A1: FREE OSCILLATIONS

A1.1 Introduction to Motion understood as motion of surroundings

in opposite direction with respect to
The motion of bodies of diverse nature
the body.
have fascinated human beings and
This concept of relative motion implies
evolved an inquisitiveness to understand
that it is not possible to choose a
them. We come across different kinds of
universal stationary frame of reference
motion ranging from motion of
with respect to which motion of all the
macroscopic bodies to motion of heavenly
bodies can be studied.
bodies on one hand to motion of
All kinds of motions, occurring in the
microscopic and submiscroscopic
universe, fall into two broad categories:
constituents of matter on the other. The
Periodic Motion, which repeat after a
general analysis necessitates the
regular fixed time interval. In such a
requirement of a pertinent definition is
motion, body repeats along same
needed for motion. This clear definition
trajectory regularly after a fixed time
can be pronounced if the everything other
interval. Theperiodic motioncan further be
than the body under study is referred to
classified into two categories:
as surroundings of the body in question.
(a) Rotational Motion,where a body
Hence a body is said to be in motion if its
repeatedly moves along the same
surroundings change with the passage of
closed path about an axis. If the axis of
time.
rotation passes through a point lying
The concept of motion is purely relative in
outside the body in motion, then we
nature. This can be understood through
refer that the body is in orbital motion.
the following illustrations:
However if the axis of rotation passes
(a) The motion of a body in an identical
through the body itself, then it said to
and isotropic surroundings cant be
be spinning. In both kinds of rotations,
recognized. Hence such a body is not
the trajectory is constrained to remain
moving with respect to such
in a plane.
surroundings.
(b) Oscillatory Motion, where a body is
(b) The body moving with respect to a
constrained to move to and fro about
fixed surrounding can alternatively be
Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 1
 its mean position repeatedly and its body itself is treasurehouse of vibratory
trajectory is bound by two extreme
phenomena ( beating of heart, oscillations
positions.
of lungs, vibrations of eardrums and
Aperiodic Motion, which may not repeat
itself along the same trajectory or after a larynx etc). The feature all such
fixed time interval. All translations are
phenomena have, in common, is
aperiodic in nature. On the other hand,the
periodicity. There is a pattern of
motion of electron around the nucleus of
an atom cant be considered as periodic movement or displacement that repeats
as its orbit changes its orientation and
over and over again. This pattern may be
shape continuously.
simple (as in oscillations of a simple

A1.2 Periodic Motions pendulum) or complicated (as the pattern

The vibration or oscillations of mechanical of pulses generated in the heart beat).

systems constitute one of the most A1.3 Free Oscillatory Motion

important fields of study in all branches of As already discussed, in an oscillatory

physics. Virtually every system possesses motion the body is restricted to

the capability for vibration, and most repeatitsto and fro motion about a mean

systems can vibrate freely in large variety position and between two extreme

of ways. Broadly speaking, the positions. The oscillating system abides

predominant natural vibrations of small by the following essential requisites:

objects are likely to be rapid and those of (i) it must be endowed with unique

large objects are likely to be slow. A position of stable equilibrium.

mosquitos wings, for example, vibrate at (ii) it must possess inertia and elasticity.

hundreds of times per second and The elasticity of the body or the system

produce an audible noise. The whole guides the repetition of motion owing to

earth, after being jolted by an earthquake, its tendency to restore to the position of

may continue to vibrate at the rate of stable equilibrium. On the other hand, the

about one oscillation per hour. The human inertia of the system aids in overshooting

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 2

through the position of equilibrium in periodically. This is illustrated by through

order to sustain the oscillatory motion. the following examples:

(i) In a simple pendulum, the bob

A1.4Oscillatory Motion from moves over an arc of circle. The
pendulum, at rest, has vertical
Uniform Circular Motion suspension of the bob. During its
oscillations, the angle made by the
string with the vertical axis (or
equilibrium position)varies between

0 . The
two extreme values of
instantaneous value of angle is the
displacement of the pendulum.
(ii) In the oscillations of the loaded
Equation of Oscillatory spring, the displacement, at any
instant, is the distance between
Motion
instantaneous center of mass position

A1.4.1 Displacement and the position at equilibrium of the

suspended mass. The above said
The oscillation, in general, may be
distance varies continuously and
defined as the periodic variation in the periodically.
(iii) During the discharge of
value of a physical quantity about a mean
capacitor in LCR circuit, the charge on
value and between two extreme
the plates of capacitor varies
values.The study of oscillatory motion of a periodically between two extremums.
Theinstantraneous value of charge
body or system requires the knowledge of
defines the displacement of these
various physical quantities and their
electric oscillations.
behavior with time. One such is the (iv) During the propagation of sound
waves through a medium, the pressure
displacement, which is the instantaneous
(or density) of the portion of the
value of the physical quantity, which is
medium rises and falls alternately with
otherwise varying continuously and respect to the mean value. Hence

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 3

 these can be considered of oscillations corresponded to coverage of angle of 2
of density or pressure.
radians in analogy with the circular
(v) In the propagation of
motion. Hence we define angular
electromagnetic waves, it is the
instantaneous value of periodically
alternating electric or magnetic field frequency 2 as amount of angle

intensities, which constitutes the covered per unit time.

respective electric or magnetic
It is very important to know the position
displacements.
Hence it can be concluded that as well as direction of oscillatory motion

displacement can be defined as difference at a given instant of time. These together

in value of a physical quantity from the define the instantaneous state of

equilibrium value at a given instant of oscillation. The instantaneous state of the

time. If displacement is defined in units of oscillating body can be known by the

length, then we have a special case of

quantity t , which defines the phase
oscillations, which are referred to as
of oscillation. The value of phase
vibrations.
0 , , 2 ,..... defines the body starting
A1.4.2 Phase of Oscillation
from or passing throughthe mean
Every oscillatory motion repeats regularly

after a fixed time interval, which is

3
referred to as time period (T) of 0, , ,.....
position. The phase of 2 2
oscillation. The inverse of time period
defines returning to mean position from
defines the number of oscillations
one of the extreme positions.
completed in a unit of time and is also
If a system starts its oscillations from the

mean position, then its displacement can

1
be expressed as:
called frequency T of oscillation.

Usually one complete oscillation is

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 4

y A sin o t (1.1) (i) The phase associated with one complete
H
vibration is taken to be 2 radians in
ere A is the maximum displacement when
analogy with complete rotation in
the body is located instantaneously at one
circular motion. One way of

of the extreme positions. The quantity

0 t expressing phase is measuring total

defines the phase of oscillation at a given phase since the start of vibration. This

instant of time.Similarly for a system, gives information about number of

which starts its oscillations from one of complete vibrations elapsed and

the extreme positions, its displacement is position as well as direction of motion

conveniently represented as: of the particle in the current

x A cos o t (1.2) oscillation.

(ii) Another way of expressing phase is to

obtain the phase angle covered in the

For an oscillatory motion starting from any
current oscillation. This quantity of
arbitrary position, the representation is phase can also be expressed by

y A sin( o t ) (1.3) measuring the fraction of the time-

period elapsed since the start of

where the quantity denotes the initial current oscillation.

phase or epoch of the oscillatory motion. (iii) The displacement representation of

The phase is the quantity associated with

the oscillator by y A sin t and
specification of state of vibration of the
x A cos t differ in phase by /2. Both
particle. In general it is represented by
these representations satisfy the
argument of periodic (sine or cosine)
differential equation for the free
function. It can be expressed in the
oscillator and hence their phase-
following ways:
synchronized sum must represent the

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 5

 generalized solution. For this purpose crosses the mean position with maximum

velocity and it is the inertia of the

the operator i 1 is used, which
oscillator, which aids it to overshoot the
shifts the phase of oscillation by /2.
mean position and sustain successive
Hence the generalized solution can be
oscillations.
expressed as

y A cos t iA sin t
A1.4.4 Acceleration
Ae it (1.4)
The time rate of change of velocity is

A1.4.3 Velocity referred to as the acceleration of the

The rate of change of displacement with system. Using expression (1.5), it can be

time is referred to as velocity. If the represented as

system starts executing oscillations from d2y d2

a 2 2 ( A sin o t )
its mean position, then using the
dt dt
o y
2
(1.6)
expression (1.1), the velocity is expressed

mathematically as: The acceleration of the system is directly

v o A cos o t o A2 y 2 (1.5) proportional to the magnitude of the

displacement of the oscillator and is

From the above expression (1.5), one always directed towards the mean
concludes that the velocity of oscillator position as is revealed by associated
decreases as it moves towards extreme negative sign. Any oscillating system,
position and it comes to rest for a moment obeying the condition (1.6)is said to
before it starts moving towards the mean execute Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
position. Hence the zero velocity, at and such an oscillator is called Simple
extreme positions,define the turning Harmonic Oscillator (SHO).
points in the motion. The oscillator

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 6

 a 2 y
a
2 ( ve sign is dropped )
y
2 a

T y
y
T 2
a
Displaceme nt
T 2 (1.7)
Acceleration

Thus the time period of any oscillating

system can be determined by evaluating

its acceleration to displacement ratio

using the dynamics of the system.

A1.4.6 Restoring Force

The restoring force arises as a result of

elasticity of the system, which has a

A1.4.5 General Expression for tendency to restore the mean position of

Time Period the oscillator. The force is given as

The expression (1.6) is the basic requisite F ma mo y

2
(1.8)
for every oscillatory motion to qualify as
A1.4.7Differential Equation of Free
simple harmonic motion (SHM). This
Oscillator
expression can be recasted to yield time
The oscillatory motion takes place under
period.
the applied force provided by the

elasticity of the system, which is also

referred to as restoring force acting on the

oscillator. The equation of the motion for

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 7

simple harmonic oscillation expressed 1 2 1
my mo A2 cos 2 o t
2
K
2 2
mathematically as
1
m o ( A 2 y 2 )
2
(1.10)
ma sy 2
my sy 0
s The potential energy is possessed by the
y o2 y y (1.9)
m oscillator due to its position disturbed
s
0 from equilibrium. It is given by the work
m
done by the external force to cause the
The expresseion (1.9) is the differential displacement y without providing any
equation of the free oscillator.The natural acceleration to the system. This is given

as
frequency
0 of free oscillator depends
y y
1
upon elastic and inertial properties of the U Fdy sydy 2 sy
2
(1.11)
0 0

oscillator.
Hence total energy of the oscillator can be

expressed as sum of kinetic and potential

A1.5 Energetics of Free energy components.

Oscillator E K U
1
m o A 2
2
(1.12)
2
The total energy of an oscillating body or

system arises due to its continuous to and From the above expression (1.12) one

fro motion as well as displacement from concludes that total energy of the

its position of stable equilibrium. oscillator remains conserved at all

The continuous to and fro motion of the positions while the inter-conversion

oscillator about its mean position results between kinetic and potential energies

in possession of kinetic energy, which is takes place continuously. This is

expressed as: graphically depicted in fig.1.1.

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 8

 gently, then it starts executing to and fro

oscillatory motion. The various forces

exerted on the bob of pendulum are

shown in the fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.1: The graphical variation of

kinetic and potential enegies of the mgcos

mgsin
oscillator. The dotted line parallel to
mg
displacement axis denotes total energy
Fig. 1.2: The Simple pendulum with
which remains conserved at all positions.
length l of string has a bob of mass m

suspended at its lower end. It is displaced

A1.6Some Interesting at angle to the vertical.

Oscillators
The bob of the simple pendulum is acted
A1.6.1 Simple Pendulum
upon by the following forces: (i) weight
A Simple pendulum is defined as a heavy
(mg) of the bob and (ii) tension (T) of the
point mass suspended at the lower end of
string. At any position in the path of the
long, flexible and incompressible string
oscillating pendulum, we must have the
whose upper end is suspended from a
following:
fixed rigid support. This system hangs
mg cos T
vertically if not disturbed and this forms
F mo2 y mg sin
its equilibrium position. If the suspended

mass (m) pulled to one side and released

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 9

Hence the restoring force is provided by lower end is suspended a mass m. If this

mgsin component of weight. If the mass is pulled down through a distance y

amplitude of oscillations is small, then we and gently released, then the mass starts

can have: executing oscillations along a vertical line

mo2 y mg sin about its equilibrium position. At its

y position of equilibrium, the loaded spring
sin
l
y of length l and spring constant k, obeys
o2 y g
l the equation:
g l
o2 or T 2
l g mg kl

Hence the time period of simple When the mass is pulled downward by
pendulum depends upon the length of displacement y, then we must have:
pendulum (which is the distance between
ma k (l y ) ( kl) ky
point of suspension of string to centre of y m

a k
mass of bob) and acceleration due to

gravity at position of oscillations. As value y m

T 2 2
a k
of g varies with latitude of earth so we

expect that time period will also suffer a

Free Electrical Oscillator
change.
The capacitor (C) charged to voltage V

and charge Qo, when connected to a coil

of self-inductance L, executes oscillations

A1.6.2 Oscillations in Loaded of charge resulting from charging and

Spring discharging of capacitor. The fully charged

Lets consider a mass less spring of force capacitor starts discharging with potential

constant k which is vertically fixed atits difference across its plates decreasing

upper end on to a rigid support. At its

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 10

continuously. The time varying current capacitor is Qo (maximum) so charge (Q)

through the inductor inducesemf across it at any instant on plate of capacitor is

thereby resulting in development of given as

magnetic flux. In this process the Q Qo cos o t (1.13)

electrostatic energy stored in the

capacitor is converted to magnetic energy Hence the instantaneous charge on the

associatedwith the inductor. At one stage plates of capacitor is analogous to the

when the capacitor gets completely displacement in mechanical oscillator The

discharged and the current tends to cease currentin the circuit, which is rate of

but the magnetic flux through the change of charge with time,plays the role

inductor collapses to continue the flow of of velocity. The energy stored in the

current in the same direction. This results

in charging of capacitor in reverse 1 2

Em LQ
inductor is 2 is analogous to
direction leading to conversion of
kinetic energy of oscillator and thus the
magnetic energy to electrostatic energy.
self-inductance of coil provides the inertia
After complete charging in reverse
to electrical oscillator. The electrostatic
direction, the capacitor causes the reverse

flow of current, which decays with time.

Q2
This results in conversion of electrostatic U
energy stored in the capacitor 2C
energy into magnetic energy. After
behaves like potential energy of the
capacitor is completely discharged, the

magnetic flux across the inductor

1
collapses to sustain the reverse current oscillator and hence C provides the
leading to initial charge state of capacitor. elasticity to the electric oscillator. With the
This completes one charge oscillation above-mentioned analogy, the differential
cycle. Since the initial charge on the

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 11

equation for the electrical oscillator is

given as

Q

Lq 0 (1.15)
C

The equation (1.15) is same as voltage

equation for LC circuit and frequency of

charge oscillations in is:

1
0 (1.16)
LC

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 12

 Numerical Problem Set I oscillation, the amplitude and the
maximum kinetic energy. (T=16.76s,
1. Prove that the average kinetic energy
A=14.62cm, Kmax = 29.93erg)
of a harmonic oscillator is equal to its
7. The displacement of a simple harmonic
average potential energy and each is
equal to half the total energy. (K av = Uav oscillator is given by x a sin( t ) . If
the oscillation started at time t=0 from
= 0.25m2A2).
2. Derive the expression for time period xo x v o
a position with a velocity ,
of simple pendulum using the fact that show that
total energy of pendulum at every
instant of oscillation remains
x v o2
conserved. tan o and a x 2 2
o
v0 .
3. Derive the expression for time period
8. A mass stands on a platform which
of oscillations of a loaded massless
oscillates harmonically in a vertical
spring using the principle of energy
direction at a frequency of 5Hz. Show
conservation.
that the mass loses contact if the
4. An object of mass 1g is hung from a
displacement exceeds 10-2.
spring and set in the oscillatory
9. Show that the value of for three
2
motion. At t=0, the displacement is
43.875cm and acceleration is simple harmonic motions of mass m

-1.7514cm/s2. What is loaded on a

thespringconstant. (i) vertical spring of force constant

5. A particle of mass 1 gram moves in a k

potential energy well given by U = U 0 (ii) series combination of two

+ 6x + x2. Find (i) force constant (ii) identical springs of force

frequency of oscillation and (iii) the constant k

position of stable equilibrium. (iii) parallel combination of two

(s=2dyne/cm, f = 9/40Hz, x = -3cm) identical springs of force

6. A particle of mass 2 gram is making constant k

simple harmonic motion along the x- are in the ratio !:2:4.

axis. At distances 6cm and 10cm from 10.A massive spring of mass m and

the equilibrium position, the velocities stiffness constant s is suspended

of the particle are 5cm/s and 4cm/s vertically from a rigid support and a

respectively. Find the time period of mass M hangs are its lower end. Find

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 13

 the frequency of vibration. column in this resonator.

lV
T 2
f
1 s PA
2 m
M
3
15.A mass moves under a potential
11.Using law of conservation of energy,
x
show that the angular speed of the V ( x ) V0 cosh
x0 where V0 and x0 are
simple pendulum is given by
constants. Find the (a) position of
stable equilibrium (b) show that the
d 2
2
E mgl(1 cos frequency of small vibrations about the
dt ml .
equilibrium position is the same as it
12.Find the time period of a compound
would be if the same mass was
pendulum constituted by a rigid body
of mass m oscillating freely around any V0
horizontal axis (at a distance b from 2
vibrating on a spring of stiffness x0 .
the center of mass axis parallel to it)
(stable equilibrium at x = 0)
under the action of gravity.
16.A body of mass m is attached at the
k 2 b2 midpoint of a light and elastic string of
T 2
gb length l under tension (T). The body,

13.A uniform rod of length L is nailed to a displaced through a small

post such that two thirds of its length displacement and released, executes

is below the nail. What is the time simple harmonic motion. Find the time

period of oscillations of the rod. period of the motion.

17.A cylinder of diameter d floats with its
2L length x submerged. The total length
T 2
3g
of cylinder is L. At time t=0, the
14.The Helmholtz resonator consists of a cylinder pushed down a distance B and
spherical cavity with two necks, the released. Determine the frequency of
wider one to receive the incoming oscillation.
sound while narrower one to be 18.A circular loop of diameter d hangs on

inserted into the ear to hear the sound. a nail. What is the period of oscillation

Find the frequency of vibration of air at small amplitude.

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 14

 A2 : Damped

Oscillations
A2.1 Differential Equation for oscillations clearly indicates the influence
Damped Oscillator of opposition from external factors such as
In the previous section, we have
friction. These opposing forces are
discussed about free oscillations of
experimentally found to be predominantly
mechanical as well electrical oscillators.
dependent on the velocity of the
The free oscillator, as conceived
oscillator. If the velocity dependent
theoretically, needs an initial stimulus in
damping term is included, the differential
the form of disturbance from its position
equation for the damped oscillator can be
of stable equilibrium and subsequently it
expressed as
is expected to execute unimpeded
my ry sy 0 ( 2.1)
harmonic oscillations of constant

amplitude and frequency for indefinite

The solution for this differential equation
period of time. However all the oscillators

in the practical world execute a finite can be sought to be y Cet . The

number of oscillations before they cease substitution of this solution in differential

to oscillate any further. Such systems, equation (2.1) results in quadratic
which oscillate with amplitude, decaying
equation in parameter (having
continuously with time, such that
dimensions of inverse of time), which is
oscillations cease after some time are
expressed as:
called damped oscillators. The damping of

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 15

m 2 r s 0 ( 2 .2 ) as elasticity and inertia of the oscillator.

The solution for is given as r

p
The first portion 2m describes the
2
r r s
opposition offered by the external forces
2m 4m 2 m
r
If p on the motion of oscillator. The second
2m
r2 s
q 2

4m m
s
then possible roots are
term m indicates the opposition provided
1 p q
p q ( 2.3)
2 to the oscillating due to its intrinsic

properties. Now depending upon value of

The two possible solutions of y, using
q, three different conditions of damping
roots given by equations in (2.3) are
can be expected, which are discussed in
y1 C1e pt
e qt

( 2.4) the following subsections:
y 2 C1e pt
e qt

The general solution for differential A2.2.1 Heavily Damped Systems

equation is These damped oscillating systems are

y e pt (C1e qt C 2 e qt ) ( 2.5) characterized by positive valjes of q

(i.e.q>0). This implies physically that

opposing external forces dominate the

A2.2 Types of Damping
intrinsic restoring forces resulting due
The equation (2.5) describes the
elasticity and inertia of the oscillator. The
generalized displacement of the damped
solution y, given by equation (1.21), can
oscillator which decayscontinuously with
be recasted to interpret motion under
time. The quantity q, as defined in the
such a situation:
equation (2.3), is dependent both on the

resistive forces of external origin as well

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 16

Let F C1 C 2 and G C1 C 2 then we A2.2.2 Critical Damping

These oscillating systems are

have
characterized by q = 0 which implies that
pt ( F G ) qt ( F G ) qt
ye e e
2 2 opposing forces counterbalance the
pt
( e qt e qt ) ( e qt e qt )
e F G retoring forces. The counterbalance
2 2
y e F cosh qt G sinh qt
pt
( 2.6) should not be taken to be exact as the

restoring force has phase factor leading to

The above equation (2.6) involves
its periodic behaviour. The displacement
hyperbolic functions of sine and cosine,
of the critically damped oscillator can be
which are not periodic in nature. This
expressed as
implies that such a system, if disturbed,
y ( A Bt )e pt ( 2.7)
will not exhibit oscillations but rather

return very slowly to the mean position.

The term Bt is necessary in (2.7) since y is
The behaviour of displacement with time
the solution of second order differential
is depicted in fig. 2.1 as:
equation. If a system, in critically damped

condition, is given a sudden impulse then

it returns to zero displacement in

minimum time. These systems also do not

exhibit any oscillation. The displacement

vstime graph is depicted in fig.2.2 as

Fig.2.1: The displacement of a heavily

damped oscillator decays slowly and

exponentially so as to restore its

equilibrium position.

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 17


y e pt C1 e qt C 2 e qt
r2 s
q 2
i
4m m
s r2
2
m 4m 2
r2
2 02 ( 2.8)
4m 2
Further let
A i A i
C 1 e and C2 e ( 2.9)
2i 2i
Fig. 2.2: The displacement of a critically

damped oscillator decays to zero in By making the substitutions of

minimum possible time. expressions in (2.8, 2.9) in equation (2.5),

we get:

A2.2.3 Under-Damped Systems y Ao e pt sin( t ) ( 2.10)

These are damped oscillating systems

The above expression (2.10) for the
characterized by negative values of q
displacement conveys the following
(i.e. q<0) and hence the opposing forces
important information:
are not able to nullify the restoring forces.
(i) The under-damped system executes
The system oscillates under the influence

of reduced restoring force. The solution y A Ao e pt

oscillations with amplitude
for the displacement is given as:
which decays exponentially with time

(see fig.2.3).

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 18

 The quality of oscillator is considered to

be good, if it has lesser extent of

damping. The extent of damping can be

described by three physical quantities

associated with the damped oscillator.

These physical quantities are defined in

the section to follow:

Fig. 2.3: The exponential decay of A2.3.1 Logarithmic Decrement ()

amplitude of under-damped oscillations
This quantity measures the rate at which
with time.
the amplitude of the damped oscillator
(ii) The frequency of oscillations is lower
decays with time. The amplitude of the
than natural frequency of the free
oscillations at any instant of time is given
oscillator as is clearly revealed by
as:
equation (2.8).
A A0 e pt
(iii) The energy of the system decays in

proportion to square of amplitude,

If the time period of oscillations is , then
which can be expressed as:
amplitude after n complete oscillations
1 1
E m 2 y 2 m 2 Ao2 e 2 pt will be given as
2 2
1
Let E o m 2 Ao2 then An A0 e np
2
E Eo e 2 pt ( 2.11)
The logarithmic decrement () is defined

as

A2.3 Damped Oscillator: 1 A0

p ln ( 2.12)
n An
Characteristics

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 19

Lower is the value of logarithmic
A A0 e pt
decrement, lesser is the extent of

damping. 1 A0
t r A
At p we have e , hence

relaxation time is given as

1 2m
r ( 2.13)
p r

Greater is the relaxation time of a damped

oscillator, lesser is its extent of damping.

A2.3.3 Quality Factor

This quantity can be defined as the phase

angle covered by the damped oscillator in

the time interval in which the energy of

1
the oscillator decays to e of its value at

the start of oscillations. The energy of the

A2..3.2 Relaxation Time ( r) damped oscillator is given as

E E 0 e 2 pt ( 2.14 ))
It is defined as the time interval in which

amplitude of the damped oscillator decays

E0
The energy decays to e in the time
1
to e of its value at the start of
1 m
oscillations. This can be obtained as t
interval 2 p r . Hence the phase

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 20

angle covered by the damped oscillator in Thus energy lost (E) in one complete

this duration with its angular frequency oscillation is

is given as rE rE 2
E .
m m
m E 1 m Q
Q ( 2.15)
r E 2 r 2
E
Q 2 ( 2.18)
If the damping is negligibly small, then we E

get Quality factor (Q) as

An oscillator characterized by high Q
0 m
Q ( 2.16)
r factor loses very small fraction of its

stored energy in each cycle.

Lesser is the damping of an oscillator,

greater will be its Quality factor.

A2.4 Damped SHM in
Another way of defining the quality factor

is to look for the ratio of energy stored in Electrical Circuit

the system to the energy lost in a cycle of Every LC circuit actually has some

oscillation. The energy lost in duration resistance, which may be as result of

equal to time period of the oscillation is contribution from resistance of inductor

expressed as: coil and that of connecting wires. The

dE charge oscillations in such LC circuits get

E (1.33)
dt
damped due to energy loss caused by

Joules heating of resistive components.

The energy decay follows the expression

that

rt

E E 0 e 2 pt E 0 e m

dE r
E ( 2.17)
dt m

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 21

 R2 1
2
For the situation 4 L LC , the LCR circuit

is over-damped and capacitor discharges

completely over a time interval decided

by magnitude of resistance in the circuit.

R2 1
2
For the situation 4 L LC , the LCR circuit

is critically damped and capacitor

discharges completely within minimum

possible time.

In case of under-damped LCR circuit

The voltage equation, which is analogous R2 1

2
4L LC , the charge on the plates of
to equation (1.17) of motion of damped
capacitor decay with time in an oscillatory
oscillator, is given as:
manner and its value at any instant is:
RQ 1 Q 0
LQ ( 2.19) R
t
C Q Qo e L
sin( t ) (1.38)

The solution of this differential equation

The frequency of oscillations is
(1.36) gives the time behaviour of charge
R2 1
on the plates of capacitor. The solution (1.39)
4 L2 LC
can be expressed as:

R
t
t
R2

1
t
R2

1
Q e L Q1e 4 L2 LC
Q2 e 4 L2 LC


Numerical Problem Set II
(1.37) 1. Show that the damping force is
neither a constant nor depends upon
displacement or acceleration. On the
other hand it depends upon velocity

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 22

 alone. 1000, calculate the time in which its
2. Given that a mass of 1kg is energy is reduced to 1/e of its energy
suspended from a spring of stiffness in absence of damping. How many
constant 25N/m. If the frequency of oscillations will the tuning fork make in
natural oscillations is 2/3 times the this time. (t = 0.62seconds, 159
frequency of damped oscillations, find oscillations)
the damping constant. (r = 5Ns/m) 6. Calculate the maximum current in
3. A damped simple harmonic the harmonic oscillator consisting of
oscillator has a time period of 1s. Its inductance of 0.2mH and capacitance
amplitude decreases from 10o to 5o of 5F, when maximum voltage across
after 10 complete oscillations. the capacitor is 0.1V. (Imax = 16mA)
Calculate the relaxation time and Q 7. The Q value of LCR oscillator with C
value of oscillator. ( =7.22s, Q = = 2F, L = 0.2H and frequency of
45.34) 8kHz is 100. What is the value of R.
4. If is the angular frequency of the What will be the frequency of
damped harmonic oscillator and o is oscillatory discharge if the resistance

the resonant frequency and 2 - o2 = of the circuit reduces to zero.

(R=100.5, 504Hz)
10-6o2, then find the Q-value and
8. Discuss the use of damping in the
logarithmic decrement of the oscillator.
designing of dead-beat and ballistic
(Q = 500, = /500)
galvanometers
5. If the quality factor of an undamped
tuning fork of frequency 256Hz is

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 23

 A3: Forced Oscillations
A3.1: Introduction driver system, exerting periodic force on

the oscillator(driven system), so as to

Practical oscillators, observed in day to
guideit to oscillate with constant
day cases, exhibit damped oscillations,
frequency and amplitude. During the
which are characterized by (i)
forced oscillations, there is acontinuous
continuously decaying amplitude (ii) lower
exchange of energy between the driver
frequency of oscillations than the
and driven systems. However it is
corresponding free oscillator (iii)
desirable to have unidirectional flow of
exponentially decreasing energy. If it is
energy from driver to the driven system.
desired to make the system oscillate with
Practical this can be visualized if the
constant amplitude and frequency for
driver system is a large reservoir of
indefinite period of time, then it must be
energy.
supplied energy at the same rate as is

being lost due to workbeing performed

against the dissipative forces. This supply A1.10 Phases of Forced

of energy can be accomplished through a Oscillations

periodic force exerted by some external
Lets consider that a driver system
agency. Such a system, which maintains
imposes a periodic force on an oscillator,
constant amplitude and frequency of
which is already executing damped
oscillation under the influence of external
oscillations.In the initial phase, the
driver system exerting periodic force, is
oscillator (driven system) resists the
called a forced oscillator. From the above
change in frequency and amplitude.
discussion, it is revealed that we need a
However gradually, its frequency suffers

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 24

continuous drift towards the periodicity at In the above equation the force is exerted

which driver system exerts the force. This at a frequency . The trial solution for the

is the transient phase of the forced above given differential equation is

oscillations. The transient phase can be

y Aeit (1.42)
represented by the equation of motion

expressed mathematically as: Using the solution, given by the equation

my ry sy 0 (1.40) (1.42), in the differential equation (1.41),

we get:

This equation is same as that for damped

m 2

ir s A F0 (1.43)
oscillations. This clearly implies that in the

transient phase of forced oscillations, the The equation (1.43) can be rearranged to

driven system properties suffer no give amplitude of forced oscillations as

alteration due to imposed periodic force iF0

A (1.44)
s
by the driver system.After some time r i ( m )

driven system stabilizes frequency and

amplitude of its oscillations. This is the The amplitude of the forced oscillator

steady state of forced oscillations. depends upon the frequency of force

applied.

A1.11Treatment of Steady A1.12 Impedance to

State Forced Oscillations
The steady state of oscillation, driven bya Oscillator
periodic force, is represented by the
The total opposition offered to the
equation of motion expressed
oscillator is referred to as impedance and
mathematically as:
is expressed mathematically as:
it
my ry sy F0 e (1.41)
s
Z r i ( m ) (1.45)

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 25

The impedance, given by equation (1.44), The displacement (y) of the forced

is constituted by (i) opposition r resulting oscillator can be expressed, using

from external dissipative factors (ii) equations (1.42,1.44 and 1.46) as:

reactance im

i t
inertial offered to the iF0 e it F0 e 2
y (1.47 )
Z 0 e i Z 0
oscillator due to its own inertia (iii) elastic

The expression (1.47) gives the

is
displacement of the forced oscillator in its
reactance offered due to elasticity of
steady state of oscillations. This
the forced oscillator. The reactance terms
expression reveals the following

have i 1 to indicate that these information: (i) Theamplitude of the

oppositions are not directly observable as oscillation is guided by the amplitude and

they arise due to intrinsic properties of frequency of the external periodic force

the oscillating system. We can reexpress applied. (ii) The impedance offered to the

the impedance as oscillator tends to attenuate the

s amplitude of forced oscillations. This

Z Z 0 e i r i ( m ) (1.45)

implies that external dissipative forces,
s
where Z 0 cos r ; Z 0 sin m
inertia and elasticity of the oscillator tend
2
Z 0 r 2 m
s
to decrease the amplitude. (iii) The

(1.46)
s displacement of the forced oscillator lags
m
tan
r behind the applied force by a phase of

(+/2). The phase ofarises due to

A1.13 Displacement of
reactance of the oscillator.

Forced Oscillator Lets study the behaviour of displacement

as a function of frequency of the periodic

driving force:

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 26

 When 0 , then inertial reactance m
s
becomes negligible while the elastic tan
r
reactance becomes very large. As a

result the displacement of the 2 2
oscillator is negligibly small with
Thus amplitude at high frequency is
amplitude (for negligible r) controlled
by stiffness alone. It is given as inertia controlled and displacement is in

F0 anti-phase to the applied force.

A (1.48)
s
The variation of behaviour of phase as

The phase of displacement is function of frequency of drivers force is

expressed as: shown in fig.1.5.

s
m
tan
r

0
2 2

Hence displacement is in phase with

the applied periodic force.

When , the inertial reactance

becomes very large while the elastic
Fig. 1.5: The variation of total phase of
reactance plays no role. As a result, the
displacement with frequency of applied
amplitude of oscillation is:
F0 periodic force.
A 0
m 2
The displacement of the forced
oscillator becomes maximum at a
Total phase of displacement is given as
frequency given by the condition

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 27

 d
Z m r 0
d
d s 2
r ( m 0
2
)
d r

r2
r2 02 (1.48)
2m 2

The frequency r defines the

displacement resonance.The graphical

depiction of behaviour of displacement

as function of frequency of drivers

force is shown in fig,1.6, which reveals

Fig. 1.6: The behavior of displacement
the following observations: of the forced oscillator as a function of
frequency of the driving force.
The amplitude increases and becomes

maximum when the frequency of the

A1.14 Velocity of the Forced
driven system matches with that of

driver. Oscillator

The variation of displacement with The velocity of the forced oscillator can be

frequency is sharper for lower values expressed mathematically as:

of resistance. dy F
v 0 ei (t ) (1.49)
dt Z0

The velocity of the forced oscillator

depends upon the magnitude and

frequency of the applied force. The

velocity lags by phase of w.r.t the

applied force. Lets study the behaviour of

velocity and its phase with the frequency

of the applied force:

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 28

 When 0 , the impedance to the respectively.

oscillator becomes very high due to

large elastic reactance. Consequently
the oscillator comes to rest. Its phase
w.r.t applied force is -/2, which implies
that velocity leads the force by quarter
of cycle.
When , the inertial reactance
becomes very large to result in high
impedance and thereby velocity of
oscillator is again zero. The velocity
lags by /2 in phase from the applied
force.

When
0 , the impedance to the

oscillator is minimized and velocity of

F0 Fig. 1.7: The variation of phase of

the oscillator is maximum, equal to r
velocity with frequency of periodic force.
. This is referred to as velocity
resonance and occurs at a different
frequency than that of resonance of
displacement. The velocity is in phase
with the applied force.
The graphical behaviour of phase and

amplitude of velocity with frequency is

depicted graphically in figures 1.7 and 1.8

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 29

Fig. 1.8: The variation of amplitude of F02
velocity with frequency of periodic force. The quantity
2Z 0 is called the peak power

while cos is called power factor, which is

A1.15 Power Supplied to
dependent upon reactance offered to the

Oscillator oscillator.

In order to maintain steady oscillations, Lets study the behaviour of power

absorbed as a function of drivers
the driver must supply energy at the
frequency. The graphical behaviour of
same rate at which it is lost by the power with frequency of drivers force is

oscillator. The rate of supply of energy to shown in figure 1.9.

the oscillator by the driver is referred to

as the power supplied. This can evaluated

as:

F02
Pinst Fv cos t cos(t )
Z0

The instantaneous power expressed

above is of no significance as its value

varies continuously. Hence we define the

average power, which is defined as the Fig. 1.9: The variation of power absorbed
by the oscillator from driver system
power delivered by the driver over a

period of one oscillation. It can be

When 0 , the reactance due to
expressed as: elasticity becomes very high and
T T results in large impedance to the
1 F02
Pav
T Pinstdt
0
Z 0T cos t cos(t )dt
0
oscillator. In this situation, the power
delivered to the oscillator by the driver
F02
cos (1.50) is zero.
2Z 0

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 30

 When , the inertial reactance Pmax
P1 / 2
makes the impedance very large and 2
again no power is delivered to the rF02 F02

oscillator. 2 Z 02 4r
When

0, then impedance is
minimum (equal to r) and power
absorbed by the oscillator becomes
The above expression gives the condition
maximum. This situation is referred to
as power resonance. The power factor that
cos = 1 and power delivered is given
s 2
F02 2r 2 r 2 (m )
Pmax
as 2r .
s
m r

A1.15 Quality Factor of s
m 2 r
2
Forced OscillatorThe power s
m1 r
1
absorption curve shown in fig.1.9,

indicates that power becomes half of the From above two expressions, we get

maximum value at two frequencies 1 and r

2 1 (1.52)
m
2. The quality factor of a forced oscillator

is defined as Thus the quality factor of the forced

0 oscillator will be given as

Q (1.51)
(2 1 )
0 0 m
Q (1.53)
2 1 r
The frequency interval (2-1) is called the

bandwidth of the forced oscillator. Using The quality factor is larger for the sharply

the concept of half-power points we can peaked power absorption curves. This

write: implies that such an oscillator absorbs

large amount of power when operating

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 31

within the frequency interval of circuit, the maximum potential drop
across the capacitor occurs at a
bandwidth.
frequency = o{1 1/2Q2}.
4. Show that for the undamped
Vector Form of Ohms Law oscillator driven by F = FoSint, the
steady state solution for displacement
is given as:
X= FoSint/m(o2 - 2)
5. Show that the fractional change in
resonant frequency of a damped
oscillator over that of undamped
oscillator is approximately equal to
1/8Q2, where Q is the quality factor.
6. A rms voltage of 100V is applied to
Numerical Problem Set III
a series LCR circuit having R=10, L =
1. Find the value of damping 0.01H and C=1F. Calculate the
resistance r such that acceleration following: (i) natural frequency of
amplitude at the frequency of velocity oscillation of circuit (ii) current at
resonance is equal to the limit of resonance (iii) Q value of the circuit at
acceleration at high frequencies. resonance (iv) frequency bandwidth of
2. Show that the bandwidth of the circuit. (f= 1592Hz, Imax =10A, Q
resonance absorption curve defines =10, =103rad/s).
the phase angle range is given by -1
tan +1.
3. Show that in the resonant LCR

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 32

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 33
Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 34
Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 35
Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 36
A6: ULTRASONIC WAVES
Any mechanical disturbance occurring and directional property, these waves

in the universe results in the are preferred over audible range of

propagation of accoustic waves. The frequencies.

acoustic waves can be classified into

three general classes based on their PRODUCTION

frequency ranges: (i) the acoustic There are many methods of producing

waves of frequencies in the the range ultrasonic waves e.g., whistles, sirens,

20Hz to 20kHz are audible to human mechanical vibrators, electromagnetic

beings and are called sound. (ii) the transducers etc. Most commonly used

acoustic waves of frequencies less are piezoelectric and magnetostriction

than 20Hz, which are commonly oscillator method. These are discussed

produced in earthquakes, form below:

infrasonic waves. (iii) The accoustic

waves of frequency greater than 20kHz (a) Piezoelectric Oscillator Method:

Certain crystals when subjected to
are called ultrasonic waves. Human
stress, develop potential difference
ear cannot respond to either of infra-
across a pair of opposite faces. This
and ultrasonic waves. The upper phenomenon is referred to as
piezoelectric effect and such crystals
frequency limit of ultrasonic waves is
are called piezoelectric crystals.
around 500MHz and is decided by their
Common examples of piezoelectric
generator. Due to their small materials are quartz, Rochelle salt,
Barium Titanate. The polarity of
wavelength, noiseless performance

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 37

 compressive stress developed is
opposite to that of tension.
In the converse phenomenon, crystal

expands and contracts along one axis

when an appropriate electric field is

applied along perpendicular axis to it.

In a piezoelectric crystal there are

three specific axes or directions; Figure 10

electric axis (x-axis), mechanical axis

(y-axis) and optic axis (z-axis). If the The crystal is cut with the major

electrical and mechanical stresses are surface along the electric axis and is

applied along electric and mechanical mounted between the plates. The

axes respectively, the piezoelectric frequency of the oscillator is controlled

effect is maximum. For the generation by LC combination.

of ultrasonic waves, the electric field of The relation between the wavelength

definite frequency is applied to a of the stationary wave excited in the

crystal along its proper axis which quartz crystal plate because of its

causes the crystal to expand and natural resonance and the thickness of

contract alternatively resulting in the plate (t) is

generation of ultrasonic waves. The

t
2
frequency of ultrasonic waves can be

controlled by the frequency of applied The velocity of ultrasonic waves in the

electric field. The alternating electric medium is given as
field is generated by an electronic
Y
V
oscillator shown in the figure 10 below: .

The frequency will be

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 38

 V frequency as that of alternating field.
f Hz
2t The frequency of vibrations can be
adjusted and ultrasonic waves of
The experimental value of frequency is desired frequency can be generated.
Ordinarily, the amplitude of vibrations
slightly different than the theoretical
is small but at resonance, where
value. It is because the vibrations
frequency of applied alternating
other than in x-direction are not magnetic field matches with natural
frequency of oscillations of rod, the
considered.
amplitude increases considerably.
The advantages of the piezoelectric
Generally the rod is designed to
oscillators lie in their small size, low
oscillate in the fundamental mode. The
cost, versatility in production of high
velocity of ultrasonic waves in the bar
frequency ultrasonic waves and faithful
is
wave form of output.
Y
V
.
(b) Magnetostriction Oscillator
When an alternating magnetic field is
Method: When a ferromagnetic rod is
subjected to an axial magnetic field, its applied, rod expands and contracts.

length increases (or decreases). This The alternating magnetic field is

phenomenon, discovered by Joule, is
generated by the electronic oscillator
called positive (or negative)
magnetostriction effect. It is strong in and its frequency is controlled by the

ferromagnetic materials like iron, variable capacitor. Figure 11 shows the

cobalt, nickel and their alloys. One can
circuit diagram of the magnetostriction
produce mechanical vibrations in the
metal rod by placing it in alternating oscillator.

magnetic field. If the rod is previously

unmagnetised, then it vibrates with a
frequency double that of magnetic
field. However if it is previously
magnetized then it vibrates with same

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 39

 The permanently magnetized Nickel

rod is clamped at the centre. There are

L
2 two coils L1 and L2 are connected to

emitter-base and base-collector

circuits respectively. When current

L1
passing through L2 is changed, it

causes a variation in magnetization of

Figure 11
the rod resulting in alternation in its

length. This change leads to variation

in magnetic flux linked with other coil

L1 and leads to an induced emf

causing change in emitter base

voltage. The resulting change in

emitter current again alters the length

of rod. In this way oscillations of the

rod are maintained. The frequency of

the nickel rod is controlled by the

variable capacitance C and is given by

1
f
2 LC

If this frequency matches with natural

frequency of oscillation of rod

K Y
f
2l

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 40

 then resonance occurs and amplitude
increases considerably.
The magnetostriction oscillators have
advantage of simplicity, low cost and
large power handling at
frequencies. However they are not
suitable for use for production of high
frequency ultrasonic waves.
DETECTION
The ultrasonic waves cant be detected
directly but some animals like bat can
do so. These waves are detected by
the following techniques:
1. Piezo-electric Detector: When one
pair of faces of a quartz crystal is
subjected to ultrasonic waves, on the
other perpendicular faces, varying
electric charges are produced. Though
these charges are small but can be
amplified and detected.
Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy
2. Kundts Tube: When ultrasonic
waves of relatively large wavelength
are passed through Kundts tube, then
lycopodium powder sprinkled in the
tube, collects in the form of heaps at
nodal points and is blown off from anti-
low
nodal points. This helps in detection of
ultrasonic waves and measuring its
wavelength.
3. Acoustic Diffraction Method: When
the ultrasonic waves are propagated in
a liquid, the density varies from layer
to layer due to periodic variation of
pressure. If under this condition,
monochromatic light is passed through
the liquid at right angles to the waves,
then liquid behaves like a diffraction
grating. The diffraction pattern of light,
so obtained with this grating, can be
used to find the velocity of ultrasonic
waves.
APPLICATIONS
The ultrasonic waves can be used in
different types of applications using
two techniques. Both the techniques
are discussed below along with their
associated applications:
LOW INTENSITY TECHNIQUES
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is
defined as testing a material without
Page 41
 causing any change in the properties
of material. Ultrasonic waves have
very low acoustic power ( ~ 10mW),
they can be used for low intensity
applications. The following methods
are used in low intensity applications,
which are carried over the frequency
range 0.5 - 10MHz.
(a) Pulse Echo Method: In this method,
short regular pulses are generated in
the test sample and the time taken by
them to pass the distance is measured.
The trigger circuit excites time base of
CRO and pulse generator
simultaneously. A transducer emits a
short pulse of ultrasonic wave into the
sample. At the same time the signal
passes through the tuned amplifier to
vertical plates of CRO. A large peak P is
observed on the screen. The ultrasonic
pulse is reflected from the opposite
boundary of the sample and received
by the same transducer which acts as
a receiver. The signal is amplified,
rectified and fed to the vertical plates
of CRO. By the time the beam of CRO
is moved towards right. A reflected
pulse is shown by smaller peak Q. The
distance between two peaks P and Q
depends upon the time required for a
pulse to traverse the sample and
Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy
calibration of time-base of CRO. The
time base of CRO can be adjusted to
observe several peaks of decreasing
heights, corresponding to multiple
reflections. This is called multiple echo
method. The block diagram for these
measurements are given in figure 12
Figure 12
(b) Progressive Continuous wave
Method: The transmitting transducer is
excited to generate continuous wave in
the sample. The waves are detected by
a receiver placed at a measured
distance from the transmitter. This
method is used when the attenuation
in the sample is high or damping
mechanism is used to avoid reflections
and formation of stationary waves.
(c) Resonance Method: Stationary
waves are set in the sample and either
acoustic path length or frequency is
varied till the resonance takes place.
At this position the thickness is either
integral number of half wavelengths or
odd number of quarter wavelengths.
Page 42
 The acoustic interferometer is shown LOW INTENSITY APPLICATIONS
in the figure 13. A single reversible
1. Flaw Detection: The pulse echo
transducer and a parallel solid
method is used for flaw detection
reflecting surface are immersed in the
(figure 14 for block diagram). In the
medium.
absence of any flaw (crack, cavity,
bubble etc), two peaks P and Q are
observed on the screen. The peak P is
the original transmission peak while Q
is the reflected signal. If there is any
flaw, the reflection of part or whole of
the incident wave takes place, which
results in another peak R on the

Figure 13 screen. The distance between P and R

indicates position of flaw and height of
the peak indicates the size of flaw.
When the flaw is present, the height of
The reflector is attached to a
peak Q diminishes. It gives better idea
micrometer so that the motion can be
about the flaw, than the height of peak
controlled to obtain the position of R. By moving the transducer probe,
defects in various parts of the sample
resonance. For different positions of
can be detected.
the reflector, the peaks observed

indicate the resonance. The peaks

decrease in amplitude for increase in

distance from the source. They are

separated by a distance of half-

wavelength. For measurements in Figure 14

solids it is not possible to vary acoustic
2. Thickness Gauging: For ultrasonic
path length and hence frequency is
thickness measurements either pulse
varied.
echo or resonance technique is used.
The principle is similar to flaw

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 43

 detection. The time taken for traveling known as sonography, is used to
the distance is measured by the obtain clear pictures of various body
electronic circuit and after conversion, organs.
the distance is shown on the digital
display. In the beginning the gauge is
HIGH INTENSITY TECHNIQUE AND ITS
calibrated with standard sample. The
APPLICATIONS:
important advantage is that access to
only one surface is sufficient for the When the acoustic stress is larger and
thickness measurement. The method is
not linear with strain (Hookes law is
used for assessment of internal
not applicable), it is called high
corrosion of pipes, external corrosion
of ship and measurement of depth of ultrasound. The changes brought
fat on the bodies of live animals.
about are generally permanent. The
3. DEPTH SOUNDING OR SONAR: The
acoustic power is of the order of few
depth of sea can be measured from
the ship, using ultrasonic waves. The watts and in some cases few kilowatts.
reflected waves are collected by the
The following are the applications of
receiver and the time interval between
this technique:
transmission and corresponding echo
is measured. The profile of the ocean 1. Cavitation: When sound wave
bed can also be mapped by this travels through a liquid, during positive
method. Ultrasonic range finder also half cycle of the wave, the liquid
works on the same principle but uses compresses and expands during
either pulses or continuous waves. negative half cycle. When acoustic
4. Medical Diagnosis: The technique pressure is greater than hydrostatic
used for flaw detection is used for pressure, voids are created. These
medical diagnosis. The characteristic voids expand during negative half
impedance and absorption coefficients cycle and collapse abruptly. It releases
of different parts of the body are energy giving rise to shock waves. The
different. The difference in healthy and local temperature rises to 104 -105 oC
malignant tissue can be detected for for very short period at the frequency
early warning of cancer. The frequency of wave propagation. This is called
range used in medical diagnosis is 1 cavitation. This is used in
10MHz. The scanning technique, emulsification of two immiscible

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 44

 liquids. In food industry, it is used in 4. Fatigue Testing: When high intensity
preparation of dairy products, sauces ultrasonic waves are passed through a
and gravies, salad creams, sterlization solid, the strain developed finally
of milk, tendering of meat by breaking results in fracture. This phenomenon is
down its fibers. used in fatigue testing. The high
2. Effects on Suspension: When intensity ultrasonic waves are also
ultrasonic waves pass through a fluid used for drilling, soldering, treatment
in which particles are suspended, due of melts and welding.
to radiation pressure, particles are 5. Chemical Applications: Cavitation in
pushed along the direction of liquids promotes chemical reactions. In
propagation. In the stationary wave certain reactions, where agitation is
system particles coagulate and fall needed, focused ultrasonic is used. In
when they become heavy enough. electroplating, bubbles appearing at
When the particles are in the form of electrodes are dispersed by
gas, the bubbles coalesce and then ultrasound, which increases the speed
rise to the surface. The technique is of the process.
used for dispersion of fog and smoke, 6. Medical Applications: Cavitation
degassing of molten glass, molten breaks down the cells or even destroys
metal, liquid foods etc. These effects them. The high intensity ultransonic
are caused by agitation. waves are dangerous for human
3. Ultrasonic Cleaning: In ultrasonic beings. There may occur cellular
cleaning both agitation and cavitation damage or disruptive effect on
are involved. The cleaning of large chromosomes. The ultrasonic waves
components is carried out at large are used to kill certain tissues. The
frequency range 18-40kHz, where ultrasonic surgery is an emerging field.
cavitation is most active. For delicate
articles, higher frequency range 0.1-
1MHz is used, where cavitation is
almost absent. The process is used for
removal of grease from engine
components, oil, dust, buffering
compounds etc. from printed circuit
boards, jewelry and various
instruments and devices.

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 45

 FREELY OSCILLATING SYSTEMS

19.Prove that the average kinetic energy

of a harmonic oscillator is equal to its
average potential energy and each is
equal to half the total energy. (K av = Uav
= 0.25m2A2).
20.A particle of mass 1 gram moves in a
potential energy well given by U = U 0
+ 6x + x2. Find (i) force constant (ii)
frequency of oscillation and (iii) the
position of stable equilibrium.
(s=2dyne/cm, f = 9/40Hz, x = -3cm)
21.A particle of mass 2 gram is making
simple harmonic motion along the x-
axis. At distances 6cm and 10cm from
the equilibrium position, the velocities
of the particle are 5cm/s and 4cm/s
respectively. Find the time period of
oscillation, the amplitude and the
maximum kinetic energy. (T=16.76s,
A=14.62cm, Kmax = 29.93erg)
22.A massive spring of mass m and
stiffness constant s is suspended
vertically from a rigid support and a
mass M hangs are its lower end. Find
the frequency of vibration.

1 s
f
2 m
M
3

23.Using law of conservation of energy,

show that the angular speed of the
simple pendulum is given by

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 46

 d equilibrium position is the same as it
2
2
E mgl(1 cos would be if the same mass was
dt ml .
24.Find the time period of a compound
V0
pendulum constituted by a rigid body 2
vibrating on a spring of stiffness x0 .
of mass m oscillating freely around any
(stable equilibrium at x = 0)
horizontal axis (at a distance b from
28.A body of mass m is attached at the
the center of mass axis parallel to it)
midpoint of a light and elastic string of
under the action of gravity.
length l under tension (T). The body,
k 2 b2 displaced through a small
T 2
gb
displacement and released, executes
25.A uniform rod of length L is nailed to a simple harmonic motion. Find the time
post such that two thirds of its length
is below the nail. What is the time ml
T '
T
period of oscillations of the rod. period of the motion.

2L
T 2
3g

26.The Helmholtz resonator consists of a DAMPED HARMONIC OSCILLATIONS

spherical cavity with two necks, the

29.Show that the damping force is neither
wider one to receive the incoming
a constant nor depends upon
sound while narrower one to be
displacement or acceleration. On the
inserted into the ear to hear the sound.
other hand it depends upon velocity
Find the frequency of vibration of air
alone.
column in this resonator.
30.Given that a mass of 1kg is suspended
lV from a spring of stiffness constant
T 2
PA
25N/m. If the frequency of natural
27.A mass moves under a potential oscillations is 2/3 times the frequency
of damped oscillations, find the
x
V ( x ) V0 cosh damping constant. (r = 5Ns/m)
x0 where V0 and x0 are
31.A damped simple harmonic oscillator
constants. Find the (a) position of
has a time period of 1s. Its amplitude
stable equilibrium (b) show that the
decreases from 10o to 5o after 10
frequency of small vibrations about the
complete oscillations. Calculate the

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 47

 relaxation time and Q value of
oscillator. ( =7.22s, Q = 45.34) FORCED AND COUPLED OSCILLATIONS

32.If is the angular frequency of the

37.Find the value of damping resistance r
damped harmonic oscillator and o is
such that acceleration amplitude at
the resonant frequency and 2 - o2 = the frequency of velocity resonance is
10-6o2, then find the Q-value and equal to the limit of acceleration at
logarithmic decrement of the oscillator. high frequencies.
(Q = 500, = /500) 38.Show that the bandwidth of resonance
33.If the quality factor of an undamped absorption curve defines the phase
tuning fork of frequency 256Hz is angle range is given by -1 tan +1.
1000, calculate the time in which its 39.Show that in the resonant LCR circuit,
energy is reduced to 1/e of its energy the maximum potential drop across
in absence of damping. How many the capacitor occurs at a frequency
oscillations will the tuning fork make in = o{1 1/2Q2}.
this time. (t = 0.62seconds, 159 40.Show that for the undamped oscillator
oscillations) driven by F = FoSint, the steady state
34.Calculate the maximum current in the
solution for displacement is given as:
harmonic oscillator consisting of
X= FoSint/m(o2 - 2)
inductance of 0.2mH and capacitance
41.Show that the fractional change in
of 5F, when maximum voltage across
resonant frequency of a damped
the capacitor is 0.1V. (Imax = 16mA)
oscillator over that of undamped
35.The Q value of LCR oscillator with C =
oscillator is approximately equal to
2F, L = 0.2H and frequency of 8kHz 1/8Q2, where Q is the quality factor.
is 100. What is the value of R. What 42.A rms voltage of 100V is applied to a
will be the frequency of oscillatory series LCR circuit having R=10, L =
discharge if the resistance of the 0.01H and C=1F. Calculate the
circuit reduces to zero. (R=100.5,
following: (i) natural frequency of
504Hz)
oscillation of circuit (ii) current at
36.Discuss the use of damping in the
resonance (iii) Q value of the circuit at
designing of dead-beat and ballistic
resonance (iv) frequency bandwidth of
galvanometers.
the circuit. (f= 1592Hz, Imax =10A, Q
=10, =103rad/s)

Lecture Notes on Engineering Physics: Prof. J.K.Goswamy Page 48