Beams
c August 1996
Contents
i
ii CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
T x T y C
When a beam is in this state of uniform torque, it is found that only the shear
stresses xy and xz are nonzero
x = y = z = yz = 0
In the absence of body forces, the equations of equilibrium become
@ xy @ xz
@y + @z = 0
@ xy
@x = 0
@ xz = 0
@x
2 I. SAINT-VENANT TORSION OF THIN-WALLED BEAMS
These equations show that the stresses are independent of x, which means that the
shear stress distribution is the same over all cross sections.
By Hookes law of linear elasticity, only the shear strains xy and xz are
nonzero
x = y = z = yz = 0
The nonzero shear stresses are related to the stresses by
where C is a constant. This equation and the first of the equations of equilibrium
form a set of two first-order partial differential equations to be solved, with the
applicable boundary conditions, for the stresses.
Prandtls stress function (y z ) is defined by
@ = @ = ;
@z xy @y xz
Stresses calculated from the stress function satisfy the equations of equilibrium,
and Eq. (1.1) becomes
@ 2 + @ 2 = ;C (1.2)
@y2 @z 2
Because no forces are applied to the surface of the beam, the equality of the
shear stress at the surface and the shear stress component perpendicular the bound-
ary line of the cross section implies that this component is zero at all points of the
cross-sectional boundary. Let the curvilinear coordinate s trace the boundary as
shown in Figure 1.2. The s axis is tangential to the boundary in the direction of
increasing s. The positive direction of the normal n to the boundary is chosen to
1.1. FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF SAINT-VENANT TORSION 3
y C
xy
s
n s
z
xz
xn = xy cos + xz sin = 0
where is the angle from the positive y axis to the positive n axis. Since
dy = ; sin dz = cos
ds ds
the boundary condition can be rewritten as
dz ; dy = 0
xy ds xz ds
which, in terms of the stress function, becomes
@ dz + @ dy = @ = 0
@z ds @y ds @s
This shows that the value of the stress function on the boundary remains con-
stant. When the boundary of the cross section is a single closed curve, the stress
function assumes a single constant value on it, and this value may be set equal to
zero. When the boundary contains several closed curves, however, an arbitrary
value can be assigned to the stress function only on one of these curves. On the
remaining boundary curves, the stress function assumes different values.
The stress resultants over the cross section are the two transverse shear forces
Vy , Vz and the torque T , which are calculated from the shear stress distribution
4 I. SAINT-VENANT TORSION OF THIN-WALLED BEAMS
xy = @u +
@y @x
@v
xz = @x + @u
@w
@z
imply that the dependence of v and w on x is linear.
The longitudinal displacement u(y z ) is called the warping displacement. The
warping displacement in Saint-Venant torsion has the same value for all cross sec-
tions. For this theory to be applicable, the beam must be unrestrained in the lon-
gitudinal direction. A cantilever beam, for instance, has a fixed end, which is not
free to undergo the same warping displacement as the other sections. If external
torque is applied to the free end of such a beam, normal warping stresses x are
developed, and Saint-Venants solution is not applicable.
Because the in-plane shear strain yz and all normal strains are zero, the com-
ponents of the displacement in the plane of the cross section are those of a plane
rigid body moving in the yz plane. It will be assumed that the axis of twist is a
1.1. FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS OF SAINT-VENANT TORSION 5
ey P
Q x
Q 0
ez
line parallel to the beam axis and passes through the point P whose coordinates in
the centroidal Cyz system are yP and zP . It will also be assumed that the section
at x = 0 is restrained against rotation. The in-plane displacement of a point Q of
the cross section is as shown in Figure 1.3. The point Q moves to Q0 by a rotation
about P
x (x) = Kx
for some constant K .
6 I. SAINT-VENANT TORSION OF THIN-WALLED BEAMS
The constant C appearing in Eq. (1.1) can be evaluated in terms of the angle of
twist
@ @
C = ; @zxy + @yxz
@ @u @v
@ @u @w
= ;G @z @y + @x + G @y @z + @x
= 2Gx0
If Eq. (1.2) is solved for C = 2Gx = 1 and the solution is , the solution corre-
0
= 2Gx 0
Z Z
and the torque is given by
The strain-displacement relations determine the strains from the assumed dis-
placement field
x = @u
@x = 0
y = @v
@y = 0
z = @w
@z = 0
yz = @v +
@z @y
@w = ; x + x = 0
x x
0 0
@u @v @!
xy = @y + @x = x @y ; z 0
@u @w @!
xz = @z + @x = x @z + y 0
@y
@! + y
xz = Gx
0
@z
The ratio of the change in volume to the original volume, called the cubical
dilatation, is zero
e = x + y + z = 0
and all surface forces are zero, so that the displacement formulation of the equa-
tions of elasticity reduces to
r2u = r2v = r2w = 0
where r2 is the Laplacian
2 2 2
r2 = @x@ 2 + @y@ 2 + @z@ 2
The partial differential equations for the displacement components v and w are
trivially satisfied. The equation for the warping displacement u gives
2 2
r2! = @@y!2 + @@z!2 = 0 (1.9)
The boundary condition for the shear stresses on the cylindrical surface of the
beam, shown in Figure 1.2, is
xy cos + xz sin = 0
8 I. SAINT-VENANT TORSION OF THIN-WALLED BEAMS
which, in terms of the warping function, becomes
@! ; z cos + @! + y sin = 0
(1.10)
@y @z
Z Z @!
The torque at any section is
T = (y xz ; z xy )dA = Gx @!
@z + y y ; @y ; z z dA
0
J = Iy + Iz +
Z
y @! ; z @! dA
@z @y
The area integral can be transformed into a line integral over the boundary by
Z @(y!) @(z!) I I
applying Greens theorem
@z ; @y dA = ; ! ( zdz + ydy ) = ; ! r dr
where r denotes the position vector from the centroid to points on the boundary
of the cross section. If the cross section is multiply connected, then the boundary
integral is the sum of the line integrals along individual parts of the boundary. The
torsional constant is given by
I
J = Iy + Iz ; !r dr (1.11)
y C
'
r
dr
z
F IGURE 1.4 Solid elliptic cross section
Closed-form solutions for the warping function ! are known only for simple
and regular geometric shapes, such as the solid elliptic cross section shown in
Figure 1.4. The equation of the elliptical boundary is
y2 + z 2 = 1
a2 b2
The warping function is known from the theory of elasticity
! = ; aa2 ;
2 b2
+ b2 yz
1.3. THIN-WALLED OPEN SECTIONS 9
The line integral in Eq. (1.11) can be evaluated with the parametric representation
of the ellipse in terms of the angle '
I 2 b2 I
!r dr = ; aa2 ;+ b2 Z yz (ydy + zdz )
= ; aa2 ;
2 b2 2
+ b2 0 (ba cos ' sin ')(;a + b )d'
2 2 2 2
= ab4((ba2;+ab2))
2 22
J = Iy + Iz ; ab4((ba2;+ab2)) = aa
2 2 2 3 b3
2 + b2
xz
y C
h
z
F IGURE 1.5 Narrow rectangular cross section
constant J for this section will be obtained by assuming that xy is negligibly small
and the shear stress xz varies linearly across the wall thickness
xy =0 xz = 2 max
t
y
10 I. SAINT-VENANT TORSION OF THIN-WALLED BEAMS
The equation to be solved is Eq. (1.1), which, with these assumptions, becomes
t
This determines the differential equation for the stress function
; ddy = xz = 2Gxy 0
When this equation is integrated and the stress function is set equal to zero on the
longer edges of the rectangle, the result is
(y) = Gx t4 ; y2
2
0
Z Z t2
and the torsional constant is found to be
2 3 3 3
J = 4 dA = 2 ; y 2 dA = t A ; 2I = t h ; 2 t h = t h
4 2 z 2 12 3
where A is the area and Iz is the area moment of inertia about the z axis.
In this solution, it is not possible to set the value of the stress function to zero
on the shorter edges of the rectangle. Consequently, the stress distribution
xz = 2Ty
J
is not valid near the shorter edges, where the boundary conditions require that the
shear stress be zero. In addition, the torque due to xz is one-half the actual torque
T . This is partially because the neglected shear stresses xy are concentrated near
the shorter edges and have longer moment arms than the stresses xz .
s2 s1
y C
n
s3
s
The approximate results obtained for a narrow rectangular strip can be ap-
plied to more complicated thin-walled open sections, such as the horseshoe sec-
tion shown in Figure 1.6. Saint-Venants approximation for the torsional constant
1.4. THIN-WALLED CLOSED SECTIONS 11
is
Z
J = 13 t3 (s)ds (1.12)
where s is the coordinate that traces the median line of the section and t(s) is the
wall thickness. The shear stress distribution is
xz = 2Tn
J (1.13)
where n is the normal coordinate measured from the median line. The maximum
shear stress occurs at the maximum wall thickness tmax
y C
xs
s
n
z
A closed thin-walled cross section is shown in Figure 1.7. The tangential and
normal coordinates, s and n, are chosen so that the axes n, s, x form a right-handed
triad. The coordinate s traces the median line starting from an arbitrarily selected
origin, and the y, z coordinates of any point on the median line are functions of s.
12 I. SAINT-VENANT TORSION OF THIN-WALLED BEAMS
The normal coordinate n of any point of the median line is zero. The angle (s)
is measured from the positive y axis to the positive n axis. It will be assumed that
the shear stress is tangent to the median line and does not vary across the wall
thickness. The shear flow q due to the shear stress xs , defined by,
q = t(s) xs (s)
will be assumed constant. Then, at any s, the derivative of the stress function with
respect to n is
@ = @ dy + @ dz = ; cos + sin
@n @y dn @z dn xz xy
q
= ; xs = ; t(s)
The stress function is then determined by setting its value equal to zero on the
outer boundary of the section
(n s) = 2q 1 ; t2(sn)
The derivatives of the axial displacement are
@u = ; @v =
G + x (z ; zP )
xy 0
@y xy @x
@u = ; @w =
G ; x (y ; yP )
xz 0
@z xz @x
where P is a point on the axis of twist. Thus, on the median line, the derivative of
u with respect to s is
@u = xs + (z ; z ) dy ; (y ; y ) dz
0 0
@s G x P ds x P ds
Let rP (s) denote the position vector of the point at s measured from the point P
rP = (y ; yP )ey + (z ; zP )ez
where ey , ez are unit vectors in the positive y, z directions, respectively. The unit
tangent vector es at the point with coordinates y, z is
es =
@y e + @z e
@s y @s z
The unit normal vector en is, therefore, given by
en = es ex = @z
@s ey ;
@y e
@s z
The projection of the position vector rP onto the unit normal vector is
rP en = (y ; yP ) @z @y
@s ; (z ; zP ) @s
The derivative of the warping displacement with respect to s becomes
@u = xs ; r e
0
@s G x P n (1.15)
1.4. THIN-WALLED CLOSED SECTIONS 13
The line integral of this derivative over the closed path formed by the median line
of the cross section is zero
1I I
xs ds ; x
rP ends = 0
0
(1.16)
G
rP
es
rP en
ds
s
en
G t(s) x
14 I. SAINT-VENANT TORSION OF THIN-WALLED BEAMS
The torque resultant is calculated as the moment due to the shear stress about the
point P
Z Z
T = ex rP xs tdses = q rP (es ex)ds
Z Gx
2
0
=q rP en ds = q
= H ds
t(s)
This equation gives the shear stress
T
xs(s) = t(s)
(1.17)
J =
S t
2
s
x y C
It will be assumed that the shape of the median line and its dimensions remain
unchanged in the yz plane when the beam undergoes a deformation under static
loads. This means that the transverse displacements, which are defined as the
displacement components in the plane of the undeformed cross section, of a point
on the median line are those of a point belonging to a plane rigid curve constrained
to move in its own plane. Let A and B be arbitrarily chosen points of such a plane
rigid body in its initial position. After the body undergoes a displacement, the
points A and B occupy new positions in space. Let A0 , B 0 be the projections of
these new positions onto the yz plane, as shown in Figure 2.2. Let rBA be the
position vector of point B measured from point A. The vector rB0 A0 is given by
rB0 A0 = rBA cos x + ex rBA sin x (2.1)
where ex is the unit vector in the direction of the positive x axis, and x is the angle
;
measured from the vector rAB to the vector rA0 B0 , 6 x 6 , with the vector
16 II. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF OPEN CROSS SECTION
become coincident. The rotation
is counterclockwise, if the cross product rBA rB0 A0 , evaluated according to the
right-hand rule, has the same direction as ex. Since
rBA rB A = rBA (ex rBA) sin x = jrBAj2 sin x ex
0 0
the rotation is counterclockwise for sin x > 0. This establishes that the sign of x
is positive when the sense of rotation from AB to A 0 B 0 is counterclockwise. For
small rotations, Eq. (2.1) becomes
rB0 A0 = rBA + x ex rBA (2.2)
Let vA and wA be the displacement components of point A along the y and z
axes, and let vB and wB be the corresponding displacement components of point
B . Let the transverse displacement vector be denoted by uA for point A and by
uB for point B
uA = rA0 A uB = rB B 0
y
A
rBA
B
B
rBA
0
ex
rB0 A0
x
A 0
line, but which is assumed to be displaced as if it were rigidly attached to the me-
dian line. Let es be a unit vector tangent to the median line in the direction of
inreasing s as shown in Figure 2.3. The unit normal vector en is defined so as to
make the triad en, es , and ex a right-handed set of orthogonal vectors
ex = en es en = es ex
Let (s) denote the tangential component of the displacement of the point of the
median line at the coordinate s. This component is given by Eq. (2.3)
(s) = uA es + x es (ex rA(s)) = uA es + x (es ex ) rA (s)
where rA (s) is the position vector of the point at s measured from A. In terms of
the angle between the s and y axes, this equation becomes
(s) = vA cos + wA sin + x rA en
n
Let rA denote the projection of the vector rA onto the unit normal
rAn = rA en
The tangential component of the displacement of the point at s is given by
(x s) = vA (x) cos (s) + wA(x) sin (s) + x (x)rAn (s) (2.5)
y
A
rA (s)
n
s
z
F IGURE 2.3 Tangential and normal components of displacement
where u is the displacement of the point at s along the x axis. This leads to
@u = ; @ = ;v (x) cos (s) ; w (x) sin (s) ; (x)rn (s)
0 0 0
@s @x A A x A
in which prime denotes differentiation with respect to x. Integration with respect
to s gives
Zs Zs Zs
u(x s) = ;vA (x) cos (s)ds ; wA (x) sin (s)ds ; x (x)
0 0 0
rAn (s)ds
0 0 0
= ;vA (x)y(s) ; wA (x)z (s) ; x (x)!A (s) + u0 (x)
0 0 0
where
Zs Zs
!A (s) =
0
rAn (s)ds =
0
rA (s) ends
is the sectorial area and u0 (x) is the longitudinal displacement of the point of the
median line at s = 0.
The longitudinal strain is calculated by differentiating the longitudinal dis-
placement with respect to x
@u = (x s) = u (x) ; v (x)y(s) ; w (x)z (s) ; (x)! (s)
0 00 00 00
@x x 0 A A x A (2.6)
The first three terms of this equation are consistent with the Navier-Bernoulli hy-
pothesis that plane sections remain plane. The contribution of the warping of the
section is expressed by the last term. For this reason the sectorial area !A is called
the warping function. The warping function depends on the sectorial origin, which
is the origin chosen for the coordinate s, and on the reference point A, termed the
pole of the warping function.
rA
es
rA en
ds
s
en
Let A and B be two arbitrarily selected poles for the warping function. Sup-
pose that the origin for !A is chosen to be at s = s0 and the origin for !B at s = s1 ,
as shown in Figure 2.5. The relationship between !A and !B is found by the com-
putation
Zs Zs
!A (s) =
rB ends = (rB + rBA ) en ds
Zs0s1 s
Zs 0
Zs
=
s0
rB ends +
s1 Z
rB ends + r e ds
s0 BA n
s
=; ;
!B (s0 ) + !B (s) + rBA (sin ey cos ez )ds
Zs0s
=; ;
!B (s0 ) + !B (s) + rBA (dz ey dyez )
s
= ;!B (s0 ) + !B (s) + (yB ; yA )(z (s) ; z0 ) ; (zB ; zA )(y(s) ; y0 )
0
20 II. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF OPEN CROSS SECTION
rBA
A s1
rB
rA
s0
z
In this calculation, is the angle between the s and y axes as shown in Figure 2.3,
and y0 , z0 are the coordinates of the origin chosen for !A
y0 = y(s0 ) z 0 = z (s 0 )
The equation for finding the warping function !A with origin s0 from the the
warping function !B with origin s1 is, therefore,
!A (s) = !B (s) ; !B (s0 ) + (zA ; zB )(y(s) ; y0 ) ; (yA ; yB )(z (s) ; z0 ) (2.7)
When A and B are coincident points, but s0 and s1 are two distinct origins, the
transformation equation becomes
!A (s) = !B (s) ; !B (s0 ) (2.8)
showing that the effect of changing the origin of a warping function without chang-
ing its pole is to add a constant to it. If, on the other hand, the origins s0 , s1 are the
same and the poles A, B are different, the transformation equation is
!A (s) = !B (s) + (zA ; zB )(y(s) ; y0 ) ; (yA ; yB )(z (s) ; z0 ) (2.9)
since, in this case,
!B (s0 ) = !B (s1 ) = 0
2.2. PROPERTIES OF THE WARPING FUNCTION 21
If !(s) is a warping function for a particular pole and origin, the area integral
Z
Q! = !(s)dA
is called the first sectorial moment. The area integrals
Z
Iy! = y(s)!(s)dA
Z
Iz! = z (s)!(s)dA
are known as the sectorial products of area. These definitions are analogous to the
definitions of the first, second, and product moments of area
Z
Qy = zdA
Z
Qz = ydA
Z
Iy = z 2dA
Z
Iz = y2 dA
Z
Iyz = yzdA
A pole for which the the sectorial products of area are both zero is called a
principal pole. Let A and B be two poles for the warping function with origins at
s0 and s1 , respectively. By multiplying both sides of Eq. (2.7) by y and integrating
both sides of the result over the cross sectional area, one obtains
Iy!A = Iy!B ; !B (s0 )Qz + (zA ; zB )(Iz ; y0 Qz ) ; (yA ; yB )(Iyz ; z0 Qz )
Since the origin of the y, z axes is the centroid C of the cross section, the first
moments Qy and Qz are both zero, so that
Iy!A = Iy!B + (zA ; zB )Iz ; (yA ; yB )Iyz (2.10)
A similar calculation gives
Iz!A = Iz!B + (zA ; zB )Iyz ; (yA ; yB )Iy (2.11)
The conditions for A to be a principal pole
Iy!A = Iz!A = 0
are solved for the coordinates of the pole
I I ; I B Iyz
yA = yB + z!BI zI ; y! (2.12)
y z Iyz
2
I I ; Iy!B Iy
zA = zB + z!BI yz
I ; I2 (2.13)
y z yz
These expressions do not depend on the origin chosen for the pole B , because
if this origin is shifted, the resulting warping function !B differs from !B by a
22 II. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF OPEN CROSS SECTION
Let A be the principal pole for the warping function !A , whose origin has
been selected arbitrarily. When this origin is changed to a principal origin, the
sectorial products of area for the warping function remain zero, because, as men-
tioned above, these products are independent of the sectorial origin as long as the
centroid is used as the origin of the coordinates y and z . Hence, for a given cross
section, it is possible to find a pole A and an origin s0 such that Q!A , Iy!A , and
Iz!A are zero. A warping function satisfying these conditions is termed a principal
warping function. Principal warping functions will henceforth be written without
a subscript.
b
s2
tw n2
h s1
2
y O C n3 O n1
h
2 s3
z
s4
tf n4
For the symmetric channel section shown in Figure 2.6, the warping function
with pole and origin both at the point of intersection O of the y axis and the median
line is given by
!O (s1 ) = 0
!O (s2 ) = ; h2 s2
!O (s3 ) = 0
! (s ) = h s
O 4 2 4
where the signs are determined from the sense of rotation of the vector from O to
points on the median line. For instance, !O (s2 ) is negative, because the position
vector rotates clockwise as it traces the median line of the upper flange.
24 II. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF OPEN CROSS SECTION
Let A be the principal pole of the cross section shown in Figure 2.6. The coor-
dinates of A will be found by using O both as a reference pole and as the sectorial
origin. Since z0 = 0 and Iyz = 0, the coordinates of A are given, according to
Eqs. (2.12) and (2.13), by
I O
yA = yO + z!Iy
I O
zA = ; y!
Iz
The sectorial product of area Iy!O is zero by symmetry, and the sectorial product
of area Iz!O is
Z Zb h h Zb b2h2 t
Iz!O = z (s)!O (s)dA = (; 2 )(; 2 s2 )tf ds2 + ( h2 )( h2 s4 )tf ds4 = 4 f
0 0
Z
by symmetry
Q!A = !A (s)dA = 0
so that the point O is the principal origin for the principal pole A, and !A is the
principal warping function.
The warping constant I! is defined as the sectorial moment of inertia of the
principal warping function
Z
I! = !2 (s)dA
2.2. PROPERTIES OF THE WARPING FUNCTION 25
Because the section shown in Figure 2.6 is symmetric with respect to the y axis, the
warping constant is calculated as follows
Z h=2 Zb b3 h2tf (3btf + 2htw )
I! = 2 !A (s1 w ds1 + 2
)2 t !A (s2 )2 tf ds2 = 12(6btf + htw )
0 0
b1
s2
C h
y
d e s1
s3
O
b2
z
For the unsymmetric channel section shown in Figure 2.7 with the dimensions
b1 = b
b2 = 2b h = 2b
and constant thickness t, the centroid C is at a horizontal distance d and a vertical
distance e from the intersection O of the lower flange and the web
d= b e = 4b 2 5
The area moments of inertia and the area product of inertia are
Iy = 5215tb Iz = 7tb4
3 3
Iyz = ;tb3
If the point O is used both as the pole and the sectorial origin, the warping function
is
To find the principal pole, the values of the sectorial products of area are needed
Z Zb Zb 4
Iy!O = y!O dA = tbs2 (2s2 ; b)ds2 = tb6
(d ; s2 )!O (s2 )tds2 =
Z Z0b Z0 b 12tb2s
2 ds = 6tb
4
Iz!O = z!O dA = ;(h ; e)!O (s2 )tds2 = 5 2 5
0 0
The principal pole A has the coordinates
I I ; I O Iyz 18b
yA = yO + z!OI zI ; y! = 19
y z Iyz
2
I I ; Iy!O Iy 128b
zA = zO + z!OI yz = 285
y Iz ; Iyz
2
The warping function with principal pole A and origin O is
! (s ) = (y ; y )s = 17b s
A 1 A O 1 38 1
! (s ) = (e ; z )s = 20b s
A 3 A 3 57 3
Zh
The first sectorial area moment is
Zb Zb
!A(s1 )tds1 + !A (s2 )tds2 + !A (s3 )tds3 = 5tb3
1 2 3
Q!A =
0 0 0
The condition for s0 to be a principal origin is
or
2
!A(s0 ) = b3
According to Eq. (2.8), the shift of the origin to s0 gives the principal warping
function
2
!(s) = !A (s) ; !A (s0 ) = !A (s) ; b3
which, when written out for the web and the flanges, yields
!(s1 ) = !A(s1 ) ; b3 = 17 b s ; b2
2
38 1 3
!(s2 ) = !A(s2 ) ; b3 = ; 94 b s ; 32b2
2
57 2 57
!(s ) = ! (s ) ; b = 20b s ; b
2 2
3 A 3 3 57 3 3
The principal warping function !(s) shown sketched to scale in Figure 2.8. The
function is zero at three distinct points of the median line of the section. Any one
of these points can be regarded as the principal sectorial origin s0 .
If a cross section has a symmetry axis, say the y axis, this is a principal axis, so
that Iyz = 0. In calculating the coordinates of the principal pole A, using Eqs. (2.12)
and (2.13), the choice of the reference pole B is arbitrary. When B is chosen to
2.2. PROPERTIES OF THE WARPING FUNCTION 27
32b2
57
+ 32b2
57
+ ;
; 6257b2
7b2
19
; +
; b3
2
;
; b3 2
be any point on the symmetry axis y, it is readily verified that Iy!B = 0. The
coordinate zA is then
I I ; Iy!B Iy
zA = zB + z!BI yz =0
y Iz ; Iyz
2
This shows that the principal pole lies on the symmetry axis. In addition, the point
of intersection of the y axis with the median line is a principal sectorial origin.
For a doubly symmetric cross section, the point of intersection of the two axes of
symmetry is the principal pole, the principal origin, and the centroid.
28 II. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF OPEN CROSS SECTION
!O (s1 ) = 0 0 6 s1 6 h22
h
!O (s2 ) = ; 21 s2 0 6 s2 6 b
! (s ) = ; h2 s
O 3 2 3 0 6 s3 6 b
The area moment of inertia Iy is calculated using the centerline dimensions
3 tbh2 tbh2
Iy = th
12 + 2 + 2
2 1 2
and the sectorial product of area Iz!O is found, taking advantage of symmetry,
Zb h Zb h
Iz!O = 2 ; 21 !O (s1 )tds1 + 2 ; 22 !O (s1 )tds1
0 0
tb2
= (h + h )
2 2
4 1 2
2.2. PROPERTIES OF THE WARPING FUNCTION 29
b
s3
s2
s1
y A C
h1 h2 O
s = E1 (s ;
x) = 0
where E is the modulus of elasticity and
is Poissons ratio. The longitudinal
strain is
x = E1 (x ;
s) = 1 ;E
x
2
The normal stress x is written, using the kinematical expression for x given in
Eq. (2.6), as
;
x = E u0(x) ; vA (x)y(s) ; wA (x)z (s) ; x (x)!A (s)
0 00 00 00
(2.21)
is
in which the material constant E
E = 1 ;E 2
@q ds)dx
(q + @s
x tds ds (x + @ x
@x dx)tds
dx
qdx
The shear stress is determined from the x component of the force equilibrium
equation for the wall element shown in Figure 2.10. If it is assumed that there is
2.4. EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 31
;
over the cross sectional area. The result is
E u0 (x)A ; vA (x)Qz ; wA (x)Qy + x (x)Q! + px = 0
00 000 000 000
which simplifies to
0 (x)A + px = 0
Eu 00
32 II. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF OPEN CROSS SECTION
Let py denote the applied force in the y direction per unit length of the beam.
The direct shear force in the y direction balances the applied force in this direction
Z @q
@x cos dsdx + py dx = 0
where is the angle between the y and s axes, and q is the direct shear flow. Since
dy = ds cos ,
Z @q @q
Z @ @q Z @ @ Z @2
@x cos ds = @x y
edges
; y @s @x ds = y @x t @xx ds = y @x2x dA
where it has been assumed that the edges are free of shear stresses. The last term
is evaluated by differentiating the expression on the right side of Eq. (2.23) with
respect to x and integrating the result over the cross sectional area
Z @2 ;
y @x2x dA = E u0 (x)Qz ; vAiv (x)Iz ; wAiv (x)Iyz + xiv (x)Iy!
000
;
= E ;viv (x)I ; wiv (x)I
A z A yz
Hence, the equation of equilibrium in the y direction becomes
z vAiv (x) + EI
EI yz wAiv (x) = py (2.25)
Let pz denote the applied force in the z direction per unit length of the beam.
The direct shear force in the z direction balances the applied force in this direction
Z @q
@x sin dsdx + pz dx = 0
where is the angle between the y and s axes, and q is the direct shear flow. Since
dz = ds sin ,
Z @q
@q z ; Z z @ @q ds = Z z @ ;t @x ds = Z z @ 2 x dA
@x sin ds = @x edges @s @x @x @x @x2
where it has been assumed that the edges are free of shear stresses. The last term
is evaluated using Eq. (2.23)
Z @2 ;
z @x2x dA = E u0 (x)Qy ; vAiv (x)Iyz ; wAiv (x)Iy + xiv (x)Iz!
000
;
= E ;viv (x)I ; wiv (x)I
A yz A y
The equation of equilibrium in the z direction is
yz vAiv (x) + EI
EI y wAiv (x) = pz (2.26)
The total torque at the section is the sum of two parts
T = Tt + T!
The torque Tt is due to the shear stresses resulting from pure, or unrestrained,
torsion. It is related to the angle x of rotation by
Tt = GJx (x)
0
2.5. STRESS RESULTANTS 33
The torque T! is called the warping torque. It is due to the shear flow q. For a
beam element of length dx, equilibrium of the torques about the pole A gives
Z @q dxdse + GJ dx + m(x)dx = 0
ex rA @x s x
00
where rA is the vector from the pole A to the point at s, and m(x) is the applied
torsional moment per unit length. Since
(rA es ) ex = rA (es ex ) = ;rA en
the first term in the torque equation can be rewritten as
Z @q Z @q Z @q
ex rA
@x dxdses = ; @x dxrA en ds = ; @x dxd!
An integration by parts gives
Z @q @q
Z @ @q Z @2
@x d! = ! @x
edges
; ! @s @x ds = ! @x2x t(s)ds
so that the torsional equilibrium equation becomes
Z @2
; ! @x2x dA + GJx + m(x) = 0 00
00
@ Mz A @ 0 Iz Iyz 0 A @wAA 00
M! 0 0 0 ;I! x
00
34 II. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF OPEN CROSS SECTION
Hence
0 (x) = N (x)
Eu 0
A
A (x) = yz My (x) + Iy2Mz (x)
Ev
I
Iy Iz ; Iyz
00
x (x) = ; M! (x)
E 00
I!
The normal stress is found in terms of the stress resultants by using these expres-
sions in Eq. (2.21)
Iyz My + Iy Mz Iz My + Iyz Mz M! !
x = N A ; 2 y + I I ; I2 z + I
Iy Iz ; Iyz (2.28)
y z yz !
In Eq. (2.24), let the point s = 0 be placed at the free edge so that the shear
flow q0(x) is zero, and suppose that there is no longitudinal external load px on
the beam. Then Eq. (2.4) shows that u0 (x) is zero, and the shear flow is given by
00
;
q(x s) = E vA (x)Qz (s) + wA (x)Qy (s) + x (x)Q! (s)
000 000
000
(2.29)
T! = ;EI
! x (x) 000
Substitution of these results into Eq. (2.29) gives the shear flow
I Q (s) ; I Qy (s) Iz Qy (s) ; Iyz Qz (s) Q! (s)
q(x s) = ; y zI I ; yz Vy ; Iy Iz ; Iyz Vz ; I! T! (2.31)
y z Iyz
2 2
The total shear stress is found by adding Saint-Venants torsional stress to the con-
tribution from q(x s)
2Tt n + q
xs = J t (2.32)
where n is the coordinate measured from the median line in the normal direction.
y
Vy S
es
q
rA
en
of the shear stresses about point A, which is the principal pole of the warping
function !, is calculated by integrating
dMA = ex (rA qdses) = rA (es ex )qds = rA enqds = qd!
over the cross-sectional area
Z
MA = q(x s)d! = T! = ;EI
! x (x) = 0
000
T! (x) = ;EI
! x (x)
000
The torque equilibrium equation 2.27, solved with the applicable boundary condi-
tions, determines the angle of twist as as function of x. With the definition
GJ
c2 = EI
!
2.7. CALCULATION OF THE ANGLE OF TWIST 37
The most common boundary conditions on the angle of twist are those for
fixed, simple, free or beam supports. At a fixed support, no twisting or warping
occurs. These kinematical conditions are expressed by
x = 0 x = 0
0
where the second condition is obtained by setting equal to zero the warping com-
ponent, which is proportional to x0 , of the longitudinal displacement u(x s). A
simple support does not allow twisting and is free of normal stress
x = 0 x = 0
00
Z
where the second condition expresses that the bimoment is zero
M! = !x dA = 0
At a free support there are two statical conditions, one expressing that there is
no normal stress, and the other that the total torque is zero. The second of these
conditions is
Tt + T! = GJx ; EI0 ! (c2 x ; x ) = 0
! x = EI 000 0 000
Zx
The general solution of Eq. (2.33) is
1
x (x) = C1 + C2x + C3 cosh cx + C4 sinh cx ; cGJ c(x ; ) ; sinh c(x ; )]m( )d
0
(2.34)
where Ck , 1 6 k 6 4, are the constants of integration, and one end of the beam
is assumed to be at x = 0. The bimoment is obtained from Eq. (2.34) by two
differentiations
Zx
M! (x) = ;JG(C3 cosh cx + C4 sinh cx) ; 1c m( ) sinh c(x ; )d (2.35)
0
The warping torque is the derivative of M! (x)
Zx
T! (x) = ;cGJ (C3 sinh cx + C4 cosh cx) ; m( ) cosh c(x ; )d (2.36)
0
The pure torsion torque is
Zx
Tt (x) = GJ (C2 + cC3 sinh cx + cC4 cosh cx) ; m( )1 ; cosh c(x ; )]d
0
(2.37)
Zx
and the total torque is given by
T0
m(x) is zero, because there is no external torque for the cross sections that lie be-
tween the two end sections. The external torque is set equal to the total torque at
x=L
T (L) = GJC2 = T0
The other boundary condition at x = L is that the cross section is free of normal
stress
M! (L) = ;GJ (C3 cosh cL + C4 sinh cL) = 0
At the fixed end the boundary conditions are
x (0) = C1 + C3 = 0
x (0) = C2 + cC4 = 0
0
a T0
x
where U denotes the unit step function. The boundary conditions are
x (0) = C1 + C3 = 0
x (0) = C2 + cC4 = 0
0
T (L) = GJC2 ; T0 = 0
T
M! (L) = ;JG(C3 cosh cL + C4 sinh cL) ; c0 sinh c(L ; a) = 0
The angle of twist for 0 6 x 6 a is
T0 ; sinh c( L ; a )
x (x) = cGJ cx ; sinh cx + (1 ; cosh cx) cosh cL ; tanh cL
L
and for a 6 x 6 L
T0
xR (x) = xL (x) ; cGJ c(x ; a) ; sinh c(x ; a)]
2.8. Stress Analysis
As a first example, stresses in a cantilever beam of length L, with its fixed end
at x = 0 and its free end at x = L, will be analyzed. The cross section of the beam,
shown in Figure 2.14, is symmetric with respect to the y axis and is of constant
thickness t. The load is a single vertical force of magnitude P applied at the free
end of the beam. The point of application of P on the cross section is the lower
end of the left flange.
The centroid is located by the dimension a
h(2b + h)
a = 2(h + 2b + b )
1 2
The area moments of inertia are
b1
C S
y b2
z
P
s1
s4
s3 O
s5
s2
or
2 b2 ; b2) + 2hb b (b2 ; b2 )
yS = ;(h ; a) + b3 +1b3 = ; h (2(
hb3 2 1 1 2 2 1
1 2b + b + h)(b3 + b3 )
1 2 1 2
which shows that S is to the left of the centroid for b 2 > b1. The warping constant
I! is found from Eq. (2.20), which for this cross section becomes
Z b =2 h2 b6 2 b3b3
I! = I!O ; (yS ; yO y = 2 h2s24 tds4 ; (b3 + b13)2 12t (b31 + b32) = th
1
)2 I 1 2
12 b3 + b3
0 1 2 1 2
The principal warping function, the origin of which can be taken at O, is found
by transforming !O according to Eq. (2.9)
!(s) = !O (s) ; (yS ; yO )z (s)
2.8. STRESS ANALYSIS 41
The applied force P at the free end of the beam does not pass through the
shear center. The force-couple equivalent of P at the shear center S is the force P
and the torsional moment T0 of P about S
Phb3
T0 = (a + jyS j)P = b3 + b23
1 2
The angle of twist of the beam is, therefore, determined as for the beam of Fig-
ure 2.12
T0 ;
x (x) = cGJ cx ; sinh cx ; tanh cL(1 ; cosh cx)
For the torsional constant J , Saint-Venants approximation can be used
3
J = t3 (h + b1 + b2)
The constant c depends on material constants and cross-sectional dimensions
GJ = Gt3(h + b1 + b2) (1 + b32 )
c2 = EI
!
3Eh b3 1
The internal forces at the clamped end are
Vz = P My = ;P L T = T0
The torsional shear stress, which is proportional to x , is zero at the clamped
0
end. The shear stress distribution over the cross section at the fixed end x = 0 is
given by Eq. (2.32) as
( z ) = P ; b22 ; z 2
1 2Iy 4
42 II. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF OPEN CROSS SECTION
b1
C S
y b2
( z ) = P ; b21 ; z 2
1 2Iy 4
and the shear stress in the web is zero.
The second contribution to the shear stress in Eq. (2.39) is the warping shear
stress
Similarly
Zs
(yS ; yO )s1 tds1 = ; t(yS 2; yO ) ( b42 ; s21 )
1 2
Q! (s1 ) =
b2=2
Q! (s3 ) = 0
Zs
(yS ; yO ; h)s4 tds4 = t(h ; y2S + yO ) ( b41 ; s24 )
4 2
Q! (s4 ) =
Zb1s=52
(h + yO ; yS )s5 tds5 = ; t(h ; y2S + yO ) ( b41 ; s25 )
2
Q! (s5 ) =
b1=2
2.8. STRESS ANALYSIS 43
( s ) = 6T0 ( b22 ; s2 )
2 1 thb32 4 1
6T0 b22 2
2 (s2 ) = ; thb3 ( 4 ; s2 )
2
(
2 3 s ) = 0
( s ) = ; 6T0 ( b21 ; s2 )
2 4 thb31 4 4
6T0 b21 2
2 (s5 ) = thb3 ( 4 ; s5 )
1
The sign of 2 (s1 ) is positive, which means that the shear flow is in the direction
of increasing s1 , hence upward. Similarly, the sign of 2(s2 ) is negative, so the
shear flow is in the direction of decreasing s2 , hence upward. Thus, warping shear
stresses on the right flange are directed upward, but the signs of 2 (s4 ) and 2 (s5 )
show that the warping shear stresses on the left flange are directed downward.
The normal stress at the fixed end due to bending is
Mz
1(z ) = Iy = ; PLz
Iy
y
The normal warping stress is
M !(s)
2(s) = !I
!
where M! is the bimoment at the fixed end
! x (0) = ; T0 tanh cL
M! = ;EI 00
c
To calculate the stresses numerically, the following dimensions will be as-
sumed
b1 = b h = b2 = 2b L = 20b t = 10 b
and the
Poissons ratio will be taken to be
= 0:25. The modulus of elasticity E
shear modulus G are then
E = 1 ;E
2 = 1615E
G = 2(1E+
) = 25E
The transverse and warping shear stress distributions at the clamped end of the
beam are sketched in Figure 2.16. The force-couple equivalent of the transverse
shear stress 1 at the shear center S is a single force of magnitude Vz = P . The
warping shear stress 2 is statically equivalent to a couple. The total shear stress
on the right flange is zero, so that, at the fixed end of the beam, all shear stresses
are carried by the left flange.
The bending and warping normal stresses are shown in Figure 2.17. The max-
imum normal warping stress exceeds the maximum bending stress. The bending
;
stresses are statically equivalent to the bending moment My = PL. The warping
44 II. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF OPEN CROSS SECTION
stresses are statically equivalent to zero force and zero couple. When considered
separately for the two flanges, these stresses are equivalent to two equal and op-
posite bending moments. The maximum stresses are shown in Table 2.1. The
reference stress 0 is defined as
0 = bP2
+ +
+ ;
F IGURE 2.16 Transverse and warping shear stresses at the fixed end
1
1 ;
+
; 2
;
2
+ +
;
F IGURE 2.17 Bending and warping normal stresses at the fixed end
The area moments of inertia and the area product of inertia for this cross sec-
tion are
Iy = 2tb3 Iz = th
3 tbh2
Iyz = thb2
3 2
12 + 2
The torsional constant, calculated from Saint-Venants approximation, is
L
x
L
2
P
hs 2
!(s3 ) = 23 ; 2(hhb+ 2b)
2.8. STRESS ANALYSIS 47
b
h
y
C
b
P s1
C s2 O
s3
0.6
0.5
0.4
x 0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x=L
C1 = 0 C2 = 2TGJ
0 C3 = 0 0 sinh cL=2
C4 = ; TcGJ sinh cL
For the left half of the beam
T0 sinh cL= 2
x (x) = 2cGJ cx ; 2 sinh cL sinh cx
T
M! (x) = c sinh0 cL sinh cL
2 sinh cx
T T sinh cL=2
Tt (x) = 20 ; 0 sinh cL cosh cx
T! (x) = T0 sinh cL=2
sinh cL cosh cx
The qualitative behavior of these functions over the entire span of the beam can be
seen in Figures 2.20, 2.21, and 2.22. In Figure 2.22, the torques Tt and T! are shown
2.8. STRESS ANALYSIS 49
0.4
0.3
M!
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x=L
as fractions of the applied torque T0 . The total torque is the sum of Tt and T!
T L
T (x) = 20 if x <
2
T (x) = ; T20 if x >
L
2
The stresses at x = L=2 at the section just to the left of the applied torque will
be calculated. The transverse shear stress at this section is
0.4 T!
Tt
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
F IGURE 2.22 Pure torsion and warping torques for the simply supported beam
The value of 1 (s1 ) for s1 < b is negative, which means that the the stress is in the
negative s1 , or the positive z , direction. For the web, the first moments of area are
Qy (s2 ) = ; tb2
2
(s) = ; Q! (s) T
2 tI! !
2.8. STRESS ANALYSIS 51
where the warping torque T! is T0 =2, because the pure torsion torque Tt is zero at
midspan. The expressions for the warping shear stresses are
T0 h(b ; s1 )(bh + hs1 + 2bs1 )
2 (s1 ) = 8I! (h + 2b)
T0 hb (2s2 ; h)
2
2 (s2 ) = 8I (h + 2b)
!
T0 h(b ; s3 )(bh + hs3 + 2bs3 )
3 (s3 ) = 8I! (h + 2b)
The normal stress distribution at x = L=2 due to bending is
I M IM
1 = ; I Iyz; Iy 2 y + I I z ; yI 2 z
y z yz y z yz
where My = PL=4. The normal stress due to warping is
M!
2 = I!
!
where
T
M! = 2c0 tanh cL2
The shear stress distribution at x = L=2 is sketched in Figure 2.23. The force
resultant of the transverse shear stress 1 over the two flanges is equal to the total
shear force P=2. The transverse shear stresses over the web are statically equiva-
lent to a zero force-couple. The warping shear stress 2 is equivalent a torsional
moment. The transverse shear stress adds to the warping shear stress over the left
flange, but subtracts from it over the right flange.
The normal stress distribution at x = L=2 is sketched in Figure 2.24. The
normal stress 1 due to bending is statically equivalent to a bending moment about
the y axis. The warping stress 2 is statically equivalent to a zero force-couple. The
bending and warping stresses are additive over the left flange.
52 II. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF OPEN CROSS SECTION
1 +
+ +
;
+
+
; 2
+
;
;
1
; +
; +
+
2
;
; ;
y C
xs
s
n
z
As in Chapter II, it will be assumed that the shape of the median line and
its dimensions remain unchanged in the yz plane when the beam undergoes a
deformation under static loads. This means that the transverse displacements,
which are defined as the displacement components in the plane of the undeformed
56 III. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF CLOSED CROSS SECTION
cross section, of a point on the median line are those of a point belonging to a plane
rigid curve constrained to move in its own plane. Let S be the shear center of the
cross section shown in Figure 3.2 and let (s) denote the tangential component of
the point of the median line at the coordinate s. As shown in Chapter II, (s) can
be written as
(x s) = vS (x) cos (s) + wS (x) sin (s) + x (x)h(s) (3.1)
where vS , wS are the displacements of the shear center in the y, z directions, and h
is the projection, onto the unit normal vector en , of the position vector r(s) of the
point at s
h = r en
y
S
r(s)
n
s
z
F IGURE 3.2 Tangential and normal components of displacement
It will now be assumed that the shear strain xs of the median line is equal to
its value found in Saint-Venant torsion. This assumption can be written as
xs = @u @ xs qt
@s + @x = G = tG
where qt is the constant shear flow of Saint-Venant torsion
T
qt =
t
and
denotes twice the area enclosed by the median line
I
= hds
3.1. GEOMETRY OF DEFORMATION 57
@s tG
S S x
from which the displacement of the point at s along the x axis is obtained by inte-
gration
Zs T Zs
u = u0 + tG
ds ; x hds ; vS y ; wS z
t 0 0 0
0 0
From Eq. (1.18)
Tt x
0
G
= H ds
t(s)
with which the axial displacement becomes
Z s ds Z s
u = u0 + x H ds t ; x hds ; vS y ; wS z
0 0 0 0
0 0
t
The warping function for a closed section is defined by
Zs Z s ds
!(s) = hds ; H
ds t (3.2)
0 0
t
The first term of the preceding equation will be recognized as the sectorial area, or
the warping function for an open section. The warping displacement can now be
written in the same form as it was in Chapter II for open cross sections
u(x s) = u0(x) ; vS (x)y(s) ; wS (x)z (s) ; x (x)!(s)
0 0 0
(3.3)
It is easily verified that the presence of the second integral in Eq. (3.2) does not
change Eq. (2.7) for changing the pole of the warping function from B to A
!A (s) = !B (s) ; !B (s0 ) + (zA ; zB )(y(s) ; y0 ) ; (yA ; yB )(z (s) ; z0 ) (3.4)
The equations for finding the principal pole, or the shear center, also remain the
same as those for open sections
I I ; I B Iyz
yS = yB + z!BI zI ; y! (3.5)
y z Iyz
2
I I ; Iy!B Iy
zS = zB + z!BI yz
y Iz ; Iyz
2 (3.6)
y C
b
z
s1 O
s2
s4
s3
!O (s1 ) = ; a ab
+ b s1
!O (s2 ) = a a+ b (s2 ; b)
2
!O (s3 ) = a b+ b s3
2
!O (s4 ) = a ab
+ b (b ; s4 )
3.2. EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 59
The shear center is at the centroid of the rectangle. The principal warping function
is found by an application of Eq. (3.7)
b(b ; a) (2s ; a)
!(s1 ) = 4( a + b) 1
; b) (2s ; b)
!(s2 ) = a4((aa + b) 2
b(b ; a) (2s ; a)
!(s3 ) = 4( a + b) 3
; b) (2s ; b)
!(s4 ) = a4((aa + b) 4
The principal warping function is zero for a square cross section, which according
to the theory being described here, is free of warping. The warping constant for
the rectangular box section is
2 b2(b ; a)2
I! = ta24( a + b)
In the theory developed by Benscoter for closed thin-walled sections, the rate
of angle of twist x0 in Eq. (3.3) is replaced by an arbitrary function # of x, so that
the fundamental kinematical assumption for the warping displacement becomes
u(x s) = u0(x) ; vS (x)y(s) ; wS (x)z (s) ; #(x)!(s)
0 0
(3.9)
The normal strain x is written as
x = u0 ; vS y ; wS z ; # !
0 00 00 0
(3.10)
The shear strain xs is
@ = h ; # @! = h ; # h ;
xs = @u + 0
H
0
@s @x x @s x t dst
(3.11)
The shear stress is the sum of the bending and the torsional contributions
xs = b + t
The torsional contribution is
t = Gxs = Gx h
0
; G#(h ; k)
where the abbreviation
k = H
ds
t t
has been introduced. As for open cross sections, the bending shear stress has no
corresponding shear strain.
60 III. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF CLOSED CROSS SECTION
The stress resultants for the normal stress x are the axial force N , the bending
moments My and Mz , and the bimoment M! , which are defined by
Z
N= xdA
Z
My = zdA
Z
Mz = ; ydA
Z
M! = !dA
The stress resultants are evaluated, recalling that the origin of the coordinates y, z
is the centroid, and that ! is the principal warping function
0 N 1 0A 0 0 0 1 0 u 1
BB My CC = E BB 0 ;Iyz ;Iy 0 CC BB vS0 CC
0
00
@ Mz A @ 0 Iz Iyz 0 A @wS A 00
M! 0 0 0 ;I! #x 0
Hence
0(x) = N (x)
Eu 0
A
S (x) = My (x) + Iy2Mz (x)
Ev
I yz
Iy Iz ; Iyz
00
x(x) = ; M! (x)
E# 0
I!
The normal stress is found in terms of the stress resultants by using these expres-
sions in Eq. (2.21)
Iyz My + Iy Mz Iz My + Iyz Mz M! !
x = NA ; 2 y + I I ; I2 z + I
Iy Iz ; Iyz (3.12)
y z yz !
The total torque T is
Z Z Z Z
T= h xs dA = Gx 0
h2 dA ; G# h2 dA ; hkdA
The last part of this expression can be evaluated as
Z Z
hdA
2
hkdA = H = H ds = J
t ds t t
Z
A cross-sectional property, sometimes called the polar constant, is defined by
Ih = h2 dA
so that the torque T is
T = GIh x ; G#(Ih ; J )
0
3.2. EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM 61
dx h x h
where m(x) is the applied torque about the shear center S per unit length of the
beam.
As in Chapter II, the equilibrium equation in the longitudinal direction, in the
absence of applied axial load px , gives
t @ x @q
@x + @s = 0
The equilibrium of forces in the longitudinal direction remains the same
0 (x)A + px = 0
Eu 00
@s @x S S
The shear flow is
;
q(x s) = q0 (x) + E vS (x)Qz (s) + wS (x)Qy (s) + #x (x)Q! (s)
000 000 00
(3.13)
As in Chapter II, the shear stress resultants Vy , Vz , and T! be defined by
Z
Vy = q(x s)dy
Z
Vz = q(x s)dz
Z
T! = q(x s)d!
The warping torque is calculated by integrating both sides of Eq. (3.13) with
respect to !
x Q! (s)d! = ;E#
T! = E# 00 x I! 00
Z
because, as shown Chapter II by an integration by parts,
Q! (s)d! = ;I!
Since
Z
q(h ; k)ds = G(Ih ; J )(x ; #) 0
it follows that
;EI ! # 000
= G(Ih ; J )(x ; # ) 00 0
G(Ih ; J )(x ; # ) + EI
!# = 0
00 0 000
h h
62 III. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF CLOSED CROSS SECTION
When attempting to use Eq. (3.14), it is possible to encounter cross sections for
which Ih and J are equal. For the rectangular box section of Figure 3.3, the polar
constant Ih is
Ih = tab(a2 + b)
and the torsional constant J is
J = 2ata+ bb
2 2
This is the governing equation for Saint-Venant torsion with a variable distributed
moment m(x).
G i t(s) x i (3.15)
where the integral is taken around the contour of the ith cell, and
i is twice the
area enclosed by the contour of the ith cell.
In pure torsion the shear flow in each cell has a constant value. On a shared
wall, such as the one of length b in Figure 3.4, the shear flows are additive
q12 = q2 ; q1
where q1, q2 are the individual shear flows in the two cells and q12 is the shear flow
in the shared part of the wall. The condition in Eq. (3.15) is applied to the two cells,
assuming that the thickness t is uniform throughout the cross section,
x
1 ; 2q1(Gt
0
d + e) + q2b = 0
Gt
x
2 + Gt ; Gt b) = 0
0
q 1 b 2 q 2 ( a +
3.3. A MULTICELL ANALYSIS EXAMPLE 63
d
y C
S a
cz
b
cy
z
F IGURE 3.4 Two-cell thin-walled cross section
The directions assumed for the shear flows q1, q2 are indicated in Figure 3.5. The
total torque in the section is
T = q1
1 + q2
2
The torsional constant can be calculated from
T = q1
1 + q2
2
J = G G
0
x
0
x
The warping function with respect to any arbitrarily chosen pole O is written
as
Zs 1 Z s ds
!O (s) = hds ; G q t
0 0
where the first integral is the sectorial area. In the second integral, q denotes the
shear flow corresponding to x0 = 1. For the example two-cell section, with the s
coordinates defined in Figure 3.5, the warping function !O , whose pole and origin
64 III. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF CLOSED CROSS SECTION
s6
s7 q1
y C
s5
S
s1 O
s2 q2 s4
s8
s3
z
q 2s1
!O(1) (s1 ) = ; Gt
!O(2) (s2 ) = !O(1) (a) + as2 ; q2 ;Gtq1 )s2
(
d = 100 mm e = 40 mm b = 20 mm a = 30 mm t = 0:25 mm
cy = 28:61 mm cz = 41:11 mm
The area moments of inertia and the area product of inertia, based on centerline
dimensions, are found to be
1 = 2ed = 8000 mm2
2 = 2ab = 1200 mm2
are needed in the calculation of the torsional constant J . The shear flows are
q1 = 51569Gx q2 = 31069Gx
0 0
where the numerical values in the numerators are in mm2 . With the shear flows
determined, the torsional constant can be calculated
q1
1 + q2
2
J= Gx 0
= 65101 mm4
and the warping function !O becomes
1240s
!O (s1 ) = ; 69 1
!O (s2 ) =
10(289s2 ; 3720)
69
!O (s3 ) =
20(7 s3 + 1030)
69
! (s ) = 1240(20 ; s4)
O 4 69
!O (s5 ) = ;
10(3720 + 413s5 )
69
!O (s6 ) =
20(173 s 6 ; 18380)
69
!O (s7 ) = 10(277 s 7 ; 22920)
69
!O (s8 ) =
40(1195 ; 17s8)
69
where the dimension of the s coordinates is in mm, and the dimension of !O is in
mm2 .
66 III. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF CLOSED CROSS SECTION
6 5
S
1
2
7 3 4
F IGURE 3.6 Principal warping function for the two-cell thin-walled section
10 9 6 O 3 2 1
C
S
8 7 4 5
F IGURE 3.7 Thin-walled section with three cells
function is piecewise linear. Table 3.4 lists numerical values of the warping func-
tion, and Figure 3.8 shows how it varies along the median line.
As a final example, the cross section shown in Figure 3.9, which resembles
certain thin-walled sections found in automobile frames, will be analyzed. The
user coordinate system for this cross section has its origin at point O, with the y
axis horizontal and directed toward the left and the z axis vertically downward.
The position coordinates of the nodes of the section are listed in Table 3.5. The
thickness is uniform for the entire cross section. The principal warping function
for the section is sketched in Figure 3.10.
The results derived above by the approximate linear theory of beams with
thin-walled cross section are compared with the results calculated by the the com-
puter program BEAMSTRESS in Table 3.7. When the wall thickness is very small,
68 III. THIN-WALLED ELASTIC BEAMS OF CLOSED CROSS SECTION
the linear theory agrees well with the results obtained by this program, which pro-
vides a finite-element calculation based on the elasticity formulation. As the wall
thickness increases, the linear theory results become less accurate, and it is pos-
sible to have very large errors in the section properties, especially in the warping
constant. As the thickness is changed, the warping function of the linear theory
does not change, because the median line of the section determines this function.
The elasticity formulation considers the warping function as a function of y and
z , and when the boundary of the section is changed, the warping function also
changes. The large errors in Iyz are a consequence of the assumption in the lin-
ear theory that the elements of cross-sectional area are entirely concentrated at the
median line.
3.4. CROSS SECTIONS WITH OPEN AND CLOSED PARTS 69
9 6 1
10 3 2
S
8 4 5
7
F IGURE 3.8 Warping function for the section in Figure 3.7
5 O
4 6
7
S
C
3
1 2 8 9
F IGURE 3.9 Thin-walled cross section
3.4. CROSS SECTIONS WITH OPEN AND CLOSED PARTS 71
4 6
7
S
3
1 2 8 9
F IGURE 3.10 Principal warping function for the section in Figure 3.9
3.4. CROSS SECTIONS WITH OPEN AND CLOSED PARTS 73