ng Thanh Bnh

Chapter 4
Multiple Access Techniques

1
Contents
Introduction
Contentionless Multiple Access
Contention Multiple Access
Hanging Multiple Access

2
INTRODUCTION

3
Introduction
General wireless systems are multi-users systems
Radio resource are limited
Limited bandwidth
Limited number of channels
The radio resource must be shared among
multiple users
Multiple Access Technique is defined as a
function sharing a (limited) common
transmission resource among (distributed)
terminals in a network

4
Classification

5
Contentionless Multiple Access (MA)
Contention-less based:
A logic controller (BS-Base Station or AP-Access Point)
is needed to coordinate all transmissions
The controller informs each device when and on
which channel it can transmit
Collisions can be avoided entirely
The users transmit in an orderly scheduled manner so
every transmission will be a successful one.
The scheduling can take two forms:
Fixed assignment scheduling (Channelization)
Demand assignment scheduling(Non-channelization)
6
Contentionless MA Protocols
Fixed assignment scheduling
The available channel capacity is divided among the
users so that each user is allocated a fixed part of the
capacity, independent of its activity.
The division is done in time or frequency. E.g., TDMA,
FDMA

7
Contentionless MA Protocols
Demand assignment scheduling
A user is only allowed to transmit if it is active (if it
has information to transmit). Thus, the active (or
ready) users transmit in an orderly scheduled
manner.
Demand assignment with centralized control, a single
entity schedules the transmissions. (Polling Protocol)
Demand Assignment with distributed control, all users are
involved in the scheduling process and such a protocol is
the token-passing protocol.

8
Contention-based Multiple Access
Terminals transmit in a decentralized way
No central controller
If several ready users start their transmissions
more or less at the same time, all of the
transmissions will fail.
The random access protocol should resolve the
contention that occurs when several users
transmit simultaneously

9
Contention-based Multiple Access
Example:
ALOHA
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
Standard:
GSM uses the slotted ALOHA in the terminals initial
access process
IEEE 802.11 uses CSMA/CA based contention access
scheme

10
Contention-based Types
Two types:
Repeated random access protocols
Random access with reservation
Repeated random access protocols
With every transmission there is a possibility of
contention
Pure (P)-ALOHA, Slotted (S)-ALOHA, CSMA & its
variants

11
Contention-based Types
Random access with reservation
Only in the first transmission, a terminal does not know
how to avoid collisions with other users.
Once it has successfully completed the first transmission,
its future transmissions will be scheduled in an orderly
fashion so that no contention can occur
Implicit: designed without the use of any reservation
packet
Explicit: a short reservation packet to request
transmission at scheduled times
Ex, Reservation ALOHA (R-ALOHA), packet reservation
multiple access (PRMA),
12
Hanging Multiple Access Protocols
CDMA type (Spread spectrum) protocols
Direct sequence (DS) CDMA
Frequency hopping (FH) CDMA
Time hopping (TH) CDMA
Subcarrier type protocols
Multi-carrier (MC) CDMA
OFDM-FDMA
OFDM-TDMA
OFDMA
Many others
13
Hanging Multiple Access Protocols
Some protocols, such as CDMA, do not belong to
either the contention-less or the contention
protocols.
It falls between the two groups.
It is a contention-less protocol where a number of
users are allowed to transmit simultaneously without
conflict.
However, if the number of simultaneously
transmitting users rises above a threshold,
contention occurs.

14
Classification

15
Focuses

16
CONTENTION MULTIPLE ACCESS

17
Contention Multiple Access
ALOHA
Pure (P) ALOHA
Slotted (S)-ALOHA
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
CSMA/CA (CSMA with Collision Avoidance)
CSMA/CA/ACK
CSMA/CA with RTS/CTS

18
ALOHA
Pure ALOHA
Developed in the 1970s for a packet radio network by
Hawaii University
Whenever a terminal (MS) has data, it transmits.
Sender finds out whether transmission was
successful or experienced a collision by listening to
the broadcast from the destination station.
If there is a collision, sender retransmits after some
random time

19
ALOHA
Slotted ALOHA
Improvement: Time is slotted and a packet can only
be transmitted at the beginning of one slot.
Thus, it can reduce the collision duration

20
Pure ALOHA
Collision mechanism in ALOHA

21
Frames in a Pure ALOHA network

22
Procedure for pure ALOHA protocol

23
Slotted ALOHA
Collision mechanism in slotted ALOHA

24
Frames in a slotted ALOHA network

25
Vulnerable time for slotted ALOHA

26
Pure ALOHA versus Slotted ALOHA

27
Pure ALOHA versus Slotted ALOHA

28
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
Before transmitting, a terminal senses the channel
to see whether there is any carrier or not
If there is a carrier, terminal waits a random backoff
time and transmit data (no re-sensing)
If there is no carrier, terminal starts transmission.
Detection delay is the time required for a terminal
to sense whether the channel is idle or not .
Propagation delay is how long it takes for a packet
to travel from a base station (BS) to a mobile station
(MS).

29
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
Revisions:
CSMA/CD (CSMA with Collision Detection)
Improvement: Stop ongoing transmission if a collision is
detected
CSMA/CA (CSMA with Collision Avoidance)
Improvement: Wait a random time and try again when
carrier is quiet. If still quiet, then transmit
CSMA/CA with ACK (more reliability)
CSMA/CA with RTS/CTS (to solve hidden terminal
problem)

30
Collision Mechanism in CSMA

MS: Mobile Station (trm di ng)

31
Types of CSMA (Access modes)

32
p-persistent CSMA
Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit with
probability p.
Step 2: If transmission is delayed by one time
slot (the probability of this event is 1-p), continue
with Step 1
Step 3: If the medium is busy, continue to listen
until medium becomes idle, then go to Step 1

33
Non-persistent CSMA
Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit
immediately (same as p=1)
Step 2: If the medium is busy, wait a random
amount of time and repeat Step 1
Random backoff reduces probability of collisions
Waste idle time if the backoff time is too long

34
1-persistent CSMA
Step 1: If the medium is idle, transmit
immediately
Step 2: If the medium is busy, continue to listen
until medium becomes idle, and then transmit
immediately
There will always be a collision if two nodes want to
retransmit (usually user stops transmission attempts
after few tries)

35
Behavior of three persistence methods

36
How to select Probability p?
Assume that N nodes have a packet to send and
the medium is busy
Then, Np is the expected number of nodes that will
attempt to transmit once the medium becomes idle
If Np > 1 then a collision is expected to occur
Therefore, network must make sure that Np<=1 to
avoid collision, where N is the maximum number of
nodes that can be active at a time

37
Throughput

38
Problems in wireless networks
Decreased signal strength
radio signal attenuates as it propagates through
matter (path loss), proportional to the square of the
distance
Interference from other sources
standardized wireless network frequencies (e.g., 2.4
GHz) shared by other devices (e.g., phone); motors
interfere as well
Multipath propagation
radio signal reflects off objects ground, arriving at
destination at slightly different times

39
CSMA/CD Review
Collisions detected within short time
Colliding transmissions aborted, reducing
channel wastage
Collision detection:
easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths,
compare transmitted, received signals
difficult in wireless LANs: received signal strength
overwhelmed by local transmission strength

40
CSMA/CD Review
1. NIC receives datagram from
network layer, creates
frame
2. If NIC senses channel idle,
starts frame transmission. If
NIC senses channel busy,
waits until channel idle,
then transmits.
3. If NIC transmits entire frame
without detecting another
transmission, NIC is done
with frame !
4. If NIC detects another
transmission while transmitting,
aborts and sends jam signal
5. After aborting, NIC enters binary
(exponential) backoff:
after mth collision, NIC
chooses K at random from
{0,1,2, , 2m-1}. NIC waits
K512 bit times, returns to
Step 2
longer backoff interval with
more collisions
41
CSMA/CD Review
T0 A begins transmission
A B

T0+- B begins transmission

A B

T0+ B detects collision

A B

T0+2 - A detects collision just

before end of transmission
A B
Time
( is the propagation time)
42
CSMA/CD problems in wireless networks
The sender would apply CS and CD, but the
collisions happen at the receiver
A sender may not hear the collision, i.e., CD
does not work
Furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a
terminal is hidden

43
CSMA/CA
Carrier sense multiple access with collision
avoidance CSMA/CA (mandatory) known as
distributed coordination function (DCF)
Improve CSMA performance by not allowing a
nodes transmission if another node is
transmitting
if station has frame to send it listens to medium
if medium idle, station may transmit
else waits until current transmission completes

44
CSMA/CA
For collision avoidance, use backoff and RTS/CTS
techniques
CSMA/CA includes delays that act as a priority
scheme
DIFS: DCF inter-frame space defines how long a
channel must be idle before a transmitter attempts
transmission
SIFS: short inter-frame space (SIFS < DIFS) defines
how long a receiver waits before sending an ACK or
other responses

45
CSMA/CA Procedures
1. All terminals listen to the same medium as CSMA/CD.
2. Terminal ready to transmit senses the medium.
3. If medium is busy it waits until the end of current
transmission.
4. It again waits for an additional predetermined time
period DIFS (Distributed inter frame Space).
5. Then picks up a random number of slots (the initial value
of backoff counter) within a contention window to wait
before transmitting its frame.
6. If there are transmissions by other terminals during this
time period (backoff time), the terminal freezes its
counter.
7. It resumes count down after other terminals finish
transmission + DIFS. The terminal can start its
transmission when the counter reaches to zero. 46
CSMA/CA

Node As frame Node Bs frame Node Cs frame

Delay: B
Delay: C Time
Nodes B & C sense
the medium
Nodes C starts
Nodes B resenses the medium transmitting.
and transmits its frame.
Node C freezes its counter.

Nodes C resenses the

medium and starts
decrementing its counter.

47
CSMA/CA

DIFS Contention
window DIFS Contention window

Medium Busy Next Frame

Time
Defer access Slot

Backoff after defer

48
Hidden terminal problem
A is transmitting to B
C is sensing the carrier and detects that it is idle
It can not hear As transmission
C also transmits and collision occurs at B
A is hidden from C As range Cs range

A B C
Hidden
terminal

49
Exposed terminal problem
B is transmitting to A.
C now wants to transmit to D. It senses the existence of
carrier signal and defers transmission to D
However, C can actually start transmitting to D while B is
transmitting to A since A is out of range of C and Cs
signals can not be heard at A
C is exposed to Bs Bs range Cs range

transmission
A B C D
Exposed
terminal

50
Solution: Three way handshake

RTS

1
CTS

DATA
2

3
D

C
B

A
RTS: Request To Send
E
CTS: Clear To Send

51
Solution: Three way handshake
RTS packet contains the length of the proposed
data transmission. CTS also contains that info.
Any station overhearing an RTS, it defers all
transmissions until some time after the
associated CTS packet would have finished.
Any station overhearing a CTS packet defers for
the length of the expected data transmission
(which is contained in both the RTS and CTS
packets).

52
CSMA/CA with RTS/CTS

DIFS SIFS
RTS Data Time
Source
SIFS SIFS

CTS ACK
Destination
DIFS
Contention window

Next Frame
Other

Defer access Backoff after defer

53
Reliability
Use acknowledgements (ACKs) Four-Way
Handshake
Sender sends Request-to-Send (RTS)
Receiver responds with Clear-to-Send (CTS)
Sender sends Data Packet
Receiver acknowledge with ACK
Notes:
RTS and CTS announce the duration of the transfer
Nodes overhearing RTS/CTS keep quiet for that duration
Sender will retransmit RTS if no ACK is received
If ACK was sent out but not received by sender, after receiving
new RTS, receiver returns ACK instead of CTS for new RTS
54
Four-Way Handshake

ACK
CTS(T)
CTS: Clear To Send DATA
RTS(T)

RTS: Request To Send

destination

source

55
Contention-Based Random Access Summary

ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA

Decentralized, efficiency 16% and 32%, respectively
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) a form of
random access used for WLANs
Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
Theoretical efficiency ~ 60%
Practical efficiency < 50% even for single user systems

56
CSMA/CA (DCF) Summary
CSMA/CA
Contention-based random access
Collision detection not possible while transmitting
Uses RTS/CTS exchange to avoid hidden terminal
problem
Any node overhearing a CTS cannot transmit for the
duration of the transfer.
Any node overhearing an RTS cannot transmit for the
duration of the transfer (to avoid collision with ACK)
Uses ACK to achieve reliability

57
CONTENTIONLESS MULTIPLE ACCESS

58
Contentionless Multiple Access
Duplex systems: FDD/TDD/CDD
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
Spread spectrum modulation: DSSS. FHSS

59
Duplexing
Duplexing facilitates communications in both
directions simultaneously: base station to mobile
and mobile to base station
Duplexing is done either using frequency or time
domain techniques:
Frequency division duplexing (FDD)
Time division duplexing (TDD)
Code division duplexing (CDD)
FDD is suitable for radio communication systems,
whereas TDD is more suitable for fixed wireless
systems

60
FDD: Frequency Division Duplex
Forward Channel and Reverse Channel use
different frequency bands

61
TDD: Time Division Duplex
A single frequency channel is used. The channel
is divided into time slots. Mobile station and
base station transmits on the time slots
alternately.

62
CDD: Code Division Duplex

63
Duplex vs. Multiple Access

64
Duplex vs. Multiple Access

65
Models for Multiple Divisions
A radio signal is a function of frequency, time and
code as:
s(f,t,c) = s(f,t) c(t)
where s(f,t) is the function of frequency and time
and c(t) is the function of code
Use of different frequencies to transmit a signal:
FDMA
Distinct time slot: TDMA
Different codes: CDMA

66
FDMA Frequency Division MA
FDMA was the initial
multiple-access technique
for cellular systems
Separates large band into
smaller channels.
Each channel has the
ability to support user.
Guard bands are used to
separate channel
preventing co-channel
interference

67
Advantages of FDMA
If channel is not in use, it sits idle
Channel bandwidth is relatively narrow
Simple algorithmically, and from a hardware
standpoint
Fairly efficient when the number of stations is small
and the traffic is uniformly constant
Capacity increase can be obtained by reducing the
information bit rate and using efficient digital code
No need for network timing
No restriction regarding the type of baseband or
type of modulation
68
Disadvantages of FDMA
The presence of guard bands
Requires right RF filtering to minimize adjacent
channel interference
Maximum bit rate per channel is fixed
Small inhibiting flexibility in bit rate capability
Does not differ significantly from analog system

69
TDMA
Entire bandwidth is available
to the user for finite period of
time.
Users are allotted time slots
for a channel allowing sharing
of a single channel.
Requires time synchronization.
Each of the user takes turn in
transmitting and receiving
data in a round robin fashion.
70
TDMA Advantages
Extended battery life and talk time
More efficient use of spectrum, compared to
FDMA
Will accommodate more users in the same
spectrum space than an FDMA system

71
TDMA Disadvantages
Network and spectrum planning are intensive
Multipath interference affects call quality
Dropped calls are possible when users switch in
and out of different cells.
Too few users result in idle channels (rural versus
urban environment)
Higher costs due to greater equipment
sophistication

72
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CDMA is a spread spectrum technique used to
increase spectrum efficiency.
Different spread-spectrum codes that are
orthogonal to each other are selected and
assigned to each user, and multiple users share
the same frequency

73
Structure of a CDMA system

74
CDMA: Walsh code
CDMA requires synchronization among the users,
since the waveforms are orthogonal only if they
are aligned in time.
An important set of orthogonal codes is the
Walsh set
Walsh codes are used in direct sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS) systems (such as IS-95,
CDMA2000, etc.).
They are also used in frequency hopping spread
spectrum (FHSS) systems to select the target
frequency for the next hop
75
CDMA: Walsh code
A Walsh-encoded signal appears as random noise
to a CDMA-capable mobile terminal, unless that
terminal uses the same code as the one used to
encode the incoming signal.
The CDMA system requires orthogonal codes for
channel selection.
Since CDMA systems use the same frequency
bands for all transmissions, only a different code
can be used to select a channel.

76
CDMA: Walsh code
Walsh codes are generated using the Hadamard
matrix with H1 = [0], where H1 is a 1x1 matrix and
is an order 1. The Hadamard matrix is built by

For example, the Hadamard matrix of order 2 and

4 will be:

77
CDMA: Walsh code
From the corresponding Hadamard matrix, the
Walsh codes are given by the rows.
We usually map the binary data to polar form so
we can use real number arithmetic when
computing correlations.
So 0s are mapped to 1s and 1s are mapped to -1s.

78
CDMA: Walsh code
This means the kth row of the H(n) Hadamard
matrix is:

The basic set of Walsh codes is the set of four

patterns 0000, 0101, 0011, 0110
79
CDMA: Walsh code

80
CDMA: Walsh code

81
Near-Far Problem
Received signal
levels at the BS
from different
MSes are different
due to the
difference in the
path lengths

82
Interference in CDMA

83
Advantages of CDMA
Many users of CDMA use the same frequency,
TDD or FDD may be used
Multipath fading may be substantially reduced
because of large signal bandwidth
No absolute limit on the number of users
Easy addition of more users
Impossible for hackers to decipher the code sent
Better signal quality
No sense of handoff when changing cells
84
Disadvantages of CDMA
As the number of users increases, the overall
quality of service decreases
Self-jamming
Near- Far- problem arises

85
SPECTRAL EFFICIENCY

86
Spectral Efficiency
The spectral efciency with respect to modulation
is dened as (: eta)

87
Spectral Efficiency

88
Spectral Efficiency
The spectral efciency of modulation does not
depend on the bandwidth of the system.
It only depends on the channel spacing, the cell
area, and the frequency reuse factor, N.
By reducing the channel spacing, the spectral
efciency of modulation for the system is
increased, provided the cell area (Ac) and reuse
factor (N) remain unchanged.
If a modulation scheme can be designed to reduce
N then more channels are available in a cell and
efciency is improved.
89
Erlang equation: Erlangs/MHz/km2

90
Erlang equation
By introducing the trunking efciency factor, in last
equation (=1, it is a function of the blocking probability
and number of available channels per cell), the total
trafc carried by the system is given as:

is a function of the blocking probability and the total

number of available channels per cell

91
Example
Trong mt h truyn thng s ha dng cng ngh
GSM800, bng thng 1 chiu ca h thng l 12.5 MHz.
Khong cch knh RF (guard band) l 200 kHz. Tm ngi
dng s chia s 1 knh RF; ba knh/cell c dng lm
knh iu khin. Hy tnh hiu nng s dng ph ca qu
trnh iu ch d liu cho mt khu vc th ng dn vi
cc t bo nh vi cc tham s sau:

92
Example Solution

With 2% blocking for an omnidirectional case, the

total trafc carried by 121 channels (using Erlang-
B tables) = 108.4 (1.0 - 0.02) = 106.2 Erlangs/cell
or 13.28 Erlangs/km2
93
Example Solution

94
Multiple Access Spectral Efciency
Multiple access spectral efciency is dened as
the ratio of the total time or frequency
dedicated for trafc transmission to the total time
or frequency available to the system
In FDMA, the multiple access efciency is reduced
because of guard bands between channels and
also because of signaling channels.
In TDMA, the efciency is reduced because of
guard time and synchronization sequence.

95
FDMA Spectral Efciency

96
Example
In a rst-generation AMPS system where there are
395 channels of 30 kHz each in a bandwidth of
12.5 MHz, what is the multiple access spectral
efciency for FDMA?
Solution:

97
TDMA Spectral Efciency
TDMA can operate as wideband or narrowband. In
the wideband TDMA, the entire spectrum is used
by each individual user.
For the wideband TDMA, multiple access spectral
efciency is given as: (with : tau)

98
TDMA Spectral Efciency
For the narrowband TDMA system, frequency domain
efciency is not unity as the individual user channel does
not use the whole frequency band available to the system.
The multiple access spectral efciency of the narrowband
TDMA system is given as

= bandwidth of an individual user during his or her time

slot
= number of users sharing the same time slot in the
system, but having access to different frequency sub-bands

99
Overall Spectral Efciency
The overall spectral efciency, , of a mobile
communications system is obtained by
considering both the modulation and multiple
access spectral efciencies

100
Example
Trong h thng mng Narrowband TDMA Bc
M, bng thng mt chiu ca h thng l 12.5
MHz. Channel spacing l 30 kHz v tng s knh
thoi trong h thng l 395. Frame duration l 40
ms, vi 6 time slot/frame. Tc d liu cho mt
ngi dng l 16.2 kbps, trong tn hiu thoi
c bo v khi li v c tc 13 kbps. Hy
tnh hiu sut s dng ph ca gii php a truy
cp ca h thng TDMA ny.

101
Example Solution

102
Cell Capacity
The cell capacity is dened as the maximum
number of users that can be supported
simultaneously in each cell.
See next slide

103
Cell Capacity
The capacity of a TDMA system is given by (: nu)

104
Example
Hy tnh nng lc v hiu sut s dng ph ca h
thng TDMA vi cc tham s sau: bandwidth
efciency factor = 0.9 , bit efciency (with
QPSK) = 2, voice activity factor = 1.0, one-
way system bandwidth = 12.5 MHz,
information bit rate = 16.2 kbps, and frequency
reuse factor = 19.

105
Example Solution

106
Efciency of a TDMA Frame
TDMA frame

107
Efciency of a TDMA Frame
The number of overhead bits per frame is:

108
Efciency of a TDMA Frame

The number of bits per data channel (user) per

frame is = , where R = bit rate of each
channel (user)
109
Efciency of a TDMA Frame
No. of channels/frame

Last equation indicates the number of time slots per

frame.
110
Example
Consider the GSM TDMA system with the
following parameters. Calculate the frame
efciency and the number of channels per frame.

111
Example Solution
26 X

The last calculation, with an answer of 8 channels,

conrms that our calculation of efciency is
correct.

112
Capacity of a DS-CDMA System
The capacity of a DS-CDMA system depends on
the processing gain, , the ratio of spreading
bandwidth, , and information rate,
the bit energy-to-interference ratio, /0
the voice duty cycle,
the DS-CDMA omnidirectional frequency reuse
efciency,
the number of sectors in the cell-site antenna,

113
Capacity of a DS-CDMA System
The received signal power at the cell from a
mobile is =
The signal-to-interference ratio is

In a cell with mobile transmitters, the number

of effective interferers is 1 because each
mobile is an interferer to all other mobiles
114
Capacity of a DS-CDMA System
In a hexagonal cell structure, because of
interference from each tier, the S/I ratio is given as

is number of mobile users in the band,

, = 1,2,3, : the interference contribution
from all terminals in individual cells in tiers 1, 2,
3, etc., relative to the interference from the center
cell.
115
Capacity of a DS-CDMA System
If we dene a frequency reuse efciency,

Then /0 is given by

116
Capacity of a DS-CDMA System
This equation does not include the effect of
background thermal and spurious noise ( - rho)
in the spreading bandwidth
Including this as an additive degradation term in
the denominator results in a bit energy-to-
interference ratio of:

Note that the capacity of the DS-CDMA system

is reduced by / which is the ratio of background
thermal plus spurious noise to power level.
117
Capacity of a DS-CDMA System
If we dene as the voice activity factor (<1),
then the last equation can be written as

118
Capacity of a DS-CDMA System
The equation to determine the capacity of a
DS-CDMA system should also include additional
parameters to reect the bandwidth efciency
factor, the capacity degradation factor due to
imperfect power control, and the number of
sectors in the cell-site antenna. The last equation
is augmented by these additional factors to
provide the following equation for DS-CDMA
capacity at one cell

119
DS-CDMA Channel Capacity
Neglecting the last two terms

120
DS-CDMA Channel Capacity
For digital voice transmission, /0 is the
required value for a bit error rate (BER) of about
103 or better
depends on the quality of the diversity. Under
the most optimistic assumption, < 0.5
0.6
The capacity degradation factor, will depend on
the implementation but will always be less than 1

121
DS-CDMA Example
Calculate the capacity and spectral efciency of
the DS-CDMA system with an omnidirectional cell
using the following data:

122
DS-CDMA Example Solution

In these calculations, an omnidirectional antenna is

assumed. If a three sector antenna (i.e., = 3) is
used at a cell site with = 2.6, the capacity will be
increased to 325 mobile users per cell, and spectral
efciency will be 0.421 bits/sec/Hz
123
Throughput for CSMA Protocols
Unslotted non-persistent CSMA

Slotted non-persistent CSMA

Unslotted 1-persistent CSMA

124
Throughput for CSMA Protocols
Slotted 1-persistent CSMA

125
Example
We consider a WLAN installation in which the
maximum propagation delay is 0.4 sec. The WLAN
operates at a data rate of 10 Mbps, and packets
have 400 bits.
Calculate the normalized throughput with: (1) an
unslotted non-persistent, (2) a slotted persistent,
and (3) a slotted 1-persistent CSMA protocol.

126
Example Solution

Slotted non-persistent

Unslotted non-persistent:

127
Example Solution
Slotted 1-persistent:

128
HANGING MULTIPLE ACCESS

129
Important Points
What is the main Difference between OFDM &
OFDMA?
What is SC-FDE?
What is the main Difference between SC-FDE &
SC-FDMA?
Compare SC-FDMA & OFDMA?
Where are SC-FDMA and OFDMA used today?

130
Hanging Multiple Access Protocols
CDMA type (Spread spectrum) protocols
Direct sequence (DS) CDMA
Frequency hopping (FH) CDMA
Time hopping (TH) CDMA
Subcarrier type protocols
Multi-carrier CDMA
OFDM-FDMA
OFDM-TDMA
OFDMA
Many others
131
Focuses

132
Hanging Multiple Access
OFDMA (Orthogonal FDMA)
OFDM
Multi-user OFDM
OFDMA
SC-FDMA (Single Carrier FDMA)
SC-FDE
SC- FDMA
OFDMA vs. SC-FDMA

133
Summary of Multiple Access Schemes
Contentionless (Channel partitioning) MA
protocols
Share channel efficiently at high load
Inefficient at low load: delay in channel access, 1/N
bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node!
Contention (Random access) MA protocols
Efficient at low load: single node can fully utilize
channel
High load: collision overhead
Hanging protocols look for best of both worlds!
134
Channel partitioning Multiple Access

135
Channel partitioning Multiple Access

136
4G Multiple Access Schemes
OFDMA (Orthogonal FDMA)
Used in major standards
DL & UL for IEEE 802.16e/m
DL for LTE and LTE-A
Proposed for LTE-A UL
Based on the OFDM modulation technique
Very effective in combating the adverse effects of multipath
Intrinsic scalability in the frequency domain
Relatively simple to incorporate advanced antenna
technologies
Flexible platform for implementing a single frequency
network (SFN)
Flexible resource allocation for multimedia applications
137
4G Multiple Access Schemes
SC-FDMA (Single Carrier FDMA)
Based on single carrier with frequency domain
equalization (SC-FDE)
Used in UL for LTE

138
OFDM Overview
OFDM is a digital multi-carrier modulation
scheme, which uses a large number of closely-
spaced orthogonal sub-carriers.
Each sub-carrier is modulated with a conventional
modulation scheme (such as QPSK, 16QAM,
64QAM) at a low symbol rate similar to
conventional single-carrier modulation schemes in
the same bandwidth.

139
OFDM Overview
Frequency-Time Relation of an OFDM Signal

140
OFDM Overview
Advantages of OFDM technologies
Higher spectral efficiency in real-life time dispersive
channels
More robust less multi-path interference
Easy to integrate MIMO technologies
Simpler receiver to cope with real-life time dispersive
channels lower cost

141
OFDM for Multi-User Communications
Find a suitable multiple access scheme that maps
the user data to a modulation block !

142
OFDM Multiple Access Schemes

143
OFDM-TDMA
Every user allocates all subcarriers in a certain
number of time slots (OFDM symbols) in each
OFDM modulation block

144
OFDM-TDMA
Advantages
No multiple access interferences (MAI)
Incoherent or coherent modulation
Adaptation to channel characteristics
High coding gain due to diversity
Robust against estimation errors
No MAI in case of synchronisation errors
Easy implementation
Disadvantages
Performance of normal OFDM system
145
OFDM-FDMA
Every user transmits on a certain number of
OFDM subcarriers during all time slots of the
OFDM modulation block

146
OFDM-FDMA
Advantages
No multiple access interference
Incoherent or coherent modulation
Adaptation to channel characteristics
Select good subcarriers
Bit-loading on selected subcarriers
Robust against estimation errors
Disadvantages
Stronger requirements on carrier frequency
synchronisation between users in the uplink
147
OFDM-CDMA
Every user transmits on all OFDM subcarriers
during all OFDM symbols of an OFDM modulation
block using an orthogonal code (e.g. Walsh-
Hadamard).

148
OFDM-CDMA
Advantages
Processing gain due to frequency diversity
Robust against interferences
Disadvantages
Multiple access interferences
Only coherent modulation possible
No adaptation to channel characteristics

149
Time-Frequency Block
To allow the utilization of subcarrier by different
users, define a time-frequency modulation block
consisting of b subcarriers in a OFDM symbols

150
OFDMA Concept
OFDM can be used as a multi-access scheme,
where the available sub-carriers may be divided
into several groups of sub-carriers called sub-
channels.
Different sub-channels may be allocated to
different users as a multiple access mechanism.
This type of multi access scheme is called
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
(OFDMA).

151
OFDMA Concept
OFDMA is essentially a hybrid of FDMA and
TDMA.
OFDMA = OFDM + FDMA + TDMA
Users are dynamically assigned sub-carriers
(FDMA) in different time slots (TDMA).
OFDMA allows Time + Freq DMA 2D Scheduling
OFDMA is a flexible multiple access technique that
can accommodate many users with widely varying
applications, data rates and QoS requirements.

152
OFDMA Concept

153
OFDMA Main Steps
The input information bits corresponding to each
user are modulated to symbols (complex
numbers). The generated symbols are assumed to
be in the frequency domain.
The symbols are then mapped to a distinct set of
subcarriers.
The IDFT block converts the symbols into the time
domain, which are then transmitted though the
channel after adding the cyclic prefix.

154
OFDMA Main Steps
Cyclic prefix (CP)
The CP is typically a repetition of the last samples of
data portion of the block that is appended to the
beginning of the data payload.
The CP prevents inter-block interference and makes
the channel appear circular and permits low-
complexity frequency domain equalization.
Can completely eliminate ISI as long as the CP duration
is longer than the channel delay spread.
ISI: Inter-Symbol Interference

155
OFDMA Main Steps

The IDFT operation can be viewed as each symbol

modulating one subcarrier and transmitting the
subcarriers in parallel

156
OFDM vs. OFDMA
OFDMA is a multi-user version of the popular
OFDM digital modulation scheme.
Like OFDM, OFDMA employs multiple closely
spaced sub-carriers, but the sub-carriers are
divided into groups of sub-carriers. Each group is
named a sub-channel.
The sub-carriers that form a sub-channel need not
be adjacent

157
OFDM vs. OFDMA

158
OFDM vs. OFDMA
OFDM
All carriers are transmitted in parallel
Only one user is supported at the same time
OFDMA
Divides the carrier space into many groups
Many users can be supported at the same time

159
OFDM vs. OFDMA

160
OFDM vs. OFDMA

161
OFDMA Flexibility
With OFDMA the user allocation is flexible
Can change from frame to frame
Multiple allocations for several applications
Allocation changes
In WiMAX every 5 ms
In LTE every 1 ms

162
OFDMA Advantages
Scalability
Support a wide range of bandwidth
Robustness to Multipath
The number of multi-path components does not limit
the performance of the system as long as all these
multi-paths are within the cyclic prefix window.
Downlink Multiplexing
Uplink Multiple Access
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) Benefits

163
OFDMA Challenges
Since the subcarrier spacing is typically quite small
(e.g. 10.94kHz for 802.16e), OFDMA is more
sensitive to freqency offset and phase noise.
OFDMA is a type of multi-carrier modulation, the
time domain waveform is Gaussian like with high
peak to average power ratio (PAPR). High PAPR
imposes more strigent requirement on transmit
power amplifer.

164
SC-FDMA (Single Carrier FDMA)
SC-FDE
SC- FDMA

165
SC-FDE
A variation of OFDM is SC-FDE (Single Carrier
modulation with Frequency Domain
Equalization), a modulation scheme that contains
all the same blocks but moves the IFFT from the
transmitter to the receiver

166
OFDM Communication System

167
FDE Communication System

168
SC-FDE
Because of the single carrier modulation at the
transmitter, SC-FDE does not have the high PAPR
disadvantage as OFDM.
Peak-to-Average Power Ratio
Input to OFDM is in frequency domain and in SC-
FDE is in time domain.

169
Single-carrier FDMA Concept
Single-carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA) is a frequency-
division multiple access scheme.
SC-FDMA is the multi-user version of SC-FDE.
Like other multiple access schemes (TDMA,
FDMA, CDMA, OFDMA), it deals with the
assignment of multiple users to a shared
communication resource.

170
Single-carrier FDMA Concept
The distinguishing feature of SC-FDMA is that it
leads to a single-carrier transmit signal, in
contrast to OFDMA which is a multi-carrier
transmission scheme.
The main benefit of SC-FDMA , compared to a
multi-carrier transmission scheme such as
OFDMA, is reduced variations in the
instantaneous transmit power, implying the
possibility for increased power-amplifier
efficiency.
171
Single-carrier FDMA Concept
The system configuration in an SC-FDMA system is
similar to OFDMA with the addition of a DFT and
an IDFT block.
SC-FDMA is based on the same principle as SC-
FDE, the only difference is SC-FDMA is for multiple
users, whereas SC-FDE is a single-user modulation
scheme.

172
SC-FDMA Components
DFT , IDFT: required to generate the single carrier
FDMA signal.
Serial to Parallel Convertor (S-to-P): modulated
symbols are converted into parallel symbols and
organized into blocks.
K-Point IDFT: Converts the mapped subcarriers to
time domain for efficient computations of IDFT K>N.
N-Point DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform): Converts
time domain single carrier blocks into N discrete
frequency tones.
Subcarrier Mapping: Controls the frequency
allocation, and maps N-discrete frequency tones to
subcarriers for transmission.
173
SC-FDMA Components
Parallel to Serial Convertor (P-to-S): The time
domain subcarriers are converted back from
parallel to serial.
Add Cyclic Prefix: CP is added to avoid ISI. The
length of CP is larger than the channel delay
spread in order to avoid ISI at the receiver.
Digital to Analog Convertor (DAC): Converts the
digital signal to analog signal and upconvert
(convert set of values to higher set of values) to RF
for transmission over the channel.
174
Explaining SC-FDMA

175
Explaining SC-FDMA
Transmitter
Converts the input information bit stream into a
parallel bit stream
Groups the bits into sets of m bits
The sets are mapped to M-ary symbols where
A block of K modulation symbols from some
modulation alphabet, e.g. QPSK, 16-QAM or 64-
QAM, is first applied to a size- K DFT.
The DFT block operates on chunks of symbols, each
chunk containing K symbols
176
Explaining SC-FDMA
A K point DFT operation transforms the time
domain symbols into the frequency domain.
Next, the transmitter maps the outputs of the DFT
block to N orthogonal subcarriers where N > K and
where the unused inputs of the IDFT are set to
zero.
In a system with L user terminals, if all the
terminals transmit K symbols per block, then N =
KL.

177
Explaining SC-FDMA
The output of the IDFT will be a signal with
single-carrier properties, i.e. a signal with low
power variations, and with a bandwidth that
depends on K.
If the DFT size K equals to the IDFT size N, the
cascaded DFT and IDFT blocks would completely
cancel out each other.
Typically, the inverse-DFT size N is selected as
for some integer n to allow for the IDFT to
be implemented by means of computationally
efficient radix-2 IFFT.
178
Explaining SC-FDMA
After subcarrier mapping, an N point Inverse DFT
(IDFT) operation is performed to generate a time
domain signal.
The transmitter then adds the Cyclic Prefix (CP),
containing the last part of the block of symbols, to
the start of the block in order to prevent against
Inter Block Interference (IBI).
Finally, after passing through the transmission
filter for pulse shaping, the signal is transmitted.

179
Subcarrier Mapping
Controls the frequency allocation, and maps N-
discrete frequency tones to subcarriers for
transmission.
Two types of SM in a SC-FDMA system
Localized (LFDMA): the M outputs of the DFT block from a
particular terminal are mapped to a chunk of K adjacent
subcarriers
Distributed (DFDMA): the symbols are mapped to
subcarriers which are equally spaced across a particular
part of the (or the entire) bandwidth.
Interleaved SC-FDMA (IFDMA) is a special case of DFDMA, where
the chunk of K subcarriers occupy the entire bandwidth with a
spacing of L 1 subcarriers (where L is the number of users)

180
Subcarrier Mapping
In both of the subcarrier allocation methods, the
transmitterassigns zero amplitudes to the
remaining NK unused subcarriers.

181
Subcarrier Mapping - Example
For K = 4 symbols per block, N = 12 subcarriers,
and L = 3 user terminals.
The input time domain symbols from user
terminal L1 are x1, x2, x3 and x4, and X1, X2, X3
and X4 represent the outputs of the DFT blocks

182
Subcarrier Mapping - Example

183
OFDMA VS. SC-FDMA

184
Comparing OFDMA and SC-FDMA
QPSK example using M=4 subcarriers

185
PAR vs constellation analysis

186
Multipath protection
Multipath protection with short data symbols
The subcarriers of each SC-FDMA symbol are not the
same across frequency as shown in earlier graphs but
have their own fixed amplitude & phase for the SC-
FDMA symbol duration.
The sum of M time-invariant subcarriers represents
the M time-varying data symbols.
When the CP is inserted, multipath protection is
achieved despite the modulating data symbols
being much shorter.

187
Multipath protection

188
Signal generation and reception

189