sartorius m and t
Common
peroneal n Gracilis t
Lat sural Semimembranosus t
cutaneous n Semitendinosus t

Oblique popliteal Tibial n Popliteal Gastrocnemius

lig and joint capsule a and v m and t, med head

Figure 1032 Transverse section of the knee demonstrating the anatomy of the medial (tibial) collateral ligament. a, Artery; lat, lateral; lig, ligament;
m, muscle; med, medial; mm, muscles; n, nerve; post, posterior; t, tendon; v, vein. (From Kang A, Resnick D: MRI of the extremities: an anatomic atlas,
2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 319.)

with injury to the medial collateral ligament who fail to respond

to conservative therapy or who exhibit joint instability on clinical
examination. Ultrasound imaging may also assess the integrity of
the medial collateral ligament (Figure 103-4). Bone scan may be
useful to identify occult stress fractures involving the joint, espe-
cially if trauma has occurred. Plane radiographs of the knee may
also help identify patellofemoral arthritis, which is commonly
seen in more advanced cases of breaststrokers knee. Based on
the patients clinical presentation, additional testing, including a
complete blood count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and anti-
nuclear antibody testing, may be warranted.

Figure 1033 The valgus stress test for medial collateral ligament integ-
rity. (From Waldman SD: Physical diagnosis of pain: an atlas of signs and
symptoms, 2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2006, Saunders, p 291.)
Testing
MRI is indicated in all patients with medial collateral ligament
pain, particularly if internal derangement or occult mass or tumor
is suspected. In addition, MRI should be performed in all patients
Differential Diagnosis
Any condition affecting the medial compartment of the knee joint
may mimic the pain of breaststrokers knee. Bursitis, meniscal
injuries, arthritis, and entrapment neuropathies may also confuse
the diagnosis, as may primary tumors of the knee and spine.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with injury to the medial collateral ligament includes a combi-
nation of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy.
The local application of heat and cold may also be beneficial.

Lt. fem
m
tib
A after injection of the medial collateral ligament; patients should be
fem m
tib
B findings of a normal examination. The injection technique
Figure 1034 A, Grade 2 tear of the medial collateral ligament with
an interrupted superficial part of tibial collateral ligament (arrow). B,
A normal contralateral MCL. Fem, Femoral; Lt, left; m, meniscus; tib, tibial.
(From Wakefield SD, DAgostino MA: Essential application of musculoskel-
etal ultrasound in rheumatology, Philadelphia, 2010, Saunders, p 271.)
Any repetitive activity that exacerbates the symptoms should be
avoided. For patients who do not respond to these treatment
modalities and do not have lesions that require surgical repair,
injection is a reasonable next step.
Injection of the medial collateral ligament is carried out with
the patient in the supine position with a rolled blanket underneath
the knee to gently flex the joint. The skin overlying the lateral
aspect of the knee joint is prepared with antiseptic solution. A ster-
ile syringe containing 2 mL of 0.25% preservative-free bupivacaine
and 40 mg methylprednisolone is attached to a 112-inch, 25-gauge
needle using strict aseptic technique. The most tender portion of
the ligament is identified, and the needle is inserted at this point
at a 45-degree angle to the skin. The needle is carefully advanced
through the skin and subcutaneous tissues into proximity with the
medial collateral ligament. If bone is encountered, the needle is
withdrawn into the subcutaneous tissues and redirected superiorly.
The contents of the syringe is then gently injected. There should be
little resistance to injection. If resistance is encountered, the needle
is probably in a ligament or tendon and should be advanced or
103 Breaststrokers Knee 305
withdrawn slightly until the injection can proceed without signifi-
cant resistance. The needle is then removed, and a sterile pressure
dressing and ice pack are applied to the injection site.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complication of injection is infection, although this
should be exceedingly rare if strict aseptic technique is followed.
Approximately 25% of patients report a transient increase in pain
warned of this possibility.
Clinical Pearls
Patients with injury to the medial collateral ligament are
best examined with the knee in the slightly flexed posi-
tion. The clinician may want to examine the nonpainful
knee first to reduce the patients anxiety and ascertain the
described is extremely effective in the treatment of pain sec-
ondary to breaststrokers knee. Coexistent bursitis, tendi-
nitis, arthritis, and internal derangement of the knee may
contribute to the patients pain, necessitating additional
treatment with more localized injection of local anesthetic
and methylprednisolone.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Beall DP, Googe JD, Moss JT, etal: Magnetic resonance imaging of the collat-
eral ligaments and the anatomic quadrants of the knee, Radiol Clin North Am
45:9831002, 2007.
Jones L, Bismil Q, Alyas F, Connell D, Bell J: Persistent symptoms following non-
operative management in low grade MCL injury of the knee: the role of the
deep MCL, Knee 16:6468, 2009.
Kastelein M, Wagemakers HPA, Luijsterburg PAJ, et al: Assessing medial col-
lateral ligament knee lesions in general practice, Am J Med 121:982988, 2008.
Kennedy JC, Hawkins R, Krissoff WB: Orthopaedic manifestations of swimming,
Am J Sports Med 6:309322, 1978.
Malone WJ, Verde F, Weiss D, Fanelli GC: MR imaging of knee instability, MRI
Clin North Am 17:61026724, 2009.
Stulberg SD, Shulman K, Stuart S, etal: Breaststrokers knee: pathology, etiology,
and treatment, Am J Sports Med 8:164171, 1980.
Vizsolyi P: Breaststrokers knee: an analysis of epidemiological and biomechanical
factors, Am J Sports Med 15:6371, 1987.
Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management injection techniques, Philadelphia, 2007,
Saunders, pp 434436.
Chapter 104
QUADRICEPS EXPANSION
SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 727.09
ICD-10 CODE M65.80
The Clinical Syndrome
The quadriceps expansion syndrome is an uncommon cause of
anterior knee pain encountered in clinical practice. This pain-
ful condition is characterized by pain at the superior pole of the
patella. It is usually the result of overuse or misuse of the knee
joint such as running marathons or direct trauma to the quadri-
ceps tendon from a kick or head butts during football. The quad-
riceps tendon also is subject to acute calcific tendinitis, which
Figure 104-1 Patients with quadriceps expansion syndrome present with pain over the superior pole of the patella, more commonly on the medial
side. Pain is often increased with walking down slopes or stairs.
306
may coexist with acute strain injuries. Calcific tendinitis of the
quadriceps tendon has a characteristic radiographic appearance of
whiskers on the anterosuperior patella.
The quadriceps tendon comprises fibers from the four muscles
that comprise the quadriceps muscle: the vastus lateralis, the vastus
intermedius, the vastus medialis, and the rectus femoris. Fibers
of the quadriceps tendon expanding around the patella form the
medial and lateral patella retinacula and help strengthen the knee
joint. These fibers are termed expansions and are subject to strain,
and the tendon proper is subject to the development of tendinitis.
Patients with quadriceps expansion syndrome present with
pain over the superior pole of the patella, more commonly on the
medial side. The patient notes increased pain on walking down
slopes or down stairs (Figure 104-1). Activity involving the knee
worsens the pain; rest and heat provide some relief. The pain is
constant and characterized as aching; it may interfere with sleep.
Vastus lateralis
Rectus femoris
Vastus medialis
Patella

Signs and Symptoms
On physical examination, patients with quadriceps expansion
syndrome have tenderness under the superior edge of the patella,
occurring more commonly on the medial side. Active resisted
extension of the knee reproduces the pain. Coexistent suprapa-
tellar and infrapatellar bursitis, tendinitis, arthritis, or internal
derangement of the knee may confuse the clinical picture after
trauma to the knee joint.
Testing
Plain radiographs of the knee are indicated in all patients with
quadriceps expansion syndrome pain. Based on the patients
clinical presentation, additional tests, including complete blood
cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear anti-
body testing, may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) of the knee is indicated if internal derangement, occult
mass, or tumor is suspected. Bone scan may be useful to identify
occult stress fractures involving the joint, especially if trauma has
occurred.
Differential Diagnosis
Anterior knee pain most commonly is due to arthritis of the knee;
this should be readily identifiable on plain radiographs of the knee
and may coexist with quadriceps expansion syndrome. Another
common cause of anterior knee pain that may mimic or coexist
with quadriceps expansion syndrome is suprapatellar or prepa-
tellar bursitis. Internal derangement of the knee or torn medial
meniscus may confuse the clinical diagnosis, but should be readily
identifiable on MRI of the knee.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with quadriceps expansion syndrome should include a combi-
nation of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local
application of heat and cold may be beneficial. For patients who
do not respond to these treatment modalities, injection of the
quadriceps expansion with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a
reasonable next step.
To inject the quadriceps expansion, the patient is placed in the
supine position with a rolled blanket underneath the knee to flex
the joint gently. The skin overlying the medial aspect of the knee
joint is prepared with antiseptic solution. A sterile syringe con-
taining 2 mL of 0.25% preservative-free bupivacaine and 40 mg
of methylprednisolone is attached to a 25-gauge, 112-inch needle
using strict aseptic technique. With strict aseptic technique, the
medial edge of the superior patella is identified (Figure 104-2). At
this point, the needle is inserted horizontally toward the medial
edge of the patella. The needle is advanced carefully through the
skin and subcutaneous tissues until it impinges on the medial edge
of the patella. The needle is withdrawn slightly out of the peri-
osteum of the patella, and the contents of the syringe are gently
injected. There should be little resistance to injection. If resistance
is encountered, the needle is probably in a ligament or tendon
and should be advanced or withdrawn slightly until the injection
proceeds without significant resistance. The needle is removed,
and a sterile pressure dressing and ice pack are placed at the injec-
tion site.
104 Quadriceps Expansion Syndrome 307
Vastus
lateralis m.
Rectus femoris m.
Vastus medialis m.
Inflamed quadriceps expansion
Patellar ligament
Carrico & Shavell
Figure 104-2 Injection technique to relieve pain secondary to quadri-
ceps expansion syndrome. (From Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management
injection techniques, Philadelphia, 2000, Saunders, p 266.)
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complication of this injection technique is infection.
This complication should be exceedingly rare if strict aseptic tech-
nique is followed. Approximately 25% of patients report a tran-
sient increase in pain after injection of the quadriceps tendon of
the knee, and patients should be warned of this possibility. The
clinician also should identify coexistent internal derangement of
the knee, primary and metastatic tumors, and infection, which, if
undiagnosed, may yield disastrous results.
Clinical Pearls
This injection technique is extremely effective in the treat-
ment of pain secondary to the causes of quadriceps extension
syndrome mentioned earlier. Coexistent bursitis, tendinitis,
arthritis, and internal derangement of the knee may con-
tribute to the patients pain and may require additional
treatment with more localized injection of a local anesthetic
and depot steroid. This technique is a safe procedure if care-
ful attention is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy in
the areas to be injected. Care must be taken to use sterile
technique to avoid infection and universal precautions to
avoid risk to the operator. The use of physical modalities,
including local heat and gentle range-of-motion exercises,
should be introduced several days after the patient under-
goes this injection technique for tibiofibular pain. Vigorous
exercises should be avoided because they would exacerbate
the patients symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs
may be used concurrently with this injection technique.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Greenhill BJ: The importance of the medial quadriceps expansion in medial liga-
ment injury, Can J Surg 10:312317, 1967.
Heng RC, Haw CS: Patello-femoral pain syndrome: diagnosis and management
from an anatomical and biomechanical perspective, Curr Orthop 10:256266,
1996.
Waldman SD: Quadriceps expansion syndrome. In Waldman SD, editor: Atlas
of pain management injection techniques, Philadelphia, 2013, Saunders, p 364.
Waldman SD: Functional anatomy of the knee. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain
review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 144149.
Chapter 105

RUNNERS KNEE

ICD-9 CODE 726.60 Differential Diagnosis

ICD-10 CODE M70.50
The Clinical Syndrome
Runners knee is a relatively uncommon cause of lateral knee
pain encountered in clinical practice. Also known as iliotibial
band friction syndrome, runners knee is an overuse syndrome
caused by friction injury to the iliotibial band as it rubs back
and forth across the lateral epicondyle of the femur during run-
ning (Figures 105-1 and 105-2). Runners knee is a clinical
entity distinct from iliotibial bursitis, although these two pain-
ful conditions frequently coexist. This painful condition occurs
more commonly in patients with genu varum and planus feet,
although worn-out jogging shoes also have been implicated in the
evolution of this disease.
The most common cause of lateral knee pain is degenerative arthritis
of the knee. Other pathological processes may mimic the pain and
functional disability of runners knee. Lumbar radiculopathy may
cause pain and disability similar to that of runners knee. In such
patients, back pain is usually present, and the knee examination
should be negative. Entrapment neuropathies of the lower extremity,
such as meralgia paresthetica, and bursitis of the knee also may con-
fuse the diagnosis; both conditions may coexist with runners knee.
Primary and metastatic tumors of the femur and proximal tibia and
fibula may manifest in a manner analogous to runners knee.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with runners knee should include a combination of nonsteroidal

Signs and Symptoms

Physical examination may reveal point tenderness over the lateral
epicondyle of the femur just above the tendinous insertion of the
iliotibial band. If coexistent iliotibial bursitis is present, swelling
and fluid accumulation that surrounds the bursa often is present
(see Chapter 107). Palpation of this area while having the patient
flex and extend the knee may result in a creaking or catching
sensation. Active resisted abduction of the lower extremity and
passive adduction reproduce the pain. Sudden release of resis-
tance during this maneuver markedly increases the pain. Pain is
exacerbated by having the patient stand with all the weight on
the affected extremity and then flexing the affected knee 30 to
40 degrees.

Testing
Plain radiographs of the knee may reveal calcification of the
bursa and associated structures, including the iliotibial band
tendon, consistent with chronic inflammation. Magnetic reso-
nance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound are indicated if runners
knee, iliotibial band bursitis, internal derangement, occult mass,
or tumor of the knee is suspected. Electromyography helps
distinguish iliotibial band bursitis from neuropathy, lumbar
Figure 105-1 Also known as iliotibial band friction syndrome, runners
radiculopathy, and plexopathy. Injection of the iliotibial band knee is an overuse syndrome caused by friction injury to the iliotibial
at the friction point may serve as a diagnostic and therapeutic band as it rubs back and forth across the lateral epicondyle of the femur
maneuver. during running.

308

Figure 105-2 Normal iliotibial tract. Coronal intermediate-weighted
(TR/TE, 2000/20) spin echo magnetic resonance imaging shows the
iliotibial tract (solid arrows) attaching to Gerdys tubercle (open arrow)
in the tibia. A small joint effusion is evident just medial to the iliotibial
tract (arrowhead). (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint
disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 3231.)
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)
inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of heat and cold
may be beneficial. For patients who do not respond to these treat-
ment modalities, injection of the iliotibial band at its friction point
with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step.
The iliotibial band is injected by placing the patient in the
supine position with a rolled blanket underneath the knee to flex
the joint gently. The skin over the lateral epicondyle of the femur
is prepared with antiseptic solution. A sterile syringe containing 2
mL of 0.25% preservative-free bupivacaine and 40 mg of meth-
ylprednisolone is attached to a 25-gauge, 112-inch needle using
strict aseptic technique. With strict aseptic technique, the ilio-
tibial band bursa is located by identifying the point of maximal
tenderness over the lateral condyle of the femur. The bursa usually
is identified by point tenderness at that spot. At this point, the
needle is inserted at a 45-degree angle to the femoral condyle to
pass through the skin, subcutaneous tissues, and iliotibial band
into the iliotibial band bursa (Figure 105-3). If the needle strikes
the femur, it is withdrawn slightly into the substance of the bursa.
When the needle is in position in proximity to the iliotibial band
bursa, the contents of the syringe are gently injected. Little resis-
tance to injection should be noted. If resistance is encountered,
105 Runners Knee 309
Iliotibial band
Femur
Lateral
epicondyle
Figure 105-3 Injection technique to relieve pain secondary to runners
knee syndrome. (Modified from Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management
injection techniques, 3rd ed, Philadelphia, 2013, Saunders, p 391.)
the needle is probably in a ligament or tendon and should be
advanced or withdrawn slightly until the injection proceeds with-
out significant resistance. The needle is removed, and a sterile
pressure dressing and ice pack are placed at the injection site.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to identify primary or metastatic tumor of the knee or
spine that is responsible for the patients pain may yield disas-
trous results. The major complication of injection of the iliotibial
band bursa is infection. This complication should be exceedingly
rare if strict aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25% of
patients report a transient increase in pain after injection of the
iliotibial band, and patients should be warned of this possibility.
Clinical Pearls
Coexistent bursitis and tendinitis may contribute to knee
pain and may require additional treatment with more
localized injection of a local anesthetic and depot steroid.
Injection of the iliotibial band is extremely effective in the
treatment of pain secondary to runners knee. This tech-
nique is a safe procedure if careful attention is paid to the
clinically relevant anatomy in the areas to be injected. The
use of physical modalities, including local heat and gentle
range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced several
days after the patient undergoes this injection technique
for knee pain. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because
they would exacerbate the patients symptoms.
310 SECTION 11 Knee Pain Syndromes

SUGGESTED READINGS
Costa ML, Marshall T, Donell ST, Phillips H: Knee synovial cyst presenting as Hamill J, Miller R, Noehren B, Davis I: A prospective study of iliotibial band
iliotibial band friction syndrome, Knee 11:247248, 2004. strain in runners, Clin Biomech 23:10181025, 2008.
Draghi F, Danesino GM, Coscia D, Precerutti M, Pagani C: Overload syndromes Waldman SD: Iliotibial band syndrome. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors:
of the knee in adolescents: sonographic findings, J Ultrasound 11:151157, 2008. Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2011, Saunders, pp 387388.
Ellis R, Hing W, Reid D: Iliotibial band friction syndrome: a systematic review,
Man Ther 12:200208, 2007.
Chapter 106
GLOMUS TUMOR OF THE KNEE
ICD-9 CODE 228.00
ICD-10 CODE D18.00
The Clinical Syndrome
Glomus tumor of the knee is an uncommon cause of knee pain.
It is the result of tumor formation of the glomus body, which is a
neuromyoarterial apparatus whose function is to regulate periph-
eral blood flow in the dermis. Glomus tumors occur most com-
monly in the subungual region of the fingers, but may also occur
in areas of the body that are not richly endowed with glomus
apparatus (e.g., muscle, bone, blood vessels, and nerves). Glomus
tumors tend to be solitary, small tumors, but occasionally can
become quite large.
Most patients with glomus tumor are women 30 to 50 years
old. The pain associated with glomus tumor is severe, lancinating,
and boring. Patients with glomus tumor exhibit the classic triad
of intermittent, excruciating pain; cold intolerance; and tender-
ness to palpation. If the tumor is located superficially, a bluish
discoloration under the skin may be visible and the patient may
experience an exacerbation of pain with exposure to cold. Because
A B
Figure 106-1 Axial magnetic resonance imaging of the right knee after a 40-mL saline injection into the joint showed the mass of which intensity
was low on (A) T1-weighted sequences and high on (B) T2-weighted sequences. (From Kato S, Fujii H, Yoshida A, Hinoki S: Glomus tumor beneath the
plica synovialis in the knee: a case report, Knee 14:164166, 2007.)
of the rarity of glomus tumor in areas other than the digits, diag-
nosis is often delayed.
Signs and Symptoms
The diagnosis of glomus tumor of the knee is based primarily on
three points in the patients clinical history: (1) excruciating pain that
is localized to the area of the tumor, (2) the ability to trigger the pain
by palpating the area (Loves test), and (3) marked intolerance to
cold (Posner cold induction test). Hildreths test is also useful in the
diagnosis of glomus tumor. It is performed by placing a tourniquet
proximal to the area of suspected tumor. As the distal area becomes
ischemic, the sharp lancinating pain characteristic of glomus tumor
will occur. If the tumor is superficial enough, the examiner may iden-
tify it just beneath the skin by its bluish discoloration. The patient
with glomus tumor of the knee will often guard or protect the area of
the tumor to avoid stimulating the pain.
Testing
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the affected area often
reveals the actual glomus tumor and may reveal erosion or a per-
forating lesion of the phalanx beneath the tumor. The tumor
appears as a very high and homogeneous signal on T2-weighted
images (Figures 106-1 and 106-2). The bony changes associated
311
312 SECTION 11 Knee Pain Syndromes
Figure 106-2 Axial T2 fast-spin echo magnetic resonance imaging of
the right knee showing the lesion marked by an arrow. (From Waseem M,
Jari S, Paton RW: Glomus tumour, a rare cause of knee pain: a case report,
Knee 9:161163, 2002.)
with glomus tumor of the knee also may appear on plain radio-
graphs if a careful comparison of the corresponding contralateral
knee is made. Radionuclide bone scan also may reveal localized
bony destruction. If the tumor is superficial, pain may be repro-
duced by placing an ice pack over the affected area. Based on the
patients clinical presentation, additional tests, including com-
plete blood cell count, uric acid level, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Electro-
myography is indicated if coexistent plexopathy or radiculopathy
is suspected. Surgical exploration of the affected area bed often
is necessary to confirm the diagnosis. Ultimately arthroscopy or
arthrotomy may be required to ascertain the exact cause of the
patients persistent knee pain (Figure 106-3).
Differential Diagnosis
The triad of localized, intermittent, lancinating excruciating pain;
tenderness to palpation; and cold intolerance makes the diagnosis
apparent to an astute clinician. Glomus tumor of the knee must
be distinguished from other causes of localized knee pain. If a his-
tory of trauma is present, fracture, osteomyelitis, tenosynovitis,
and foreign body synovitis should be considered. If the patient
has no history of trauma, tumors and diseases of the glenohumoral
joint and associated soft tissues should be considered. Reflex sym-
pathetic dystrophy should be distinguishable from glomus tumor
of the knee because the pain of reflex sympathetic dystrophy is
less localized and is associated with distal trophic skin and nail
changes and vasomotor and sudomotor abnormalities.
Treatment
The mainstay of treatment of glomus tumor is surgical removal.
Medication management is uniformly disappointing. Injection of
Figure 106-3 Arthroscopy showed the soft tissue mass beneath the plica
synovialis. (From Kato S, Fujii H, Yoshida A, Hinoki S: Glomus tumor beneath
the plica synovialis in the knee: a case report, Knee 14:164166, 2007.)
the affected area in the point of maximal tenderness may pro-
vide temporary relief of the pain of glomus tumor and blocks
the Posner cold induction test response, further strengthening the
diagnosis.
Complications and Pitfalls
The main complication associated with glomus tumor of the knee
involves the problems associated with delayed diagnosis, mainly
ongoing destruction of the bone and soft tissues adjacent to the
glomus tumor. Although usually localized and well encapsulated,
rarely these tumors can exhibit aggressive invasive tendencies,
making complete excision of the tumor and careful follow-up
mandatory.
Clinical Pearls
The diagnosis of glomus tumor of the knee is usually
straightforward if the clinician identifies its unique clinical
presentation. Because of the rare potential for aggressive,
invasive behavior, complete excision and careful follow-up
are important.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Clark ML, OHara C, Dobson PJ, Smith AL: Glomus tumor and knee pain: a
report of four cases, Knee 16:231234, 2009.
Kato S, Fujii H, Yoshida A, Hinoki S: Glomus tumor beneath the plica synovialis
in the knee: a case report, Knee 14:164166, 2007.
ztekin HH: Popliteal glomangioma mimicking Bakers cyst in a 9-year-old child:
an unusual location of a glomus tumor, Arthroscopy 19:e67e71, 2003.
Waseem M, Jari S, Paton RW: Glomus tumour, a rare cause of knee pain: a case
report, Knee 9:161163, 2002.
Chapter 107
ILIOTIBIAL BAND BURSITIS
ICD-9 CODE 726.60
ICD-10 CODE M70.50
The Clinical Syndrome
With the increased interest in jogging and long-distance bicycling,
iliotibial band bursitis is being encountered more frequently in
clinical practice. The iliotibial band bursa lies between the iliotibial
band and the lateral condyle of the femur. The iliotibial band is an
extension of the fascia lata, which inserts at the lateral condyle of
the tibia. The iliotibial band can rub back and forth over the lateral
epicondyle of the femur and irritate the iliotibial bursa beneath it.
Patients with iliotibial band bursitis present with pain over the
lateral side of the distal femur just over the lateral femoral condyle.
The onset of iliotibial bursitis frequently occurs after long-distance
cycling or jogging with worn-out shoes without proper cushion-
ing. Activity, especially involving resisted abduction and passive
adduction of the lower extremity, worsens the pain; rest and heat
provide some relief. Flexion of the affected knee also reproduces
the pain in many patients with iliotibial band bursitis. Often, the
patient is unable to kneel or walk down stairs (Figure 107-1). The
pain is constant and characterized as aching. The pain may inter-
fere with sleep. Coexistent bursitis, tendinitis, arthritis, or internal
derangement of the knee may confuse the clinical picture after
trauma to the knee joint. If the inflammation of the iliotibial band
bursa becomes chronic, calcification of the bursa may occur.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical examination may reveal point tenderness over the lat-
eral condyle of the femur just above the tendinous insertion of
the iliotibial band. Swelling and fluid accumulation surrounding
the bursa is often present. Palpation of this area while having the
patient flex and extend the knee may result in a creaking or catch-
ing sensation. Active resisted abduction of the lower extremity and
passive adduction reproduce the pain. Sudden release of resistance
during this maneuver markedly increases the pain. Pain is exacer-
bated by having the patient stand with all weight on the affected
extremity and then flexing the affected knee 30 to 40 degrees.
Testing
Plain radiographs of the knee may reveal calcification of the
bursa and associated structures, including the iliotibial band ten-
don, consistent with chronic inflammation. Magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) is indicated if internal derangement, occult
mass, or tumor of the knee is suspected. If arthritis is suspected,
screening laboratory tests, including a complete blood cell count,
erythrocyte sedimentation rate, automated chemistries, and anti-
nuclear antibody testing, should be obtained. Electromyography
helps distinguish iliotibial band bursitis from neuropathy, lumbar
radiculopathy, and plexopathy. The following injection technique
serves as a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
The most common cause of lateral knee pain is degenerative
arthritis of the knee. Other pathological processes may mimic
the pain and functional disability of iliotibial band bursitis. Lum-
bar radiculopathy may cause pain and disability similar to that
of iliotibial band bursitis. In such patients, back pain is usually
present, and the knee examination should be negative. Entrap-
ment neuropathies of the lower extremity, such as meralgia par-
esthetica, and bursitis of the knee also may confuse the diagnosis;
both conditions may coexist with iliotibial band bursitis. Primary
and metastatic tumors of the femur and spine may manifest in a
manner analogous to iliotibial band bursitis.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with iliotibial band bursitis should include a combination of non-
steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of heat
and cold also may be beneficial. For patients who do not respond
to these treatment modalities, injection of the iliotibial band bursa
with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step.
The iliotibial band bursa is injected by placing the patient in
the supine position with a rolled blanket underneath the knee to
flex the joint gently. The skin over the lateral epicondyle of the
femur is prepared with antiseptic solution. A sterile syringe con-
taining 2 mL of 0.25% preservative-free bupivacaine and 40 mg
of methylprednisolone is attached to a 25-gauge, 1-inch nee-
dle using strict aseptic technique. With strict aseptic technique,
the iliotibial band bursa is located by identifying the point of
maximal tenderness over the lateral condyle of the femur. The
bursa usually is identified by point tenderness at that spot. At
this point, the needle is inserted at a 45-degree angle to the
femoral condyle to pass through the skin, subcutaneous tissues,
and iliotibial band into the iliotibial band bursa (Figure 107-2).
If the needle strikes the femur, it is withdrawn slightly into the
substance of the bursa. When the needle is in position in prox-
imity to the iliotibial band bursa, the contents of the syringe are
gently injected. Little resistance to injection should be noted. If
313
314 SECTION 11 Knee Pain Syndromes
Figure 107-1 The onset of iliotibial bursitis frequently occurs after long-distance cycling or jogging with worn-out shoes without proper cushioning.
Flexion of the affected knee may reproduce the pain. Often, the patient is unable to kneel or walk down stairs.
Inflamed iliotibial bursa
Inflamed iliotibial band
Figure 107-2 Injection technique to relieve pain secondary to iliotibial
band bursitis. (From Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management injection
techniques, Philadelphia, 2000, Saunders, p 283.)
resistance is encountered, the needle is probably in a ligament or
tendon and should be advanced or withdrawn slightly until the
injection proceeds without significant resistance. The needle is
removed, and a sterile pressure dressing and ice pack are placed
at the injection site.
Iliotibial band
Iliotibial bursa
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to identify primary or metastatic tumor of the knee or
spine that is responsible for the patients pain may yield disastrous
results. The major complication of injection of the iliotibial band
bursa is infection. This complication should be exceedingly rare if
strict aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25% of patients
report a transient increase in pain after injection of the iliotibial
band bursa, and patients should be warned of this possibility.
Clinical Pearls
Coexistent bursitis and tendinitis may contribute to knee
pain and may require additional treatment with more local-
ized injection of a local anesthetic and depot steroid. Injec-
tion of the iliotibial band bursa is extremely effective in the
treatment of pain secondary to iliotibial band bursitis. This
technique is a safe procedure if careful attention is paid to
the clinically relevant anatomy in the areas to be injected.
The use of physical modalities, including local heat and
gentle range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced
several days after the patient undergoes this injection tech-
nique for knee pain. Vigorous exercises should be avoided
because they would exacerbate the symptoms.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Beaman FD, Peterson JJ: MR imaging of cysts, ganglia, and bursae about the knee,
Radiol Clin North Am 45:969982, 2007.
OKeeffe SA, Hogan BA, Eustace SJ, Kavanagh EC: Overuse injuries of the knee,
Magn Res Imaging Clin North Am 17:725739, 2009.
Waldman SD: Injection technique to relieve pain secondary to iliotibial band bur-
sitis. In Waldman SD, editor: Atlas of pain management injection techniques,
Philadelphia, 2000, Saunders, p 283.
Waldman SD: The iliotibial band bursa. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review,
Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 154155.
Chapter 108

FABELLA SYNDROME

sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indi-

ICD-9 CODE 733.99
ICD-10 CODE M89.8X9
The Clinical Syndrome
Accessory bones of the knee are relatively common, with a reported
incidence of the fabella of approximately 25%. Fabella, which is
Latin for little bean, is asymptomatic in the vast majority of
patients. However, in some patients, the fabella becomes painful
as a result of repeated rubbing of the fabella on the posterolateral
femoral condyle.
Located in the lateral head of the gastrocnemius, the fabella
is often mistaken for a joint mouse or osteophyte, or it is sim-
ply identified as a serendipitous finding on imaging of the knee
(Figure 108-1). It may be either unilateral or bilateral and may
be bipartite or tripartite, further adding to the clinicians confu-
sion. Fabella may exist as an isolated asymptomatic or symptom-
atic finding. Fracture and dislocation of the fabella have been
reported, as well as hypertrophy of this accessory bone, causing
compression of the peroneal nerve (Figure 108-2). The fabella is
covered in hyaline cartilage to facilitate its articulation with the
femoral condyle; thus it is subject to chondromalacia and the
development of osteoarthritis.
cated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and ultrasound imag-
ing of the knee joint is indicated if bursitis, tendinitis, Bakers
cyst, joint instability, occult mass, or tumor is suspected and to
further clarify the diagnosis (Figures 108-3 and 108-4). Radionu-
cleotide bone scanning may be useful in identifying stress fractures
or tumors of the knee that may be missed on plain radiographs.
Arthrocentesis of the knee joint may be indicated if septic arthritis
or crystal arthropathy is suspected.
Differential Diagnosis
Fabella pain syndrome is a clinical diagnosis supported by a com-
bination of clinical history, physical examination, radiography,
ultrasound, radionucleotide scanning, and MRI. Pain syndromes
that may mimic fabella pain syndrome include primary pathologic
conditions of the knee, including gout and occult fractures, as
may bursitis and tendinitis of the knee, both of which may coexist
Popliteal fossa
Fabella
Medial head of Lateral head of
gastrocnemius gastrocnemius

Signs and Symptoms

Knee pain secondary to fabella is characterized by tenderness and
pain over the posterolateral knee. Patients often think they have
gravel in their knee and may report a grating sensation with range
of motion of the knee. The pain of fabella worsens with activities
that required repeated flexion and extension of the knee. Fabella
may coexist with tendinitis and bursitis of the knee. On physical
examination, pain can be reproduced by pressure on the fabella.
A creaking or grating sensation may be appreciated by the exam-
iner, and locking or catching on range of motion of the knee may
occasionally be present.

Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with fabella to
rule out fractures and identify other accessory ossicles that may
have become inflamed. Plain radiographs also will often identify
loose bodies or joint mice. Based on the patients clinical presen- Figure 108-1 The fabella is located in the lateral head of the gastrocne-
tation, additional testing, including complete blood cell count, mius muscle in approximately 25% of patients.

315
316 SECTION 11 Knee Pain Syndromes
Figure 108-2 Axial CT scan depicts the hypertrophic, dislocated fabella.
(From Franceschi F, Giuseppe Longo U, Ruzzini L, etal: Dislocation of an
enlarged fabella as uncommon cause of knee pain: a case report, Knee
14:330332, 2007.)
Femoral condyle Lateral gastrocnemius
Figure 108-3 Wide longitudinal ultrasound scan along the lateral
gastrocnemius muscle. Ultrasound allows identification of the fabella,
which might provoke a typical painful syndrome. (From Draghi F, Dane-
sino GM, Coscia D, Precerutti M, Pagani C: Overload syndromes of the knee
in adolescents: sonographic findings, J Ultrasound11:151157, 2008.
with fabella. Bakers cyst rupture may mimic the pain associated
with fabella. Primary and metastatic tumors of the knee may pres-
ent in a manner analogous to knee pain secondary to fabella.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with fabella should include a combination of nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)
inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of heat and cold
also may be beneficial. For patients who do not respond to these
treatment modalities, injection of the fabella with a local anes-
thetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step.
The goals of this injection technique are explained to the
patient. The patient is placed in the prone position with the ante-
rior ankle resting on a folded towel to slightly flex the knee. The
Figure 108-4 T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging of the right
knee (sagittal). Normal appearances with the fabella posterior to the
femoral condyle. (From Robertson A, Jones SCE, Paes R, Chakrabarty G:
The fabella: a forgotten source of knee pain? Knee11:243245, 2004.)
popliteal fossa is identified and, at a point two fingers lateral and
two fingers below the popliteal crease, the skin is prepped with
antiseptic solution. With a sterile gloved finger, the lateral head of
the gastrocnemius is palpated for the point of maximal tenderness.
A syringe containing 2.0 mL of 0.25% preservative-free bupiva-
caine and 40 mg of methylprednisolone is attached to a 2-inch,
22-gauge needle.
The needle is carefully advanced through the previously iden-
tified point at a 45-degree angle from the medial border of the
popliteal fossa directly toward the painful area containing the
fabella. With continuous aspiration, the needle is advanced very
slowly to avoid trauma to the peroneal nerve or popliteal artery or
vein. On impinging on the fabella with the needle tip, if no pares-
thesia is experienced in the distribution of the common peroneal
or tibial nerve, the contents of the syringe are then gently injected
(Figure 108-5). Minimal resistance to injection should be felt. A
pressure dressing is then placed over the cyst to prevent fluid reac-
cumulation. Occasionally, surgical excision of the fabella will be
required to provide long-lasting pain relief.
Complications and Pitfalls
The proximity to the common peroneal and tibial nerves, as well
as the popliteal artery and vein, makes it imperative that this pro-
cedure be carried out only by those well versed in the regional
anatomy and experienced in performing injection techniques.
Many patients also report a transient increase in pain after the
injection. Although rare, infection may occur if careful attention
to sterile technique is not followed.
 108 Fabella Syndrome 317

Clinical Pearls
Pain emanating from the knee is a common problem
Popliteal fossa encountered in clinical practice. Fabella must be distin-
Fabella guished from other more common causes of knee pain,
including Bakers cyst, bursitis, tendonitis, and synovitis.
Medial head of Careful differential diagnosis will help the clinician distin-
gastrocnemius Lateral head of guish symptomatic fabella from other causes of knee pain.
gastrocnemius

SUGGESTED READINGS
Clark AM, Matthews JG: Osteoarthritis of the fabella: a fourth knee compartment?
JR Coll Surg Edinb 36:58, 1991.
Franceschi F, Giuseppe Longo U, Ruzzini L, et al: Dislocation of an enlarged
fabella as uncommon cause of knee pain: a case report, Knee 14:330332, 2007.
Kuur E: Painful fabella: a case report with review of the literature, Acta Orthop
Scand 57:453454, 1986.
Robertson A, Jones SCE, Paes R, Chakrabarty G: The fabella: a forgotten source
of knee pain? Knee 11:243245, 2004.
Weiner DS, McNab I: The fabella syndrome: an update, J Paediatr Orthop
2:405408, 1982.

Figure 108-5 Injection technique for painful fabella.

Chapter 109

HAMSTRING TENDINITIS

ICD-9 CODE 727.00 Differential Diagnosis

The most common cause of posterior joint pain is a Bakers cyst.
It is a herniation of the synovial sac of the knee. It may rupture
ICD-10 CODE M65.9 spontaneously and may be misdiagnosed as thrombophlebitis.
Occasionally, injury to the medial meniscus may be confused with
hamstring tendinitis. Primary or metastatic tumors in the region,
The Clinical Syndrome although rare, must be considered in the differential diagnosis.

Hamstring tendinitis is occurring with greater frequency as

a result of the increased interest in jogging and the use of
Treatment
exercise equipment for lower extremity strengthening. The Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
onset of hamstring tendinitis is usually acute, occurring after with hamstring tendinitis should include a combination of non-
overuse or misuse of the muscle group. Inciting factors may steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2
include long-distance running, dancing injuries, or the vigor- (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of
ous use of exercise equipment for lower extremity strengthen- heat and cold may be beneficial. Patients with hamstring tendinitis
ing. The pain is constant and severe, with sleep disturbance
often reported. The patient may attempt to splint the inflamed
tendon by holding the knee in a slightly flexed position and
assuming a lurch-type antalgic gait. In addition to the pain,
patients with hamstring tendinitis often experience a gradual
decrease in functional ability with decreasing knee range of
motion, making simple everyday tasks, such as walking, climb-
ing stairs, or getting into an automobile, quite difficult. With
continued disuse, muscle wasting may occur and a stiff knee
may develop. Biceps femoris muscle

Semitendinosus muscle
Signs and Symptoms
Semimembranosus muscle
Patients with hamstring tendinitis experience severe pain on
palpation over the tendinous insertion, with the medial portion Gracilis muscle
of the tendon more commonly affected than the lateral portion
(Figure 109-1). Crepitus or a creaking sensation may be felt when
palpating the tendon while the patient flexes the affected knee.
No mass in the popliteal fossa is present as is seen with Bakers
cyst. The neurological examination of a patient with hamstring
tendinitis is normal.

Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with posterior knee
pain. Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests,
including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Mag-
netic resonance imaging (MRI) of the knee is indicated if internal
derangement, occult mass, Bakers cyst, or partial tendon disrup- Figure 109-1 Patients with hamstring tendinitis experience severe pain
tion is suspected. Injection of the hamstring tendons serves as a on palpation over the tendinous insertion, with the medial portion of
diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver. the tendon more commonly affected than the lateral portion.

318
 109 Hamstring Tendinitis 319

should avoid the repetitive activities responsible for the develop- SUGGESTED READINGS
ment of this painful condition. For patients who do not respond Bencardino JT, Mellado JM: Hamstring injuries of the hip, Magn Res Imaging Clin
to these treatment modalities, injection of the hamstring tendons North Am 13:677690, 2005.
with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step. OKeeffe SA, Hogan BA, Eustace SJ, Kavanagh EC: Overuse injuries of the knee,
Magn Res Imaging Clin North Am 17:725739, 2009.
Orava S: Hamstring syndrome, Oper Techn Sports Med 5:143149, 1997.
Complications and Pitfalls Ptasznik R: Ultrasound in acute and chronic knee injury, Radiol Clin North Am
37:797830, 1999.
Failure to diagnose primary knee pathological processes (e.g., tears
of the medial meniscus) may lead to further pain and disability.
MRI should help identify internal derangement of the knee. The
possibility of trauma to the hamstring tendon from the injection
itself is ever present. Tendons that are highly inflamed or previ-
ously damaged are subject to rupture if they are directly injected.
This complication can be greatly decreased if the clinician uses
gentle technique and stops injecting immediately if significant
resistance to injection is encountered. The proximity to the com-
mon peroneal and tibial nerve and the popliteal artery and vein
makes it imperative that this procedure be done only by clinicians
well versed in the regional anatomy and experienced in perform-
ing injection techniques. Many patients report a transient increase
in pain after the injection technique. Although rare, infection may
occur if careful attention to sterile technique is not followed.

Clinical Pearls
The musculotendinous insertion of the hamstring group
of muscles is susceptible to the development of tendinitis
for two reasons. First, the knee joint is subjected to signifi-
cant repetitive motion under weight-bearing conditions.
Second, the blood supply to the musculotendinous unit is
poor, making healing of microtrauma difficult. Calcium
deposition around the tendon may occur if the inflamma-
tion continues, complicating subsequent treatment. Tendi-
nitis of the musculotendinous insertion of the hamstring
frequently coexists with bursitis of the associated bursa of
the knee joint, creating additional pain and functional dis-
ability. This injection technique is extremely effective in the
treatment of pain secondary to hamstring tendinitis. Coex-
istent bursitis and arthritis may contribute to knee pain
and may require additional treatment with a more localized
injection of a local anesthetic and depot steroid. This tech-
nique is a safe procedure if careful attention is paid to the
clinically relevant anatomy in the areas to be injected. The
use of physical modalities, including local heat and gentle
range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced several
days after the patient undergoes this injection technique.
Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they would
exacerbate the symptoms.
Chapter 110
PES ANSERINE BURSITIS
ICD-9 CODE 726.61
ICD-10 CODE M76.899
The Clinical Syndrome
Less common than prepatellar and infrapatellar bursitis, pes anser-
ine bursitis nevertheless can cause significant knee pain and func-
tional disability. The pes anserine bursa lies between the combined
tendinous insertion of the sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus
muscles and the medial tibia. Patients with pes anserine bursitis
have pain over the medial knee joint and increased pain on pas-
sive valgus and external rotation of the knee. Activity, especially
involving flexion and external rotation of the knee, makes the
pain worse; rest and heat provide some relief. Often, the patient
is unable to kneel or walk down stairs (Figure 110-1). The pain
is constant and characterized as aching. The pain may interfere
with sleep. Coexistent prepatellar or infrapatellar bursitis, tendi-
nitis, arthritis, or internal derangement of the knee may confuse
the clinical picture after trauma to the knee joint. Frequently, the
medial collateral ligament also is involved if the patient has sus-
tained trauma to the medial knee joint. If the inflammation of
the pes anserine bursa becomes chronic, calcification of the bursa
may occur.
Signs and Symptoms
Physical examination may reveal point tenderness in the anterior
knee just below the medial knee joint at the tendinous insertion
of the pes anserine. Swelling and fluid accumulation surround-
ing the bursa are often present. Active resisted flexion of the knee
reproduces the pain. Sudden release of resistance during this
maneuver markedly increases the pain. Rarely, the pes anserine
bursa becomes infected in a manner analogous to infection of the
prepatellar bursa.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients thought to have
pes anserine bursitis. Based on the patients clinical presentation,
additional tests, including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte
320
sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be
indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the knee is
indicated to quantify the extent of internal derangement of the
knee and rule out occult mass or tumor (Figures 110-2, 110-3,
and 110-4). Bone scan may be useful to identify occult stress
fractures involving the joint, especially if considerable trauma has
occurred.
Differential Diagnosis
The most common cause of medial knee pain is degenerative
arthritis of the knee. Other pathological processes may mimic the
pain and functional disability of pes anserine bursitis. Lumbar
radiculopathy may cause pain and disability similar to those of
pes anserine bursitis. In such patients, back pain is usually present
and the knee examination findings should be negative. Coronary
ligament strain and bursitis of other bursae of the knee also may
cause medial knee pain. Entrapment neuropathies of the lower
extremity, such as femoral neuropathy, which may coexist with
pes anserine bursitis, may confuse the diagnosis. Primary and met-
astatic tumors of the femur and spine may manifest in a manner
analogous to pes anserine bursitis.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with pes anserine bursitis should include a combination of non-
steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of
heat and cold may be beneficial. Patients should be advised to
avoid the repetitive activities responsible for the evolution of this
painful condition. For patients who do not respond to these treat-
ment modalities, injection of the coronary pes anserine bursa with
a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to identify primary or metastatic tumor of the knee
or spine that is responsible for the pain may yield disastrous
results. The major complication of injection of the pes anser-
ine bursa is infection. This complication should be exceedingly
rare if strict aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25%
of patients report a transient increase in pain after injection of
the pes anserine bursa, and patients should be warned of this
possibility.
 110 Pes Anserine Bursitis 321

Sartorius muscle

Gracilis muscle
Semitendinosus
muscle

Pes anserine
bursa

Figure 110-1 Patients with pes anserine bursitis present with pain over the medial knee joint and increased pain on passive valgus and external rotation
of the knee. The patient often is unable to kneel or walk down stairs.

Figure 110-2 Pes anserine bursitis. T2-weighted magnetic resonance

imaging (SE, 2000/20) depicts abnormal liquid collection as a high
signal intensity region (arrow) seen in the axial plane. (From Stark DD,
Bradley WG Jr: Magnetic resonance imaging, 3rd ed, St Louis, 1999,
Mosby, p 857.)
322 SECTION 11 Knee Pain Syndromes

A B
Figure 110-3 Pes anserinus spurs. A, In this 65-year-old woman with a history of pes anserine bursitis, a conventional radiograph reveals a small
excrescence in the medial portion of the tibia. B, On coronal fat-suppressed fast spin echo (TR/TE, 3600/34) magnetic resonance imaging, fluid of
high signal intensity (arrow) is seen around the bone outgrowth. (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia,
2002, Saunders, p 3898.)

Pes anserine bursa

Tibia

Tendons

A B
Figure 110-4 A, Drawing illustrating an anserine bursitis. This axial view shows the anserine bursa (blue) located between the medial aspect of the
tibia and the tendons forming the pes anserinus (from anterior to posterior: sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus). B, Axial proton density (PD)-
weighted image with fat suppression shows a fluid collection (*) located between the pes anserinus (arrowheads) and the surface of the medial
tibial condyle (T), consistent with anserine bursitis. (From Marra MD, Crema MD, Chung M, etal: MRI features of cystic lesions around the knee, Knee
15:423438, 2008.)
 110 Pes Anserine Bursitis 323

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Marra MD, Crema MD, Chung M, etal: MRI features of cystic lesions around the
Coexistent bursitis, tendinitis, arthritis, and internal derange- knee, Knee 15:423438, 2008.
ment of the knee may contribute to the patients pain and OKeeffe SA, Hogan BA, Eustace SJ, Kavanagh EC: Overuse injuries of the knee,
Magn Res Imaging Clin North Am 17:725739, 2009.
may require additional treatment with more localized injec- Waldman SD: Bursitis syndromes of the knee. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain
tion of a local anesthetic and depot steroid. Injection of the review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 318322.
pes anserine bursa is extremely effective in the treatment Wasserman AR, Melville LD, Birkhahn RH: Septic bursitis: a case report and
of pain secondary to pes anserine bursitis. This technique primer for the emergency clinician, J Emerg Med 37:269272, 2009.
is a safe procedure if careful attention is paid to the clini-
cally relevant anatomy in the areas to be injected. The use
of physical modalities, including local heat and gentle range-
of-motion exercises, should be introduced several days after
the patient undergoes this injection technique for prepatellar
bursitis pain. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because
they would exacerbate the symptoms. Simple analgesics
and NSAIDs may be used concurrently with this injection
technique.
SECTION 12 Ankle and Foot Pain Syndromes
Chapter 111
SUBTALAR JOINT PAIN
ICD-9 CODE 715.97
ICD-10 CODE M19.90
The Clinical Syndrome
Ankle and heel pain emanating from the subtalar joint is occa-
sionally encountered in clinical practice. The subtalar joint is a
synovial planetype articulation between the talus and the cal-
caneus (Figure 111-1). Osteoarthritis of the subtalar joint is the
most common form of arthritis that results in subtalar joint pain,
although the joint also is susceptible to damage from rheumatoid
and posttraumatic arthritis.
Most patients with subtalar joint pain secondary to osteoar-
thritis and posttraumatic arthritis pain report pain localized deep
within the heel, with a secondary dull aching pain in the ankle
(Figure 111-2). Activity, especially adduction of the calcaneus,
makes the pain worse; rest and heat provide some relief. The
pain is constant and characterized as aching; it may interfere
with sleep. Some patients report a grating or popping sensation
with use of the joint, and crepitus may be present on physical
examination.
In addition to the pain described, patients with arthritis of
the subtalar joint often experience a gradual decrease in func-
tional ability with decreasing subtalar range of motion, making
simple everyday tasks such as walking and climbing stairs quite
difficult. With continued disuse, muscle wasting may occur, and
a frozen subtalar joint secondary to adhesive capsulitis may
develop.
Signs and Symptoms
Examination of the ankle of patients with arthritis of the subta-
lar joint reveals diffuse tenderness to palpation. The ankle may
feel hot to the touch, and swelling may be present. Adduction
of the calcaneus and range of motion of the ankle exacerbate the
pain. Weight bearing also may exacerbate the patients pain, and a
hesitant, antalgic gait may be present. Crepitus may be present on
range of motion of the joint.
324
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with subtalar joint
pain. Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests,
including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Arthrog-
raphy, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the subtalar joint,
or both, is indicated if joint instability, occult mass, or tumor is
suspected (Figure 111-3).
Differential Diagnosis
The subtalar joint is susceptible to the development of arthritis
from a variety of conditions that have in common the ability
to damage the joint cartilage. Osteoarthritis is the most com-
mon cause, but rheumatoid arthritis and posttraumatic arthritis
cause subtalar pain secondary to arthritis. Less common causes of
arthritis-induced subtalar pain include collagen vascular diseases,
infection, and Lyme disease. Acute infectious arthritis usually is
accompanied by significant systemic symptoms, including fever
and malaise, and should be easily recognized by an astute clini-
cian and treated appropriately with culture and antibiotics, rather
than with injection therapy. The collagen-vascular diseases gen-
erally manifest as polyarthropathy rather than monoarthropathy
limited to the subtalar joint, although subtalar pain secondary to
collagen-vascular disease responds well to the intra-articular injec-
tion technique described subsequently.
Lumbar radiculopathy may mimic the pain and disability asso-
ciated with arthritis of the subtalar joint. In such patients, the
ankle examination findings should be negative. Entrapment neu-
ropathies, such as tarsal tunnel syndrome, and bursitis of the ankle
also may confuse the diagnosis; both conditions may coexist with
arthritis of the subtalar joint. Primary and metastatic tumors of
the distal tibia and fibula and spine and occult fractures also may
manifest in a manner analogous to arthritis of the subtalar joint.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with arthritis of the subtalar joint should include a combination
of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxy-
genase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local applica-
tion of heat and cold may be beneficial. Avoidance of repetitive
 111 Subtalar Joint Pain 325

Extensor Peroneus
digitorum brevis m tertius m Tibia
Extensor Peroneus
digitorum longus t brevis m
Lat cuneiform Lat malleolus
Interosseous Talus
cuneocuboid lig Post inf
tibiofibular lig
3th metatarsal Post
talofibular lig
4th metatarsal Interosseous
Interosseous talocalcaneal lig
mm
Calcaneus
Plantar apon,
lat cord
Cuboid Peroneus Long Abductor digiti
longus t plantar lig minimi m
Figure 111-1 The subtalar joint is a synovial planetype articulation between the talus and the calcaneus. apon, Aponeurosis; inf, inferior; lat, lateral;
lig, ligament; m, muscle; mm, muscles; post, post; t, tendon. (From Kang A, Resnick D: MRI of the extremities: an anatomic atlas, 2nd ed, Philadelphia,
2002, Saunders, p 447.)

fluoroscopic, or ultrasound guidance may be useful when per-

forming injection of the subtalar joint if the anatomic landmarks
are difficult to identify (Figures 111-4 and 111-5).

Talus Complications and Pitfalls

Failure to identify primary or metastatic tumor of the ankle or
Subtalar joint spine that is responsible for the patients pain may yield disastrous
results. The major complication of intra-articular injection of the
subtalar joint is infection. This complication should be exceed-
ingly rare if strict aseptic technique is adhered to. Approximately
25% of patients report a transient increase in pain after intra-
articular injection of the subtalar joint, and patients should be
warned of this possibility.

Clinical Pearls
Calcaneus
Figure 111-2 Most patients with subtalar joint pain secondary to osteo-
arthritis and posttraumatic arthritis complain of pain that is localized
deep within the heel, with a secondary dull aching pain in the ankle.
activities that aggravate the symptoms and short-term immobili-
zation of the ankle joint also may provide relief. For patients who
do not respond to these treatment modalities, an intra-articular
injection of the subtalar joint with a local anesthetic and steroid
may be a reasonable next step. Computed tomography (CT),
Coexistent bursitis and tendinitis may contribute to ankle
pain and may require additional treatment with more
localized injection of a local anesthetic and depot steroid.
Injection of the subtalar joint is extremely effective in the
treatment of pain secondary to the causes of arthritis of
the joint mentioned. This technique is a safe procedure if
careful attention is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy
in the areas to be injected. The use of physical modalities,
including local heat and gentle range-of-motion exercises,
should be introduced several days after the patient under-
goes this injection technique for ankle pain. Vigorous exer-
cises should be avoided because they would exacerbate the
symptoms.
326 SECTION 12 Ankle and Foot Pain Syndromes

A B C
Figure 111-3 Arthrography of the posterior subtalar joint: Abnormalities after trauma. A, In the initial coronal computed tomography (CT) scan,
aneedle has been introduced into an osteoarthritic posterior subtalar joint from a lateral approach. Also note degenerative disease with subchondral
cysts involving the ankle. B, In a similar scan after injection of anesthetic and contrast material, opacification of the posterior subtalar joint (solid arrow),
talocalcaneonavicular joint (open arrow), and ankle (arrowhead) is evident. Pain relief occurred, but could have been caused by anesthesia reaching any
of these articulations. C, In a second case, opacification of the posterior subtalar joint has resulted in similar opacification of the talocalcaneonavicular,
calcaneocuboid, and ankle joints. (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 303.)

CALC
TAL
PSTJ

Figure 111-4 Sonographic view of anterolateral approach. Peroneal

tendons circled. Arrows surround sural nerve. Left, Cephalad; right, cau-
dal; top, superficial; bottom, deep; CALC, calcaneus; PSTJ (with arrow),
Figure 111-5 Computed tomography image demonstrates needle
posterior subtalar joint; TAL, talus. (From Henning T, Finnoff JT, Smith J:
placed in the posterior subtalar joint. (From Saifuddin A, Abdus-Samee
Sonographically guided posterior subtalar joint injections: anatomic study
M, Mann C, Singh D, Angel JC: CT guided diagnostic foot injections, Clin
and validation of 3 approaches. PM R 1:925931, 2009.)
Radiol 60:191195, 2005.)

SUGGESTED READINGS
Henning T, Finnoff JT, Smith J: Sonographically guided posterior subtalar joint
injections: anatomic study and validation of 3 approaches, PM R 1:925931,
2009.
Anatomy: special imaging considerations of the ankle and foot. In
Waldman SD: Functional anatomy of the ankle and foot. In Waldman SD, editor:
Pain review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 155156.
Ward ST, Williams PL, Purkayastha S: Intra-articular corticosteroid injections in
the foot and ankle: a prospective 1-year follow-up investigation, J Foot Ankle
Surg 47:138144, 2008.
Chapter 112
MIDTARSAL JOINT PAIN
ICD-9 CODE 715.97
ICD-10 CODE M19.90
The Clinical Syndrome
The midtarsal joints are an uncommon cause of ankle and foot
pain. Midtarsal joint pain may be seen in patients who repeat-
edly point their toes, such as ballet dancers and football punters
(Figure 112-1). Most patients with midtarsal joint pain second-
ary to osteoarthritis and posttraumatic arthritis pain report pain
localized to the dorsum of the foot. The muscles associated with
the midtarsal joints and their attaching tendons also are suscep-
tible to trauma and to wear and tear from overuse and misuse
and may contribute to the patients clinical symptoms. Activ-
ity, especially inversion and adduction of the midtarsal joints,
makes the pain worse; rest and heat provide some relief. The
pain is constant and characterized as aching; it may interfere
with sleep. Some patients report a grating or popping sensation
with use of the joint, and crepitus may be present on physical
examination. In addition to the pain, patients with arthritis of
the midtarsal joint often experience a gradual decrease in func-
tional ability with decreasing midtarsal range of motion, making
simple everyday tasks, such as walking and climbing stairs, quite
difficult.
Signs and Symptoms
Examination of the ankle and foot of patients with arthritis of
the midtarsal joints reveals diffuse tenderness to palpation. The
ankle and dorsum of the foot may feel hot to touch, and swelling
may be present. Adduction and inversion of the foot and range of
motion of the ankle exacerbate the pain. Weight bearing also may
exacerbate the patients pain, and a hesitant, antalgic gait may be
present. Crepitus is often present on range of motion of the joint.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with midtarsal joint
pain. Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests,
including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) of the midtarsal is indicated if joint
instability, occult mass, or tumor is suspected and to confirm the
diagnosis (Figure 112-2).
Differential Diagnosis
The midtarsal joint is susceptible to the development of arthritis
from a variety of conditions that have in common the ability
to damage the joint cartilage. Osteoarthritis of the joint is the
most common form of arthritis that results in midtarsal joint
pain. Rheumatoid arthritis and posttraumatic arthritis also are
common causes of midtarsal pain secondary to arthritis. Less
common causes of arthritis-induced midtarsal pain include
collagen-vascular diseases, infection, and Lyme disease. Acute
infectious arthritis usually is accompanied by considerable sys-
temic symptoms, including fever and malaise; an astute clinician
should easily recognize this condition and treat it appropriately
with culture and antibiotics, rather than injection therapy. The
collagen-vascular diseases generally manifest as polyarthropathy
rather than monoarthropathy limited to the midtarsal joint,
although midtarsal pain secondary to collagen-vascular disease
responds well to injection of the joints with a local anesthetic
and steroid.
Lumbar radiculopathy may mimic the pain and disabil-
ity associated with arthritis of the midtarsal joints. In such
patients, the ankle examination should be negative. Entrap-
ment neuropathies, such as tarsal tunnel syndrome, and bursitis
of the ankle may confuse the diagnosis; both conditions may
coexist with arthritis of the midtarsal joint. Primary and meta-
static tumors of the distal tibia and fibula and spine and occult
fractures also may manifest in a manner analogous to arthritis
of the midtarsal joint.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associ-
ated with arthritis of the midtarsal joints should include a com-
bination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy.
Local application of heat and cold may be beneficial. Avoidance
of repetitive activities that aggravate the patients symptoms and
short-term immobilization of the ankle joint may provide relief.
For patients who do not respond to these treatment modalities,
an injection of the midtarsal joints with a local anesthetic and
steroid may be a reasonable next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to identify primary or metastatic tumor of the ankle or
spine that is responsible for the ain may yield disastrous results.
The major complication of intra-articular injection of the mid-
tarsal joints is infection. This complication should be exceedingly
327
328 SECTION 12 Ankle and Foot Pain Syndromes

Transverse tarsal joint

Navicular bone

Cuneiform bones

Calcaneus
Talus
Cuboid bone

Figure 112-1 Midtarsal joint pain is seen in patients who repeatedly point their toes, such as ballet dancers and football punters.
 112 Midtarsal Joint Pain 329

A B C

D E
Figure 112-2 Midfoot sprain suspected on radiographs and confirmed on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A 25-year-old woman injured her foot
while running and twisting. Radiographs initially were interpreted as normal, and the patient was told to bear weight as tolerated. Radiographs at the
authors institution were considered suspicious but not diagnostic for midfoot sprain, and MRI was performed. Fluoroscopy under anesthesia confirmed
the MRI diagnosis of Lisfranc ligament complex rupture and instability of the first through third tarsometatarsal joints. A, Anteroposterior weight-bear-
ing radiograph shows a tiny chip fracture (arrow) arising either from the medial cuneiform or the first metatarsal. B, Axial T2-weighted fat-saturated MRI
obtained through the dorsum of foot shows a ruptured dorsal Lisfranc ligament (arrow) and bone marrow edema in the medial cuneiform (arrowhead).
C, Axial T2-weighted fat-saturated MRI through midportion of Lisfranc joint shows midsubstance rupture of interosseous Lisfranc ligament (long arrow).
The first interosseous intercuneiform ligament (short arrow) is ruptured also. D, Axial T2-weighted fat-saturated MRI through the plantar aspect of the
Lisfranc joint shows small avulsion fragment from second metatarsal base (long arrow) that is not visible on radiographs. The first plantar intercuneiform
ligament (short arrow) also is ruptured. E, Coronal T2-weighted fat-saturated MRI through the Lisfranc joint demonstrates disruption of the dorsal
Lisfranc ligament (black arrow), the interosseous Lisfranc ligament (white arrow), and the plantar Lisfranc ligament (black arrowhead). (From Crim J: MR
imaging evaluation of subtle Lisfranc injuries: the midfoot sprain, Magn Res Imaging Clin North Am 16:1927, 2008.)
330 SECTION 12 Ankle and Foot Pain Syndromes

rare if strict aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25% SUGGESTED READINGS

of patients report a transient increase in pain after intra-articular Reid JJ, Pinney SJ: Midfoot injuries in athletes: fundamentals of examination and
injection of the midtarsal joints, and patients should be warned of treatment, Oper Techn Sports Med 18:4649, 2010.
this possibility. Waldman SD: Functional anatomy of the ankle and foot. In Waldman SD, editor:
Pain review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 155156.
Waldman SD: Anatomy: special imaging considerations of the ankle and foot. In
Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2010,
Clinical Pearls Saunders, pp 417419.
Ward ST, Williams PL, Purkayastha S: Intra-articular corticosteroid injections in
Pain emanating from the midtarsal joints is commonly seen the foot and ankle: a prospective 1-year follow-up investigation, J Foot Ankle
in individuals who forcefully point their toes, such as bal- Surg 4713847144, 2008.
let dancers and football punters. This injection technique
is extremely effective in the treatment of pain secondary to
the previously mentioned causes of arthritis of the midtarsal
joint. Coexistent bursitis and tendinitis may contribute to
midtarsal joint pain and may require additional treatment
with more localized injection of a local anesthetic and depot
steroid. This technique is a safe procedure if careful attention
is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy in the areas to be
injected. Care must be taken to use sterile technique to avoid
infection and universal precautions to avoid risk to the oper-
ator. The incidence of ecchymosis and hematoma formation
can be decreased if pressure is placed on the injection site
immediately after injection. The use of physical modalities,
including local heat and gentle range-of-motion exercises,
should be introduced several days after the patient under-
goes this injection technique for midtarsal pain. Vigorous
exercises should be avoided because they would exacerbate
the patients symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may
be used concurrently with this injection technique.
Chapter 113

POSTERIOR TIBIAL TENDINITIS

disability. Calcium deposition around the tendon may occur if the

ICD-9 CODE 727.00
ICD-10 CODE M65.9
The Clinical Syndrome
Posterior tibial tendinitis is being seen with increasing frequency
in clinical practice as jogging and other aerobic exercises have
increased in popularity. The posterior tibial tendon is susceptible to
the development of tendinitis and is particularly subject to repeti-
tive motion that may result in microtrauma, which heals poorly
because of the tendons avascularity. Running, Irish folk danc-
ing, and high-impact aerobics routines are often implicated as the
inciting factor of acute posterior tibial tendinitis (Figure 113-1).
Tendinitis of the posterior tibial tendon frequently coexists with
tendinitis of the Achilles tendon and bursitis of the associated bursa
of the posterior ankle joint, creating additional pain and functional
inflammation continues, making subsequent treatment more dif-
ficult. Continued trauma to the inflamed tendon ultimately may
result in tendon rupture (Figure 113-2). In contrast to Achilles
tendon rupture, which often occurs without warning after acute
trauma, rupture of the posterior tibial tendon tends to be second-
ary to chronic tendinosis and degeneration of the tendon over time.
Rupture of the posterior tibial tendon occurs three times more
commonly in women, with peak incidence in the fifth and sixth
decades. A left-sided predominance is seen, and rupture is unilat-
eral more than 90% of the time.
Signs and Symptoms
The onset of posterior tibial tendinitis is usually gradual, occurring
after overuse or misuse of the ankle joint. Inciting factors include
activities such as running and sudden stopping and starting as when
playing tennis or doing high-impact aerobics routines. Improper
stretching of the gastrocnemius and tendons of the posterior ankle
before exercise has been implicated in the development of posterior

Tibialis posterior tendon

inflamed and frayed
Figure 113-1 Running and high-impact aerobics routines are often implicated as the inciting factor of acute posterior tibial tendinitis.

331
332 SECTION 12 Ankle and Foot Pain Syndromes

Normal

Flattened

Tibialis posterior
tendon ruptured
and frayed

Figure 113-2 Tendinitis of the posterior tibial tendon. Calcium deposition around the tendon may occur if the inflammation continues, making
subsequent treatment more difficult. Continued trauma to the inflamed tendon ultimately may result in tendon rupture.

tibial tendinitis and acute tendon rupture. The pain of posterior

tibial tendinitis is constant and severe and is localized over the
medial longitudinal arch. Flattening of the medial longitudinal
arch occurs, and over time a severe pes planus deformity results.
Significant sleep disturbance is often reported. Weight bearing on
the affected ankle and foot reveals these deformities and heel valgus,
plantar flexion of the talus, and forefoot abduction. Patients with
posterior tibial tendinitis or rupture or both exhibit weak inver-
sion of the ankle and foot. A creaking or grating sensation may be
palpated when passively plantar flexing and inverting the foot. As
mentioned, the chronically inflamed posterior tibial tendon may A
rupture with stress or during vigorous injection procedures into the
tendon itself.

Testing
Plain radiographs, ultrasound imaging, and magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) are indicated for all patients with posterior ankle
pain; weight-bearing radiographs often reveal the deformity asso-
ciated with rupture of the posterior tibial tendon (Figures 113-3,
113-4, and 113-5). Based on the patients clinical presentation, B
additional tests, including complete blood count, erythrocyte
sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be Figure 113-3 Injuries of the tibialis posterior tendon: Complete tears.
indicated. MRI of the ankle is indicated if joint instability is sus- Although a lateral radiograph obtained without weight bearing (A)
pected. Radionuclide bone scanning identifies stress fractures of appears normal, a lateral radiograph obtained with weight bearing (B)
shows plantar flexion of the distal portion of the talus with malalign-
the tibia not seen on plain radiographs. Injection of the posterior ment at the talonavicular joint. (From Myerson M, Solomon G, Shereff M:
tibial tendon with local anaesthetic and steroid serves as a diagnostic Posterior tibial tendon dysfunction: its association with seronegative inflam-
and therapeutic maneuver. matory disease, Foot Ankle 9:219225, 1989.)

Differential Diagnosis coexistent bursitis may confuse the diagnosis. Stress fractures
Posterior tibial tendinitis generally is identified easily on clini- of the ankle and hindfoot may mimic posterior tibial tendinitis
cal grounds. Because a bursa is located between the Achilles ten- and may be identified on plain radiographs or radionuclide bone
don and the base of the tibia and the upper posterior calcaneus, scanning.
 113 Posterior Tibial Tendinitis 333

A B
Figure 113-4 Injuries of the tibialis posterior tendon: acute complete tear. A, Sagittal T1-weighted (TR/TE, 800/12) spin echo magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) shows disorganization of the tibialis posterior tendon (white arrows) near its navicular site of insertion. Note a mass of intermediate
signal intensity around the tendon. B, Coronal T1-weighted (TR/TE, 650/20) spin echo MRI obtained with fat suppression after the intravenous
administration of a gadolinium compound reveals the torn tibialis posterior tendon (black arrow). Note the enhancement of signal intensity around
the torn tendon. (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 3313.)

Complications and Pitfalls

Talus N nician uses gentle technique and stops injecting immediately
Figure 113-5 Longitudinal ultrasound image of a complete rupture of
the posterior tibial tendon. The proximal and distal tendon (solid arrows)
is visualized inferior to the level of the medius malleolus, superficial to
the talus, and inserting on the navicular (N). The torn ends of the ten-
don (broken arrows) can be seen, with some anechoic fluid within the
tendon sheath. (From Waldman SD: Posterior tibial tendon rupture. In
Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2010,
Saunders, pp 435436.)
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with posterior tibial tendinitis should include a combination of
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygen-
ase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application
of heat and cold may be beneficial. The patient should be encour-
aged to avoid repetitive activities responsible for the evolution of
the tendinitis, such as jogging. For patients with tendinitis of the
posterior tibial tendon who do not respond to these treatment
modalities, careful injection of the area underneath the deltoid
ligament just below the medial malleolus with local anesthetic
and steroid may be a reasonable next step. Surgery is required for
patients who have sustained rupture of the posterior tibial tendon.
The possibility of trauma to the posterior tibial tendon from the
injection itself is ever present. Tendons that are highly inflamed
or previously damaged are subject to rupture if they are directly
injected. This complication can be greatly decreased if the cli-
if significant resistance to injection is encountered. Approxi-
mately 25% of patients report a transient increase in pain after
this injection technique, and patients should be warned of this
possibility.
Clinical Pearls
The posterior tibial tendon is a strong tendon but also is
very susceptible to rupture. Injection of the tendinitis is
extremely effective in the treatment of pain secondary to
the previously mentioned causes of posterior ankle pain.
Coexistent bursitis and arthritis may contribute to poste-
rior ankle pain and may require additional treatment with a
more localized injection of local anesthetic and methylpred-
nisolone acetate.
The described technique is a safe procedure if care-
ful attention is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy in
the areas to be injected. The use of physical modalities,
including local heat and gentle range-of-motion exercises,
should be introduced several days after the patient under-
goes this injection technique for ankle pain. Vigorous exer-
cises should be avoided because they would exacerbate the
symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may be used
concurrently with this injection technique. Tendon rupture
requires surgical repair to protect the ankle and foot from
further damage.
334 SECTION 12 Ankle and Foot Pain Syndromes

SUGGESTED READINGS
Bowring B, Chockalingam N: Conservative treatment of tibialis posterior tendon
dysfunction: a review, Foot 20:1826, 2010.
Imhauser CW, Siegler S, Abidi NA, Frankel DZ: The effect of posterior tibialis
tendon dysfunction on the plantar pressure characteristics and the kinematics of
the arch and the hindfoot, Clin Biomech 19:161169, 2004.
Noon M, Hoch AZ, McNamara L, Schimke J: Injury patterns in female Irish
dancers, PM R 2:10301034, 2010.
Waldman SD: Posterior tibial tendinitis. In Waldman SD, editor: Atlas of
pain management injection techniques, 2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2004, Saunders,
pp 560562.
Waldman SD: Posterior tibial tendon rupture. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD,
editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2010, Saunders, pp 435436.
Chapter 114
ACHILLES BURSITIS
ICD-9 CODE 727.00
ICD-10 CODE M65.9
The Clinical Syndrome
Achilles bursitis is being seen with increasing frequency in clinical
practice as jogging has increased in popularity. The Achilles tendon
is susceptible to the development of bursitis at its insertion on the
calcaneus and at its narrowest part at a point approximately 5 cm
above its insertion. The Achilles tendon also is subject to repetitive
motion injury that may result in microtrauma, which heals poorly
because of the tendons avascularity. Running is often implicated as
the inciting factor of acute Achilles bursitis. Bursitis of the Achilles
tendon frequently coexists with Achilles tendinitis, creating addi-
tional pain and functional disability. Calcium deposition around
the Achilles bursa may occur if the inflammation continues, making
subsequent treatment more difficult.
Signs and Symptoms
The onset of Achilles bursitis is usually acute, occurring after
overuse or misuse of the ankle joint. Inciting factors include
activities such as running and sudden stopping and starting as
when playing tennis (Figure 114-1). Improper stretching of the
gastrocnemius and Achilles tendons before exercise has been
implicated in the development of Achilles bursitis, acute tendinitis,
and tendon rupture. The pain of Achilles bursitis is constant and
severe and is localized in the posterior ankle. Significant sleep
disturbance is often reported. The patient may attempt to splint
the inflamed Achilles bursa by adopting a flat-footed gait to avoid
plantar flexion of the affected foot. Patients with Achilles bursitis
experience pain with resisted plantar flexion of the foot. A creak-
ing or grating sensation may be palpated when passively plantar
flexing the foot because of coexistent tendinitis. As mentioned
previously, a chronically inflamed Achilles tendon may suddenly
rupture with stress or during vigorous injection procedures to
treat Achilles bursitis.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with posterior
ankle pain. Based on the patients clinical presentation, addi-
tional tests, including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte
sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be
indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the ankle is
indicated if joint instability is suspected. Radionucleotide bone
scanning is useful to identify stress fractures of the tibia not seen
on plain radiographs. The following injection technique serves as
a diagnostic and therapeutic maneuver.
Differential Diagnosis
Achilles bursitis generally is identified easily on clinical grounds.
Because tendinitis frequently accompanies Achilles bursitis, the
specific diagnosis may be unclear. Stress fractures of the ankle also
may mimic Achilles bursitis and tendinitis and may be identified
on plain radiographs, MRI, or radionucleotide bone scanning.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with Achilles bursitis should include a combination of nonste-
roidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of
heat and cold may be beneficial. The patient should be encour-
aged to avoid repetitive activities responsible for the evolution of
the bursitis, such as jogging. For patients who do not respond to
these treatment modalities, the following injection technique with
a local anesthetic and steroid may be a reasonable next step.
For injection, the patient is placed in the prone position with
the affected foot hanging off the end of the table. The foot is
gently dorsiflexed to facilitate identification of the margin of the
tendon to aid in avoiding injection directly into the tendon. The
tender points at the tendinous insertion or at its narrowest part
approximately 5 cm above the insertion are identified and marked
with a sterile marker.
Proper preparation with antiseptic solution of the skin
overlying these points is carried out. A sterile syringe contain-
ing 2 mL of 0.25% preservative-free bupivacaine and 40 mg of
methylprednisolone is attached to a 25-gauge, 1-inch needle
using strict aseptic technique. With strict aseptic technique, the
previously marked points are palpated. The needle is carefully
advanced at this point alongside the tendon through the skin and
subcutaneous tissues, with care taken not to enter the substance
of the tendon (Figure 114-2). The contents of the syringe are
gently injected while slowly withdrawing the needle. Minimal
resistance to injection should be felt. If significant resistance to
injection is noted, the needle tip is probably in the substance of
the Achilles tendon and should be withdrawn slightly until the
injection proceeds without significant resistance. The needle is
removed, and a sterile pressure dressing and ice pack are placed
at the injection site.
335
336 SECTION 12 Ankle and Foot Pain Syndromes

Posterior view

Lateral view
Achilles
tendon
(narrowest
part)
5 cm

Soleus
muscle

Lateral
malleolus Calcaneus

Subtendinous
calcaneal bursa
Achilles tendon
(insertion)
Calcaneus
Figure 114-1 The onset of Achilles bursitis is usually acute, occurring after overuse or misuse of the ankle joint. Inciting factors include activities such
as running and sudden stopping and starting.

Clinical Pearls
Achilles tendon
Inflamed Achilles bursa
Figure 114-2 Injection technique to relieve pain of Achilles bursitis.
(From Waldman SD: Atlas of pain management injection techniques, ed 3,
Philadelphia, 2013, Saunders, p 443.)
Complications and Pitfalls
The possibility of trauma to the Achilles tendon from the injec-
tion itself is ever present. Tendons that are highly inflamed or
previously damaged are subject to rupture if they are directly
injected. This complication can be greatly decreased if the cli-
nician uses gentle technique and stops injecting immediately if
significant resistance to injection is encountered. Approximately
25% of patients report a transient increase in pain after this injec-
tion technique, and patients should be warned of this possibility.
The Achilles tendon is the thickest and strongest tendon
in the body, but it also is very susceptible to rupture. The
common tendon of the gastrocnemius muscle, the Achilles
tendon begins at midcalf and continues downward to attach
to the posterior calcaneus, where it may become inflamed.
The Achilles tendon narrows during this downward course,
becoming most narrow approximately 5 cm above its calca-
neal insertion. Tendinitis and bursitis may occur at this nar-
rowest point. The previously mentioned injection technique
is extremely effective in the treatment of pain secondary to
the causes of posterior ankle pain. Coexistent tendinitis and
arthritis may contribute to posterior ankle pain and may
require additional treatment with a more localized injection
of a local anesthetic and depot steroid.
The injection technique is a safe procedure if careful
attention is paid to the clinically relevant anatomy in the
areas to be injected. The use of physical modalities, includ-
ing local heat and gentle range-of-motion exercises, should
be introduced several days after the patient undergoes this
injection technique for ankle pain. Vigorous exercises should
be avoided because they would exacerbate the symptoms.
Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may be used concurrently
with this injection technique.
 114 Achilles Bursitis 337

SUGGESTED READINGS
Aronow MS: Posterior heel pain (retrocalcaneal bursitis, insertional and noninser- Van der Wall H, Lee A, Magee M, etal: Radionuclide bone scintigraphy in sports
tional Achilles tendinopathy), Clin Podiatr Med Surg 22192243, 2005. injuries, Semin Nucl Med 40:1630, 2010.
Hochman MG, Ramappa AJ, Newman JS, Farraher SW: Imaging of tendons Vyce SD, Addis-Thomas E, Mathews EE, Perez SL: Painful prominences of the
and bursae imaging of arthritis and metabolic bone disease, Philadelphia, 2009, heel, Clin Podiatr Med Surg 27:443462, 2010.
Saunders, pp 196238.
Lesic A, Bumbasirevic M: Disorders of the Achilles tendon, Curr Orthop 18:
6375, 2004.
Chapter 115

ANTERIOR TALOFIBULAR PAIN

SYNDROME

ICD-9 CODE 845.09 Signs and Symptoms

ICD-10 CODE S93.499A
The Clinical Syndrome
Talofibular pain syndrome is being encountered more frequently
in clinical practice with the increased interest in jogging and mara-
thon running. The talofibular ligament, which passes from the
anterior margin of the fibular malleolus, forward and medially, to
the talus bone, in front of its lateral articular facet, is susceptible
to strain from acute injury from sudden inversion of the ankle
or from repetitive microtrauma to the ligament from overuse or
misuse, such as long-distance running on soft or uneven surfaces
(Figure 115-1). Patients with strain of the talofibular ligament
report pain just below the lateral malleolus. Activities that require
inversion of the ankle joint exacerbate the pain.
On physical examination, point tenderness is felt just below the
lateral malleolus. With acute trauma, ecchymosis over the ligament
may be noted. Passive inversion of the ankle joint exacerbates the
pain. Coexistent bursitis and arthritis of the ankle and subtalar
joint may be present and confuse the clinical picture. Stress frac-
tures of the foot occur with increased frequency in runners, and
this must be considered in all patients thought to have talofibular
pain syndrome.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with ankle pain.
Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests,
including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Mag-
netic resonance imaging (MRI) of the ankle is indicated if disrup-
tion of the talofibular ligament or joint instability, occult mass, or
tumor is suspected.

Posterior
talofibular Tibia
ligament
Fibula
Anterior
Lateral
talofibular
malleolus
ligament
Achilles
tendon (cut)

Peroneal
retinacula

Calcaneofibular
ligament

Calcaneus

Peroneus Long plantar Peroneus

brevis tendon ligament longus tendon
Figure 115-1 The talofibular ligament is susceptible to strain from acute injury from sudden inversion of the ankle or from repetitive microtrauma to
the ligament from overuse or misuse, such as long-distance running on soft or uneven surfaces.

338

Differential Diagnosis
Avulsion fractures of the calcaneus, talus, lateral malleolus, and
base of the fifth metatarsal can mimic the pain of injury to the
talofibular ligament. Bursitis, tendinitis, and gout of the midtarsal
joints may coexist with ligament strain and may confuse the diag-
nosis. Tarsal tunnel syndrome may occur after ankle trauma and
may further confuse the clinical picture.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associ-
ated with talofibular pain syndrome should include a combi-
nation of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy.
Local application of heat and cold may be beneficial. Avoidance
of repetitive activities that aggravate the patients symptoms
and short-term immobilization of the ankle joint also may pro-
vide relief. For patients who do not respond to these treatment
modalities, the injection of the talofibular ligament may be a
reasonable next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to identify occult fractures of the ankle and foot may result
in significant morbidity. Radionucleotide bone scanning and MRI
of the ankle should be performed on all patients experiencing
unexplained ankle and foot pain, especially if trauma is present.
The major complication of the previously mentioned injection
technique is infection. This complication should be exceedingly
rare if strict aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25%
of patients report a transient increase in pain after injection of
the talofibular ligament, and patients should be warned of this
possibility. Injection around strained ligaments always should be
done gently to avoid further damage to the already compromised
ligament.
115 Anterior Talofibular Pain Syndrome 339
Clinical Pearls
It is estimated that approximately 25,000 individuals sprain
their ankle every day. Although viewed as benign by the
lay public, ankle sprains can result in significant permanent
pain and disability. The major ligaments of the ankle joint
include the deltoid, anterior talofibular, calcaneofibular,
and posterior talofibular ligaments, which provide most of
the strength to the ankle joint. The talofibular ligament is
not as strong as the deltoid ligament and is susceptible to
strain. The talofibular ligament runs from the anterior bor-
der of the lateral malleolus to the lateral surface of the talus.
The injection technique described here is extremely effective
in the treatment of pain secondary to the talofibular ligament
strain. Coexistent arthritis, bursitis, and tendinitis may contrib-
ute to medial ankle pain and may require additional treatment
with more localized injection of a local anesthetic and depot
steroid. The use of physical modalities, including local heat and
gentle range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced several
days after the patient undergoes this injection technique for
ankle pain. Vigorous exercises should be avoided because they
would exacerbate the symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs
may be used concurrently with this injection technique.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bonnel F, Toullec E, Mabit C, etal: Chronic ankle instability: biomechanics and
pathomechanics of ligaments injury and associated lesions, Orthop Traumatol
Surg Res 96:424432, 2010.
Haller J, Bernt R, Seeger T, etal: MR-imaging of anterior tibiotalar impingement
syndrome: agreement, sensitivity and specificity of MR-imaging and indirect
MR-arthrography, Eur J Radiol 58:450460, 2006.
Waldman SD: Anterior talofibular ligament tear. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD,
editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2010, Saunders, pp 437438.
Waldman SD: Functional anatomy of the ankle and foot. In Waldman SD, editor:
Pain review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 155156.
Waldman SD: The anterior talofibular ligament. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain
review, Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, p 158.
Chapter 116

ACCESSORY NAVICULAR PAIN

SYNDROME

ICD-9 CODE 733.99
ICD-10 CODE M89.8X9
The Clinical Syndrome
Foot and ankle pain secondary to accessory navicular pain syndrome
is being seen with increasing frequency in clinical practice because
of the increased interest in physical fitness and the use of exercise
machines. Accessory navicular pain syndrome is the name given to
pain that has as its nidus an accessory ossicle occasionally found in
relation to the medial navicular bone and posterior tibial tendon
(Table 116-1). It is thought that accessory ossicles such as the acces-
sory navicular decrease friction and pressure of tendons as they pass
in proximity to a joint. Similar accessory ossicles are found in the
elbows, hands, wrists, and feet.
Foot and ankle pain secondary to accessory navicular pain syn-
drome is characterized by tenderness and pain over the medial
foot and ankle. Patients often report irritation from a shoe, and
patients with accessory navicular pain syndrome may come to the
physicians office wearing a loose slipper on the affected foot. The
pain of accessory navicular pain syndrome worsens with activi-
ties that require repeated range of motion of the foot and ankle
or with high-impact forces on the foot and ankle, as seen with
jumping sports and high-impact aerobics routines (Figure 116-1).
Accessory navicular pain syndrome is often associated with loose
bodies in the foot and ankle joint and may coexist with bursitis
and posterior tibial and Achilles tendinitis.
accessory ossicles that may have become inflamed. Plain radio-
graphs also often identify loose bodies or joint mice, which are
frequently seen in patients with foot and ankle pain secondary to
accessory navicular pain syndrome. Based on the patients clini-
cal presentation, additional tests, including complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody
testing, may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
of the foot and ankle joint is indicated if joint instability, loose
bodies, occult mass, or tumor is suspected and to clarify the
diagnosis further (Figure 116-2). Radionucleotide bone scan-
ning may be useful in identifying stress fractures or tumors of
the foot and ankle and distal humerus that may be missed on
plain radiographs.
Differential Diagnosis
Primary pathology of the foot and ankle, including gout and
occult fractures, especially of the navicular tuberosity, may mimic
the pain and disability associated with an accessory navicular
bone. Entrapment neuropathy of the posterior tibial nerve, bur-
sitis, and tendinitis also may confuse the diagnosisall of which
may coexist with accessory navicular pain syndrome. Khlers
bone disease and synovial chondromatosis may mimic the pain
associated with accessory navicular pain syndrome. Primary and
metastatic tumors of the foot and ankle may present in a manner
analogous to foot and ankle pain secondary to accessory navicular
pain syndrome.
TABLE 116-1

Signs and Symptoms Classification of Accessory Navicular Bone Types

Type
On physical examination, pain can be reproduced by pressure on
the accessory navicular bone and medial navicular. Some pes pla- Type I
nus deformity may be evident if considerable compromise of the
posterior tibial tendon is present. In contradistinction to Achilles Type Ia
bursitis, in which the tender area remains posteriorly over the area
of the Achilles bursa, with accessory navicular pain syndrome, the
Type IIa
area of maximal tenderness is just above the accessory ossicle. A
creaking or grating sensation over the posterior tibial tendon may
be appreciated by the examiner with range of motion of the ankle
if considerable posterior tibial tendinitis is present. Type IIb
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with accessory Type III
navicular pain syndrome to rule out fractures and identify
Description
Isolated, well-defined accessory ossicle with smooth
rounded or oval shape
Well-defined accessory ossicle with smooth rounded or
oval shape embedded in the substance of the posterior
tibial tendon
Triangular or heart-shaped accessory ossicle joined by
synchondrosis to true tarsal navicular bone and a less
acute angle (50-70 degrees), making it susceptible to
avulsion injuries
Triangular or heart-shaped accessory ossicle joined by
synchondrosis to true tarsal navicular bone and a more
acute angle (10-35 degrees), making it susceptible to
shear force injuries
Cornuate-shaped accessory ossicle joined by bony bridge
to true tarsal navicular bone, which is often symptomatic

340
 116 Accessory Navicular Pain Syndrome 341

Achilles
tendon
Navicular
Accessory
navicular
ossicle

Tibialis posterior tendon

and sheath inflamed
Figure 116-1 Foot and ankle pain secondary to accessory navicular pain syndrome is characterized by tenderness and pain over the medial foot and
ankle. It worsens with activities that require repeated range of motion of the foot and ankle or with high-impact forces on the foot and ankle, such
as jumping sports and high-impact aerobics routines.

A B C
Figure 116-2 Ankle arthrography: Intra-articular osseous body. A, Initial radiograph shows an osseous dense area (arrowhead) adjacent to the talus.
B, Arthrography confirms the intra-articular location, the dense region producing a filling defect (arrowhead) in the contrast-filled joint cavity. C,
Computed tomography arthrography using air alone in a different patient shows an osseous fragment (arrowhead) in the lateral recess of the joint
on a direct coronal scan. Note the air in the posterior subtalar joint (arrow). (From Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders, 4th ed,
Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 296.)

Treatment injection of the accessory navicular ossicle with a local anesthetic

Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with accessory navicular pain syndrome should include a com-
bination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local
application of heat and cold may be beneficial. Avoidance of repet-
itive activities that aggravate the symptoms may provide relief.
For patients who do not respond to these treatment modalities,
and steroid may be a reasonable next step. For pain that persists,
or if the accessory navicular pain syndrome is causing damage to
the foot and ankle joint, surgical removal is indicated.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complication of injection of an accessory navicular
ossicle is infection. This complication should be exceedingly rare if
342 SECTION 12 Ankle and Foot Pain Syndromes
strict aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25% of patients
report a transient increase in pain after injection of an accessory
navicular ossicle, and patients should be warned of this possibility.
Another potential risk of this injection technique is trauma to the
extensor tendons from the injection.
Clinical Pearls
Pain emanating from the foot and ankle is a common prob-
lem encountered in clinical practice. Accessory navicular
pain syndrome must be distinguished from fractures of the
foot and ankle, fractures of the accessory navicular bone
itself, entrapment neuropathies of the tibial nerves, bursitis,
and tendinitis. Less common causes of posterior foot and
ankle pain, including Khlers bone disease, should be con-
sidered when evaluating patients thought to have accessory
navicular pain syndrome.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Emms NM, Walsh HPJ: Stress fracture of accessory navicular: a rare cause of foot
pain, Foot Ankle Surg 7:241243, 2001.
Jasiewicz B, Potaczek T, Kcki W, Tsiorowski M, Lipik E: Results of simple
excision technique in the surgical treatment of symptomatic accessory navicular
bones, Foot Ankle Surg 14:5761, 2008.
Kiter E, Gnal I, Karatosun V, Korman E: The relationship between the tibialis
posterior tendon and the accessory navicular, Ann Anat 182:6568, 2000.
Leonard Z, Fortin PT: Adolescent accessory navicular, Foot Ankle Clin North Am
15:337347, 2010.
Ugolini PA, Raikin SM: The accessory navicular, Foot Ankle Clin North Am
9:165180, 2004.
Chapter 117

FIBULOCALCANEAL PAIN
SYNDROME

ICD-9 CODE 845.09 Signs and Symptoms

ICD-10 CODE S93.499A
The Clinical Syndrome
Fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome is the result of injury to the
fibulocalcaneal ligament, usually caused by sudden inversion
of the ankle, as when stepping off a high curb (Figure 117-1).
The fibulocalcaneal ligament, which runs from the apex of the
fibular malleolus downward and slightly backward to a tubercle
on the lateral surface of the calcaneus, is susceptible to strain
from acute injury secondary to repetitive microtrauma to the
ligament resulting from overuse or misuse, such as long-distance
running on soft or uneven surfaces (Figure 117-2). Patients with
fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome report pain anterior and inferior
to the lateral malleolus. Inversion of the ankle joint exacerbates
the pain.
Point tenderness is felt just below the lateral malleolus on
physical examination. With acute trauma, ecchymosis over the
ligament may be noted. Passive inversion of the ankle joint exac-
erbates the pain. Coexistent bursitis and arthritis of the ankle and
subtalar joint may be present and confuse the clinical picture.
Stress fractures of the foot also occur with increased frequency in
runners, and this must be considered in all patients thought to
have fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with ankle pain.
Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests,
including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) of the ankle is indicated if disruption
of the fibulocalcaneal ligament, joint instability, occult mass, or
tumor is suspected.

Posterior
talofibular Tibia
ligament
Fibula
Anterior
Lateral
talofibular
malleolus
ligament
Achilles
tendon (cut)

Peroneal
retinacula

Calcaneofibular
ligament

Calcaneus

Peroneus Long plantar Peroneus

brevis tendon ligament longus tendon
Figure 117-1 Fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome is the result of injury to the fibulocalcaneal ligament, usually caused by sudden inversion of the ankle
as when stepping off a high curb.

343
344 SECTION 12 Ankle and Foot Pain Syndromes

Tibia
Med malleolus
Ant inf Post tibiotalar lig
tibiofibular lig Interosseous
talocalcaneal lig
Flexor retinaculum
Talus
Tibialis post t
Ant talofibular lig
Tibiocalcaneal lig
Calcaneofibular
lig Flexor digitorum
Peroneus longus t
brevis t Sustentaculum tali
Calcaneus Flexor hallucis longus t
Peroneus Med plantar a & n
longus t
Peroneal Quadratus plantae m
retinaculum
Abductor hallucis m
Long plantar lig
Lat plantar a & n
Abductor digiti
minimi m Flexor digitorum
Plantar apon, brevis m
lat cord Plantar apron

Figure 117-2 The fibulocalcaneal ligament runs from the apex of the fibular malleolus downward and slightly backward to a tubercle on the lateral
surface of the calcaneus. (From Kang A, Resnick D: MRI of the extremities: an anatomic atlas, 2nd ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 387.)

Differential Diagnosis rare if strict aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25% of

Avulsion fractures of the calcaneus, the talus, the lateral malleolus,
and the base of the fifth metatarsal can mimic the pain of injury to
the fibulocalcaneal ligament. Bursitis, tendinitis, and gout of the
midtarsal joints may coexist with ligament strain and may con-
fuse the diagnosis. Tarsal tunnel syndrome may occur after ankle
trauma and may further confuse the clinical picture.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome should include a combi-
nation of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy.
Local application of heat and cold may be beneficial. Avoidance
of repetitive activities that aggravate the patients symptoms and
short-term immobilization of the ankle joint may provide relief.
For patients who do not respond to these treatment modalities,
injection of the fibulocalcaneal ligament may be a reasonable
next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to identify occult fractures of the ankle and foot may result
in significant morbidity. Radionucleotide bone scanning and MRI
of the ankle should be performed on all patients experiencing
unexplained ankle and foot pain, especially if trauma is present.
The major complication of the previously mentioned injection
technique is infection. This complication should be exceedingly
patients report a transient increase in pain after injection of the
fibulocalcaneal ligament, and patients should be warned of this
possibility. Injection around strained ligaments always should be
done gently to avoid further damage to the already compromised
ligament.
Clinical Pearls
It is estimated that approximately 25,000 individuals in
the United States sprain their ankle every day. Although
viewed as benign by the lay public, ankle sprains can result
in significant permanent pain and disability. The major
ligaments of the ankle joint include the deltoid, anterior
talofibular, calcaneofibular, and posterior talofibular liga-
ments, which provide most of the strength to the ankle
joint. Injection of the fibulocalcaneal ligament is extremely
effective in the treatment of pain secondary to fibulocalca-
neal ligament strain. Coexistent arthritis, bursitis, and ten-
dinitis also may contribute to medial ankle pain and may
require additional treatment with more localized injection
of a local anesthetic and depot steroid. The use of physical
modalities, including local heat and gentle range-of-motion
exercises, should be introduced several days after the patient
undergoes the injection technique for ankle pain. Vigorous
exercises should be avoided because they would exacerbate
the symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may be used
concurrently with this injection technique.

SUGGESTED READINGS
Amaral De Noronha M, Borges NG Jr: Lateral ankle sprain: isokinetic test reliability
and comparison between invertors and evertors, Clin Biomech 19:868871, 2004.
Chou MC, Yeh LR, Chen CK-H, et al: Comparison of plain MRI and MR
arthrography in the evaluation of lateral ligamentous injury of the ankle joint, J
Chin Med Assoc 69:2631, 2006.
Hunt GC: Injuries of peripheral nerves of the leg, foot and ankle: an often unrec-
ognized consequence of ankle sprains, Foot 13:1418, 2003.
117 Fibulocalcaneal Pain Syndrome 345
Joshy S, Abdulkadir U, Chaganti S, Sullivan S, Hariharanv K: Accuracy of MRI
scan in the diagnosis of ligamentous and chondral pathology in the ankle, Foot
Ankle Surg 16:7880, 2010.
van Rijn RM, van Os AG, Bernsen RMD, etal: What is the clinical course of acute
ankle sprains? A systematic literature review, Am J Med 121:324331, e7. 2008.
Weber JM, Maleski RM: Conservative treatment of acute lateral ankle sprains,
Clin Podiatr Med Surg 19:309318, 2002.
Chapter 118
OS TRIGONUM PAIN SYNDROME
ICD-9 CODE 733.99
ICD-10 CODE M89.8X9
The Clinical Syndrome
Foot and ankle pain secondary to os trigonum pain syndrome is
being seen with increasing frequency in clinical practice because
of the increased interest in physical fitness and the use of exercise
machines. Os trigonum pain syndrome, also known as posterior ankle
impingement syndrome, is the name given to pain that has as its nidus
an accessory ossicle occasionally found in relation to the medial
navicular bone and posterior tibial tendon. It is thought that acces-
sory ossicles such as the os trigonum decrease friction and pressure of
tendons as they pass in proximity to a joint. Similar accessory ossicles
are found in the elbows, hands, wrists, and feet (see Chapter 31).
Foot and ankle pain secondary to os trigonum pain syndrome
is characterized by tenderness and pain over the medial foot and
ankle. The patient often reports irritation from a shoe, and often
patients with os trigonum pain syndrome come to the physicians
office wearing a loose slipper on the affected foot. The pain of
os trigonum pain syndrome worsens with activities that require
repeated range of motion of the foot and ankle or with high-
impact forces on the foot and ankle, as seen with jumping sports
and high-impact aerobics routines (Figure 118-1). Os trigonum
pain syndrome is often associated with loose bodies in the foot
and ankle joint and may coexist with bursitis and posterior tibial
and Achilles tendinitis.
Signs and Symptoms
On physical examination, pain can be reproduced by pressure
on the os trigonum bone and medial navicular. Some pes planus
deformity may be evident if serious compromise of the posterior
tibial tendon has occurred. In contradistinction to Achilles bur-
sitis, in which the tender area remains posteriorly over the area
of the Achilles bursa, with os trigonum pain syndrome, the area
of maximal tenderness is just above the accessory ossicle itself. A
creaking or grating sensation over the posterior tibial tendon may
be appreciated by the examiner with range of motion of the ankle
if serious posterior tibial tendinitis is present.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with os trigonum
pain syndrome to rule out fractures and identify accessory ossicles
346
that may have become inflamed. Plain radiographs also often iden-
tify loose bodies or joint mice that are frequently seen in patients
with foot and ankle pain secondary to os trigonum pain syndrome.
Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests,
including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) of the
foot and ankle joint is indicated if joint instability, loose bodies,
occult mass, or tumor is suspected and to further clarify the diag-
nosis (Figure 118-2). Radionucleotide bone scanning may be use-
ful in identifying stress fractures or tumors of the foot and ankle
and distal humerus that may be missed on plain radiographs.
Differential Diagnosis
Primary pathology of the foot and ankle, including gout and occult
fractures especially of the navicular tuberosity, may mimic the pain
and disability associated with an os trigonum bone. Entrapment
neuropathy of the posterior tibial nerve, bursitis, and tendinitis
also may confuse the diagnosisall of which may coexist with
os trigonum pain syndrome. Khlers bone disease and synovial
chondromatosis may mimic the pain associated with os trigonum
pain syndrome. Primary and metastatic tumors of the foot and
ankle also may manifest in a manner analogous to foot and ankle
pain secondary to os trigonum pain syndrome.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associ-
ated with os trigonum pain syndrome should include a combi-
nation of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local
application of heat and cold may be beneficial. Avoidance of
repetitive activities that aggravate the symptoms also may provide
relief. For patients who do not respond to these treatment modali-
ties, injection of the os trigonum ossicle with a local anesthetic
and steroid may be a reasonable next step. For pain that persists,
or if the os trigonum pain syndrome is causing damage to the foot
and ankle joint, surgical removal is indicated.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complication of injection of an os trigonum ossicle is
infection. This complication should be exceedingly rare if strict
aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25% of patients
report a transient increase in pain after injection of an os trigonum
ossicle, and patients should be warned of this possibility. Another
potential risk of this injection technique is trauma to the extensor
tendons from the injection.
 118 Os Trigonum Pain Syndrome 347

Inflamed
accessory bone

Navicular Achilles
tendon

Tibialis posterior
tendon and sheath
Figure 118-1 The pain of os trigonum pain syndrome is often associated with high-impact force on the foot.

SP SP
A B C
Figure 118-2 A, Lateral radiograph of the ankle in a patient with posterior impingement. The os trigonum (arrow) is compressed between the pos-
terior tibia and calcaneus. B, Corresponding sagittal T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) shows the fatty marrow within the os trigonum
(arrow). C, On the fast spin T2-weighted MRI, high-signal intensity fluid around the os trigonum, with reactive high-signal intensity marrow edema in
the ossicle and posterior talus (broken arrows). (From Waldman SD: Os trigonum. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia,
2010, Saunders, pp 449450.)

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Pain emanating from the foot and ankle is a common prob-
lem encountered in clinical practice. Os trigonum pain
syndrome must be distinguished from fractures of the foot
and ankle, fractures of the os trigonum bone itself, entrap-
ment neuropathies of the tibial nerves, bursitis, and tendi-
nitis, and less common causes of posterior foot and ankle
pain, including Khlers bone disease, should be considered
when evaluating patients thought to have os trigonum pain
syndrome.
Chao W: Os trigonum, Foot Ankle Clin North Am 9:787796, 2004.
Soucanye de Landevoisin E, Jacopin S, Glard Y, etal: Surgical treatment of the
symptomatic os trigonum in children, Orthop Traumatol Surg Res 95:159163,
2009.
Waldman SD: Os trigonum. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of
pain, Philadelphia, 2010, Saunders, pp 449450.
Wansbrough GG, Eyres KS: Osteo-arthritis of the os trigonumcalcaneal joint,
Foot 17:159161, 2007.
Chapter 119

BUNIONETTE PAIN

ICD-9 CODE 727.1
ICD-10 CODE M20.10
The Clinical Syndrome
Occurring less commonly than the common bunion, bunionette is
a common cause of lateral foot pain. The term bunionette refers to
a constellation of symptoms, including soft tissue swelling over the
fifth metatarsophalangeal joint associated with abnormal angulation
of the joint resulting in a prominent fifth metatarsal head with asso-
ciated medial angulation (Figure 119-1). Bunionette also is known
as tailors bunion. This deformity is analogous to the hallux valgus
deformity and occurs more commonly in women. The develop-
ment of an inflamed adventitious bursa may accompany bunionette
formation and contribute to the patients pain. A corn overlying
the fifth metatarsal head also is usually present. The most common
cause of bunionette formation is the wearing of tight, narrow-toed
shoes (Figure 119-2). High heels may exacerbate the problem.
deformity is the fact that bursitis and tendinitis of the foot and
ankle frequently coexist with the bunion pain. Stress fractures of
the metatarsals, phalanges, or sesamoid bones also may confuse
the clinical diagnosis and require specific treatment.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with bunionette deformity should include a combination of non-
steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2
(COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of
heat and cold may be beneficial. Avoidance of repetitive activities
that aggravate the symptoms and narrow-toed or high-heeled
shoes combined with short-term immobilization of the affected
toes also may provide relief. For patients who do not respond to
these treatment modalities, an injection with a local anesthetic
and steroid may be a reasonable next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
Failure to identify primary or metastatic tumor of the foot that
is responsible for the patients pain may yield disastrous results.

Signs and Symptoms

Most patients with bunionette complain of pain that is localized
to the affected fifth metatarsophalangeal joint and the inability
to get shoes to fit. Walking worsens the pain; rest and heat pro-
vide some relief. The pain is constant and characterized as aching;
it may interfere with sleep. Some patients complain of a grating
or popping sensation with use of the joint, and crepitus may be
present on physical examination. Physical examination reveals soft
tissue swelling over the fifth metatarsophalangeal joint associated
with abnormal angulation of the joint resulting in a prominent
fifth metatarsal head with associated medial angulation.

Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with bunionette
pain. Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests,
including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Magnetic
A B
resonance imaging (MRI) of the fifth metatarsophalangeal joint is
indicated if joint instability, occult mass, or tumor is suspected. Figure 119-1 A, Tailors bunion deformity may be assessed radiograph-
ically with a lateral splaying in the distal fifth metatarsal. B, Clinically,
the patient generally presents with symptoms occurring laterally or
Differential Diagnosis plantarlaterally, often with an adduction of the fifth toe. (From Clinical
Practice Guideline Forefoot Disorders Panel; Thomas JL, Blitch EL IV, Chaney
The diagnosis of bunionette is usually obvious on clinical grounds DM, etal: Diagnosis and treatment of forefoot disorders. IV. Tailors bunion.
alone. Complicating the care of a patient with a typical bunion J Foot Ankle Surg 2009;48:257263.)

348
 119 Bunionette Pain 349

Clinical Pearls
Pain from bunionette can be debilitating, and the defor-
mity is cosmetically unacceptable for many patients. Injec-
tion of the bunionette with a local anesthetic and steroid is
extremely effective in treating pain secondary to bunionette.
Coexistent arthritis, bursitis, and tendinitis may contribute
to bunionette pain and may require additional treatment
with more localized injection of a local anesthetic and depot
steroid.
Patients with bunionette should be advised to avoid
tight, narrow-toed shoes. The use of physical modalities,
including local heat and gentle range-of-motion exercises,
should be introduced several days after the patient under-
goes this injection technique for toe pain. Vigorous exer-
cises should be avoided because they would exacerbate the
patients symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may be
used concurrently with this injection technique.
Fifth metatarsal

Phalanges: SUGGESTED READINGS

Distal
Middle
Proximal
Figure 119-2 The most common cause of bunionette formation is the
wearing of tight, narrow-toed shoes.
The major complication of the injection technique is infection.
This complication should be exceedingly rare if strict aseptic
technique is followed. Approximately 25% of patients report a
transient increase in pain after this technique, and patients should
be warned of this possibility.
Ajis A, Koti M, Maffulli N: Tailors bunion: a review, J Foot Ankle Surg 44:
236245, 2005.
Clinical Practice Guideline Forefoot Disorders Panel, Thomas JL, Blitch EL IV,
Chaney DM, etal: Diagnosis and treatment of forefoot disorders. II. Central
metatarsalgia, J Foot Ankle Surg 48:239250, 2009.
Clinical Practice Guideline Forefoot Disorders Panel, Thomas JL, Blitch EL IV,
Chaney DM, etal: Diagnosis and treatment of forefoot disorders. V. Trauma,
J Foot Ankle Surg 48:264272, 2009.
Roukis TS: The tailors bunionette deformity: a field guide to surgical correction,
Clin Podiatr Med Surg 22:223245, 2005.
Chapter 120
SESAMOIDITIS
ICD-9 CODE 733.99
ICD-10 CODE M89.8X9
The Clinical Syndrome
Sesamoiditis is being seen with increasing frequency in clini-
cal practice because of the increased interest in jogging and
long-distance running. The sesamoid bones are small, rounded
structures embedded in the flexor tendons of the foot and are
usually in close proximity to the joints. These sesamoid bones
decrease friction and pressure of the flexor tendon as it passes
in proximity to a joint. Sesamoid bones of the first metatarsal
occur in almost all patients, with sesamoid bones being present
in the flexor tendons of the second and fifth metatarsals in many
patients.
Although the sesamoid bone associated with the first metatar-
sal head is affected most commonly, the sesamoid bones of the
second and fifth metatarsal heads also are subject to the develop-
ment of sesamoiditis. Sesamoiditis is characterized by tenderness
and pain over the metatarsal heads. The patient often feel as if
he or she is walking with a stone in the shoe (Figure 120-1). The
pain of sesamoiditis worsens with prolonged standing or walking
for long distances and is exacerbated by improperly fitting or pad-
ded shoes. Sesamoiditis most often is associated with pushing-off
injuries during football or repetitive microtrauma from running
or dancing.
Signs and Symptoms
Pain can be reproduced on physical examination by pressure on
the affected sesamoid bone. In contrast to metatarsalgia, in which
the tender area remains over the metatarsal heads, with sesamoid-
itis, the area of maximal tenderness moves along with the flexor
tendon when the patient actively flexes his or her toe. A patient
with sesamoiditis often exhibits an antalgic gait in an effort to
reduce weight bearing during walking. With acute trauma to the
sesamoid, ecchymosis over the plantar surface of the foot may be
present.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with sesamoiditis
to rule out fractures and identify sesamoid bones that may have
350
become inflamed (Figure 120-2). Based on the patients clini-
cal presentation, additional tests, including complete blood cell
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody
testing, may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of
the metatarsal bones is indicated if joint instability, occult mass,
or tumor is suspected. Radionucleotide bone scanning may be
useful in identifying stress fractures of the metatarsal bones or
sesamoid bones that may be missed on plain radiographs of the
foot (Figure 120-3).
Differential Diagnosis
Primary pathological processes of the foot, including gout and
occult fractures, may mimic the pain and disability associated
with sesamoiditis. Entrapment neuropathies such as tarsal tunnel
syndrome may confuse the diagnosis, as may bursitis and plantar
fasciitis of the foot, both of which may coexist with sesamoid-
itis. Metatarsalgia is another common cause of forefoot pain and
may be distinguished from sesamoiditis by the fact that the pain
of metatarsalgia is over the metatarsal heads and does not move
when the patient actively flexes his or her toes, as is the case with
sesamoiditis. Primary and metastatic tumors of the foot also
may manifest in a manner analogous to arthritis of the midtarsal
joints.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with sesamoiditis should include a combination of nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)
inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of heat and
cold may be beneficial. Avoidance of repetitive activities that
aggravate the symptoms and short-term immobilization of the
midtarsal joint also may provide relief. For patients who do not
respond to these treatment modalities, injection of the affected
sesamoid bone with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a rea-
sonable next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complication of injection of sesamoiditis is infection.
This complication should be exceedingly rare if strict aseptic
technique is followed. Approximately 25% of patients report a
transient increase in pain after injection of sesamoid bones, and
patients should be warned of this possibility. Another potential
risk of this injection technique is trauma to the tendon from the
injection.
 120 Sesamoiditis 351

Distal phalanx

2 1
3 Proximal phalanx
4
5 Medial sesamoid

Lateral sesamoid

Figure 120-1 Sesamoiditis is characterized by tenderness and pain over the metatarsal heads. The patient often feels as if he or she is walking with
a stone in the shoe.

Figure 120-2 Radiograph of a patient with an asymptomatic bipartite medial sesamoid (white arrows) and a normal lateral sesamoid (black arrow).
(From Waldman SD: Sesamoiditis. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of pain, Philadelphia, 2010, Saunders, pp 455456.)
352 SECTION 12 Ankle and Foot Pain Syndromes

A B
Figure 120-3 Sesamoid stress fractures. In a 26-year-old runner, sagittal T1-weighted (TR/TE, 600/14) spin echo (A) and fat-suppressed fast spin
echo (TR/TE, 4000/68) (B) magnetic resonance imaging reveal a stress fracture of the medial sesamoid bone of the first metatarsophalangeal joint.
The fracture line (arrows) and marrow edema are evident. (From Waldman SD: Sesamoiditis In Resnick D, editor: Diagnosis of bone and joint disorders,
4th ed, Philadelphia, 2002, Saunders, p 2671.)

Clinical Pearls SUGGESTED READINGS

Pain emanating from the forefoot is a common problem
encountered in clinical practice. Sesamoiditis must be dis-
tinguished from stress fractures of the metatarsal bones,
metatarsalgia, Mortons neuroma, and fractures of the sesa-
moid bones. Although the previously mentioned injection
technique provides palliation of the pain of sesamoiditis,
the patient often also requires shoe orthoses that include
padded insoles to help remove pressure from the affected
sesamoid bones. Coexistent bursitis and tendinitis also may
contribute to metatarsal pain and may require additional
treatment with more localized injection of an anesthetic
and depot steroid. The use of physical modalities, includ-
ing local heat and gentle range-of-motion exercises, should
be introduced several days after the patient undergoes this
injection technique for sesamoiditis pain. Vigorous exer-
cises should be avoided because they would exacerbate the
patients symptoms. Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may be
used concurrently with this injection technique.
Anwar R, Anjum SN, Nicholl JE: Sesamoids of the foot, Curr Orthop 19:4048,
2005.
Cohen BE: Hallux sesamoid disorders, Foot Ankle Clin North Am 14:91104,
2009.
Kennedy JG, Hodgkins CW, Columbier J-A, Hamilton WG: Baxters the foot and
ankle in sport, ed 2, Philadelphia, 2008, Mosby, pp 469483.
Sanders TG, Rathur SK: Imaging of painful conditions of the hallucal sesamoid
complex and plantar capsular structures of the first metatarsophalangeal joint,
Radiol Clin North Am 46:10791092, 2008.
Umans HR: Imaging sports medicine injuries of the foot and toes, Clin Sports Med
25:763780, 2006.
Waldman SD: Sesamoiditis. In Waldman SD, Campbell RSD, editors: Imaging of
pain, Philadelphia, 2010, Saunders, pp 455456.
Chapter 121

METATARSALGIA

ICD-9 CODE 726.70 Differential Diagnosis

ICD-10 CODE M77.40
The Clinical Syndrome
Along with sesamoiditis, metatarsalgia is another painful condi-
tion of the forefoot being seen with increasing frequency in clinical
practice because of the increased interest in jogging and long-
distance running. Metatarsalgia is characterized by tenderness and
pain over the metatarsal heads. The patient often feels as if he or
she is walking with a stone in the shoe. The pain of metatarsalgia
worsens with prolonged standing or walking for long distances
and is exacerbated by improperly fitting or padded shoes. Often a
patient with metatarsalgia develops hard callus over the heads of
the second and third metatarsals when trying to shift the weight
off the head of the first metatarsal to relieve the pain. This callus
increases the pressure on the metatarsal heads and exacerbates the
patients pain and disability.
Primary pathology of the foot, including gout and occult frac-
tures, may mimic the pain and disability associated with meta-
tarsalgia (Figure 121-2). Entrapment neuropathies such as tarsal
tunnel syndrome, bursitis, and plantar fasciitis of the foot also
may confuse the diagnosis; bursitis and plantar fasciitis may coex-
ist with sesamoiditis. Sesamoid bones beneath the heads of the
metatarsal bones are present in some individuals and are sub-
ject to the development of inflammation termed sesamoiditis.
Sesamoiditis is another common cause of forefoot pain and may
be distinguished from metatarsalgia by the fact that the pain of
metatarsalgia is centered over the patients metatarsal heads and
does not move when the patient actively flexes his or her toes,
as is the case with sesamoiditis. The muscles of the metatarsal
joints and their attaching tendons are susceptible to trauma and
wear and tear from overuse and misuse and may contribute to

Signs and Symptoms

3 2 1
On physical examination, pain can be reproduced by pressure on
4
the metatarsal heads (Figure 121-1). Callus often is present over Callus
the heads of the second and third metatarsal heads and can be
5
distinguished from plantar warts by the lack of thrombosed blood
vessels that appear as small dark spots through the substance of Metatarsal
the wart when the surface is trimmed. A patient with metatarsalgia heads
often exhibits an antalgic gait in an effort to reduce weight bearing
during the static stance phase of walking. Ligamentous laxity and
flattening of the transverse arch also may be present, giving the
foot a splayed-out appearance.

Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with metatarsalgia
to rule out fractures and to identify sesamoid bones that may
have become inflamed. Based on the patients clinical presen-
tation, additional tests, including complete blood cell count,
erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and antinuclear antibody testing,
may be indicated. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the
metatarsal bones is indicated if joint instability, occult mass,
or tumor is suspected. Radionucleotide bone scanning may be
useful in identifying stress fractures that may be missed on plain Figure 121-1 On physical examination, pain can be reproduced by
radiographs of the foot. pressure on the metatarsal heads.

353
354 SECTION 12 Ankle and Foot Pain Syndromes
Figure 121-2 Stress fracture of the metatarsal (march fracture).
Anteroposterior radiograph shows fluffy periosteal new bone along the
distal shaft of the third metatarsal (arrow); the patient had foot pain for
16 days. (From Grainger RG, Allison D: Grainger and Allisons diagnostic
radiology: a textbook of medical imaging, 3rd ed, New York, 1997,
Churchill Livingstone, 1997, p 1610.)
forefoot pain. Primary and metastatic tumors of the foot also
may manifest in a manner analogous to that of arthritis of the
midtarsal joints.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with metatarsalgia should include a combination of nonsteroidal
anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)
inhibitors and physical therapy. Local application of heat and cold
may be beneficial. Avoidance of repetitive activities that aggravate
the patients symptoms and short-term immobilization of the
midtarsal joint also may provide relief. For patients who do not
respond to these treatment modalities, injection of the affected
metatarsal heads with a local anesthetic and steroid may be a rea-
sonable next step.
Complications and Pitfalls
The major complication of injection of the metatarsal heads is
infection. This complication should be exceedingly rare if strict
aseptic technique is followed. Approximately 25% of patients
report a transient increase in pain after injection of the metatarsal
heads, and patients should be warned of this possibility. Another
potential risk of this injection technique is trauma to the associated
tendons from the injection.
Clinical Pearls
Pain emanating from the forefoot is a common problem
encountered in clinical practice. Metatarsalgia must be
distinguished from stress fractures of the metatarsal bones,
Mortons neuroma, and sesamoiditis. Although the previ-
ously mentioned injection technique provides palliation
of the pain of metatarsalgia, the patient often also requires
shoe orthoses, including metatarsal bars and padded insoles,
to help remove pressure from the metatarsal heads. Coex-
istent bursitis and tendinitis may contribute to metatar-
sal pain and may require additional treatment with more
localized injection of a local anesthetic and depot steroid.
Injection of the metatarsal heads with a local anesthetic and
steroid is a safe procedure if careful attention is paid to the
clinically relevant anatomy in the areas to be injected. The
use of physical modalities, including local heat and gentle
range-of-motion exercises, should be introduced several
days after the patient undergoes this injection technique for
metatarsalgia pain. Vigorous exercises should be avoided
because they would exacerbate the patients symptoms.
Simple analgesics and NSAIDs may be used concurrently
with this injection technique.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Armagan OE, Shereff MJ: Injuries to the toes and metatarsals, Orthop Clin North
Am 32:110, 2001.
Bardelli M, Turelli L, Scoccianti G: Definition and classification of metatarsalgia,
Foot Ankle Surg 9:7985, 2003.
Gregg JM, Schneider T, Marks P: MR imaging and ultrasound of metatarsalgia:
the lesser metatarsals, Radiol Clin North Am 46:10611078, 2008.
Umans HR: Imaging sports medicine injuries of the foot and toes, Clin Sports Med
25:763780, 2006.
Waldman SD: Metatarsalgia. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review, Philadelphia,
2009, Saunders, p 326.
Chapter 122
SUBMETATARSAL ADVENTITIAL
BURSITIS
ICD-9 CODE 727.00
ICD-10 CODE M65.9
The Clinical Syndrome
The foot is supported by a complex arrangement of transverse,
longitudinal, and vertical structures that do an amazing job
helping protect the bones and absorb the myriad forces placed
on it. With repetitive microtrauma, this supporting matrix
begins to break down and becomes dysfunctional, resulting in
soft tissue abnormalities, including adventitial submetatarsal
bursae. In contradistinction to the many bursa that we are born
with, for example, subdeltoid bursa, the submetatarsal bursa are
acquired. They form in the areas of excessive friction between
the metatarsal heads and overlying supporting soft tissues and
skin. When these adventitial bursa become inflamed, pain and
difficulty walking result.
Signs and Symptoms
The onset of submetatarsal adventitial bursitis is usually acute,
occurring after overuse or misuse of the foot. Inciting factors
include activities such as running and sudden stopping and
starting, as when playing tennis. The pain of submetatarsal
adventitial bursitis is constant and severe and is localized in
A B
Figure 122-1 Adventitial bursitis. A, Clinically proven adventitial bursitis. Coronal T1 fat-suppressed scans with contrast shows a large cystic lesion
with enhancing walls prolapsing from the first web space to plantar tissues. B, A 22-year-old who had rheumatoid arthritis. Longitudinal sonogram
of fifth metatarsophalangeal joint shows severe adventitial bursitis. (From Gregg JM, Schneider T, Marks P: MR imaging and ultrasound of metatarsalgia:
the lesser metatarsals, Radiol Clin North Am 46:10611078, 2008.)
over the metatarsal heads. It is worse with weight bearing and
walking. The patient may attempt to splint the inflamed sub-
metatarsal adventitial bursa by adopting an antalgic gait to avoid
weight bearing on the affected foot. Patients with submetatarsal
adventitial bursitis exhibit pain with palpation over the metatar-
sal heads. Warmth may be noted, and an appreciable localized
mass may be identified with careful palpation. As the condition
becomes chronic, fibrosis of the plantar fascia adjacent to the
inflamed bursa may be appreciated.
Testing
Plain radiographs are indicated in all patients with forefoot pain.
Based on the patients clinical presentation, additional tests,
including complete blood cell count, erythrocyte sedimentation
rate, and antinuclear antibody testing, may be indicated. Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) of the foot is indicated to confirm the
diagnosis and identify commonly occurring concomitant forefoot
pathological conditions, such as metatarsalgia, metatarsal stress
fractures, and Mortons neuroma (Figure 122-1). Radionucleotide
bone scanning is useful to identify stress fractures of the metatar-
sals not seen on plain radiographs. Ultrasound imaging and color
Doppler evaluation are also useful in helping identify submetatarsal
adventitial bursitis (Figure 122-2).
Differential Diagnosis
Submetatarsal adventitial bursitis generally is identified easily on
clinical grounds. Because other forefoot pathological conditions,
355
356 SECTION 12 Ankle and Foot Pain Syndromes

* *

A B

* *

C D

*
*

E F

G
Figure 122-2 A, Sagittal sonogram of a large partial tear in the plantar plate (asterisk). B, Transverse sonogram of a central tear in the plantar plate
(asterisk). C, Longitudinal image demonstrating moderate adventitial bursitis (arrowhead) at the level of the second metatarsophalangeal joint and a
full-thickness tear in the plantar plate (asterisk). D, Longitudinal sonogram of the fourth metatarsophalangeal joint demonstrating plantar plate rupture
(asterisk) and associated flexor tenosynovitis (arrow). E, Transverse image of plantar plate rupture (asterisks), flexor tendon lateral subluxation (arrow),
and tenosynovitis. F, Hypervascularity of an acute tear of the plantar plate with overlying adventitial bursitis (arrows). G, Longitudinal sonogram of
the lateral fibers of the second plantar plate with osteophytic change (arrow). (From Gregg JM, Schneider T, Marks P: MR imaging and ultrasound of
metatarsalgia: the lesser metatarsals, Radiol Clin North Am 46:10611078, 2008.)

including metatarsalgia, stress fractures, and Mortons neuroma,
frequently accompanies submetatarsal adventitial bursitis, the spe-
cific diagnosis may be unclear. Stress fractures of the metatarsals
are easily missed on plain radiographs, and radionucleotide bone
scanning may be required to confirm the diagnosis.
Treatment
Initial treatment of the pain and functional disability associated
with submetatarsal adventitial bursitis should include a combi-
nation of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) or
cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors and physical therapy. Avoid-
ance of painful shoes or shoes with a narrow toe box should be
considered, as should the use of thick-soled shoes with an orthotic
device to relieve pressure on the inflamed bursa. Local application
of heat and cold may be beneficial. The patient should be encour-
aged to avoid repetitive activities responsible for the evolution of
the bursitis, such as jogging. For patients who do not respond to
these treatment modalities, injection with a local anesthetic and
steroid may be a reasonable next step. Sometimes, surgical excision
of the bursa and shaving of the offending metatarsal head may be
the only option to provide long-lasting relief of the forefoot pain.
Complications and Pitfalls
The possibility of trauma to the forefoot from the injection is
ever present. Approximately 25% of patients report a transient
increase in pain after this injection technique, and patients should
be warned of this possibility. The clinician should consider the
possibility of more than one pathological process coexisting with
submetatarsal adventitial bursitis, to optimize treatment.
122 Submetatarsal Adventitial Bursitis 357
Clinical Pearls
Submetatarsal adventitial bursitis occurs in the areas of
excessive friction between the metatarsal heads and over-
lying supporting soft tissues and skin. It frequently coex-
ists with other forefoot pathological conditions, which may
require additional treatment with a more localized injection
of a local anesthetic and depot steroid.
The injection of submetatarsal adventitial bursitis is a
safe procedure if careful attention is paid to the clinically
relevant anatomy in the areas to be injected. The key to
the successful treatment of submetatarsal adventitial bursitis
is to identify the underlying pathology responsible for the
formation of this adventitial bursa and treat it aggressively.
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bardelli M, Turelli L, Scoccianti G: Definition and classification of metatarsalgia,
Foot Ankle Surg 9:7985, 2003.
Hochman MG, Ramappa AJ, Newman JS, Farraher SW: Imaging of tendons and
bursae. In Weissman BN, editor: Imaging of arthritis and metabolic bone disease,
Philadelphia, 2009, Saunders, pp 196238.
Sanders TG, Rathur SK: Imaging of painful conditions of the hallucal sesamoid
complex and plantar capsular structures of the first metatarsophalangeal joint,
Radiol Clin North Am 46:10791092, 2008.
Studler U, Mengiardi B, Bode B, etal: Fibrosis and adventitious bursae in plantar
fat pad of forefoot: MR imaging findings in asymptomatic volunteers and MR
imaginghistologic comparison, Radiology 246:863870, 2008.
Waldman SD: Metatarsalgia. In Waldman SD, editor: Pain review, Philadelphia,
2009, Saunders, p 326.
 Atlas of
Uncommon Pain
Syndromes
THIRD EDITION

Steven D. Waldman, MD, JD

Clinical Professor of Anesthesiology
Professor of Medical Humanities and Bioethics
University of MissouriKansas City School of Medicine
Kansas City, Missouri

iii
1600 John F. Kennedy Blvd.
Ste 1800
Philadelphia, PA 19103-2899

ATLAS OF UNCOMMON PAIN SYNDROMES ISBN: 978-1-4557-0999-1

Copyright 2014, 2008 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.

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Atlas of uncommon pain syndromes / Steven D. Waldman. 3rd ed.
p. ; cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4557-0999-1 (hardcover : alk. Paper)
I.Title.
[DNLM: 1. Paindiagnosis. 2. Pain Management. WB 176]
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To Kathygreat wife, great mother, and technical support guru extraordinaire!

Steven D. Waldman, MD, JD

PREFACE
It has been said that the three most dangerous things in medi-
cine are (1) a medical student with a sharp object, (2) a resident
with a recently published study from the New England Journal of
Medicine, and (3) an attending physician with an anecdote. One
must suspect that point 2 was at play when in the 1940s while
on rounds at the University of Maryland Hospital in Baltimore,
Maryland, Theodore Woodward, MD, stated, If you hear hoof
beats out on Green Street, dont look for zebras! How this admoni-
tion to aspiring physicians morphed into when you hear hoof beats,
look for horses, not zebras is anybodys guess. (My son, an ophthal-
mology resident in Baltimore, suggests that it was also just as likely
that this sage piece of advice was accompanied by a long-winded
and confusing anecdotesee point 3.)
On the surface, most of us would agree with Dr. Woodwards
logic that the most common things are the most common. Occam
agreed, when in the fourteenth century he put forth the philo-
sophical tenant of parsimony, which proposes that simpler expla-
nations are, all things being equal, almost always better than more
complex ones. He used a razor to shave away unnecessary or
extraneous data to get to the simplest solution. The razor was all
the rage as a medical instrument in the fourteenth century, so it is
not surprising that Occam chose it as his preferred medical device.
Occams razor certainly has a nice ring to itbetter than Occams
MRI, which would no doubt be the name of his maxim if he had
lived in the twenty-first century, given that currently the MRI
is certainly our most popular medical device for shaving away
extraneous data.
Which brings us to KISSnot the Gene Simmons rock band
KISS, but the admonition Keep it simple, stupid. KISS was set
forth by Lockheed aeronautical engineer, Kelly Johnson, when he
handed his design team a few simple tools and challenged them to
design combat jets that could be easily fixed with the simple tools
that were available in combat situations. It is still not exactly clear
to me who was stupid, but I certainly hope it is not the guys
who fix the jets I fly on. KISS makes sense when designing jet
engines, but what does this have to do with the individual patient?
The sick one? The scared one? The one you worry about in the
middle of the night? Unfortunately, very little. Because for the
individual patient with a difficult diagnosis, Hickam was probably
more correct than Occam.
Harry Hickam, MD, while on teaching rounds at Duke Uni-
versity, admonished his students and residents that Patients can
have as many diseases as they damn well please! (also see point 3).
He correctly posited that when diagnosing the individual patient,
using Occams razor often provides the correct diagnosis. More
often than we would care to admit, though, when dealing with
a patient with a perplexing constellation of signs and symptoms,
it can provide the wrong one. In fact, overreliance on Occams
razor can be downright dangerous for patient and physician alike.
Often, the simplest, or in the case of medical diagnosis, the most
common, illness is exactly what is causing the patients symptoms.
But sometimes, in our almost obsessive desire to make the diag-
nosis, simplicity is our enemy. In our haste to make the patient
fit the diagnosis, we get it wrong. Uncommon diseases are called
uncommon diseases because they are uncommonthey are not
called unknown diseases. Since the beginning of time, healers have
recognized that the correct diagnosis is the key to getting the
patient well, and, as a corollary, they also realized that the wrong
diagnosis is not a practice builder. Which brings us to country
music legend Mickey Gilley.
In 1976, Mickey Gilley recorded the classic country ballad
Dont the Girls All Get Prettier at Closing Time, a plaintive lament
about loneliness and late-night desperation and how ones percep-
tion of things can change as circumstances change. What turns an
unknown disease into an uncommon disease is knowledge. What
changes our perception of what a constellation of symptoms and
physical findings mean when confronted with a perplexing diag-
nosis is knowledge. As we gain more clinical experience, things
that were once unknown become known, even commonplace.
The more we hone our clinical acumen, the easier it is to put
the pieces together. Our perception of the diagnostic information
our patients present us with changes from a jumble of disparate
signs and symptoms to the certain diagnosis of an uncommon
diseaseone that we will never miss again! Atlas of Uncommon
Pain Syndromes, Third Edition, seeks to accomplish three things:
The first is to familiarize the clinician with a group of uncommon
pain syndromes that occur with enough frequency that they merit
serious studynot rare or orphan diseases, just uncommon ones
that are often misdiagnosed. Second, this text is written with the
goal of helping clinicians reinforce their knowledge of common
pain syndromes to help in those situations when Occam is sort of
correctwhen the pieces of the puzzle do not quite fit the simple
diagnosis. The third goal is more about the clinician and a little
less about the patient. It is about what attracted many of us to
medicine to begin with. It is the irresistible charm of being pre-
sented with a difficult clinical problem and getting it right. And
what a great feeling that is! I hope you enjoy reading the third
edition of Atlas of Uncommon Pain Syndromes as much as I did
writing it.
Steven D. Waldman, MD, JD
vii
INDEX
A Anesthetic/steroid injection (Continued)
Abdominal angina, 212214, 212f213f
Abdominal/groin pain syndromes
abdominal angina as, 212214, 212f213f
acute intermittent porphyria as, 205206, 205f
anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment as,
202204, 203f
liver pain as, 209211, 209f210f
radiation enteritis as, 207208, 207t, 208f
Abscess
epidural, 215218, 216f217f, 217t
intra-abdominal, vs. radiation enteritis, 207
Accessory navicular pain syndrome, 340342, 340t,
341f
Achilles bursitis, 335337, 336f
Acromion
anatomical variants of, 81, 84f
stress fractures of, vs. os acromial pain syndrome,
86
Acute infectious arthritis, vs. scapulocostal syn-
drome, 60
Acute intermittent porphyria, 205206, 205f
Acyclovir, for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 34
Adductor tendinitis, 280282, 280f281f
Adhesive capsulitis
vs. os acromial pain syndrome, 86
vs. subacromial impingement syndrome, 82
Alarm clock headache, 2324, 23f, 24t
Allodynia
in clitoral priapism, 258
in prostatodynia, 241
in vulvodynia, 254
Alpha-adrenergic drugs, for clitoral priapism, 259
Aluminum acetate soaks, for radiation enteritis, 207
Aluminum sulfate, topical, for Ramsay Hunt
syndrome, 34
Amitriptyline
for manubriosternal joint pain, 191192
for postmastectomy pain, 186
for proctalgia fugax, 239, 238
Amyloidosis, vs. multiple myeloma, 221
Analgesics. See also specific analgesic.
adjuvant, for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 34
for femoral neuropathy, 271272
for obturator neuralgia, 277279
opioid. See Opioid analgesics.
for snapping hip syndrome, 286
Anasarca, in multiple myeloma, 219
Anconeus epitrochlearis, 108110, 108f109f
Andr-Thomas sign, 127t
Anesthetic injection, local, for avascular necrosis
of hip, 267
Anesthetic/steroid injection. See also Bupivacaine/
methylprednisolone injection.
for accessory navicular pain syndrome, 341
for Achilles bursitis, 335, 336f
for adductor tendinitis, 281
for anconeus epitrochlearis, 109
for ankylosing spondylitis, 231232
for anterior cutaneous nerve injection, 203
for anterior interosseous syndrome, 130
for anterior talofibular pain syndrome, 339
for avascular necrosis of scaphoid, 166
Page numbers followed by f indicate figures; t, tables; b, boxes.
for bunionette pain, 348
for cheiralgiai paresthetica, 137
for coronary ligament strain, 302
for cubital bursitis, 107, 107f
for cubital tunnel syndrome, 122
for devils grip, 180181, 180f
for Eagles syndrome, 3536, 36f
for extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis, 169170
for fabella syndrome, 316, 317f
for femoral neuropathy, 271272
for fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome, 344
for flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, 173
for foreign body synovitis, 141
for gluteal bursitis, 261, 261f
for gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 245246,
245f
for hamstring tendinitis, 318319
for iliopectinate bursitis, 284, 284f
for iliotibial band bursitis, 313314, 314f
for jumpers knee, 293
for Kienbcks disease, 163
for levator ani pain syndrome, 264
for liver pain, 210
for lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome,
160
for metatarsalgia, 354
for midtarsal joint pain, 327
for multiple myeloma, 221
for neck-tongue syndrome, 72
for obturator neuralgia, 277279
for omohyoid syndrome, 6970, 70f
for orchialgia, 251253
for os acromiale pain syndrome, 8687
for os supratrochleare-related elbow pain,
111112
for os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain,
111112
for os trigonum pain syndrome, 346
for Pagets disease, 223
for pes anserine bursitis, 320
for posterior tibial tendinitis, 333
for proctalgia fugax, 239
for pronator syndrome, 104
for psoas bursitis, 269
for quadriceps expansion syndrome, 307, 307f
for radial tunnel syndrome, 120
for runners knee, 309, 309f
for saphenous neuralgia, 273, 275f
for scapholunate ligament tear syndrome, 155
for scapulocostal syndrome, 60
for semimembranosus insertion syndrome, 297
for sesamoiditis, 350
for submetatarsal adventitial bursitis, 357
for subtalar joint pain, 324325, 326f
for superior cluneal nerve entrapment syndrome,
233234
for suprascapular nerve entrapment, 97, 97f
for tibiofibular pain syndrome, 292
for triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome, 150
for triceps tendinitis, 117
for ulnar tunnel syndrome, 135
for vulvodynia, 255
Angina
abdominal, 212214, 212f213f
vs. anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment, 202
Angiography, celiac, for abdominal angina,
212213
Angioplasty, for abdominal angina, 213
Ankle and foot pain syndromes
accessory navicular pain syndrome as, 340342,
340t, 341f
Achilles bursitis as, 335337, 336f
anterior talofibular pain syndrome as, 338339,
338f
bunionette pain as, 348349, 348f349f
fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome as, 343345,
343f344f
metatarsalgia as, 353354, 353f354f
midtarsal joint pain as, 327330
os trigonum pain syndrome as, 346347, 347f
posterior tibial tendinitis as, 331334, 331f333f
sesamoiditis as, 350352, 351f352f
submetatarsal adventitial bursitis as, 355357,
355f356f
subtalar joint pain as, 324326, 325f326f
Ankylosing spondylitis, 230232, 231f232f, 232t
vs. cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis, 57
Anterior chest wall tumors, vs. pectoralis major tear
syndrome, 9394
Anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment, 202204,
203f
Anterior interosseous nerve compression, vs. prona-
tor syndrome, 104
Anterior interosseous syndrome, 130132,
131f132f
Anterior talofibular pain syndrome, 338339, 338f
Antibiotics
for epidural abscess, 216
for prostatodynia, 241243
for vulvodynia, 254255
Anticholinergics
for abdominal angina, 213
for radiation enteritis, 207
Anticonvulsants
for Charlins syndrome, 9
for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 34
for red ear syndrome, 47
for spasmodic torticollis, 5556
for SUNCT headache, 17
Antidepressants
for gluteus medius syndrome, 249
for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 34
tricyclic. See Tricyclic antidepressants.
Antipersitaltics, for radiation enteritis, 207
Antiviral agents, for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 34
Appendicitis, vs. devils grip, 179
Arnold-Chiari malformations, cough headache
associated with, 1314, 14f
Arteriovenous malformations, vs. lumbar myofascial
pain syndrome, 236
Arteritis, temporal. See Temporal arteritis.
Arthritis. See Osteoarthritis.
carpometacarpal joint, vs. ulnar tunnel syndrome,
134
degenerative, of knee
359
360 Index
Arthritis (Continued)
vs. coronary ligament strain, 302
vs. iliotibial band bursitis, 313
vs. pes anserine bursitis, 320
vs. runners knee, 308
elbow, vs. cubital bursitis, 106
hip, with snapping hip syndrome, 286
infectious, acute
midtarsal joint pain in, 327
subtalar joint pain from, 324
vs. scapulocostal syndrome, 60
inflammatory
vs. ankylosing spondylitis, 230
vs. gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 245
vs. levator ani pain syndrome, 264
vs. lumbar myofascial pain syndrome, 236
vs. spondylolisthesis, 228
knee
vs. jumpers knee, 293
vs. quadriceps expansion syndrome, 307
manubriosternal joint pain secondary to, 190
posttraumatic
midtarsal joint pain from, 327
in scapulocostal syndrome, 60
rheumatoid
midtarsal joint pain from, 327
subtalar joint pain from, 324
in tibiofibular pain syndrome, 291
vs. scapulocostal syndrome, 60
shoulder
vs. quadrilateral space syndrome, 99
vs. subacromial impingement syndrome, 82
vs. suprascapular nerve entrapment, 97
subtalar joint pain from, 324
in tibiofibular pain syndrome, 291, 291f
vs. scapulocostal syndrome, 60
Arthrocentesis, in fabella syndrome, 315
Arthrography
in accessory navicular pain syndrome, 341f
in subtalar joint pain, 324, 326f
Arthropathy, rotator cuff tear, vs. scapulocostal
syndrome, 60
Arthroscopy, in glomus tumor of knee, 311312,
312f
Athletic supporter, for orchialgia, 251253
Atypical facial pain, vs. nervus intermedius
neuralgia, 44
Atypical odontalgia, 3739, 37f38f, 38t39t
Avascular necrosis
of hip, 265267, 265f267f, 265t
vs. adductor tendinitis, 281
of scaphoid, 165168
clinical pearls on, 168b
clinical syndrome of, 165, 165f
complications and pitfalls of, 166168
differential diagnosis of, 165166
signs and symptoms of, 165, 166f
testing for, 165, 166f167f
treatment of, 166
vs. flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, 172
vs. scapholunate ligament tear syndrome,
155
Avulsion fractures
vs. anterior talofibular pain syndrome, 339
vs. fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome, 344
Axillary nerve anatomy, through quadrilateral space,
100f
B prepatellar, vs. quadriceps expansion syndrome,
Baclofen
for glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 4950
for nervus intermedius neuralgia, 4445
for Parsonage-Turner syndrome, 6364
for spasmodic torticollis, 5556
Bakers cyst
ruptured
vs. fabella syndrome, 315316
vs. semimembranosus insertion syndrome, 297
vs. hamstring tendinitis, 318
Bence Jones protein, in multiple myeloma,
219220
Biopsy, temporal artery, for temporal arteritis, 28
Bone
growth of, abnormal, in and about axial skeleton,
causes of, 225t
Pagets disease of, 222224, 223f
tumors of, vs. Pagets disease, 222223
Bornholm disease, 178. See also Devils grip.
vs. liver pain, 210
Botulinum toxin injections, for spasmodic
torticollis, 56
Botulinum toxin type A injection, for gluteus
medius syndrome, 249
Bowel obstruction, intermittent, vs. anterior
cutaneous nerve entrapment, 202
Boxers knuckle, 146148, 146f147f
Brachial plexopathy
causes of, 6263
vs. os acromial pain syndrome, 86
vs. scapulocostal syndrome, 60
vs. subacromial impingement syndrome, 82
Brachial plexus block, for Parsonage-Turner syn-
drome, 64
Brachial plexus pain syndromes
cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis as, 5759,
58f59f
Parsonage-Turner syndrome as, 6265, 62f, 63t,
64f
scapulocostal syndrome as, 6061, 61f
Brain tumor, vs. headache associated with temporal
arteritis, 28
Breaststrokers knee, 303305, 303f305f
Bupivacaine/methylprednisolone injection. See also
Anesthetic/steroid injection.
for Achilles bursitis, 335, 336f
for breaststrokers knee, 305
for cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis, 57
for fabella syndrome, 316, 317f
for iliotibial band bursitis, 313314, 314f
for infraspinatus tendinitis, 7778, 80f
for lumbar myofascial pain syndrome, 236237,
236f
for quadriceps expansion syndrome, 307, 307f
for runners knee, 309, 309f
for slipping rib syndrome, 199
for snapping hip syndrome, 286287, 290f
for supraspinatus tendinitis, 75f, 75, 76f
Burning mouth syndrome, 4042, 40f, 41t
Bursitis
Achilles, 335337, 336f
ankle, vs. midtarsal joint pain, 327
cervicothoracic interspinous, 5759, 58f59f
cubital, 106107, 106f107f
elbow, vs. os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain,
111
gluteal, 260261, 260f261f
iliopectinate, 283285, 283f284f
iliotibial, with runners knee, 308
iliotibial band, 313314, 314f
knee, vs. fabella syndrome, 315316
patellar, vs. jumpers knee, 293
pes anserine, 320323, 321f322f. See also
Pes anserine bursitis.
307
psoas, 268270, 268f269f
shoulder
vs. infraspinatus tendinitis, 77
vs. quadrilateral space syndrome, 99
Bursitis (Continued)
vs. suprascapular nerve entrapment, 97
vs. supraspinatus tendinitis, 74
submetatarsal adventitial, 355357, 355f356f
suprapatellar
vs. jumpers knee, 293
vs. quadriceps expansion syndrome, 307
trochanteric, with snapping hip syndrome, 286
vs. extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis, 169
vs. posterior tibial tendinitis, 332
C
Calcifications
in calcific tendinitis of quadriceps tendon, 306
in gluteal bursitis, 260
in triceps tendinitis, 116, 116f
Calcitonin, for Pagets disease, 223
Carbamazepine
for Charlins syndrome, 9
for glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 49
for nervus intermedius neuralgia, 44
for Parsonage-Turner syndrome, 63
for quadrilateral space syndrome, 99
for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 34
Cardiac pain. See also Heart attack.
vs. liver pain, 210
Carnetts test, for anterior cutaneous nerve
entrapment, 202, 203f
Carpometacarpal joint arthritis, vs. ulnar tunnel
syndrome, 134
Cash brace
for multiple myeloma, 221
for Pagets disease, 223
Catching tendon sign, in trigger wrist, 175, 176f
Celiac artery stenosis, in abdominal angina, 213f,
212
Cephalgias, trigeminal autonomic, 16f, 16t. See also
Trigeminal autonomic cephalgias.
Cerebellopontine angle tumors, vs. neck-tongue
syndrome, 72
Cervical disc, herniated, lateral, vs. Parsonage-
Turner syndrome, 63
Cervical nerve root tumors, vs. Parsonage-Turner
syndrome, 63
Cervical radiculopathy
vs. anconeus epitrochlearis, 109
vs. anterior interosseous syndrome, 130
vs. cheiralgia paresthetica, 136137
vs. cubital tunnel syndrome, 122
vs. infraspinatus tendinitis, 77
vs. Parsonage-Turner syndrome, 6263, 63t
vs. pronator syndrome, 104
vs. quadrilateral space syndrome, 99
vs. radial tunnel syndrome, 120
vs. scapulocostal syndrome, 60
vs. suprascapular nerve entrapment, 97
vs. supraspinatus tendinitis, 74
vs. ulnar tunnel syndrome, 134
Cervical spine
immobilization of, for neck-tongue syndrome, 72
tumors of, vs. Parsonage-Turner syndrome, 63
Cervical spondylosis, vs. Parsonage-Turner
syndrome, 63
Cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis, 5759,
58f59f
Charlins syndrome, 910, 10f, 10t
Cheiralgia paresthetica, 136138, 136f137f, 138t
Chemotherapy, for multiple myeloma, 221
Chest wall, anterior, tumors of, vs. pectoralis major
tear syndrome, 9394
Chest wall pain syndromes. See Thoracic pain
syndromes.
Cholecystitis, vs. anterior cutaneous nerve entrap-
ment, 202

Chordoma, clival, 5254, 52t, 53f
Chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, 78, 7f, 8f, 7t. See
also Hemicrania, chronic paroxysmal.
Chvosteks sign, in multiple myeloma, 219
Cimetidine, for acute intermittent porphyria, 206
Claudication, jaw. See Jaw claudication.
Clavicular fractures, vs. os acromial pain syndrome,
86
Clitoral priapism, 258259, 258f259f, 258t259t
Clitoromegaly, causes of, 259t
Clival chordoma syndrome, 5254, 52t, 53f
Cluster headache
pain location in, 18f
vs. Charlins syndrome, 9, 10t
vs. chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, 78, 7t
vs. cough headache, 14
vs. headache associated with temporal arteritis, 28
vs. ice pick headache, 1
vs. red ear syndrome, 47
vs. sexual headache, 12
vs. SUNCT headache, 1617, 17t
Coin-shaped headache, 25
Colitis, ischemic, 213, 213f
Collagen-vascular diseases
vs. ankylosing spondylitis, 230
vs. anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment, 202
vs. midtarsal joint pain, 327
vs. scapulocostal syndrome, 60
vs. subtalar joint pain, 324
vs. tibiofibular pain syndrome, 292
Colonoscopy
for proctalgia fugax, 238
for radiation enteritis, 207
Computed tomography (CT)
of accessory navicular pain syndrome, 341f
of ankylosing spondylitis, 230
of anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment, 202
of atypical odontalgia, 38f
of avascular necrosis of scaphoid, 165
of Charlins syndrome, 9
of chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, 7
of clitoral priapism, 258259
of clival chordoma syndrome, 52
of cough headache, 1314
of devils grip, 178, 179f
of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, 225
of Eagles syndrome, 35, 36f
of epidural abscess, 215
of glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 48
of hypnic headache, 2324
of levator ani pain syndrome, 263264, 263f
of liver pain, 209210, 210f
of manubriosternal joint pain, 190, 191f
of neck-tongue syndrome, 72
of nummular headache, 25
of os acromial pain syndrome, 86, 88f
in os trigonum pain syndrome, 346
of osteonecrosis of elbow joint, 113114, 115f
of Parsonage-Turner syndrome, 63
of pectoralis major tear syndrome, 92
of postmastectomy pain, 185186
of proctalgia fugax, 238
of prostatodynia, 241
of radiation enteritis, 207
of red ear syndrome, 4647
of sexual headache, 12
of spasmodic torticollis, 55
of spondylolisthesis, 227
of sternalis syndrome, 188, 189f
of sternoclavicular syndrome, 182183, 183f
of subacromial impingement syndrome, 8182
of subtalar joint pain, 326f
of SUNCT headache, 16
of supraorbital neuralgia, 3
of temporal arteritis, 28
Computed tomography (CT) (Continued)
of thunderclap headache, 1920, 20f
of vulvodynia, 254
of xiphodynia, 193, 194f
Contusions, vs. avascular necrosis of scaphoid,
165166
Coracoacromial ligament, calcification and
thickening of
vs. os acromial pain syndrome, 86
vs. subacromial impingement syndrome, 82
Coronary ligament strain, 301302, 301f
vs. pes anserine bursitis, 320
Corticosteroids. See also Steroids.
for headache associated with temporal arteritis, 28
Costosternal syndrome, vs. devils grip, 179180
Cough headache, 1315, 14f
Cox sultans, 286. See also Snapping hip syndrome.
Crossed finger test, 127t
Cubital bursitis, 106107, 106f107f
Cubital tunnel syndrome, 122125, 123f124f
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors
for accessory navicular pain syndrome, 341
for Achilles bursitis, 335
for adductor tendinitis, 281
for anconeus epitrochlearis, 109
for anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment, 203
for anterior interosseous syndrome, 130
for anterior talofibular pain syndrome, 339
for avascular necrosis of hip, 267
for avascular necrosis of scaphoid, 166
for boxers knuckle, 146
for breaststrokers knee, 304305
for bunionette pain, 348
for cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis, 57
for cheiralgia paresthetica, 137
for coronary ligament strain, 302
for cubital bursitis, 107
for cubital tunnel syndrome, 122
for devils grip, 180
for drivers elbow, 126127
for extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis, 169170
for fabella syndrome, 316
for femoral neuropathy, 271272
for fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome, 344
for flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, 173
for foreign body synovitis, 141
for gluteal bursitis, 261
for hamstring tendinitis, 318319
for hyoid syndrome, 66
for iliopectinate bursitis, 284
for iliotibial band bursitis, 313
for infraspinatus tendinitis, 77
for jumpers knee, 293
for Kienbcks disease, 163
for liver pain, 210
for lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome, 160
for manubriosternal joint pain, 191
for metatarsalgia, 354
for midtarsal joint pain, 327
for multiple myeloma, 221
for neck-tongue syndrome, 72
for obturator neuralgia, 277279
for omohyoid syndrome, 6970
for orchialgia, 251253
for os acromial pain syndrome, 8687
for os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain,
111112
for os trigonum pain syndrome, 346
for osteonecrosis of elbow joint, 114
for Pagets disease, 223
for pectoralis major tear syndrome, 94
for pes anserine bursitis, 320
for posterior tibial tendinitis, 333
for postmastectomy pain, 186
for proctalgia fugax, 238
Index 361
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors (Continued)
for pronator syndrome, 104
for prostatodynia, 241243
for psoas bursitis, 269
for quadriceps expansion syndrome, 307
for quadrilateral space syndrome, 99
for radial tunnel syndrome, 120
for runners knee, 308309
for saphenous neuralgia, 273
for scapholunate ligament tear syndrome, 155
for scapulocostal syndrome, 60
for Secretans syndrome, 139
for semimembranosus insertion syndrome, 297
for serratus anterior muscle syndrome, 195
for sesamoiditis, 350
for slipping rib syndrome, 199
for snapping hip syndrome, 286
for sternalis syndrome, 189
for sternoclavicular syndrome, 183
for subacromial impingement syndrome, 82
for submetatarsal adventitial bursitis, 357
for subtalar joint pain, 324325
for superior cluneal nerve entrapment syndrome,
233
for suprascapular nerve entrapment, 97
for supraspinatus tendinitis, 7475
for tibiofibular pain syndrome, 292
for triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome, 150
for triceps tendinitis, 117
for trigger wrist, 175176
for ulnar tunnel syndrome, 135
for vulvodynia, 254255
for winged scapula syndrome, 200
for xiphodynia, 194
Cyst(s)
Bakers. See Bakers cyst
lunate, vs. Kienbcks disease, 162
scaphoid, vs. avascular necrosis of scaphoid,
165166
thyroglossal duct, vs. hyoid syndrome, 66
Cytotoxic drugs, for Pagets disease, 223
D
Dawbarns sign, in supraspinatus tendinitis, 74
De Quervains stenosing tenosynovitis
vs. avascular necrosis of scaphoid, 165166
vs. scapholunate ligament tear syndrome, 155
Degenerative arthritis. See Arthritis, degenerative.
Demyelinating disease
vs. chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, 8
vs. clival chordoma syndrome, 5253
vs. cough headache, 14
vs. epidural abscess, 215216
vs. glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 49
vs. headache associated with temporal arteritis, 28
vs. hypnic headache, 24
vs. ice pick headache, 2
vs. neck-tongue syndrome, 72
vs. nummular headache, 25
vs. red ear syndrome, 47
vs. sexual headache, 12
vs. SUNCT headache, 17
vs. supraorbital neuralgia, 34
Desipramine, for postmastectomy pain, 186
Devils grip, 178181
clinical pearls on, 181b
clinical syndrome of, 178
complications and pitfalls of, 181
differential diagnosis of, 179180
signs and symptoms of, 178, 178f
testing for, 178, 179f
treatment of, 180181, 180f
vs. slipping rib syndrome, 198199
vs. xiphodynia, 193194
362 Index
Diabetic neuropathy, femoral, vs. psoas bursitis, 269
Diabetic polyneuropathy. See also Neuropathic pain.
vs. anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment, 202,
204t
Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH),
225226, 225t, 226f
DISH (diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis),
225226, 225t, 226f
Double crush syndrome
anconeus epitrochlearis in, 109
anterior interosseous syndrome in, 130
cheiralgia paresthetica in, 136137
cubital tunnel syndrome in, 122
drivers elbow in, 126
gluteal bursitis in, 260261
iliopectinate bursitis in, 284
pronator syndrome in, 104
psoas bursitis in, 269
Drainage, of epidural abscess, 215216
Drivers elbow, 126129
clinical pearls on, 129b
clinical syndrome of, 126
complications and pitfalls of, 127129
differential diagnosis of, 126
signs and symptoms of, 126, 126f, 127t
testing for, 126, 128f
treatment of, 126127
Drugs, implicated in priapism, 258t, 259
Dry pleurisy, 178. See also Devils grip.
Duchennes sign, 127t
Dull type sexual headache, 11
Dural puncture, headache after, 3031, 31f
Dystonia, in spasmodic torticollis, 55
E Enteritis
Eagles syndrome, 3536, 35f36f
Egawas sign, 127t
Elastic rib belt
for devils grip, 180
for liver pain, 210
for manubriosternal joint pain, 192
for multiple myeloma, 221
for Pagets disease, 223
for postmastectomy pain, 186
for serratus anterior muscle syndrome, 195
for sternalis syndrome, 189
for xiphodynia, 194
Elbow pain syndromes
anconeus epitrochlearis as, 108110, 108f109f
anterior interosseous syndrome as, 130132,
131f132f
cubital bursitis as, 106107, 106f107f
cubital tunnel syndrome as, 122125,
123f124f
drivers elbow as, 126129. See also Drivers
elbow.
os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain as,
111112, 111f112f
osteonecrosis of elbow joint as, 113115,
113f115f, 113t
pronator syndrome as, 103105, 103f104f
radial tunnel syndrome as, 119121, 119t,
120f121f
triceps tendinitis as, 116118, 116f117f
Electromyography
in adductor tendinitis, 280
in anconeus epitrochlearis, 109
in anterior interosseous syndrome, 130
in avascular necrosis of hip, 266
in avascular necrosis of scaphoid, 165
in cheiralgia paresthetica, 136
in cubital tunnel syndrome, 122
in diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, 225
in drivers elbow, 126
Electromyography (Continued)
in femoral neuropathy, 271
in foreign body synovitis, 141
in glomus tumor of hand, 144
in glomus tumor of knee, 311312
in gluteal bursitis, 260
in iliotibial band bursitis, 313
in Kienbcks disease, 162
in lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome, 159
in obturator neuralgia, 277
in orchialgia, 251
in osteonecrosis of elbow joint, 113114
in Parsonage-Turner syndrome, 63
in postmastectomy pain, 185186
in pronator syndrome, 104
in prostatodynia, 241
in quadrilateral space syndrome, 99
in radial tunnel syndrome, 120
in runners knee, 308
in saphenous neuralgia, 273
in scapholunate ligament tear syndrome, 155
in Secretans syndrome, 139
in serratus anterior muscle syndrome, 195
in spondylolisthesis, 227228
in sternalis syndrome, 188
in superior cluneal nerve entrapment syndrome,
233
in suprascapular nerve entrapment, 9697
in triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome, 150
in ulnar tunnel syndrome, 134
in vulvodynia, 254
in winged scapula syndrome, 200
Empyema, vs. devils grip, 179
Enemas, steroid and sucralfate, for radiation
enteritis, 207
infectious
vs. abdominal angina, 213
vs. radiation enteritis, 207
radiation, 207t, 207208, 208f
Entrapment neuropathies
vs. accessory navicular pain syndrome, 340
vs. adductor tendinitis, 281
vs. coronary ligament strain, 302
vs. iliotibial band bursitis, 313
vs. metatarsalgia, 353354
vs. midtarsal joint pain, 327
vs. os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain, 111
vs. os trigonum pain syndrome, 346
vs. pes anserine bursitis, 320
vs. runners knee, 308
vs. semimembranosus insertion syndrome, 297
vs. sesamoiditis, 350
vs. subtalar joint pain, 324
vs. tibiofibular pain syndrome, 292
Epicondylitis
elbow, vs. os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain,
111
lateral. See Tennis elbow.
Epidural abscess, 215218, 216f217f, 217t
Epidural blood patch, for postdural puncture
headache, 3031
Epidural nerve blocks
for ankylosing spondylitis, 231232
for diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, 226
for prostatodynia, 241243
for spondylolisthesis, 228
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, for temporal
arteritis, 28
Erythromelelgia of ear, vs. red ear syndrome, 47
Etidronate, for Pagets disease, 223
Exertional headache, benign
vs. cough headache, 14
vs. hypnic headache, 24
Expansions, in quadriceps tendon, 306
Explosive type sexual headache, 11
Extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis, 169171,
169f170f
vs. triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome, 150
F
Fabella, location of, 315, 315f
Fabella syndrome, 315317, 315f317f
Facial pain, atypical, vs. nervus intermedius neu-
ralgia, 44
Facial pain syndrome(s)
atypical odontalgia as, 3739, 37f38f, 38t39t
burning mouth syndrome as, 4042, 40f, 41t
Charlins syndrome as, 10f, 910, 10f, 10t
chronic paroxysmal hemicrania as, 8f, 78, 7f, 7t.
See also Hemicrania, chronic paroxysmal.
Eagles syndrome as, 3536, 35f36f
glossopharyngeal neuralgia as, 4851, 48f50f
nervus intermedius neuralgia as, 4345, 43f44f
Ramsay Hunt syndrome as, 3234, 32f33f
red ear syndrome as, 4647, 46f
supraorbital neuralgia as, 4f, 36, 3f, 5f6f
Famciclovir, for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 34
Femoral neuropathy, diabetic, vs. psoas bursitis, 269
Fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome, 343345,
343f344f
Finger flexion sign, 127t
Flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, 172174, 172f174f
Fluoxetine, for proctalgia fugax, 238239
Foot pain. See Ankle and foot pain syndromes.
Foramen magnum, surgical decompression of, for
cough headache, 1415
Foreign body synovitis, 141143, 142f, 143t
vs. glomus tumor of shoulder, 9091
Fracture(s)
avulsion
vs. anterior talofibular pain syndrome, 339
vs. fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome, 344
clavicular, vs. os acromial pain syndrome, 86
distal radial
vs. avascular necrosis of scaphoid, 165166
vs. flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, 172
elbow, vs. os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain,
111
lunate
vs. extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis, 169
vs. lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome, 159
occult, vs. boxers knuckle, 146
pelvic, vs. adductor tendinitis, 281
scaphoid
vs. flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, 172
vs. scapholunate ligament tear syndrome, 155
stress. See Stress fractures.
tibial plateau, vs. semimembranosus insertion
syndrome, 297
ulnar styloid, vs. extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis,
169
vs. avascular necrosis of scaphoid, 165166
vs. pectoralis major tear syndrome, 9394
Froments sign, 127t
in anconeus epitrochlearis, 108109, 109f
Frozen shoulder
vs. os acromial pain syndrome, 86
vs. subacromial impingement syndrome, 82
G
Gabapentin
for burning mouth syndrome, 41
for Charlins syndrome, 9
for Eagles syndrome, 36
for glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 49
for nervus intermedius neuralgia, 44
for obturator neuralgia, 277279

Gabapentin (Continued)
for Parsonage-Turner syndrome, 63
for postmastectomy pain, 186
for proctalgia fugax, 238239
for quadrilateral space syndrome, 99
for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 34
for red ear syndrome, 47
for saphenous neuralgia, 273
for SUNCT headache, 17
for thunderclap headache, 21
Gallbladder attack
vs. devils grip, 179
vs. liver pain, 210
Gasserian ganglion, balloon decompression of, for
SUNCT headache, 17
Geniculate ganglion, herpes zoster involvement of,
in Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 32, 32f
Geniculate neuralgia, 43
Genitofemoral neuralgia
vs. iliopectinate bursitis, 284
vs. orchialgia, 251
Giant cell arteritis, 27. See also Temporal arteritis.
Glaucoma
vs. Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 33
vs. supraorbital neuralgia, 3, 6f
Glenohumeral joint, tumors of, vs. glomus tumor of
shoulder, 9091
Glomus tumor
of hand, 144145, 144f145f
of knee, 311312, 311f312f
of shoulder, 9091, 90f
Glossopharyngeal nerve, radiofrequency destruction
of, for glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 50
Glossopharyngeal nerve block, for glossopharyngeal
neuralgia, 50, 50f
Glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 4851, 48f50f
vs. Eagles syndrome, 35
vs. hyoid syndrome, 66
vs. neck-tongue syndrome, 72
Glossopharyngeal root, microvascular decompres-
sion of, for glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 50, 50f
Glucose, for acute intermittent porphyria, 206
Gluteal bursitis, 260261, 260f261f
vs. gluteus medius syndrome, 249
vs. superior cluneal nerve entrapment syndrome,
233
Gluteal nerve entrapment, vs. gluteus medius
syndrome, 249
Gluteus maximus muscle, function of, 244, 244f
Gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 244247,
244f246f
Gluteus medius pain syndrome, 248250,
248f249f
vs. levator ani pain syndrome, 264
Golfers elbow
vs. anconeus epitrochlearis, 109
vs. cubital bursitis, 106
vs. cubital tunnel syndrome, 122
vs. drivers elbow, 126
Gout
elbow
vs. cubital bursitis, 106
vs. os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain, 111
vs. radial tunnel syndrome, 120
vs. accessory navicular pain syndrome, 340
Grip of the phantom, 178. See also Devils grip.
Groin pain syndromes. See Abdominal/groin pain
syndromes.
H avascular necrosis of, 265267, 265f267f, 265t
Habit spasms, vs. spasmodic torticollis, 55
Hamstring tendinitis, 318319, 318f
Hand, glomus tumor of, 144145, 144f145f
Hand pain syndromes. See Wrist and hand pain
syndromes.
Handcuff neuropathy, 136
Hawkings test, for os acromial pain syndrome, 86,
88f
Headache
associated with temporal arteritis, 2729, 27f
from clival chordoma, 52
cough, 1315, 14f
hypnic, 2324, 23f, 24t
ice pick, 12, 1f2f
migraine. See Migraine headache.
nummular, 2526, 25f26f
postdural puncture, 3031, 31f
sexual, 1112, 11f
sudden unilateral neuralgiform conjunctival
injection tearing, 1618, 16f18f, 16t18t
swimmers, 3f, 4f, 5f, 6f, 6f, 3. See also
Supraorbital neuralgia.
thunderclap, primary, 1922, 19t20t, 20f21f
Heart attack
vs. devils grip, 179
vs. manubriosternal joint pain, 190
vs. serratus anterior muscle syndrome, 195
vs. slipping rib syndrome, 198199
vs. sternalis syndrome, 188189
vs. sternoclavicular syndrome, 183
vs. xiphodynia, 193194
Heat therapy
for cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis, 57
for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 34
Heavy chain disease, vs. multiple myeloma, 221
Heel pain, in subtalar joint pain, 324
Hemarthrosis, of knee, vs. semimembranosus
insertion syndrome, 297
Hematin, for acute intermittent porphyria, 206
Hemicrania, chronic paroxysmal, 78, 7f8f, 7t
pain location in, 18f
vs. Charlins syndrome, 9
vs. cough headache, 14
vs. headache associated with temporal arteritis, 28
vs. ice pick headache, 2
vs. nummular headache, 25
vs. red ear syndrome, 47
vs. sexual headache, 12
vs. SUNCT headache, 17
vs. supraorbital neuralgia, 34
Hemicrania continua, pain location in, 18f
Hemorrhage, subarachnoid
thunderclap headache and, 19, 19t20t
vs. postdural puncture headache, 30
Hemorrhoids, vs. proctalgia fugax, 238
Henoch-Schnlein purpura, vs. abdominal angina,
213
Hernia
inguinal
vs. adductor tendinitis, 281
vs. psoas bursitis, 269
ventral, vs. anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment,
202, 204t
Herniated cervical disc, lateral, vs. Parsonage-
Turner syndrome, 63
Herpes zoster, acute. See Neuropathic pain.
vs. anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment, 202,
204t
Hildreths test
for glomus tumor of hand, 144
for glomus tumor of knee, 311
Hip
arthritis of, with snapping hip syndrome, 286
vs. adductor tendinitis, 281
internal derangement of, vs. adductor tendinitis,
281
pathologies of, vs. gluteal bursitis, 260261
Index 363
Hip and lower extremity pain syndromes
adductor tendinitis as, 280282, 280f281f
avascular necrosis of hip as, 265267, 265f267f,
265t
femoral neuropathy as, 271272, 271f272f
iliopectinate bursitis in, 283285, 283f284f
obturator neuralgia as, 277279, 277f278f
psoas bursitis as, 268270, 268f269f
saphenous neuralgia as, 273276, 274f, 275f,
275f. See also Saphenous neuralgia.
snapping hip syndrome as, 286290, 287f290f.
See also Snapping hip syndrome.
HLA B-27 screening
for ankylosing spondylitis, 230
for gluteal bursitis, 260
in spondylolisthesis, 228
Hooking maneuver test, for slipping rib syndrome,
198, 198f
Horners syndrome, 7
Humerus, tumors of, vs. pectoralis major tear
syndrome, 9394
Hyoid syndrome, 6668, 67f
Hypnic headache, 2324, 23f, 24t
vs. SUNCT headache, 17
Hypopharynx, tumors of. See Tumor(s),
hypopharyngeal.
Hysterical conversion reactions, vs. spasmodic
torticollis, 55
I
Ice packs, for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 34
Ice pick headache, 12, 1f2f
vs. chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, 8
vs. cough headache, 14
vs. hypnic headache, 24
vs. supraorbital neuralgia, 34
Ice water test, for glomus tumor of hand, 144
Ilioinguinal nerve anatomy, orchialgia and, 251
Ilioinguinal neuralgia
vs. iliopectinate bursitis, 284
vs. orchialgia, 251
Iliopectinate bursitis, 283285, 283f284f
Iliopsoas muscle, 283, 283f
Iliopsoas tendon subluxation, in snapping hip
syndrome, 286, 287f
Iliotibial band bursitis, 313314, 314f
Iliotibial band friction syndrome, 308310,
308f309f
Iliotibial bursitis, with runners knee, 308
Impingement interval, 81, 82f
Impingement syndrome, subacromial, 8185,
81f85f, 84t. See also Subacromial impinge-
ment syndrome.
Indomethacin
for chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, 8
for cough headache, 14
for hypnic headache, 24
for ice pick headache, 2
for nummular headache, 26
for sexual headache, 12
Infection(s)
vs. postdural puncture headache, 30
vs. scapulocostal syndrome, 60
Infectious arthritis, acute See. Arthritis, infectious,
acute.
Infectious enteritis
vs. abdominal angina, 213
vs. radiation enteritis, 207
Inflammatory arthritis. See Arthritis,
inflammatory.
Infraspinatus tendinitis, 7780, 78f80f
clinical pearls on, 80b
clinical syndrome of, 77
complications and pitfalls of, 7880
364 Index
Infraspinatus tendinitis (Continued)
differential diagnosis of, 77
signs and symptoms of, 77, 78f
testing for, 77, 79f
treatment of, 7778, 80f
Inguinal hernia
vs. adductor tendinitis, 281
vs. psoas bursitis, 269
Injection technique and needle placement. See also
specific injection.
for Achilles bursitis, 335, 336f
for cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis, 57, 59f
for cubital bursitis, 107, 107f
for Eagles syndrome, 3536, 36f
for gluteal bursitis, 261, 261f
for gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 245246,
245f
for hyoid syndrome, 66, 67f
for iliopectinate bursitis, 284, 284f
for infraspinatus tendinitis, 7778, 80f
for lumbar myofascial pain syndrome, 236237,
236f
for omohyoid syndrome, 70, 70f
for osteonecrosis of elbow joint, 114
for quadriceps expansion syndrome, 307, 307f
for runners knee, 309, 309f
for slipping rib syndrome, 199
for snapping hip syndrome, 286287, 290f
for subacromial impingement syndrome, 82
for superior cluneal nerve entrapment syndrome,
233234
for supraorbital nerve block, 4, 6f
for supraspinatus tendinitis, 75, 76f
for trigger wrist, 176
Insect stings, clitoral priapism treatment and, 259
Intercostaobrachial nerve damage, in postmastec-
tomy pain, 185, 185f
Intermittent porphyria, acute, 205206, 205f
Intracranial pathology, vs. Ramsay Hunt syndrome,
33
Intrapelvic tumors, vs. gluteus maximus pain
syndrome, 245
J Levodopa, for spasmodic torticollis, 5556
Jaw claudication, in temporal arteritis, 27, 27f
vs. clival chordoma syndrome, 5253
vs. glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 49
vs. neck-tongue syndrome, 72
Jeannes sign, 127t
Joint replacement, total
for avascular necrosis of hip, 266267
for osteonecrosis of elbow joint, 113114
Jolts and jabs headache, vs. nummular headache, 25
Jump sign
in gluteus medius syndrome, 249
in levator ani pain syndrome, 263
in serratus anterior muscle syndrome, 195
in sternalis syndrome, 188
Jumpers knee, 293295, 294f295f
K syndromes; Knee pain syndromes.
Kehrs sign, in liver pain, 209, 209f
Kienbcks disease, 162164, 162f164f
vs. extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis, 169
vs. lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome, 159
vs. scapholunate ligament tear syndrome, 155
vs. triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome, 150
Knee
anatomy of, 296, 296f
arthritis of
vs. jumpers knee, 293
vs. quadriceps expansion syndrome, 307
breaststrokers, 303305, 303f305f
Knee (Continued)
degenerative arthritis of, vs. coronary ligament
strain, 302
glomus tumor of, 311312, 311f312f
hemarthrosis of, vs. semimembranosus insertion
syndrome, 297
jumpers, 293295, 294f295f
runners, 308310, 308f309f
surfers, 273
Knee pain syndromes
breaststrokers knee, 303305, 303f305f
coronary ligament strain as, 301302, 301f
fabella syndrome as, 315317, 315f317f
glomus tumor of knee as, 311312, 311f312f
hamstring tendinitis as, 318319, 318f
iliotibial band bursitis as, 313314, 314f
jumpers knee as, 293295, 294f295f
pes anserine bursitis as, 320323, 321f322f. See
also Pes anserine bursitis.
quadriceps expansion syndrome as, 306307,
306f307f
runners knee as, 308310, 308f309f
semimembranosus insertion syndrome as,
296300, 296f299f. See also Semimembra-
nosus insertion syndrome.
tibiofibular pain syndrome as, 291f, 291292,
291f
Khlers bone disease
vs. accessory navicular pain syndrome, 340
vs. os trigonum pain syndrome, 346
L syndrome, 245
Lamotrigine
for red ear syndrome, 47
for SUNCT headache, 17
Larynx, tumors of, vs. Eagles syndrome, 35
Lateral antebrachial cutaneous nerve syndrome, vs.
cheiralgia paresthetica, 136137
Lateral epicondylitis. See Tennis elbow.
Levator ani muscle
function of, 262
origin of, 262, 262f
Levator ani pain syndrome, 262264, 262f263f
Lidocaine/methylprednisolone injection, for
superior cluneal nerve entrapment syndrome,
233234
Ligament
coronary, strain of, 301302, 301f
of Struthers, median nerve entrapment by, vs.
pronator syndrome, 104
Lithium carbonate, for hypnic headache, 24
Liver pain, 209211, 209f210f
Loves test
for glomus tumor of hand, 144
for glomus tumor of knee, 311
Low back strain
vs. ankylosing spondylitis, 230
vs. spondylolisthesis, 228
Lower extremity pain. See Ankle and foot pain
syndromes; Hip and lower extremity pain
Lumbar bursitis
vs. ankylosing spondylitis, 230
vs. spondylolisthesis, 228
Lumbar fibromyositis
vs. ankylosing spondylitis, 230
vs. spondylolisthesis, 228
Lumbar myofascial pain syndrome, 235237,
235f236f
Lumbar plexopathy
vs. obturator neuralgia, 277
vs. superior cluneal nerve entrapment syndrome,
233
Lumbar radiculopathy
vs. coronary ligament strain, 302
vs. femoral neuropathy, 271
vs. gluteal bursitis, 260261
vs. iliopectinate bursitis, 284
vs. iliotibial band bursitis, 313
vs. midtarsal joint pain, 327
vs. obturator neuralgia, 277
vs. pes anserine bursitis, 320
vs. psoas bursitis, 269
vs. runners knee, 308
vs. saphenous neuralgia, 273
vs. spondylolisthesis, 228
vs. subtalar joint pain, 324
vs. superior cluneal nerve entrapment syndrome,
233
vs. tibiofibular pain syndrome, 292
Lumbar spine and sacroiliac joint pain syndromes
ankylosing spondylitis as, 230232, 231f232f, 232t
diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis as,
225226, 225t, 226f
epidural abscess as, 215218, 216f217f, 217t
lumbar myofascial pain syndrome as, 235237,
235f236f
multiple myeloma as, 219221, 219f220f
Pagets disease as, 222224, 223f
spondylolisthesis as, 227229, 227f229f
superior cluneal nerve entrapment syndrome as,
233234, 234f
Lumbar strain, vs. lumbar myofascial pain syn-
drome, 236
Lumbosacral plexopathy, vs. gluteus maximus pain
Lumbosacral radiculopathy
vs. gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 245
vs. levator ani pain syndrome, 264
Lunate cysts, vs. Kienbcks disease, 162
Lunate fractures
vs. extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis, 169
vs. lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome, 159
Lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome, 159161,
159f161f
Lunotriquetral ligament complex, anatomy of, 159f
Lyme disease
vs. midtarsal joint pain, 327
vs. scapulocostal syndrome, 60
M
M protein, in multiple myeloma, 219220
Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA)
of abdominal angina, 212213, 213f
of Charlins syndrome, 9
of chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, 7
of clival chordoma syndrome, 52
of cough headache, 1314
of glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 48
of hypnic headache, 2324
of ice pick headache, 1
of lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome, 161f
of neck-tongue syndrome, 72
of nervus intermedius neuralgia, 4344
of nummular headache, 25
of red ear syndrome, 4647
of sexual headache, 12
of spasmodic torticollis, 55
of SUNCT headache, 16
of supraorbital neuralgia, 3
of temporal arteritis, 28
of thunderclap headache, 20, 21f
of triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome, 150, 154f
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
of accessory navicular pain syndrome, 340
of Achilles bursitis, 335
of adductor tendinitis, 280

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (Continued)
of anconeus epitrochlearis, 109, 109f
of ankylosing spondylitis, 230, 232f
of anterior interosseous syndrome, 130, 132f
of anterior talofibular pain syndrome, 338
of atypical odontalgia, 3738, 38f
of avascular necrosis of hip, 266, 266f267f
of avascular necrosis of scaphoid, 165, 167f
of boxers knuckle, 146
of breaststrokers knee, 304, 304f
of bunionette pain, 348
of cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis, 57, 59f
of Charlins syndrome, 9, 10f
of cheiralgia paresthetica, 136
of chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, 7, 8f
of clitoral priapism, 258259
of clival chordoma syndrome, 53f, 52
of coronary ligament strain, 302
of cough headache, 1314
of cubital bursitis, 106
of cubital tunnel syndrome, 122, 124f
of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, 225,
226f
of drivers elbow, 126, 128f
of epidural abscess, 215, 217f
of extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis, 169, 170f
of fabella syndrome, 315, 316f
of femoral neuropathy, 271, 272f
of fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome, 343, 344f
of flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, 172, 173f
of foreign body synovitis, 141, 142f
of glomus tumor of hand, 144, 145f
of glomus tumor of knee, 311312, 311f312f
of glomus tumor of shoulder, 90, 90f
of glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 48, 49f
of gluteal bursitis, 260
of gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 245, 246f
of hamstring tendinitis, 318
of hyoid syndrome, 66
of hypnic headache, 2324
of ice pick headache, 1, 2f
of iliopectinate bursitis, 284
of iliotibial band bursitis, 313
of infraspinatus tendinitis, 77
of jumpers knee, 293, 295f
of Kienbcks disease, 162, 163f164f
of levator ani pain syndrome, 263264, 263f
of liver pain, 209210, 210f
of lumbar myofascial pain syndrome, 236
of lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome, 159
of manubriosternal joint pain, 190
of metatarsalgia, 353
of midtarsal joint pain, 327, 329f
of multiple myeloma, 219220, 220f
of neck-tongue syndrome, 72
of nervus intermedius neuralgia, 4344, 44f
of nummular headache, 25, 26f
of obturator neuralgia, 277
of omohyoid syndrome, 69
of orchialgia, 251
of os acromiale pain syndrome, 86, 88f
of os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain, 111
of os trigonum pain syndrome, 346, 347f
of osteonecrosis of elbow joint, 113114, 114f
of Pagets disease, 222
of Parsonage-Turner syndrome, 63, 64f
of pectoralis major tear syndrome, 92, 95f
of pes anserine bursitis, 320, 321f322f
of postdural puncture headache, 30
of posterior tibial tendinitis, 331, 333f
of postmastectomy pain, 185186
of proctalgia fugax, 238, 239f
of pronator syndrome, 104
of prostatodynia, 241
of psoas bursitis, 269
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (Continued)
of quadriceps expansion syndrome, 307
of quadrilateral space syndrome, 101f, 99, 101f
of radial tunnel syndrome, 120, 121f
of radiation enteritis, 207, 208f
of red ear syndrome, 4647
of runners knee, 308, 309f
of saphenous neuralgia, 273, 274f
of scapholunate ligament tear syndrome, 155,
157f
of scapulocostal syndrome, 60
of Secretans syndrome, 139
of semimembranosus insertion syndrome, 297,
299f
of serratus anterior muscle syndrome, 195, 196f
of sesamoiditis, 350, 352f
of sexual headache, 12
of slipping rib syndrome, 198
of snapping hip syndrome, 286
of spasmodic torticollis, 55
of spondylolisthesis, 227, 228f229f
of sternalis syndrome, 188
of sternoclavicular syndrome, 182183
of subacromial impingement syndrome, 8182,
83f84f
of submetatarsal adventitial bursitis, 355, 355f
of subtalar joint pain, 324
of SUNCT headache, 16
of superior cluneal nerve entrapment syndrome,
233
of supraorbital neuralgia, 3, 5f
of suprascapular nerve entrapment, 9697
of supraspinatus tendinitis, 74, 75f
of temporal arteritis, 28
of thunderclap headache, 20, 21f
of tibiofibular pain syndrome, 291292
of triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome, 150,
152f153f
of triceps tendinitis, 116117, 117f
of trigger wrist, 175
of ulnar tunnel syndrome, 134, 134f135f
of vulvodynia, 254, 256f
of winged scapula syndrome, 200
of xiphodynia, 193
Malignancy
prostatic, vs. prostatodynia, 241
rectal, vs. proctalgia fugax, 238
recurrent, vs. radiation enteritis, 207
vs. clitoral priapism, 259
Mandibular tumors, vs. atypical odontalgia,
3839
Manubriosternal joint pain, 190192, 190f191f
Manubrium, dislocation of, vs. pectoralis major tear
syndrome, 9394
Masses sign, 127t
Mastectomy, pain after, 185187, 185f186f
Maxillary tumors, vs. atypical odontalgia, 3839
Median nerve entrapment
in anterior interosseous syndrome, 130, 131f
by ligament of Struthers, vs. pronator syndrome,
104
Mediastinum, diseases of
vs. manubriosternal joint pain, 190
vs. postmastectomy pain, 186
vs. serratus anterior muscle syndrome, 195
vs. slipping rib syndrome, 199
vs. sternalis syndrome, 189
Melanoma, subungual, vs. glomus tumor of hand,
144
Meniscal injury
vs. hamstring tendinitis, 318
vs. jumpers knee, 293
Meralgia paresthetica
vs. snapping hip syndrome, 286, 290f
vs. tibiofibular pain syndrome, 292
Index 365
Mesenteric vascular insufficiency, vs. anterior
cutaneous nerve entrapment, 202
Metastatic disease
vs. manubriosternal joint pain, 190
vs. postmastectomy pain, 186
Metatarsalgia, 353354, 353f354f
vs. sesamoiditis, 350
vs. submetatarsal adventitial bursitis, 355357
Metatarsals, stress fractures of, vs. submetatarsal
adventitial bursitis, 355357
Midtarsal joint pain, 327330
clinical pearls on, 330b
clinical syndrome of, 327, 328f
complications and pitfalls of, 327330
differential diagnosis of, 327
signs and symptoms of, 327
testing for, 327, 329f
treatment of, 327
Migraine headache
pain location in, 18f
vs. cough headache, 14
vs. headache associated with temporal arteritis, 28
vs. hypnic headache, 24
vs. postdural puncture headache, 30
vs. sexual headache, 12
Monoarthritis, causes of, 143t
Monoclonal gammopathy, benign, vs. multiple
myeloma, 221
Mortons neuroma, vs. submetatarsal adventitial
bursitis, 355357
Multiple myeloma, 219221, 219f220f
vs. Pagets disease, 222223
Multiple sclerosis, vs. nervus intermedius neuralgia,
44
Muscle, iliopsoas, 283, 283f
Muscle relaxants, for levator ani pain syndrome, 264
Muscle strain, vs. gluteus maximus pain syndrome,
245
Myelography
for ankylosing spondylitis, 230
for epidural abscess, 215
for spondylolisthesis, 227
Myocardial infarction. See Heart attack.
Myofascial pain syndrome
gluteus maximus, 244245
gluteus medius, 248249
levator ani, 262263
Myofascial trigger points
in gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 244245, 245f
in gluteus medius syndrome, 248249
in levator ani pain syndrome, 262263, 262f
lumbar, 235236, 236f
in serratus anterior muscle syndrome, 195, 196f
in sternalis syndrome, 188, 188f
N
Nail bed ridging, in glomus tumor, 144
Nail file sign, 127t
Nasociliary neuralgia, 910, 10f, 10t
Nasopharynx, tumors of, vs. clival chordoma
syndrome, 5253
Neck
tumors of
vs. Eagles syndrome, 35
vs. hyoid syndrome, 66
vs. omohyoid syndrome, 69
wry, vs. spasmodic torticollis, 55
Neck pain syndromes
clival chordoma syndrome as, 5254, 52t, 53f
hyoid syndrome as, 6668, 67f
neck-tongue syndrome as, 7273, 73f
omohyoid syndrome as, 70f, 6971, 69f
spasmodic torticollis as, 5556, 56f
Neck-tongue syndrome, 7273, 73f
366 Index
Neers test
for os acromial pain syndrome, 86
for subacromial impingement syndrome, 81, 85f
Nerve(s)
of Bell, trauma to, in winged scapula syndrome, 200
glossopharyngeal, radiofrequency destruction of,
for glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 50
Nerve block(s)
differential, in atypical odontalgia diagnosis,
3738, 39t
glossopharyngeal, for glossopharyngeal neuralgia,
50, 50f
for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 33
for supraorbital neuralgia, 4, 6f
trigeminal, for atypical odontalgia, 39
Nerve conduction velocity testing
for diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, 225
for spondylolisthesis, 227228
Nerve entrapment, suprascapular, 96, 96f97f
Nervus intermedius, section of, for nervus interme-
dius neuralgia, 45
Nervus intermedius neuralgia, 4345, 43f44f
Neuralgia
genitofemoral
vs. iliopectinate bursitis, 284
vs. orchialgia, 251
glossopharyngeal, 4851, 48f50f
vs. Eagles syndrome, 35
ilioinguinal
vs. iliopectinate bursitis, 284
vs. orchialgia, 251
nasociliary, 910, 10f, 10t
nervus intermedius, 4345, 43f44f
obturator, 277279, 277f278f
postherpetic, 33
saphenous, 273276, 274f275f. See also Saphe-
nous neuralgia.
supraorbital, 36, 3f, 4f, 5f, 6f, 6f
trigeminal. See Trigeminal neuralgia.
Neurofibromatosis, vs. epidural abscess, 215216
Neuroma, Mortons, vs. submetatarsal adventitial
bursitis, 355357
Neuropathic pain
chest wall
vs. sternalis syndrome, 189
vs. sternoclavicular syndrome, 183
vs. liver pain, 210
vs. manubriosternal joint pain, 190
vs. postmastectomy pain, 186
vs. serratus anterior muscle syndrome, 195
vs. slipping rib syndrome, 199
Neuropathy, handcuff, 136
Neurovascular orofacial pain (NVOP), pain
location in, 18f
Nimodipine, for thunderclap headache, 21
Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
for accessory navicular pain syndrome, 341
for Achilles bursitis, 335
for adductor tendinitis, 281
for anconeus epitrochlearis, 109
for ankylosing spondylitis, 231232
for anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment, 203
for anterior interosseous syndrome, 130
for anterior talofibular pain syndrome, 339
for avascular necrosis of hip, 267
for avascular necrosis of scaphoid, 166
for boxers knuckle, 146
for breaststrokers knee, 304305
for bunionette pain, 348
for cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis, 57
for cheiralgia paresthetica, 137
for coronary ligament strain, 302
for cubital bursitis, 107
for cubital tunnel syndrome, 122
for devils grip, 180
Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
(Continued)
for diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, 226
for drivers elbow, 126127
for extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis, 169170
for fabella syndrome, 316
for femoral neuropathy, 271272
for fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome, 344
for flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, 173
for foreign body synovitis, 141
for gluteal bursitis, 261
for gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 245
for hamstring tendinitis, 318319
for hyoid syndrome, 66
for iliopectinate bursitis, 284
for iliotibial band bursitis, 313
for infraspinatus tendinitis, 77
for jumpers knee, 293
for Kienbcks disease, 163
for levator ani pain syndrome, 264
for liver pain, 210
for lumbar myofascial pain syndrome, 236
for lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome, 160
for manubriosternal joint pain, 191
for metatarsalgia, 354
for midtarsal joint pain, 327
for multiple myeloma, 221
for neck-tongue syndrome, 72
for obturator neuralgia, 277279
for omohyoid syndrome, 6970
for orchialgia, 251253
for os acromial pain syndrome, 8687
for os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain, 111112
for os trigonum pain syndrome, 346
for osteonecrosis of elbow joint, 114
for Pagets disease, 223
for pectoralis major tear syndrome, 94
for pes anserine bursitis, 320
for posterior tibial tendinitis, 333
for postmastectomy pain, 186
for proctalgia fugax, 238
for pronator syndrome, 104
for prostatodynia, 241243
for psoas bursitis, 269
for quadriceps expansion syndrome, 307
for quadrilateral space syndrome, 99
for radial tunnel syndrome, 120
for runners knee, 308309
for saphenous neuralgia, 273
for scapholunate ligament tear syndrome, 155
for scapulocostal syndrome, 60
for Secretans syndrome, 139
for semimembranosus insertion syndrome, 297
for serratus anterior muscle syndrome, 195
for sesamoiditis, 350
for slipping rib syndrome, 199
for snapping hip syndrome, 286
for spondylolisthesis, 228
for sternalis syndrome, 189
for sternoclavicular syndrome, 183
for subacromial impingement syndrome, 82
for submetatarsal adventitial bursitis, 357
for subtalar joint pain, 324325
for superior cluneal nerve entrapment syndrome,
233
for suprascapular nerve entrapment, 97
for supraspinatus tendinitis, 7475
for tibiofibular pain syndrome, 292
for triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome, 150
for triceps tendinitis, 117
for trigger wrist, 175176
for ulnar tunnel syndrome, 135
for vulvodynia, 254255
for winged scapula syndrome, 200
for xiphodynia, 194
Nortriptyline
for anterior interosseous syndrome, 130
for atypical odontalgia, 39
for hyoid syndrome, 66
for obturator neuralgia, 277279
for omohyoid syndrome, 6970
for postmastectomy pain, 186
for proctalgia fugax, 238, 238239
for pronator syndrome, 104
for saphenous neuralgia, 273
for suprascapular nerve entrapment, 97
for vulvodynia, 254255
Nummular headache, 2526, 25f26f
O
Obturator neuralgia, 277279, 277f278f
Occupational therapy, for Parsonage-Turner
syndrome, 64
Odontalgia, atypical, 3739, 37f38f, 38t39t
Olecranon, stress fractures of, vs. tricept tendinitis,
117
Olecranon bursitis, vs. cubital bursitis, 106
Omohyoid syndrome, 70f, 6971, 69f
Opioid analgesics
for Pagets disease, 223
for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 3334
for xiphodynia, 194
Orchialgia, 251253, 252f, 252t253t
Orthotic devices
for atypical odontalgia, 39
for multiple myeloma, 221
for Pagets disease, 223
Os acromiale, 81, 84f
Os acromiale pain syndrome, 8689, 87f88f
Os intermetatarseum, 112f
Os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain, 111112,
111f112f
Os trigonum pain syndrome, 346347, 347f
Os vesalianum, 112f
Ossicles, accessory, 111, 112f
in accessory navicular pain syndrome, 340
in os trigonum pain syndrome, 346
Osteitis deformans, 222
Osteoarthritis
midtarsal joint pain from, 327
subtalar joint pain from, 324
in tibiofibular pain syndrome, 291
vs. scapulocostal syndrome, 60
Osteochondritis dissecans, vs. os supratrochleare
related elbow pain, 111
Osteoid osteoma, vs. glomus tumor of hand, 144
Osteoma, osteoid, vs. glomus tumor of hand, 144
Osteomyelitis, vs. glomus tumor of shoulder, 9091
Osteonecrosis
of elbow joint, 113115, 113f115f, 113t
of hip, 265
Osteopetrosis, vs. Pagets disease, 222223
Osteoporosis, vs. Pagets disease, 222223
Osteoporosis circumscripta, 222
P
Pagets disease, 222224, 223f
vs. epidural abscess, 215216
Palmaris brevis sign, 127t
Pancoasts tumor
vs. Parsonage-Turner syndrome, 63
vs. scapulocostal syndrome, 60
vs. ulnar tunnel syndrome, 134
Panners disease, vs. os supratrochlearerelated
elbow pain, 111
Parkinson disease, vs. spasmodic torticollis, 55
Paroxysmal hemicrania, chronic, 78, 7f, 8f, 7t.
See also Hemicrania, chronic paroxysmal.

Parsonage-Turner syndrome, 6265, 62f, 63t, 64f
vs. os acromial pain syndrome, 86
vs. quadrilateral space syndrome, 99
vs. subacromial impingement syndrome, 82
vs. suprascapular nerve entrapment, 97
Patellar bursitis, vs. jumpers knee, 293
Pectoralis major tear syndrome, 9295
clinical pearls on, 95b
clinical syndrome of, 92, 93f95f
complications and pitfalls of, 9495
differential diagnosis of, 9394
signs and symptoms of, 92, 95f
testing for, 92
treatment of, 94
Pelvic examination, for vulvodynia, 254
Pelvic floor muscle strain, vs. levator ani pain
syndrome, 264
Pelvic pain syndrome(s)
chronic, 241
clitoral priapism as, 258259, 258f259f,
258t259t
distinguishing features, 242f
gluteal bursitis as, 260261, 260f261f
gluteus maximus pain syndrome as, 244247,
244f246f
gluteus medius syndrome as, 248250, 248f249f
levator ani pain syndrome as, 262264, 262f263f
orchialgia as, 251253, 252f, 252t253t
proctalgia fugax as, 238240, 239f
prostatodynia as, 241243, 242f, 243t
vulvodynia, 254257, 255f256f, 256t257t. See Posttraumatic edema syndrome, 139
also Vulvodynia.
Pelvis
fractures of
stress, vs. gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 245
vs. adductor tendinitis, 281
tumors in, vs. gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 245
Peptic ulcer disease, vs. anterior cutaneous nerve
entrapment, 202
Peripheral neuropathy, vs. obturator neuralgia, 277
Persistent orodental pain syndrome, 3739,
37f38f, 38t39t
Pes anserine bursitis, 320323
clinical pearls on, 323b
clinical syndrome of, 320, 321f
complications and pitfalls of, 320323
differential diagnosis of, 320
signs and symptoms of, 320
testing for, 320, 321f322f
treatment of, 320
Physical therapy
for ankylosing spondylitis, 231232
for cubital bursitis, 107
for cubital tunnel syndrome, 122
for diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, 226
for flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, 173
for foreign body synovitis, 141
for gluteal bursitis, 261
for gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 245
for gluteus medius syndrome, 249
for infraspinatus tendinitis, 77
for levator ani pain syndrome, 264
for lumbar myofascial pain syndrome, 236
for orchialgia, 251253
for os acromial pain syndrome, 8687
for Parsonage-Turner syndrome, 64
for radial tunnel syndrome, 120
for Secretans syndrome, 139
for spondylolisthesis, 228
for subacromial impingement syndrome, 82
for supraspinatus tendinitis, 7475
Piriform sinus tumors
vs. clival chordoma syndrome, 5253
vs. glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 49
vs. neck-tongue syndrome, 72
Piriformis syndrome, vs. gluteal bursitis, 260261
Pitres-Testit sign, 127t
Plantar fasciitis, vs. metatarsalgia, 353354
Pleurisy, dry, 178. See also Devils grip.
Pleuritis, vs. liver pain, 210
Pneumonia
vs. anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment, 202
vs. devils grip, 179
Polyarteritis nodosa, vs. anterior cutaneous nerve
entrapment, 202
Polyarteritis nodosum, vs. abdominal angina, 213
Polychondritis, vs. red ear syndrome, 47
Polyneuropathy, diabetic, vs. ulnar tunnel syn-
drome, 134
Popeyes sign, in pectoralis major tear syndrome,
92, 95f
Porphyria, acute intermittent, 205206, 205f
Posner cold induction test, for glomus tumor of
knee, 311
Postdural puncture headache, 3031, 31f
Posterior ankle impingement syndrome, 346
Posterior fossa, tumors of, vs. atypical odontalgia,
3839
Posterior tibial tendinitis, 331f, 331334,
331f333f
Postherpetic neuralgia, 33
Postmastectomy pain, 185187, 185f186f
Posttraumatic arthritis
subtalar joint pain from, 324
vs. scapulocostal syndrome, 60
Postural type sexual headache, 11
Pregabalin
for burning mouth syndrome, 41
for nervus intermedius neuralgia, 44
Prepatellar bursitis, vs. quadriceps expansion
syndrome, 307
Priapism
clitoral, 258259, 258f259f, 258t259t
drugs implicated in, 258t
Proctalgia fugax, 238240, 239f
Proctitis, vs. proctalgia fugax, 238
Pronator syndrome, 103105, 103f104f
vs. anterior interosseous syndrome, 130
Propranolol, for sexual headache, 12
Prostadynia, vs. proctalgia fugax, 238
Prostate exam, digital, for prostatodynia, 241
Prostatic malignancy, vs. prostatodynia, 241
Prostatitis, chronic nonbacterial, 241
Prostatodynia, 241243, 242f, 243t
Psoas bursitis, 268270, 268f269f
Psyllium, for radiation enteritis, 207
Pulmonary embolus
vs. devils grip, 179
vs. liver pain, 210
Q in postmastectomy pain, 185186
Quadriceps expansion syndrome, 306307,
306f307f
Quadrilateral space syndrome, 99102
clinical pearls on, 102b
clinical syndrome of, 99, 100f101f
complications and pitfalls of, 101102
differential diagnosis of, 99
signs and symptoms of, 99
testing for, 99, 100f101f
treatment of, 99
R in slipping rib syndrome, 198
Radial neuropathies, compressive, causes of, 138t
Radial tunnel syndrome, 119121, 119t, 120f121f
Radiation enteritis, 207208, 207t, 208f
Radiation therapy, for multiple myeloma, 221
Index 367
Radiculopathy
cervical. See Cervical radiculopathy.
lumbar. See Lumbar radiculopathy.
Radiofrequency destruction, of glossopharyngeal
nerve, for glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 50
Radiography
in abdominal angina, 212213, 213f
in accessory navicular pain syndrome, 340, 341f
in Achilles bursitis, 335
in adductor tendinitis, 280
in anconeus epitrochlearis, 109
in ankylosing spondylitis, 230, 231f
in anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment, 202
in anterior interosseous syndrome, 130
in anterior talofibular pain syndrome, 338
in atypical odontalgia, 3738
in avascular necrosis of hip, 266
in avascular necrosis of scaphoid, 165, 166f
in boxers knuckle, 146, 147f
in breaststrokers knee, 304
in bunionette pain, 348, 348f
in cheiralgia paresthetica, 136
in coronary ligament strain, 302
in cubital bursitis, 106
in cubital tunnel syndrome, 122
in devils grip, 178, 179f
in diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, 225
in Eagles syndrome, 35
in extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis, 169
in fabella syndrome, 315
in femoral neuropathy, 271
in fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome, 343
in flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, 172, 174f
in gluteal bursitis, 260
in gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 245
in hamstring tendinitis, 318
in iliopectinate bursitis, 284, 284f
in iliotibial band bursitis, 313
in infraspinatus tendinitis, 77, 79f
in jumpers knee, 293
in Kienbcks disease, 162, 164f
in levator ani pain syndrome, 263264
in liver pain, 209210
in lumbar myofascial pain syndrome, 236
in lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome, 159,
161f
in manubriosternal joint pain, 190, 190f
in metatarsalgia, 353, 354f
in midtarsal joint pain, 327
in multiple myeloma, 219220, 220f
in obturator neuralgia, 277
in os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain, 111
in os trigonum pain syndrome, 346, 347f
in osteonecrosis of elbow joint, 113114
in Pagets disease, 222
in pes anserine bursitis, 320, 322f
in posterior tibial tendinitis, 331, 332f
in pronator syndrome, 104
in psoas bursitis, 269, 269f
in quadriceps expansion syndrome, 307
in runners knee, 308
in saphenous neuralgia, 273
in scapholunate ligament tear syndrome, 155,
157f
in scapulocostal syndrome, 60
in Secretans syndrome, 139
in semimembranosus insertion syndrome, 297
in serratus anterior muscle syndrome, 195
in sesamoiditis, 350, 351f
in snapping hip syndrome, 286
in spondylolisthesis, 227, 228f
in sternalis syndrome, 188
in sternoclavicular syndrome, 182183
368 Index
Radiography (Continued)
in submetatarsal adventitial bursitis, 355
in subtalar joint pain, 324
in superior cluneal nerve entrapment syndrome,
233
in supraspinatus tendinitis, 74
in tibiofibular pain syndrome, 291292
in triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome, 150
in triceps tendinitis, 116117, 116f
in trigger wrist, 175
in xiphodynia, 193
Radionuclide bone scans
in accessory navicular pain syndrome, 340
in Achilles bursitis, 335
in adductor tendinitis, 280
in fabella syndrome, 315
in glomus tumor of knee, 311312
in metatarsalgia, 353
in os trigonum pain syndrome, 346
in Pagets disease, 222, 223f
in posterior tibial tendinitis, 332
in postmastectomy pain, 185186
in scapulocostal syndrome, 60
in semimembranosus insertion syndrome, 297
in sesamoiditis, 350
in submetatarsal adventitial bursitis, 355
Radius, distal, fractures of
vs. avascular necrosis of scaphoid, 165166
vs. flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, 172
Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 3234, 32f33f
Raynauds syndrome, vs. glomus tumor of hand, 144
Rectal examination, for proctalgia fugax, 238
Rectal malignancy, vs. proctalgia fugax, 238
Red ear syndrome, 4647, 46f
Reflex sympathetic dystrophy
of face, vs. atypical odontalgia, 3839
vs. clitoral priapism, 259
vs. glomus tumor of hand, 144
vs. glomus tumor of knee, 312
vs. glomus tumor of shoulder, 9091
vs. prostatodynia, 241
vs. Secretans syndrome, 139
vs. vulvodynia, 254
Reiters syndrome, vs. ankylosing spondylitis, 230
Renal calculi, vs. anterior cutaneous nerve entrap-
ment, 202
Resisted abduction release test, for snapping hip
syndrome, 286, 289f
Retroorbital tumors, vs. Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 33
Retropharyngeal tumors, vs. atypical odontalgia,
3839
Rheumatoid arthritis. See Arthritis, rheumatoid.
Rib-tip syndrome, 198
Rotator cuff
tears of
vs. infraspinatus tendinitis, 77
vs. supraspinatus tendinitis, 74
tendinopathy/tendinitis of
vs. os acromial pain syndrome, 86
vs. subacromial impingement syndrome, 82
Rotator cuff tear arthropathy, vs. scapulocostal
syndrome, 60
Runners knee, 308310, 308f309f
S for quadriceps expansion syndrome, 307
Sacroiliac joint pain, vs. superior cluneal nerve
entrapment syndrome, 233
Sacroiliitis
in ankylosing spondylitis, 230
pain related to, common causes of, 232t
Saphenous neuralgia, 273276
clinical pearls on, 276b
clinical syndrome of, 273, 274f
complications and pitfalls of, 273
Saphenous neuralgia (Continued)
differential diagnosis of, 273
signs and symptoms of, 273, 275f
testing for, 273
treatment of, 273, 275f
Scaphoid
avascular necrosis of, 165168, 165f167f. See
also Avascular necrosis, of scaphoid.
vs. scapholunate ligament tear syndrome, 155
cysts of, vs. avascular necrosis of scaphoid, 165166
fractures of
vs. flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, 172
vs. scapholunate ligament tear syndrome, 155
Scapholunate advanced collapse, 155
Scapholunate ligament complex, anatomy of, 156f
Scapholunate ligament tear syndrome, 155158
clinical pearls on, 158b
clinical syndrome of, 155, 156f
complications and pitfalls of, 155158
differential diagnosis of, 155
signs and symptoms of, 155, 157f
testing for, 155, 157f
treatment of, 155
Scapholunate ligament tears, vs. avascular necrosis
of scaphoid, 165166
Scapulocostal syndrome, 6061, 61f
Schwannomas, vs. Parsonage-Turner syndrome, 63
Sciatica, vs. gluteal bursitis, 260261
Scratch collapse test, in cubital tunnel syndrome,
122, 124f
Screening laboratory tests
for Achilles bursitis, 335
for anterior interosseous syndrome, 130
for anterior talofibular pain syndrome, 338
for atypical odontalgia, 3738
for avascular necrosis of hip, 266
for cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis, 57
for Charlins syndrome, 9
for chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, 78
for clival chordoma syndrome, 52
for coronary ligament strain, 302
for cough headache, 14
for cubital bursitis, 106
for diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis,
225226
in fabella syndrome, 315
for glomus tumor of knee, 311312
for glomus tumor of shoulder, 90
for glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 48
for gluteal bursitis, 260
for gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 245
for hypnic headache, 24
for ice pick headache, 2
for iliotibial band bursitis, 313
for levator ani pain syndrome, 263264
for lumbar myofascial pain syndrome, 236
for neck-tongue syndrome, 72
for nervus intermedius neuralgia, 4344
for nummular headache, 25
for orchialgia, 251
for os acromial pain syndrome, 86
for Parsonage-Turner syndrome, 63
for pectoralis major tear syndrome, 92
for proctalgia fugax, 238
for psoas bursitis, 269
for red ear syndrome, 47
for sexual headache, 12
for snapping hip syndrome, 286
for spasmodic torticollis, 55
for spondylolisthesis, 227228
for subacromial impingement syndrome, 82
for SUNCT headache, 1617
for supraorbital neuralgia, 3
for tibiofibular pain syndrome, 291292
Secretans syndrome, 139140, 139f
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, for proctal-
gia fugax, 238239
Semimembranosus insertion syndrome, 296300
clinical pearls on, 300b
clinical syndrome of, 296, 296f297f
complications and pitfalls of, 298300
differential diagnosis of, 297
signs and symptoms of, 297, 298f
testing for, 297, 299f
treatment of, 297
Semimembranosus muscle, anatomy of, 296,
296f
Serratus anterior muscle syndrome, 195197,
196f
Sesamoiditis, 350352, 351f352f
vs. metatarsalgia, 353354
Sexual headache, 1112, 11f
vs. cough headache, 14
vs. hypnic headache, 24
Shoulder
arthritis of, vs. os acromial pain syndrome, 86
fracture of, vs. glomus tumor of shoulder,
9091
glomus tumor of, 9091, 90f
traveling salesman, 60
Shoulder pain syndromes
glomus tumor of shoulder as, 9091, 90f
infraspinatus tendinitis as, 7780, 78f80f. See
also Infraspinatus tendinitis.
os acromiale pain syndrome as, 8689
pectoralis major tear syndrome as, 9295,
93f95f. See also Pectoralis major tear
syndrome.
quadrilateral space syndrome as, 99102,
100f101f. See also Quadrilateral space
syndrome.
subacromial impingement syndrome as, 8185,
81f85f, 84t. See also Subacromial impinge-
ment syndrome.
suprascapular nerve entrapment as, 9698,
96f97f
supraspinatus tendinitis as, 7476, 75f76f
Sigmoidoscopy, for proctalgia fugax, 238
Sinus disease, vs. Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 33
Sinus headache, vs. supraorbital neuralgia, 3
Sitz baths
for prostatodynia, 241243
for radiation enteritis, 207
for vulvodynia, 254255
Skeletal muscle relaxants
for ankylosing spondylitis, 231232
for diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis, 226
for gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 245
for lumbar myofascial pain syndrome, 236
for spasmodic torticollis, 5556
for spondylolisthesis, 228
SLAC wrist, 155
Slipping rib syndrome, 198199, 198f
Snapping hip syndrome, 286290
clinical pearls on, 290b
clinical syndrome of, 286, 287f288f
complications and pitfalls of, 287290
differential diagnosis of, 286, 290f
signs and symptoms of, 286, 289f
testing for, 286
treatment of, 286287, 290f
Spasmodic torticollis, 5556, 56f
Spasms, habit, vs. spasmodic torticollis, 55
Spider bite, clitoral priapism treatment and, 259
Spinal cord
cervical, tumors of, vs. Parsonage-Turner syn-
drome, 63
tumors of, vs. cervicothoracic interspinous
bursitis, 57

Splint
nighttime, for trigger wrist, 175176
for sternoclavicular syndrome, 183
Spondylitis, ankylosing, 230232, 231f232f,
232t
vs. cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis, 57
Spondylolisthesis, 227229, 227f229f
vs. lumbar myofascial pain syndrome, 236
Spondylosis, cervical, vs. Parsonage-Turner
syndrome, 63
Stabbing headache
primary, vs. red ear syndrome, 47
vs. SUNCT headache, 17
Stellate ganglion block, for burning mouth syn-
drome, 41
Sternalis syndrome, 188189, 188f189f
Sternoclavicular syndrome, 182184,
182f183f
Steroid enemas, for radiation enteritis, 207
Steroids. See also Corticosteroids.
high-dose
for Charlins syndrome, 9
for multiple myeloma, 221
for Pagets disease, 223
for red ear syndrome, 47
for SUNCT headache, 17
Strain, coronary ligament, 301302, 301f
Stress fractures
acromial, vs. os acromial pain syndrome, 86
ankle
vs. Achilles bursitis, 335
vs. posterior tibial tendinitis, 332
metatarsal, vs. submetatarsal adventitial bursitis,
355357
olecranon, vs. triceps tendinitis, 117
pelvic, vs. gluteus maximus pain syndrome,
245
vs. bunionette pain, 348
vs. levator ani pain syndrome, 264
Stylohyoid syndrome, 3536, 35f36f
Styloid syndrome, vs. hyoid syndrome, 66
Subacromial bursitis
vs. os acromial pain syndrome, 86
vs. subacromial impingement syndrome, 82
Subacromial impingement syndrome, 8185,
81f85f, 84t
causes of, 84t
clinical pearls on, 85b
clinical syndrome of, 81, 81f84f, 84t
complications and pitfalls of, 8285
differential diagnosis of, 82
signs and symptoms of, 81, 85f
testing for, 8182, 83f84f
treatment of, 82
vs. os acromial pain syndrome, 86
Subacromial space, 81, 81f
Subarachnoid hemorrhage
thunderclap headache and, 19, 19t20t
vs. postdural puncture headache, 30
Submetatarsal adventitial bursitis, 355357,
355f356f
Subtalar joint pain, 324326, 325f326f
Subungual melanoma, vs. glomus tumor of hand,
144
Sucralfate enemas, for radiation enteritis, 207
Sudden unilateral neuralgiform conjunctival injec-
tion tearing (SUNCT) headache, 1618,
16f18f, 16t18t
vs. red ear syndrome, 4647
Sulfasalazine, for ankylosing spondylitis,
231232
SUNCT headache, 1618, 16f18f, 16t18t
Superior cluneal nerve entrapment syndrome,
233234, 234f
vs. gluteus medius syndrome, 249
Supraorbital neuralgia, 36, 3f6f
Suprapatellar bursitis
vs. jumpers knee, 293
vs. quadriceps expansion syndrome, 307
Suprascapular nerve entrapment, 9698,
96f97f
Supraspinatus tendinitis, 7476, 75f76f
Surfers knee, 273
Surgery
for accessory navicular pain syndrome, 341
for boxers knuckle, 146
for clival chordoma syndrome, 5354
for glomus tumor
of hand, 145
of knee, 312
of shoulder, 91
for os trigonum pain syndrome, 346
for submetatarsal adventitial bursitis, 357
Surgical decompression, of foramen magnum, for
cough headache, 1415
Surgical revascularization, for abdominal angina,
213
Swimmers headache, 36, 3f6f. See also Supraor-
bital neuralgia.
Sylvests disease, 178. See also Devils grip.
Synovial chondromatosis
vs. accessory navicular pain syndrome, 340
vs. os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain, 111
vs. os trigonum pain syndrome, 346
Synovitis
foreign body, 142f, 141143, 142f, 143t
vs. glomus tumor of shoulder, 9091
villonodular
vs. scapulocostal syndrome, 60
vs. semimembranosus insertion syndrome,
297
Syringomyelia
vs. cervicothoracic interspinous bursitis, 57
vs. epidural abscess, 215216
vs. Parsonage-Turner syndrome, 63
Systemic lupus erythematosus, vs. anterior cutane-
ous nerve entrapment, 202
T 291f
TACs. See Trigeminal autonomic cephalgias
(TACs).
Tailors bunion, pain from, 348349,
348f349f
Talofibular pain syndrome, anterior, 338339,
338f
Tarsal tunnel syndrome
vs. anterior talofibular pain syndrome, 339
vs. fibulocalcaneal pain syndrome, 344
vs. metatarsalgia, 353354
vs. midtarsal joint pain, 327
vs. sesamoiditis, 350
Temporal arteritis
headache associated with, 2729, 27f
jaw claudication in. See Jaw claudication, in
temporal arteritis.
vs. Charlins syndrome, 9
vs. clival chordoma syndrome, 5253
vs. glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 49
vs. red ear syndrome, 47
vs. SUNCT headache, 17
Temporal artery biopsy, for temporal arteritis, 28
Temporomandibular joint dysfunction, vs. nervus
intermedius neuralgia, 44
Tendinitis
adductor, 280282, 280f281f
calcific, of quadriceps tendon, 306
elbow, vs. os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain,
111
extensor carpi ulnaris, 169171, 169f170f
Index 369
Tendinitis (Continued)
vs. triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome, 150
flexor carpi radialis, 172174, 172f174f
hamstring, 318319, 318f
infraspinatus, 7780, 78f80f. See also
Infraspinatus tendinitis.
knee, vs. fabella syndrome, 315316
posterior tibial, 331334, 331f333f
shoulder
vs. quadrilateral space syndrome, 99
vs. suprascapular nerve entrapment, 97
supraspinatus, 7476, 75f76f
triceps, 116118, 116f117f
vs. Achilles bursitis, 335
Tennis elbow
vs. cubital bursitis, 106
vs. radial tunnel syndrome, 119t, 120
Tenosynovitis, vs. glomus tumor of shoulder,
9091
Tension headache, vs. headache associated with
temporal arteritis, 28
Testicular pain, 251
chronic, treatment options for, 253t
Thoracic outlet syndrome, vs. pronator syndrome,
104
Thoracic pain syndromes
devils grip as, 178181. See also Devils grip.
manubriosternal joint pain as, 190192,
190f191f
postmastectomy pain as, 185187, 185f186f
serratus anterior muscle syndrome as, 195197,
196f
slipping rib syndrome as, 198199, 198f
sternalis syndrome as, 188189, 188f189f
sternoclavicular syndrome as, 182184,
182f183f
winged scapula syndrome as, 200201, 201f
xiphodynia as, 193194, 193f194f
Thunderclap headache, primary, 1922, 19t20t,
20f21f
Thyroglossal duct cyst, vs. hyoid syndrome, 66
Tibial plateau fracture, vs. semimembranosus
insertion syndrome, 297
Tibiofibular pain syndrome, 291f, 291292,
Tics, vs. spasmodic torticollis, 55
Tietzes syndrome
vs. devils grip, 179
vs. serratus anterior muscle syndrome,
195
vs. slipping rib syndrome, 198199
vs. sternalis syndrome, 188189
vs. sternoclavicular syndrome, 183
Tinels sign
in cheiralgia paresthetica, 136, 137f
in cubital tunnel syndrome, 122
in drivers elbow, 126, 126f
in orchialgia, 251
in pronator syndrome, 103
in superior cluneal nerve entrapment syndrome,
233
in ulnar tunnel syndrome, 133
Tolosa-Hunt syndrome, vs. Ramsay Hunt
syndrome, 33
Tonsillar fossa tumors
vs. clival chordoma syndrome, 5253
vs. glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 4849
vs. neck-tongue syndrome, 72
Torticollis, spasmodic, 5556, 56f
Total joint arthroplasty
for avascular necrosis of hip, 266267
for osteonecrosis of elbow joint, 113114
Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation
for gluteus medius syndrome, 249
for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 34
370 Index
Trauma
manubriosternal joint pain secondary to, 190,
190f191f
serratus anterior muscle syndrome secondary to,
195
slipping rib syndrome secondary to, 198
Traumatic tumor, vs. epidural abscess, 215216
Traveling salesman shoulder, 60
Trefoil spinal canal, vs. lumbar myofascial pain
syndrome, 236
Trendelenburg gait, in avascular necrosis of hip,
265266
Triangular fibrocartilage complex
anatomy of, 149f
function of, 149, 150t
tears of
vs. avascular necrosis of scaphoid, 165166
vs. extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis, 169
vs. flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, 172
vs. Kienbcks disease, 162
vs. lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome,
159
Triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome, 149154
causes of, 149, 150t
clinical pearls on, 154b
clinical syndrome of, 149, 149f, 151f
complications and pitfalls of, 150154
differential diagnosis of, 150
signs and symptoms of, 149150, 151f
testing for, 150, 152f154f
treatment of, 150
Triceps tendinitis, 116118, 116f117f
Tricyclic antidepressants
for ankylosing spondylitis, 231232
for anterior interosseous syndrome, 130
for atypical odontalgia, 39
for hyoid syndrome, 66
for manubriosternal joint pain, 191192
for obturator neuralgia, 277279
for omohyoid syndrome, 6970
for postmastectomy pain, 186
for proctalgia fugax, 238
for pronator syndrome, 104
for quadrilateral space syndrome, 99
for saphenous neuralgia, 273
for suprascapular nerve entrapment, 97
for vulvodynia, 254255
Trigeminal autonomic cephalgias (TACs),
16f, 16t
chronic paroxysmal hemicrania as, 7f. See also
Hemicrania, chronic paroxysmal.
cluster headache as. See Cluster headache.
pain location in, 18f
red ear syndrome as, 46
sudden unilateral neuralgiaform conjunctival
injection tearing headache as, 1618,
16f18f, 16t18t
Trigeminal nerve block, for atypical odontalgia,
39
Trigeminal neuralgia
vs. atypical odontalgia, 3739, 38t
vs. Charlins syndrome, 9
vs. chronic paroxysmal hemicrania, 8
vs. clival chordoma syndrome, 5253
vs. cough headache, 14
vs. headache associated with temporal arteritis,
28
vs. hypnic headache, 24
vs. ice pick headache, 2
vs. nummular headache, 25
vs. Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 33
vs. red ear syndrome, 47
vs. sexual headache, 12
vs. SUNCT headache, 17
vs. supraorbital neuralgia, 34
Trigger point injections
for gluteus maximus pain syndrome, 245246,
245f
for gluteus medius syndrome, 249
for levator ani pain syndrome, 264
for lumbar myofascial pain syndrome, 236237,
236f
Trigger points, myofascial. See Myofascial trigger
points.
Trigger wrist, 175177
Trochanteric bursitis, with snapping hip syndrome,
286
Trousseaus sign, in multiple myeloma, 219
Tumor(s)
anterior chest wall, vs. pectoralis major tear
syndrome, 9394
elbow, vs. os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain,
111
glomus. See Glomus tumor.
humoral, vs. pectoralis major tear syndrome, 9394
hypopharyngeal
vs. clival chordoma syndrome, 5253
vs. Eagles syndrome, 35
vs. glossopharyngeal neuralgia, 4849
vs. hyoid syndrome, 66
vs. neck-tongue syndrome, 72
vs. omohyoid syndrome, 69
intracranial, vs. Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 33
intrapelvic
vs. femoral neuropathy, 271
vs. levator ani pain syndrome, 264
vs. obturator neuralgia, 277, 278f
vs. saphenous neuralgia, 273
retroorbital, vs. Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 33
retroperitoneal
vs. femoral neuropathy, 271
vs. obturator neuralgia, 277
vs. saphenous neuralgia, 273
shoulder
vs. os acromial pain syndrome, 86
vs. pectoralis major tear syndrome, 9394
vs. quadrilateral space syndrome, 99
vs. subacromial impingement syndrome, 82
vs. suprascapular nerve entrapment, 97
vs. Eagles syndrome, 35
Twist test, for semimembranosus insertion
syndrome, 297, 298f
Tzanck smear, for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 33
U in anconeus epitrochlearis, 108109
Ulnar impaction syndrome
vs. Kienbcks disease, 162
vs. lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome, 159
Ulnar nerve entrapment
in anconeus epitrochlearis, 108, 108f
in drivers elbow, 126
in ulnar tunnel syndrome, 133, 134f
Ulnar styloid, fractures of, vs. extensor carpi ulnaris
tendinitis, 169
Ulnar tunnel syndrome, 133135
vs. os supratrochlearerelated elbow pain, 111
Ulnocarpal abutment syndrome
vs. extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis, 169
vs. triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome, 150
Ultrasound imaging
of abdominal angina, 212213, 213f
of adductor tendinitis, 280
of anterior cutaneous nerve entrapment, 202
of avascular necrosis of scaphoid, 165, 167f
of breaststrokers knee, 304, 305f
of clitoral priapism, 258259
of cubital bursitis, 106, 107f
of cubital tunnel syndrome, 122, 124f
of devils grip, 179f
Ultrasound imaging (Continued)
of drivers elbow, 126
of extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis, 169, 170f
of fabella syndrome, 315, 316f
of flexor carpi radialis tendinitis, 172, 174f
of orchialgia, 251
of posterior tibial tendinitis, 332, 333f
of prostatodynia, 241
of snapping hip syndrome, 286
of submetatarsal adventitial bursitis, 355,
355f356f
of subtalar joint pain, 326f
of suprascapular nerve entrapment, 9697, 97f
of vulvodynia, 254
Upper extremity pain. See Elbow pain syndromes;
Shoulder pain syndromes; Wrist and hand
pain syndromes.
Urinalysis
in clitoral priapism, 258259
in vulvodynia, 254
V
Valgus stress test, for breaststrokers knee, 303,
304f
Valsalva maneuver, cough headache associated with,
13
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV), in Ramsay Hunt
syndrome, 32
Ventilation/perfusion studies, for devils grip,
178
Villonodular synovitis
vs. scapulocostal syndrome, 60
vs. semimembranosus insertion syndrome, 297
Vulvodynia, 254257
clinical pearls on, 255b
clinical syndrome of, 254, 255f
complications and pitfalls of, 255257
differential diagnosis of, 254
signs and symptoms of, 254
testing for, 254, 255f
treatment of, 256t257t
W
Waldenstrms macroglobulinemia, vs. multiple
myeloma, 221
Waldman knee squeeze test, for adductor tendinitis,
280, 281f
Warrenbergs sign, 127t
in cubital tunnel syndrome, 122, 123f
Warrenbergs syndrome, 136
Watson-Schwartz test, for acute intermittent
porphyria, 205
Whip kick, breaststrokers knee from, 303, 303f
Winged scapula syndrome, 200201, 201f
Wrist
SLAC, 155
trigger, 175177
Wrist and hand pain syndromes
avascular necrosis of scaphoid as, 165168,
165f167f. See also Avascular necrosis, of
scaphoid.
boxers knuckle as, 146148, 146f147f
cheiralgia paresthetica as, 136138, 136f137f,
138t
extensor carpi ulnaris tendinitis as, 169171,
169f170f
flexor carpi radialis tendinitis as, 172174,
172f174f
foreign body synovitis as, 141143, 142f,
143t
glomus tumor of hand as, 144145,
144f145f

Wrist and hand pain syndromes (Continued)
Kienbcks disease as, 162164, 162f164f
lunotriquetral instability pain syndrome as,
159161, 159f161f
scapholunate ligament tear syndrome as,
155158, 156f157f. See also Scapholu-
nate ligament tear syndrome.
Secretans syndrome as, 139140, 139f
triangular fibrocartilage tear syndrome as,
149154, 149f, 151f154f. See also Trian-
gular fibrocartilage tear syndrome.
Index 371
Wrist and hand pain syndromes (Continued) Z
trigger wrist as, 175177 Zinc oxide ointment
ulnar tunnel syndrome as, 133135 for radiation enteritis, 207
Wristwatch sign, for cheiralgia paresthetica, 136, for Ramsay Hunt syndrome, 34
137f Zygoma, tumors of, vs. atypical odontalgia, 3839
Wry neck, vs. spasmodic torticollis, 55
X
Xiphodynia, 193194, 193f194f