Investigation Intro

Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Centre for Built Infrastructure Research
Investigation into the Ductile and Damping

Behaviour of Concrete Incorporating Waste Tyre
Rubber
By
Negin Sharift
Thesis submitted for fulfilment of requirements for
the degree of Master of Engineering
March 2012
CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORSHIP/ORIGINALITY
I certify that the work in this thesis has not previously been submitted for a degree nor
has it been submitted as part of requirements for a degree except as fully acknowledged
within the text.
I also certify that the thesis has been written by me. Any help that I have received in my
research work and the preparation of the thesis itself has been acknowledged. In
addition, I certify that all information sources and literature used are indicated in the
thesis.
Negin Sharift
March 2012
I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Samali, my principal supervisor and

beyond that my father during my study in Australia and away from my family. This
Master research would not have been completed without his guidance, assistance and
sincere supports. 1 would also like to thank Dr Kirk Vessalas, my co-supervisor for
being a mentor during this research. His guidance and advice played important role in
carrying out this research.
I would like to convey my thanks to the staff at concrete, structural and material lab, Mr
Peter Brown, Mr David Dicker, Mr David Hooper, Mr Mulugheta Hailu and special
thanks to Mr Rami Haddad for his support and guidance. Working at lab and
performing all the tests would never have been easy without their assistance.
Dr Li has been very helpful with the dynamic tests and their analysis by giving expert
advice. I would like to acknowledge Dr Daksh Baweja and Dr Abhi Ray for their
guidance especially during the first part of the project, investigation the properties of
concrete.
There are a number of individuals that I would like to acknowledge their supports and
help throughout this research, Mr Nima Khorsandnia, Mr Amin Noushini, Miss Nassim
Ghosni and Miss Mehrnaz Natoori.
The great support from my family in Iran and my brothers Kamyar and Mazyar in
Canada is highly appreciated as their assistance and encouragements made this
experience memorable for me.
II
PUBLICATION
Conference Paper
Negin Sharifi, Prof. Bijan Samali, Dr Kirk Vessalas 2011, 'Investigation of Mechanical
Properties of Elastomeric Modified Concrete Incorporating Waste Tyre Rubber', paper
presented to the Concrete 2011, Perth.
Ill
ABSTRACT
Sustainable development has grown to be a major concern to the construction industry

with the main effort and attention in recent times devoted to developing innovative
solutions to preserve the environment and natural resources. One suggested approach in
aiding the conservation of natural resources is to recycle waste material for innovative
use in construction applications.
This thesis reports on the fundamental findings of an investigation into an elastomeric

modified concrete (EMC), in particular its ductile and damping performance. This first-
of-its-kind-in-Australia EMC incorporates Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) waste tyre
granules as a partial replacement of fine and coarse aggregates.
Another significant feature of this project is that until now 100% Portland cement plain
concrete has been utilised to evaluate the mechanical performance of EMC reported in
literature, however, in this study the use of a supplementary cementitious material, that
of fly ash (FA), is suggested as a partial replacement of Portland cement to create a
more environmentally friendly construction material. Moreover, in order to examine the
improvement of adhesion properties between the SBR granules and the cementing
matrix, a styrene butadiene (SB) copolymer emulsion has been introduced to the couple
of mixes.
In the first experimental work stage two sets of EMC were prepared; one with small
SBR granules (1 to 4 millimetres) in proportions of 5%, 10% and 15% of the total
weight of aggregates; the other with larger SBR granules (12 to 15 millimetres) in
proportions of 2%, 4%, 6% and 10% of the total weight of aggregates. In order to
evaluate the damping and ductility properties of concrete, several tests were conducted
following Australian Standards (AS) and American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM), including compressive strength, static chord modulus of elasticity, modulus of
rupture and dynamic modulus of elasticity.
Compared to the control concrete, EMCs demonstrated lower density (mass per unit
volume) and higher air content with increasing additions of SBR granules to EMCs.
Furthermore, the compressive strength was found to decrease with increasing additions
of SBR granules to EMCs. In contrast, static chord modulus of elasticity (MOE) and
IV
modulus of rupture (MOR) of EMCs were found to increase compared to the control
concrete. Unlike the control concrete, EMCs did not exhibit a brittle-like failure.
In the second experimental work stage, five reinforced beams (two for four point
bending and three for three point bending tests) were made based on Australian
standards. There were two sets of tests conducted on beams: destructive and non
destructive. Four point bending and three point bending tests were used to investigate
the static properties of beams. To evaluate dynamic properties, hammer test was carried
out prior to initiation of loading and also after failure of beam in four point bending test.
The stiffness and maximum load of the beams decreased with the addition of SBR
granules, however, the damping ratio of the beams increased. The project also included
simulation and modelling of static tests using analysis by computer programs.
This study encompassed a large experimental component and through specific testing,
the best performing materials is selected to achieve the highest damping-to-ductility
ratio.
V
Notation
NOTATION
As = area of the steel reinforcement
C = damping coefficient
ccr= critical damping coefficient
d = the effective depth
A = deflection
= strain in concrete
E = modulus of elasticity
El = flexural Stiffness
/= frequency
fs = the ultimate strength for the steel reinforcement
fc = the compressive strength of the concrete beam
fcm = average value of modulus of elasticity
/ = the moment of inertia
k = stiffness of the system
Lc = length of specimen, for calculation of concrete dynamic modulus of elasticity
L = the span length
M = mass of specimen for calculation of concrete dynamic modulus of elasticity
Mu = the maximum bending moment
m = mass of the system
m number of cycles for calculation of the damping of the beam

VI
Notation
n = fundamental transverse frequency
nf = fundamental longitudinal frequency
P = the applied load
T = correction factor, for calculation of concrete dynamic modulus of elasticity
t, b = dimensions of cross section of prism, for calculation of concrete dynamic

modulus of elasticity
u = displacement on the curve at nth cycle for calculation of the damping of the beam
un+m - displacement on the curve at (n+m)th cycle for calculation of the damping of
the beam
co = natural frequency of the undamped system
con = natural frequency of the beam
= damping Ratio
p A = mass per unit length
VII
List of Symbols
LIST OF SYMBOLS
AC: Air Content
ACI: American Concrete Institute
AS: Australian Standards
ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials
BSG: Bulk Specific Gravity
EMC: Elastomeric Modified Concrete
FA: Fly Ash
FRC: Fibre Reinforced concrete
HWR: High Range Water Reducing Admixture
LVDT: Linear variable differential transformer
MC: Moisture Content
MOE: Modulus of Elasticity
MOR: Modulus of Rupture
PC: Portland Cement
PP: Polypropylene
PVA: Polyvinyl-alcohol
SB: Styrene Butadiene
SBR: Styrene Butadiene Rubber
SCM: Supplementary Cementitious Material
SL: Shrinkage Limited
SSD: Saturated Surface Dry
VIII
List of Contents
List of contents
CERTIFICATE OF AUTHORSHIP/ORIGINALITY I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS II
PUBLICATION III
ABSTRACT IV
NOTATION VI
LIST OF CONTENTS IX
LIST OF TABLES XIV
LIST OF FIGURES XVI
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Preamble 1
1.2 Problem Definition 1
1.2.1 Sustainable Building and Construction 1

1.2.1.1 Styrene Butadiene rubber (SBR) 3
1.2.1.2 Manufactured Fine Sand 4
1.2.1.3 Fly Ash 5
1.2.2 Damping Properties 7
1.2.3 Ductility Properties 8
1.3 Research Objectives 8
1.4 Research Significance 9
1.5 Thesis Layout 10
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 11
2.1 Preface 11
2.2 Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR)Sourced from Waste Tyre 11
IX
List of Contents
2.2.1 Car Tyre 12

2.2.1.1 Material 12
2.2.1.2 Components 13
2.2.1.3 Manufacturing of New Tyres 14
2.2.2 What is Waste Tyre? 14

2.2.2.1 The Mechanical Properties of Waste Tyres 15
22.2.2 Applications of Waste Tyres 15
2.2.2.3 What is the Problem with Waste Tyres? 16
2.2.3 Using SBR, Sourced from Waste Tyres, in Civil Engineering Applications: 17
2.2.3.1 Geotechnical Applications 17
2.2.3.2 Asphalt Mixtures 18
2.2.3.3 In Producing Mortars 18
2.2.3.4 In Manufacturing Concretes 19
2.3 Styrene Butadiene (SB) Latex 23
2.4 Ductility 26
2.5 Damping 29
2.6 Concluding Remarks 32
3. INVESTIGATION INTO THE FRESH, HARDENED AND DYNAMIC

PROPERTIES OF ELASTOMERIC MODIFIED CONCRETE (EMC) 34
3.1 Preface 34
3.2 Raw Materials 34
3.2.1 Shrinkage Limited (SL) Portland Cement 34
3.2.2 Fly Ash (FA) 35
3.2.3 Fine Aggregate and Coarse Aggregate 36
3.2.4 High Range Water Reducing Admixture (HWR) 38
3.2.5 Water 38
3.2.6 Styrene Butadiene (SB) Latex 38
3.2.7 Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) 39
3.2.8 Steel Reinforcement 40
3.3 Specimen Preparation and Testing 40
3.3.1 Experimental Program and Concrete Mix Proportion 40

X
List of Contents
3.3.2 Preparation of Materials 43
3.3.3 Preliminary Study Prior to Mixing 43
3.3.4 Measurement of Materials 44
3.3.5 Mixing Concrete 44
3.3.6 Compaction by Vibration 46
3.3.7 Sampling 47
3.3.8 Specimen Moulding 47
3.3.9 Finishing 48
3.3.10 Specimen Dcmoulding and Curing 48
3.4 Testing Program 49
3.4.1 Fresh State 49

3.4.1.1 High Range Water Reducing Admixture (HWR) 51
3.4.1.2 Wet Density 54
3.4.1.3 Air Content (AC) 56
3.4.2 Hardened Concrete Properties 58

3.4.2.1 Compressive Strength 58
3.4.2.2 Effect of SB Latex on the Compressive Strength 60
3.4.2.3 Effect of SBR Granules Size on Compressive Strength 60
3.4.2.4 Compressive Strength to Density Ratio 61
3.4.2.5 Modulus of Rupture 62
3.4.2.6 Effect of SB Latex on MOR 64
3.4.2.7 Effect of SBR Granule size on MOR 65
3.4.2.8 Relative Compressive Strength versus Relative MOR 65
3.4.2.9 Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) 67
3.4.2.10 MOE as a Function of Compressive Strength 69
3.4.3 Dynamic Properties 71

3.4.3.1 Calculation 73
3.4.3.2 Results: Fundamental Transverse and Longitudinal Resonant Frequencies 76
3.4.3.3 Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity 79
3.4.3.4 Damping Ratio 83
3.4.3.5 Comparison of Dynamic MOE with Chord (static) MOE 85
3.4.3.6 Dynamic modulus of elasticity versus compressive strength 85
3.4.4 Modes of Failure 86
3.5.1 Fresh Properties 91

XI
List of Contents
3.5.2 Hardened Properties 92
3.5.3 Dynamic Properties 93
3.5.4 Failure Mode 94
4. INVESTIGATION INTO THE STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF THE

ELASTOMERIC MODIFIED CONCRETE 95
4.1 Preface 95
4.2 Fabrication of the Beams 95
4.2.1 Design 95
4.2.2 Casting and Curing 98
4.3 Four-point bending Test Set up 100
4.3.1 Experimental Program 100
4.3.2 Test Channels 101
4.3.3 Four-point bending Test Set up 101
4.3.4 Parameters Calculated in Four-point Bending Test 104
4.3.5 Results 106
4.3.6 Discussion 115
4.4 Three-point Bending (cyclic test) Test 117
4.4.1 Experimental Program 117
4.4.2 Test Channels 117
4.4.3 Setup 118
4.4.4 Results 122
4.4.5 Discussion 130
4.5 Dynamic Test (hammer test) 131
4.5.1 Theory: 135
4.5.2 Results: 137

4.5.2.1 Calculation of the Frequency (theoretically) 137
4.5.2.2 Calculation of the Frequency (from graph) 137
4.5.2.3 Comparison of the Results of Theory and Experiments 140
XII
List of Contents
4.5.2.4 Calculation of the Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity 141

4.5.2.5 Comparison of the Dynamic El and El from Four-point Bending Test 142
4.5.2.6 Calculation of the Damping 142
4.6 Finite Element Modelling 145
4.7.1 Four-point Bending Test: 150
4.7.2 Three-point Bending Test: 150
4.7.3 Dynamic (hammer) Test: 151
5. CONCLUSIONS 152
5.1 Preface 152
5.2 Economic Feasibility of EMCs 152
5.3.1 Investigation into the Fresh, Flardened and Dynamic Properties of EMC 156
5.3.2 Investigation into the Structural Properties of the Elastomeric Modified Concrete 157
5.4 Further work 158
5.5 Proposed Applications 159
5.6 Final Remarks 160
REFERENCES 161
LIST OF STANDARDS 163
APPENDIX A: COMPARISON OF RESULTS WITH OTHER WORKS 166
APPENDIX B: THREE-POINT BENDING TEST COMPLETE CYCLES 179
APPENDIX C: FOUR-POINT BENDING TEST STRAIN GRAPHS 182
APPENDIX D: PHOTOS OF THE BEAMS 189
XIII
List of Tables
List of Tables
Table 2-1 - Waste Tyre Classification....................................................................................... 14
Table 2-2 - Mechanical Properties of Tyre Wastes................................................................. 15
Table 2-3 - Percentage Breakdown of Current Usage of Waste Tyres...............................16
Table 3-1- Significant Composition of SL Portland Cement................................................35
Table 3-2 - Physical and Chemical Properties of SL Portland Cement............................... 35
Table 3-3 - Chemical Composition of Eraring Fly Ash by XRF method.............................36
Table 3-4 - Typical Properties of Eraring Fly Ash................................................................ 36
Table 3-5 - Particle Size Distribution (sieving method) of Fine Aggregates........................37
Table 3-6 - Particle Size Distribution (sieving method) of Coarse Aggregates................... 37
Table 3-7 - Properties of Aggregates........................................................................................ 38
Table 3-8 - Experimental Program........................................................................................... 41
Table 3-9 - Raw Material Proportions of Control Mixes....................................................... 41
Table 3-10 - Raw Material Proportions of Mixes with SBR Granules.................................42
Table 3-11 - MC of Aggregates................................................................................................. 43
Table 3-12 - Results of the Fresh Properties Tests..................................................................50
Table 3-13 - Hardened EMC Properties...................................................................................58
Table 3-14 - Optimum SBR Granules Percentage for MOR.................................................62
Table 3-15 - Compressive Strength and MOE results of a Similar Project..........................67
Table 3-16 - Fundamental Transverse () and Longitudinal (n\') Resonant Frequencies ...76
Tabic 3-17 - Dynamic MOE....................................................................................................... 79
Table 3-18- Damping Ratio (%)...............................................................................................83
Table 3-19 - Comparison of Dynamic MOE with Chord (static) MOE................................ 85
Table 4-1 - Beam Experimental Program................................................................................98
Tabic 4-2 - Four-point Bending Experimental Program......................................................100
Table 4-3 - Compressive Strength of Four-point Bending Observation Specimens...........107
Table 4-4 - Load and Deflection at Different Points of Four - point Bending Test.......... 109
Table 4-5 - Ductility Factor and El at Different Points of Four - point Bending Test...... 109
Table 4-6 - Strain of Strain Gauge at Mid Span Reinforcement......................................... 113
Table 4-7 - Area under Load - Deflection Curve (kN.mm)...................................................1 14
Table 4-8 - Three-point Bending Test Experimental Program............................................ 117
Table 4-9 - Compressive Strength of Three-point Bending Observation Specimens........ 122
Table 4-10 - Area under the Hysteresis Loops.......................................................................128
Table 4-11 - Total Area and Cumulative Area up to 30kN of Three-point Bending Load-
Deflection Curve........................................................................................................................ 129
Table 4-12 - Dynamic Test Experimental Program.............................................................. 135
Table 4-13 - Boundary Conditions of Beams..........................................................................136
Table 4-14 - Values of /?2 for Different Modes......................................................................136
Table 4-15 - Frequency of the Beams (theoretically)............................................................. 137
Table 4-16 - First Frequency of the Beams (from graph).....................................................140
Table 4-17 - Comparison of the First Frequency Results from Theory and Experiments 140
Table 4-18 - Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity of the Beams...................................................141
Table 4-19 - Comparison of Dynamic El and Static El......................................................... 142
Tabic 4-20 - Damping Ratio of Beams before and after Failure.......................................... 143
Table 5-1 - Mass of the Different Components of the Case Study in Ardebil...... .............. 153
XIV
List of Tables
Table 5-2 - Experimental Program of Economic Feasibility of EMCs................................154

Table 5-3 - Cost of the Raw Materials Suggested by Industry............................................. 154
Table 5-4 - Final Price and the Amount of Saved Mineral Aggregates.............................. 155
Appendix:
Table 1 - Properties of PP Fibres............................................................................................166

Table 2 - Damping Ratio of Mixes without SB Latex............................................................ 173
Table 3 - Damping Ratio of Mixes with SB Latex................................................................. 173
Table 4 - Dynamic Frequency of Mixes without SB Latex................................................... 174
Table 5 - Dynamic Frequency of Mixes with SB Latex......................................................... 174
Table 6 - Dynamic MOE of Mixes without SB Latex............................................................ 175
Table 7 - Dynamic MOE of Mixes with SB Latex................................................................. 175
Table 8 -Area under the Three-point Bending Hysteresis Loop.......................................... 177
Table 9 - Frequency of the Beams (theoretically) - Hz.........................................................178
Table 10 - First Frequency of the Beams (from graph) - Hz................................................ 178
XV
List of Figures
List of Figures
Figure 1-1 - Photomicrograph made with a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) of Fly Ash
particles at 2000 X magnification........................................................................................................ 7
Figure 2-1 - Breakdown of Ingredients of Passenger Car Modern Radial Tyres (AG 2008-9) ....12
Figure 2-2 - The components of a Car Tyre (AG 2008-9)................................................................. 13
Figure 2-3 - Classification of polymer-based admixtures, (Ohama 1998)...................................... 24
Figure 2-4 - Chemical structure of SB Latex, (Ohama 1998)...........................................................25
Figure 2-5 - Ductility Types (V2000)...................................................................................................27
Figure 3-1 - SBR granules 1-4 mm Figure 3-2 - SBR granules 12-15 mm........................... 39
Figure 3-3 - Stress versus Strain of the Steel Reinforcing Bar........................................................ 40
Figure 3-4 - Mixing Procedure for Concrete......................................................................................45
Figure 3-5 - Adding HWR to the Mix................................................................................................. 46
Figure 3-6 - External Vibration Table................................................................................................ 46
Figure 3-7 - Specimen Cylinder and Prism Moulds.......................................................................... 47
Figure 3-8 - Specimen Curing Tank....................................................................................................48
Figure 3-9 - Air Content Test.............................................................................................................. 49
Figure 3-10 - Slump Test.......................................................................................................................49
Figure 3-11 - HWR Amount of Concrete Mixes................................................................................5 1
Figure 3-12 - HWR amount for Different SBR GranulesSizes.........................................................53
Figure 3-13 - HWR amount for Mixes with or without SBLatex.....................................................53
Figure 3-14 - Wet Density of Control Mixes and Mixes Incorporating SBR Granules................ 54
Figure 3-15-Effect of Different Sizes of SBR Granules on Wet Density.........................................55
Figure 3-16 - AC of Control Mixes and Mixes Incorporating SBR Granules................................ 56
Figure 3-17- Effect of SB Latex on AC in Mixes Incorporating SBR Granules.............................57
Figure 3-18 - Compressive Strength at Different Ages of Curing................................................... 59
Figure 3-19 - Effect of SB Latex on the Compressive Strength....................................................... 60
Figure 3-20 - Effect of SBR Granules Size on Compressive Strength.............................................61
Figure 3-21 - Compressive Strength - Density versus SBR Granules Percentage..........................61
Figure 3-22 - Modulus of Rupture of Concrete Mixes...................................................................... 63
Figure 3-23 - Effect of SB Latex on 14 Day MOR..............................................................................64
Figure 3-24 - Effect of SB Latex on 28 Day MOR..............................................................................64
Figure 3-25 - Effect of SBR Granule size on MOR...........................................................................65
Figure 3-26 - Relative 28 Day Compressive and MOR strength......................................................66
Figure 3-27 -MOEValue of Concrete Mixes....................................................................................... 68
Figure 3-28 - Effect of SB Latex on the amount of MOE................................................................. 69
Figure 3-29 - MOE as a Function of Compressive Strength - Empirical versus Experimental
Prediction............................................................................................................................................... 70
Figure 3-30 - MOE as a Function of Compressive Strength - Empirical versus Experimental
Prediction............................................................................................................................................... 70
Figure 3-31 - Schematic of Apparatus for I mpact Resonance Test................................................. 71
Figure 3-32 - Positions Where Specimens were Struck in Different Modes................................... 72
Figure 3-33 - Hammer Used for Dynamic Test..................................................................................72
Figure 3-34 - Dynamic Test (transverse mode)..................................................................................73
XVI
List of Figures
Figure 3-35 - Analysis of Dynamic Test of Concrete Specimens in LabVicw................................. 74

Figure 3-36 - Transverse Frequency...................................................................................................77
Figure 3-37 - Longitudinal Frequency.................................................................................................77
Figure 3-38 - Longitudinal Frequency versus Transverse Frequency.............................................78
Figure 3-39 - Transverse Dynamic MOE........................................................................................... 80
Figure 3-40 - Longitudinal Dynamic MOE........................................................................................ 80
Figure 3-41 - Longitudinal versus Transverse Dynamic MOE........................................................ 82
Figure 3-42- Damping Ratio (%)....................................................................................................... 84
Figure 3-43-Compressive Strength as a Function of Dynamic MOE............................................. 86
Figure 3-44 - Compression Failure of Specimen Incorporating SBR Granules.............................87
Figure 3-45 - Flexural Failure of Control Concrete under Flexural Test...................................... 87
Figure 3-46 - Flexural Failure of Specimens Incorporating SBR Granules under Flexural Test.88
Figure 3-47-Cement-rubber Interface Failure of Specimens Incorporating SBR........................88
Figure 3-48 - Dispersion of SBR Granules in the Hardened Concrete............................................89
Figure 3-49 - Compressive Failure at Post Maximum Failure Load...............................................90
Figure 4-1 - Typical steel reinforcement for the beams.................................................................... 96
Figure 4-2 - Beam Moulds................................................................................................................... 99
Figure 4-3 - Beam Reinforcement Cage............................................................................................100
Figure 4-4 - Four-point Bending Tcst Set up (LVDT and Strain Gauges)....................................101
Figure 4-5 - Four-point Bending Test Set up (supports)................................................................. 102
Figure 4-6 - Strain Gauges on the Surface of the Concrete............................................................ 102
Figure 4-7 - Schematic of the Four-point Bending Test Set up.....................................................103
Figure 4-8 - Parameters Calculated in Four-point Bending Test...................................................106
Figure 4-9 - (Load - Deflection) Curve of the Beams..................................................................... 108
Figure 4-10 - Four-point Bending Test Results...........................................................................110
Figure 4-11 - Deflection at Different Points of Four-point Bending Test......................................110
Figure 4-12 - Ductility Factor of Beams............................................................................................111
Figure 4-13 - El at Different Points of Four-point Bending Test....................................................111
Figure 4-14 - Calculation of Area under Load - Deflection Curves............................................... 114
Figure 4-15 - Definition of Modulus of Resilience............................................................................115
Figure 4-16 - The Three-point Bending Test Set up.........................................................................119
Figure 4-17 - Hinge Clamping System...............................................................................................120
Figure 4-18 - Schematic of Three-point Bending Test.....................................................................121
Figure 4-19 - R5SBR10 Cycle 1......................................................................................................... 123
Figure 4-21 - R5SBR10 Cycle 3....................... ....124
Figure 4-26 - R5SBR10 Cycle 8..........................................................................................................126
Figure 4-28- R5SBR10 Cycle 10...................................................................................................... 127
Figure 4-29 - Area up to 30kN under Three-point Bending Load-Deflection Curve................... 129
Figure 4-30 - Total Area under Three-point Bending Load - Deflection Curve.......................... 130
XVII
List of Figures
Figure 4-31 - Schematic of Dynamic Tests on Beams......................................................................132

Figure 4-32 - Dynamic Test Set up.................................................................................................... 133
Figure 4-33 - Hammer for Dynamic Test..........................................................................................134
Figure 4-34 - Accelerometer...............................................................................................................134
Figure 4-35 - Sum of FRF for Cl (Before applying the load).........................................................138
Figure 4-36 - Sum of FRF for Cl (After failure).............................................................................. 139
Figure 4-37 - Acceleration Time History..........................................................................................144
Figure 4-38 FE Analysis of Beam Cl................................................................................................ 146
Figure 4-39 - FE Analysis of Beam C2F............................................................................................147
Figure 4-40 - FE Analysis of Beam R3SBR10.................................................................................. 148
Figure 4-41 - FE Analysis of Beam R4SBR6.................................................................................... 149
Appendix
Figure 1 - 18 mm Monofilament PP fibre..........................................................................................167

Figure 2-19 mm Fibrillated PP fibre...............................................................................................167
Figure 3 - HWR of Mixes without SB Latex................................................................................... 168
Figure 4 - HWR of Mixes with SB Latex...........................................................................................168
Figure 5 - W'ct Density of Mixes without SB Latex..........................................................................169
Figure 6 - Wet Density of Mixes with SB Latex............................................................................... 169
Figure 7 - AC of Mixes without SB Latex.........................................................................................170
Figure 8 - AC of Mixes with SB Latex............................................................................................... 170
Figure 9-28 days Compressive Strength of Mixes without SB Latex.......................................... 171
Figure 10-28 days Compressive Strength of Mixes with SB Latex............................................. 171
Figure 11 - MOR of Mixes without SB Latex................................................................................... 172
Figure 12 - MOR of Mixes with SB Latex.........................................................................................172
Figure 13 - Four Point Bending Load - Deflection Curve of the Beams.......................................176
Figure 14 - Three-point Bending Test Load-deflection Curve R6SBR6........................................179
Figure 15 - Three-point Bending Load-Deflection Curve of R5SBR10......................................... 180
Figure 16 - Three-point Bending Load-Deflection Curve of R7SBR5L10....................................181
Figure 17 - R3SBR10 Strain Diagram @10kN................................................................................. 182
Figure 26 - R4SBR6 Strain Diagram @10kN................................................................................... 185
Figure 31 - R4SBR6 Strain Diagram @60Kn.................................................................................. 186
XVIII
List of Figures

Figure 36 - Three-point Bending Test Failure (30% FA +10% SB Latex)....................................189
Figure 37 - Crack Propagation of Three-point Bending Beam Failure (30% FA)...................... 189
Figure 38 - Three-point Bending Test Failure (30% FA)............................................................... 190
Figure 39 - Three-point Bending Test Failure................................................................................. 190
Figure 40 - Three-point Bending Test Failure (30% FA+10%SBR(l-4mm)).............................. 191
Figure 41 - Crack Propagation of Three-point Bending Test Failure........................................... 191
Figure 42 - Three-point Bending Test Failure (30% FA+6%SBR (12-15mm))........................... 192
Figure 43 - Crack Propagation of Three-point Bending Test Failure........................................... 192
Figure 44 - Four-point Bending Test (30% FA)............................................................................... 193
XIX
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1. Introduction
1. Introduction
1.1 Preamble
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability offuture generations to meet their own needs.'\WC ED 1987).
With increased awareness of environmental pollution, reduced naturally existing

resources and the resultant social issues, sustainable development and sustainable
construction could find a high stage among constructors and governmental decision
makers. Civil engineering structures, especially buildings, are among the largest
consumers of natural resources such as aggregates, water, and metal. Moreover, they are
responsible for a significant portion of greenhouse emissions, especially if they are
constructed with the most commonly used construction material: concrete (Chen et al.,
2010).
On the other hand, accumulation of solid waste without any secure market to absorb it,
has raised the question of what is the best solution to reduce the significant amount of
waste with the minimum usage of other energy resources.
One of the best approaches to solving the above issues is identifying waste suitable for
recycling and employing it in the construction industry. This is not only a solution to
decrease the amount of waste in the natural environment, but it can also be an
appropriate and economical option to utilise waste to build more sustainable civil
infrastructure.
A number of detected recycling materials, such as waste tyre granules, have shown
significant useful properties other than being environmental friendly, which
distinguishes them from other construction materials.
1.2 Problem Definition
1.2.1 Sustainable Building and Construction
Sustainable development is a balance between the available technologies, strategies of

innovation and the policies of governments (Vollenbroek 2002).
Vision one of the document Construction 2020, A vision for Australias Property and
Construction Industry is:
For industry to design, construct and maintain its buildings and infrastructure to
minimise negative impacts on the natural environment minimise waste, maximise
recycling and reuse, reduce the need for non-renewable resources (especially fossil
fuels), and avoid pollution of land, water and air - preserving environmental choices
for future generations (Keith Hampson 2004)
The great attention of sustainable development is to the construction industry. Due to

the high demand for energy and significant greenhouse gas emissions with the
unprecedented speed of construction, there is an urgent requirement for efficient
consumption of energy for our infrastructure and urban planning. Throughout the world,
the construction industry is the main socio-economic developer and at the same time is
a considerable user of energy and naturally occurring resources. Based on the statistics,
in 1999 more than 35% of total C02 emissions were contributed by construction
practices. This number is more than the contribution of any other industry and caused a
significant challenge for designers, architects, builders, and other industry professionals.
Meanwhile, based on another study, the construction industry is the European Unions
largest industrial sector, with more than 25 million people engaged in it. Buildings
consume more than 40% of total energy and produce around 40% of all human wastes
(Program 2001).
What is Sustainable Building?

The idea of constructing sustainable buildings was introduced many years ago. The
main foci are on limiting the use of resources and energy and decreasing the effects on
natural environment. Therefore, the employment of environmentally friendly materials,
building components and energy related components has been emphasised over the
years (Program 2001).
In this research, there are three main approaches to producing an environmentally
friendly construction material, the use of which can lead to a construction of a
sustainable building:
a) Using Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) sourced from waste tyre rubber
b) Employing Manufactured Fine Sand instead of Natural Fine Sand
2
c) Replacing 30% of Portland Cement (PC) with Fly Ash (FA)
1.2.1.1 Styrene Butadiene rubber (SBR)
The disposal of waste tyre rubber has become a major issue for both government policy
makers and sections of the tyre industry in recent decades around the world as their
disposal not been managed as well as it should be. Nationally, close to 230,000 tonnes
of waste tyres are disposed of in landfills per annum (Tyres 2004). Tonnes of tyres are
stockpiled either as mass dumps in landfills or managed in other environmentally
unfriendly ways. Besides the mentioned impacts, waste tyre rubber poses concerns such
as the risk of fire generating noxious gases during combustion of tyres. In addition to
the health concerns arising from the formation of breeding grounds from insect
infestation, waste tyre stockpiles may harbour life-threatening diseases, especially in the
tropical regions of the country. Despite all of the issues arising from waste tyres, there is
an insufficient number of markets which are able to absorb large quantities ot waste
tyres.
A vehicular tyre consists mainly of natural and synthetic elastomeric compounds (SBR),
steel, carbon black, and other textile, filler, accelerator, and antiozonant additives. The
proportions differ slightly between tyres for trucks and those for passenger vehicles; in
particular the former primarily utilises natural rubber while the latter primarily utilises
synthetic rubber (Association 2011).
SBR as mentioned above is a general purpose synthetic rubber, manufactured from a

copolymer of styrene and butadiene. SBR is employed in large quantities in the
production of truck and passenger car tyres, mainly as a replacement of natural rubber
for abrasion resistance of the car tyre. Its primary advantages other than being excellent
abrasion resistance, are crack resistance and generally better ageing characteristics.
There are different tyre disposal options available such as reusing waste through landfill
engineering applications (for instance in leachate draining systems), recycling tyres by
retreading (i.e. replacing the tread section or the whole outer surface of the tyre), or
shredding waste tyres to produce granulated rubber in a vast range of sizes and shapes.
It is this final option which is the underlying reason for carrying out this study. Another
useful characteristic of the waste tyre is that it retains much of its physical, structural
and chemical properties at the end of its life (Australian Government 2001). This has
encouraged researchers and industry to consider reusing and recycling tyre rubber, and
3
making use of the product in other fields such as civil engineering applications, energy
and mineral recovery, and rubber, steel and fibre recovery (Joint Working Group Tyres
2004).
Using waste tyre rubber granules in concrete is advantageous for several reasons. Tyres
are one of the largest sources of waste; thus using such materials reduces accumulated
waste and conserves natural resources reducing environmental impacts; secondly,
depending on the chemical and physical properties of the tyre, the use of such material
in concrete can significantly enhance the damping properties, ductility, toughness and
impact resistance.
1.2.1.2 Manufactured Fine Sand
Manufactured Fine Sand is a purpose-made crushed fine aggregate produced by

crushing, screening and possibly washing of rock depositions to finer aggregates. These
finer aggregates are generally more angular and have a rougher surface texture in
comparison with naturally weathered sand particles. Its production produces significant
amounts of microfines that can pass the 75 pm sieve. Based on the research,
manufactured sands with levels of microfines exceeding 10% can be utilised in the
production of PC concrete (Li et al., 2011), (Australia 2008).
There are, of course, some differences in mechanical properties of the manufactured

sand and natural sand themselves and also between the concretes produced with either
of them. Those differences are highly affected by the properties of the rock that the MS
is produced from, but in general the main distinctions are discussed in the following
sentences.
Based on a study conducted by the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

at University of Illinois (Neville 2005; Villalobos 2005, the following results were
obtained:
The bulk specific gravity (BSG) in both Saturated Surface Dry (SSD) condition
and dry condition of Manufactured Sand is higher than Natural Sand
Absorption Capacity (AC) of Manufactured Sand is higher than Natural Sand
Bulk Density in both SSD and dry condition of Natural Sand is more than
Manufactured Sand
4
The percentage of voids is more in Manufactured Sand
The Natural Sand particles are more round shaped and smooth (the reason why
the void content is less than in Manufactured Sand)
The Manufactured Sand is more angular
Manufactured Sand has greater values of fines than in Natural Sand
There is more water demand for a mix for the same slump that uses
Manufactured Sand but the mechanical properties of the material dont seem to
be changed
The more void content in Manufactured Sand leads to a higher need of paste to
fill the voids (Villalobos 2005)
An increasing scarcity of naturally occurring fine and coarse aggregates, traditionally

supplied from different quarries, is being experienced in Australia. Sydney itself is
experiencing a shortage of naturally existing sands; therefore, they are supplied from
quarries outside of Sydney. This practice involves costly transportation and fuel
consumption, thus Manufactured Fine Sand has been introduced as a new approach to
solve the aforementioned environmental challenges.
1.2.1.3 Fly Ash
Portland Cement Concrete is the most commonly used material in the construction
industry. The manufacture of Portalnd cement has recently become a serious issue itself
due to its role in producing large amounts of carbon dioxide (CCF) (approximately 0.8
tonnes per tonne of resultant cement); some estimates consider the cement industry
responsible for 5% of total global CCF emissions (Gartner 2004). The significance of
this project is that until now 100% Portland cement plain concrete has been utilised to
evaluate the mechanical performance of elastomeric modified concrete reported in
literature. In this study the use of a supplementary cementitious material (SCM), namely
fly ash (FA), is suggested for the partial replacement of Portland cement to create a
more environmentally friendly construction material. A major effort in this project is to
replace a 30% of Portland cement with fly ash.
5
Using FA can also counteract some of the undesired effects ot using waste tyre granules
in concrete. Based on previous studies, the use of FA will considerably improve the
workability of fresh concrete (due to spherical shape of FA particles) and the
compressive, splitting tensile and flexural strengths and modulus of elasticity and
abrasion resistance of concrete in the long term. Conversely, the use of FA in concrete
is also known to prolong the hydration process with slower development of strength
(Siddique 2004).
Fly ash is an industrial by-product with variable properties. The main factors
responsible for its properties are the nature of coal and the manner of its pulverisation,
the operation of the furnace, the process of precipitation of ash from the combustion
gases, etc. According to Neville in his book (Neville 2005), fly ash has specific
characteristics as follows:
Fly Ash particles are spherical which is advantageous from the water
requirement point of view
The vast majority of particles have a diameter between <1 pm and 100 pm and
the specific surface of fly ash is usually between 250 and 600 nr/kg
The high specific surface of the fly ash means that the material is readily
available for reaction with calcium hydroxide
The typical specific gravity is 2.35
A concrete mix containing fly ash is cohesive and has a reduced bleeding
capacity
Prolonged wet curing is essential due to the long reactions of fly ash in concrete
In addition to the effect of chemical reactions, fly ash has a physical effect of
improving the microstructure of the hydrated cement paste
The limitation of fly ash usage in concrete is, around 30% by mass of total
cementitious material
Creep and shrinkage are not particularly affected by the use of fly ash.
6
Because of the reduced permeability of mature concrete containing fly ash, the
chloride ingress into such concrete is reduced, therefore, it has higher durability
Figure 1-1 shows a photomicrograph made with a Scanning Electron Microscope

(SEM) of Fly Ash particles at 2000 X magnification.
Figure 1-1 - Photomicrograph made with a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

of Fly Ash particles at 2000 X magnification
1.2.2 Damping Properties
Damping represents the capacity of the structure in energy dissipation; such imparted
energy could be as a result of wind, earthquake or other forces. Conventional concrete
with or without reinforcement has a relatively low damping, therefore, it would be
profitable for the structure to increase the material damping in order to reduce resonant
response.
There are several ways to improve the damping of a structure. Those approaches are
mainly related to the damping properties of the material itself or the structure.
The damping of a structure can be improved by adding some fibres or rubber granules
to the concrete mix (if it is a concrete structure), or by implementing some Active,
Semi-active or Passive control devices. Providing a high rise building with conventional
dampers or control devices will normally impose a significant cost on the developer.
The production of a concrete which can partially provide the required damping in itself
could considerably reduce the overall cost of construction projects. Thus, the final
decision could be a combination of aforementioned approaches.
7
In this study, SBR as an elastomeric material is employed in the concrete mix and
several destructive and non-destructive tests are carried out to examine if it improves
the damping of the reinforced beam member or not.
1.2.3 Ductility Properties
Ductility has different definitions for Plastic Design and Earthquake Resistant Design.
In the practice of plastic design, ductility is defined as The ability of a structure to
undergo deformations after its initial yield point without any significant decrease in its
ultimate strength. The ultimate capacity of a structure which is the most important
criterion for structural design could be measured in terms of ductility. However, in the
practice of earthquake resistant design, ductility means evaluating the seismic
performance of structures by indicating the quantity of seismic energy which may be
dissipated through plastic deformations (V 2000).
Enhancing the ductile behaviour of a building can also be a critical issue when it comes
to lateral load resistance in earthquake prone countries such as New Zealand. A
congested system of reinforcing bars is needed to strengthen a concrete structure against
such loads. The use of elastomeric modified concrete can increase ductility factor
without over-using reinforcing bars which are both time-consuming and costly.
1.3 Research Objectives
The main objective of this study is to produce an environmentally friendly concrete with
significant damping and ductility properties. In order to obtain that, the following
amendments were made:
Partial replacement of fine and coarse aggregates in the concrete mix with
Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) granule
Substitution of 30% of Portland cement with Fly ash
Using Manufactured Fine Sand instead of Natural Sand
Due to the fact that waste tyre granules act as voids in hardened concrete, especially
under compressive loads, achieving the minimum strength within the industry criteria
would be sufficient. Consequently, the aim of this research is not to enhance other
mechanical properties of concrete such as Compressive Strength, Modulus of Rupture
8
(MOR), Modulus of Elasticity (MOE); any such improvement would be a bonus for this
study.
1.4 Research Significance
To sum up, using SBR sourced from waste tyre granules in concrete is advantageous for
three main reasons:
It reduces accumulated stockpiles of waste stored on site, which further helps in

conserving natural resources
It can significantly enhance the damping, ductility, toughness and impact

properties, depending on chemical composition and physical properties of the
waste
Waste tyre SBR granules are used effectively for partial replacement of coarse
and fine aggregate and that can assist in reducing the usage of natural ones
This research is part of a group-based study which three other students are also involved
in. Other than the current research and the study that only focuses on conventional
concrete, the title of the two other projects are as follows:
Static and Dynamic Performance of Fibre Reinforced Concrete Incorporating

Polypropylene Fibres
Investigation of the mechanical properties and dynamic behaviour of fibre

reinforced concrete (FRC) Incorporating Polyvinyl-alcohol (PVA) Fibres as
Intrinsic Reinforcement
The four projects were looking at the mechanical properties of modified concrete with
the main focus into the ductility and damping properties. In comparison with the other
three studies, the current project highlights the environmentally friendly aspects more
by using SBR granules. In this report the results of the project incorporating PVA fibres
are not discussed as the results have not been completed as yet.
Results of the conventional and modified concretes are given in Appendix A.
9
1.5 Thesis Layout
The thesis is divided into five chapters. Each chapter is sub-divided into subsections in
order to maintain the flow of the chapters. Tables and figures are provided immediately
after they are mentioned in the paragraph which refers to them. Other additional
information such as figures and graphs are presented in appendices.
Chapter 1 is dedicated to the introduction, the definition of the problem and discussing
the research objectives and research significance.
Chapter 2 provides a thorough review of the history and properties of car tyre, SB Latex
and SBR granules. It also acknowledges the experimental works regarding employing
SBR granules into the concrete and related topics such as ductility and damping.
Chapter 3 investigates the fresh, hardened and dynamic properties of the EMCs. At the
end of the chapter, the failure mode of EMC is also compared to that of control ones.
Chapter 4, discusses, the structural properties of EMC in reinforced beams. Three

different destructive and non-destructive tests are carried out in order to study different
properties of EMC beams such as ductility, resilience, dynamic MOE, damping, etc.
Finally, the economic feasibility of EMCs, conclusions, proposed applications and

future research areas are presented in Chapter 5.
References and appendices are presented at the end of the thesis.
10
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter 2. Literature Review
2. Literature Review
2.1 Preface
In the following sections, an overview of different aspects of the main material utilised
in producing elastomeric modified concrete (EMC) specimens and reinforced beams is
discussed. In section 2.2 the properties of Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) sourced
from waste tyre, the characteristics of car tyres, car tyre components, and their
manufacturing are explored. Moreover, the definition of waste tyre, its mechanical
properties, its application and the problems caused by waste tyres are considered. In the
last part of section 2.2 the usage of waste tyre in civil engineering applications such as
asphalt mixtures, production of mortars, and manufacturing of concrete and
geotechnical applications is examined.
In section 2.3 Styrene Butadiene (SB) Latex, its chemical properties and its application
in concrete, mortar, and other applications is discussed. SB latex is used as another
concrete modifier in this research.
Sections 2.4 and 2.5 examine the structural properties of the fabricated reinforced
concrete beams; ductility and damping.
2.2 Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) Sourced from Waste Tyre
The majority of waste tyres in Australia pose a waste problem in the worst case or an
under-utilised resource at best. A similar issue is seen in almost every country around
the world.
Considering the population growth rate, vehicle ownership and vehicle-kilometres-

travelled, the volume of waste tyres is growing at a rate of 2% per annum (Neil
Houghton June 2004). Based on the different State Environmental Protection Agencies
and Environmental Departments reports, the volume of waste tyres was estimated to be
14.9 million tyres in the year 2004, comprising all types - passenger, light commercial
vehicle, truck and machinery tyres.
Extrapolating in accordance with this growth rate, 17 million tyres were produced in
2010 (Houghton June 2004).
11
2.2.1 Car Tyre
2.2.1.1 Material
Modem radial tyres used by passenger cars contain numerous different ingredients, the
amounts of which differ by the size and type of the tyre. Here is an example provided in
a publication by Continental AG in 2008-9:
Figure 2-1 - Breakdown of Ingredients of Passenger Car Modern Radial Tyres

(AG 2008-9)
Rubber (natural and synthetic rubber) - 41 %
Fillers (carbon black, silica, carbon, chalk) - 30%
Reinforcing materials (steel, polyester, rayon, nylon) - 15%
Plasticizers (oils and resins) - 6%
Chemicals for vulcanisation (sulphur, zinc oxide, various other chemicals) - 6%
Anti-ageing agents and other chemicals - 2%
12
2.2.1.2 Components
Tyres are usually reinforced with steel and textile. The SBR granules used in this study
were sourced from passenger and four-wheel drive tyres with the size varying from 1 to
4 mm and 12 to 15 mm. According to the publication by Continental AG a modern tyre
is made up of:
Figure 2-2 - The components of a Car Tyre (AG 2008-9)
1. Tread
2. Joint less cap plies
3. Steel-cord belt plies
4. Textile cord ply
5. Inner liner
6. Side wall
7. Bead reinforcement
8. Bead apex
9. Bead core
13
2.2.1.3 Manufacturing of New Tyres
The manufacture of new tyres requires various raw materials. These include synthetic
rubber, natural rubber, butyl rubber, tyre cord, carbon black, steel cord, bead wire, zinc
oxides, chemicals and acids. In Australia, the above materials are both imported and
sourced locally, in either case at high cost, leading to an expensive manufacturing
process (Tyres 2004).
2.2.2 What is Waste Tyre?
The possibility of using tyre shreds as a construction material was suggested for the first
time during 1970s and 1980s. Since that time several terminologies have been used to
define waste tyres, e.g. slit, shredded/chipped, ground and granulated. Each of them has
their own characteristics, i.e. the production process and their size is different in various
classifications. This is shown in the table below. A typical passenger car tyre weighs
around 9 kg and a truck tyre weighs about 45 kg (Houghton June 2004).
The classification and the production procedure of waste tyres are shown in the table
below: (Siddique & Naik 2004)
Table 2-1 - Waste Tyre Classification
Tyre waste
Production Procedure Size
Identification
The tyre is slit into two

Slit-tyres halves in tyre cutting -
machines
In the primary stage: vary from 300

Involves primary, 460 mm long by 100-230 mm wide
Shredded/chipped
secondary or both down to 100- 150mm in length.
tyres
shredding operations Chipped tyres produced normally 76 to
13 mm.
Involves two stages of

Ground rubber magnetic separation and 0.15 - 19 mm
screening
14
2.2.2.1 The Mechanical Properties of Waste Tyres
The technical properties of waste tyres are relatively well investigated. Until now this
has been done mostly in accordance with the methods for determining technical
properties for soil, due to the use of waste tyres in geotechnical applications (The
standard practice for use of scrap tyres in civil engineering applications D6270-98,
ASTM (1998)). Some of the main mechanical properties of tyre wastes are as below:
Table 2-2 - Mechanical Properties of Tyre Wastes
Thermal
Density Permeability Young's Poisson's
conductivity
(kg/m3) (m/s) modulus (MPa) ratio
(W/(mK))
0.92 0.15-0.30 10~2 ~ " 1.0 0.3
The stress-strain relationship is non-linear and the material becomes stiffer as the stress
increases (Edeskar 2004-2005).
2.2.2.2 Applications of Waste Tyres
According to the market analysis presented in the Economics of tyre recycling' report,
2004, there are three major target segments:
a) Waste tyre reprocessing into recovered rubber. In this segment the recovered
tyre is used as an input. There are number of applications including:
Road pavements as rubber modified binders
Manufacture of new tyres
Moulded products such as mats
Manufactured products such as acoustic floors and playground surfaces
b) Waste to energy as tyre derived fuel. One of the most notable applications in this
segment is in the cement industry where waste tyres are used as an alternative
kiln fuel.
15
c) Civil engineering application. This segment which is the centre of attention of

this study includes numerous end uses, for instance using waste tyres in
embankments, fills, retaining walls and geotechnical uses (Tyres 2004).
In addition to the above applications, the use of waste tyres in the concrete mix is the
first of its kind in Australia and is the purpose of this research.
The percentage breakdown of current usage of waste tyres in Australia is shown in

Table 2-3 (Tyres 2004).
Table 2-3 - Percentage Breakdown of Current Usage of Waste Tyres
Waste Tyre Category %
Disposed to landfill 49
Reprocessed into recovered rubber 33
Illegally dumped 10
Used for energy 5
Other end-uses including civil construction 3
2.2.2.3 What is the Problem with Waste Tyres?
As discussed before, there are hundreds of millions of waste tyres produced each year
around the world especially in developed countries due to the worldwide growth ot
automobile industry and increasing use of the private car as the main transport mode.
For instance in Australia in 2007-8 it was estimated that around 52.5 million equivalent
passenger unit (EPU1) tyres reached their end of life. Approximately 64 per cent were
dumped into landfills or in other illegal ways. Therefore, if this trend continues, up to
680 million EPU will be sent to landfills over the next 20 years (Australian Government
2001).
Dumping waste tyres can pose several environmental and health hazards, and other
issues such as:
1 An EPU is a standardised measure for the quantity of end-of-life tyres.

16
Providing breeding grounds for rats, mice, vermin and mosquitoes
Fire hazards such as releasing toxic gases
Polluting the waterways
Littering landscapes and waterways
Taking up scarce landfill space
Costs of collecting, processing, transporting and preparing tyre wastes for

landfill
Costs of preparing the landfills to absorb non degradable ingredients of waste

tyre
(Ganjian et al. 2009), (Australian Government 2010) and (Siddique & Naik
2004)
Furthermore, waste tyres are a valuable potential resource as they are made from rubber,
steel and textile, all of which can be recovered and used for other purposes.
Therefore, by using such materials in concrete, the mentioned costs would be eliminated
while the natural sites used for landfill would be more protected. Moreover, the use of
waste tyres in the concrete mix would ease demand on Australias constrained supply of
natural aggregate.
2.2.3 Using SBR, Sourced from Waste Tyres, in Civil Engineering Applications:
2.2.3.1 Geotechnical Applications
Akbulut, Arasan & Kalkan (2007) evaluated the use of waste fibre materials such as
scrap tyre rubber for the modification of clayey soils. They concluded that waste fibres
improve the strength properties and dynamic behaviour of clayey soils, and scrap tyre
rubber can be used as reinforcement material for the modification of clayey soils.
Edeskar made a broad study on technical and environmental properties of tyre shreds
focusing on ground engineering applications. It is mentioned in this study that in many
applications it is useful and necessary to combine tyre shreds with geo-membranes as
the protruding steel cord and the elastic properties may cause damage to or burst the
17
geo-membrane. Moreover, based on the mechanical and physical tests on using tyres in
geotechnical applications it was concluded that:
The density of tyre shreds is lower than soil and rock
Tyre shreds have high porosity and high permeability
Compacting tyre shreds is easy because no water needs to be added
The stress-strain behaviour of tyre shreds is non-linear and they become stiffer
as the stress increases
Tyre shreds are a weak material compared to sand and gravel
The thermal conductivity of tyre shreds is low compared to soil
(Edeskar 2004-2005)
2.2.3.2 Asphalt Mixtures
Ground tyre rubber in asphalt pavements has been studied in many cases. For instance,
based on the study of Cao, the results of the mechanical tests showed that the addition
of tyre rubber in asphalt mixtures using dry process could improve the resistance to
permanent deformation at high temperature, and to cracking at low temperature.
Moreover, the presence of rubber particles has a significant effect on the dynamic
stability and failure stiffness modulus. He also found an optimum percentage of 3% tyre
rubber to be added to asphalt mix in order to have the best performance both at high
temperature and low temperature (Cao 2007).
Therefore, waste tyres can be used in road embankments and road bases.
2.2.3.3 In Producing Mortars
There are several studies regarding the use of waste tyres in mortar. (D. Raghavan 1998)
studied the workability and mechanical properties of mortar containing shredded
automobile and truck tyres in two types: (1) granules about 2mm in diameter, and (2)
shreds having two sizes which were, nominally, 5.5mmxl.2mm and 10.8mmx 1.8mm
(lengthxdiameter). By addition of rubber, flexural strength and plastic shrinkage
cracking of mortar were decreased.
18
Turki et al. (2009) investigated the feasibility of reusing and valorising rubber
aggregates from shredded worn tyres in cement composites and aimed to study the
microstructure behaviour of rubber aggregates introduced in mortar. The same volume
of sand was replaced with rubber aggregates, ranging from 0% to 50%. As a result, void
spaces were shown in the scanning electron microscope photographs between matrix
and rubber aggregate. It was concluded that at least two types of porosity exist, in the
cementitious matrix and around the rubber aggregates.
Oikonomou & Mavridou (2009) studied the mechanical properties and resistance to
chloride ion penetration of cement mortars incorporating tyre rubber granules as a
partial replacement of sand. The results showed a decrease in dynamic modulus of
elasticity with increasing tyre rubber content. The water absorption measurement by
immersion under vacuum presented lower results by the addition of rubber particles. As
a positive point, an increase in rubber content in the mix caused a decrease in chloride
ion penetration.
Segre & Joekes (2000) added the tyre rubber to cement paste. They concluded that in
order to enhance the adhesion of powdered tyre rubber to cement paste, a low-cost
procedure and agents might be used for pretreatment of the surface. They also found
that the addition of such materials can limit the tendency for cracking.
Toppu & Sarldemir (2008) predicted the properties of waste rubberised mortars by
constructing models according to artificial neural network and fuzzy logic methods.
Oikonomou & Mavridou (2009) investigated the properties of cement mortar with the
introduction of tyre rubber granules as a partial replacement for the sand. They observed
an increase in chloride ion penetration resistance, however, a decrease in other
mechanical properties. This implies that rubberised cement-based mortar can be utilised
in applications where mechanical properties are not as important as high resistance to
chloride ion penetration.
2.2.3.4 In Manufacturing Concretes
Waste tyre rubber particles have been used in concrete in numerous ways. They were
either used in addition to or as a replacement for aggregates or cement in the mix. They
have been used in different sizes varying from less than 0.075 mm to as large as 460
mm with different shapes such as fibre-shape or chips-shape. In order to enhance the
19
adhesion to cement matrix in some cases NaOH pre treatment method is used. In some
other cases the mix incorporated other additives, for instance silica fume and
polypropylene, in addition to rubber granules.
Eldin & Senouci (1994) examined the engineering properties of rubberised concrete and
developed a neural network to predict the reduction in the tensile and compressive
strength as a result of replacing mineral aggregate with rubber aggregate. They also
found that the rubberised concrete did not perform as well as normal concrete under
repeated freeze-thaw cycles, but they had the ability to absorb the plastic energy under
compressive and tensile load.
Toutanji (1996) studied the effect of the replacement of coarse aggregates with different
volume contents of rubber tyre chips (25, 50, 75 and 100%). The replacement resulted
in a reduction of compressive strength twice the magnitude of the reduction of flexural
strength. The rubberised specimens exhibited ductile failure and were subjected to
considerable displacement prior to fracture. Moreover, high toughness was seen in the
specimens containing tyre chips.
Fattuhi & Clark (1996) investigated the cement paste, mortar and concrete mixes
incorporating various proportions of crumb rubber and low-grade rubber obtained from
shredding scrap tyres. The results showed a reduction in density (ranging from 1,300 to
2,300 kg/nr1), and in compressive strength by 70%, when the addition of rubber to total
solid content by mass of concrete was about 13%. They also carried out tests to assess
various properties of cement paste and concrete. For instance they subjected six cubes to
fire through the use of blowtorches for three minutes. It was observed that rubber on the
faces of the cubes was burned. However, when the blowtorch was removed the resulting
fire extinguished itself in 4 to 5 seconds. Moreover, they found that the rubberised
concrete is compatible with masonry nails and can be drilled by the use of masonry bits.
Khatib & Bayomy (1999) used recycled tyre rubber in a Portland cement concrete
(PCC) mixture. They used both fine crumb rubber and coarse tyre chips in their mixes.
Their results showed a workable PCC mix with the tyre rubber being as much as 57% of
the total aggregate volume. They suggested that the rubber content should not exceed
20% of the total aggregate volume.
20
In a study by Hernandez-Olivares et al. (2002) the mechanical behaviour of concrete

specimens incorporating small volumetric fractions of crushed tyre rubber and
polypropylene short fibres under static and dynamic loads was examined. Generally
rubber fibre-filled specimens showed less compressive strength. They concluded that
the fibre content affects the internal structure of the composite material and causes a
decrease of strength and stiffness.
The main difference between the concrete containing both rubber and fibre, and the
concrete which contains only rubber can be seen in the stress-strain plot. In the former
case the graph continues after maximum stress, meaning the fibre prevented crack
propagation and allowed the material to retain a part of the load at great displacements
(increasing the energy absorbed by the strain of concrete), whereas in the latter case, the
first crack propagated quickly and caused an instant failure.
In another study by Li et al. (2004) waste tyres in the form of fibres with various lengths
and stiffnesses were used in the concrete mix. The results showed a higher stiffness and
strength in comparison with rubberised concrete containing waste tyre chips, although
the results were still lower than the control concrete devoid of rubber contents.
Furthermore, a finite element analysis model was developed which showed a lower
stress concentration in waste tyre fibre modified concrete in comparison with waste tyre
chip modified concrete. They also indicated that the use of stiffer and thinner waste tyre
fibres would further reduce the stress concentration.
Siddique & Naik (2004) investigated the benefits of using magnesium oxychloride
cement as a binder to make high-strength rubberised concrete. The results showed that
magnesium oxychloride gives better bonding characteristics to rubber, and a better
adhesion between rubber particles and other constituent materials can be achieved by
pre-treating the rubber particles with magnesium oxychloride.
Albano et al. (2005) examined the recycling of rubber from automobile tyre treads, as a
partial substitute for fine aggregates in concrete. They studied the effect of previous
treatment of rubber with NaOH and reported that no significant changes in compressive
strength and splitting tensile strength of the composites occurred. They also concluded
that the ultrasonic pulse velocity was relatively independent of particle size and
coupling agent employed.
21
Yilmaz & Degirmenci (2009) evaluated the feasibility of using class C fly ash and
rubber waste with Portland cement to produce a composite material for masonry
applications. Results showed a decrease in compressive strength by increasing the
rubber content while an increase in strength by increasing the fly ash content for all
curing periods. Moreover, specimens with waste tyre rubber showed higher amounts of
flexural strength than the control mix. Water absorption was observed to decrease
slightly with the increase in rubber particles size.
Khaloo et al. (2008) studied the possible use of elastic and flexible tyre-rubber particles
as aggregate in concrete. They used tyre chips, crumb rubber and a combination of tyre
chips and crumb rubber to replace 12.5%, 25%, 37.5% and 50% of the total volume of
mineral aggregate in concrete. A significant decrease in strength, tangential modulus of
elasticity and the brittle behaviour of concrete with increasing rubber content was
observed. The post failure strength of concrete occurred when the rubber content was
25%. Furthermore, crack width and its propagation velocity were lower in the
specimens containing rubber particles than those of control concrete. Ultrasonic analysis
showed large decreases in the ultrasonic modulus and high sound absorption for
rubberised concrete.
Ganjian et al. (2009) investigated the performance of concrete mixes incorporating 5%,
7.5% and 10% of discarded tyre rubber as aggregate and cement replacement. The
results showed that with up to 5% replacement of either cement or aggregate no
significant changes in concrete characteristics would occur. They reported that the most
important reason for this was that not sufficient bonding occurred between the rubber
and the paste matrix, as the bond plays an important role in strength of concrete. In the
case of tensile strength greater reduction was observed in a mix where aggregates were
replaced by rubber contents. Substitution of rubber showed an increase in water
permeability depth and an increase in water absorption in the cases where rubber
replaced aggregates and a decrease in water absorption in the cases where rubber
replaced cement.
Top9u & Bilir (2009) examined the use of rubber in self compacting concrete. In this
research, waste tyre replaced aggregates in different proportions (60, 120 and 180 kg/m'
in self compacting concrete weight).They used six different viscosity agents in the
mixes with or without rubber. Fly ash was also used as filler. They found out by the
22
increase in the amount of rubber aggregates in the mix, compressive strength and
durability has decreased. However, they concluded that different viscosity agents could
improve the properties of concrete containing rubber aggregates.
In another research by Vieira et al. (2010), in order to optimise different parts of

concrete and cementitious mixture components, a completely random design has been
used to develop two different models. By employing those models, the optimum
condition in rubberised concretes was: 2.4mm size of rubber, 2.5% rubber particles that
replaced the aggregates and the mix proportion was 16% cement, 76% aggregate and
8%water. They observed more than 20MPa compressive strength. They suggested this
concrete for applications such as pavements, curbs and walls.
Aiello & Leuzzi (2010) studied the properties of concrete containing waste tyre particles
in fresh and hardened state. They replaced coarse and fine aggregates partially with
different volumes of waste tyre rubbers and with the same dimensions of the replaced
aggregates. They identified that the rubberised concreter has lower unit weight and
acceptable workability compared to plain concrete. Moreover, there was a larger
decrease in mechanical properties when coarse aggregates were replaced with rubber
particles rather than fine aggregates. A good energy absorption and ductility indices
were observed as a result of replacing coarse aggregates.
It has been reported by other different authors that the replacement of fine aggregates by
crumb rubber decreases the thermal conductivity of concrete.
2.3 Styrene Butadiene (SB) Latex
Polymer modified cement materials have been utilised commercially in Portland cement
mortars and concretes for around 40 years. An aqueous emulsion of rubbery polymers,
in other words polymer modifiers in latex form, can be added to the concrete mix in its
fresh state in order to compensate for the shortcomings of cement paste such as poor
adhesion, low impact, durability and flexural strength. In Figure 2-3, extracted from the
study by Ohama (1998), the classification of polymer-based admixtures is shown and
the Styrene-Butadiene (SB) Latex that is employed in the current study is highlighted.
23
Natural rubber (NR) latex

Elastomeric Stvrene-hntarfiene
latex rubber (SBR)
Synthetic
rubber (*hlnmprene rubber (CR)
latex Methyl methacrylate-
butadiene rubber (MBR)
Pnlvacrvlic eater (PAE)

Pol v (ethylene-vinyl aretateKEVA)
Polvfstvrene-aervlic ester) (SAE)
Polymer Thermoplastic
latex latex Polyvinyl propionate (PVP)
Polypropylene (PP)
[Polyvinyl acetate (PVAC)*]
Thermosetting
latex
r Asphalt
_ Bituminous Rubberized asphalt
latex
Polymer-
Paraffin
based Mixed latex
admixture
Poly fethylene-vinyl acetate) (EVA)
Redispersible Pnlv (nolwinvl acfttate-vinvl vergatate)(VAVeQVa)
polymer ~ Poly (styrene-acrylic ester) (SAE)
powder
Polyacrylic ester (PAE)
Cellulose derivative------ Methyl cellulose (MC).
Water- Hydroxy ethyl cellulose (HEQ
soluble
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA, Poval)
polymer
(Monomer) Polyacrylamide
Acrylate Calcium acrylate. Magnesium acrylate
Liquid f Epoxy (EP) resin

polymer '
Unsaturated polyester (UP) resin
Figure 2-3 - Classification of polymer-based admixtures, (Ohama 1998)
24
The chemical structure of SB Latex is shown in Figure 2-5:
- CHj - CH CH * CHi * CHi - CH N

6 s
Figure 2-4 - Chemical structure of SB Latex, (Ohama 1998)
There are some general requirements for polymer latexes as admixtures as below:
Excellent chemical stability towards active cations
High mechanical stability under severe conditions
Low air-entraining action due to the usage of appropriate antifoaming agents
No unfavourable effect on cement hydration
Formation of polymer films in mortar or concrete
High water and alkali resistance and weatherability of the formed polymer films
(Ohama 1998)
In a work by Lewis & Lewis (1990) two types of polymer latex were used, Styrene
Butadiene Rubber (SBR) and acrylic modifier. They were added to the concrete in
proportions of 10% and 20% of the polymer solids to cement by weight. It is found that
by using these polymers, less water per cementitious material is needed. Moreover,
regardless of the concentration of polymer, in both cases there was a decrease in
compressive strength and some indication of improvement in tensile strength was
observed.
In another study by Shaker et al. (1997), the durability aspects of Styrene Butadiene
latex modified concrete is compared to that of the conventional concrete. Several tests
such as water penetration, absorption and sorptivity tests were carried out and it was
concluded that the durability factors (water tightness, abrasion, corrosion, and sulphate
resistance) of concrete containing polymer was higher than the conventional one.
The effect of SBR emulsion on the physical and mechanical characteristics of cement
mortars is investigated in research by Wang et. al (2005). It is found that with the same
25
water/cement mass ratio, the apparent bulk density and compressive and flexural
strength of the polymer modified mortars will increase slightly with the addition of
small amount of SBR emulsion. It is observed that the properties of polymer modified
mortars are affected by polymer films, cement hydrates and the combined structure
between the organic and inorganic phases, and this mostly happened when the
polymer/cement mass ratio is under 10%.
olak (2005) used SB latex in Portland cement pastes and concrete and concluded that
one of the most noteworthy advantages of using SB latex is, the improvement of
toughness, deformability and elasticity which can transform the brittle concrete to a
ductile one.
Kuhlmann (1985) reported that due to the properties of latex and that the use of a low
water/cement ratio, a concrete with higher flexural, tensile, and bond strength, but lower
modulus of elasticity, can be produced.
It is important to mention that in the current report, Styrene Butadiene (SB) Latex is
used in some mixes to enhance its performance in the concrete mix containing waster
tyre rubbers.
2.4 Ductility
One of the requirements of structural design in the majority ot design codes is having
acceptable ductility. In reinforced steel structural systems the ratio of post-yield
deformation to yield deformation that is usually involved with steel yield is described as
ductility. Acceptable ductility behaviour is usually observed in members that are
properly reinforced. One important aspect of ductility is the precaution ot structural
failure, where in structures with appropriate amount of ductility there would be warning
prior to the failure of the structure, whereas in brittle structures such warning does not
exist (Giner et al. 2012).
26
There are four different types of ductility as follows:
Materials ductility, or axial ductility:
Defines the plastic deformation of the material
Cross-section ductility, or curvature ductility:
Characterises the plastic deformation of cross-section
Member ductility, rotation ductility:

This is when the properties of the member are taking into account
Structure ductility, or displacement ductility:

Considers the characteristics of the whole structure or sub-structure, e.g. a joint a very
comprehensive illustration containing different types of ductility is shown in Figure
2-5.(V 2000)
Ductility types Schematic representation Definition
S.l
fy-
Material (axial)
ductility r eu
M
/ y EU
Mp - / \1,x
Cross-section (curvature)
6
1
I!
ductility
1 Xy <0 x
M
Mp-
Member (rotation)
ductility / | o,
^
/ Oy u "9
F(|
Fu /
S
/ rf
Structure (displacement) 5.
ductility fy-
tfj 'a5=f
TT1
i U
Figure 2-5 - Ductility Types (V2000)

27
There are several studies that worked on the concept of the ductility of a member; for
instance in a study by Juarez et al. (2007) the diagonal tension of 16 beams reinforced
with steel fibres and normal longitudinal bar with different compressive strength and
fibre proportions is investigated. Moreover, stirrups with instrumented strain gauges
were used as shear reinforcement. They reported that, with the addition ot fibre, the
shear strength and ductility of beams were increased, and this increase was signiticantly
higher than the specification of ACI - 318 Code of practice. They calculated the
ductility based on the amounts of deflection on the Shear load (kN) - Deflection (mm)
curve.
Hamoush, et al. (2010) in a study entitled deflection behaviour of concrete beams

reinforced with PVA micro-fibres investigated the stress-strain and load-deflection
behaviour of Polyvinyl Alcohol micro-fibre reinforced concrete composites through a
series of compression and tension tests. They produced the deflection model by utilising
the moment-curvature and conjugate beam method. Based on the flexural results they
concluded that the addition of PVA micro-fibres increased the toughness and ductility
of the hardened concrete.
A study by Son et al. (2011) examined the improvement of the deformability of rubber-
filled RC columns by making concrete mixes with different strengths and waste tyre
particle size and content. The columns were tested for their compressive strength under
pure axial load by utilising a standard compressive loading procedure. Using the
experimental concrete strain, the rebar strain, and the effective reinforcement depth the
evaluation of the curvature at different load levels was done. It was found that there was
a drop in the amount of compressive strength and modulus of elasticity, however, an
increase up to 90% of curvature ductility was observed. Moreover, the rubber-filled
columns were able to carry up to twice the lateral deformations before experiencing a
buckling failure in comparison with normal concrete columns.
Zhang & Li (2002) carried out research on engineered cementitious composite (ECC),
which is a special type of high performance fibre reinforced concrete composites with
high tensile ductility. It is observed that the ultimate tensile strain capacity of this
material reached 3-5%.
28
Toutanji (1996) also reported that traditional concrete incorporating rubber particles
showed more deformability and ductility in members.
Bekir (1995) in a paper entitled The properties of rubberised concrete observed that
with the addition of rubber, which is an elastic material, the ductility properties of
concrete are improved and concrete shows elastic behaviour under load.
In the current research, ductility of the reinforced EMC beam is investigated based on
the results of the four-point bending test under static loads.
2.5 Damping
The determination of the behaviour of concrete under dynamic actions is examined by

its properties such as dynamic modulus of elasticity, Poissons ratio or modulus of
rigidity. The mentioned characteristics do not necessarily present the same amount as
their static equivalent.
Damping is another factor related to the dynamic performance of a concrete. Damping

can be defined as the process of the dissipation of energy, generally into thermal energy.
The parameter C, is used to set out the damping ratio and it is defined as follows:
=
~ ccr
= =
2m w
-^=(1)
2y/km
c: damping coefficient
ccr'. critical damping coefficient
nr. mass of the system
iv. natural frequency of the undamped system
k: stiffness of the system
In reality, the amount of damping is much less than the critical damping and it varies
from 2% to 10% of the critical damping value; damping ratio is as a result small (less
than 0.1). Thus in practice the damped natural frequency is equal to the undamped
natural frequency (Giner et al. 2011).
29
Damping is identified in four categories:
Damping of the material, such as steel, timber or concrete; the structural

material itself has some degree of damping
Damping at connection; this is due to the fact that within connections

interfaces are rubbed against each other
Damping as a result of the distance of wave propagation through the body

of the structure
Damping as a result of the radiation of the energy into the soil or air
(Hal 2006)
The main reason for increasing the material damping is to minimise the resonant
response of the structure. One approach to increase the material damping is the
employment of polymer admixtures in the concrete mix. Damping is affected by
different factors such as temperature, cracks present in the structure, and frequency.
Damping can be manifested in form of the energy absorption of the structure subjected
to any excitation as a result of explosion, earthquake or other dynamic loads.
Damping of the structure itself can be achieved by two methods; the decay curve
method and the bandwidth method. Due to the non linearity of the structure obtaining
the decay curve is difficult; therefore the second method is more common. In the band
width method, however, any error on calculation affects the damping value (Giner et al.
2011).
In another study by Yan et al. (2000), it is seen that the damping produced by
continuous fibres is low, while their stiffness is high.
It is stated that the fibres added to the concrete are much stiffer than the concrete matrix,
however, they have lower amount of damping. Therefore, the energy loss from the
fibres is usually negligible. It is concluded that crimped and fine-fibre reinforcements
can increase damping of concrete composites and this is accompanied by a decrease in
response frequencies because of the interfacial debonding and consequently the
interfacial friction.
30
Damping of a concrete member can be evaluated by several tests; in a study by Kume et

al. (1982) damping is calculated by estimating the stress distribution functions for each
mode of vibration and the damping-stress function of a cantilever beam. Solution for
undamped force vibration gives the deformation in the cantilever beam and
consequently the stress distribution function is defined. Moreover, the function obtained
by Lazan is utilised as the damping-stress function. This method gives the damping of
the cantilever beam when it is employed in a machine structure subjected to the
vibrations.
Carneiro et al. (2006) determined the damping properties of concrete reinforced beams
under mechanical vibrations. In this research, the pseudo-dynamic method is used to
investigate the dynamic behaviour of the beam. The pseudo-dynamic test method is a
hybrid method in which the numerical integration of the equations of motion and the
experimental calculations of forces are combined. In this study, the pseudo dynamic
process deals with a single degree of freedom system and a forced vibration scheme
with an external harmonic load. The applied and inertial forces are simulated
numerically and the same equipment as conventional quasi-static is used. The actuators
estimate the required loads to create the corresponding displacements. By using the
step-by-step numerical integration algorithm, the equation of motion is solved based on
the applied forces from the specimen and the inertial data from the analytical model.
The mentioned method showed an acceptable accuracy in examining the damping ratio
of concrete reinforcement beams, prestressed concrete, wood, and other materials.
Zheng et al. (2008) investigated the relationship between damping ratio in small
deformation along with the amount of rubber particles in rubberised concretes by testing
the simply supported beams utilising the free vibration method. In this report, replacing
aggregate partially with scrap tyres in different volumetric proportions created
rubberised concrete.
It was observed that the damping ratio of rubberised concrete is more susceptible to
change by vibration response amplitude changes than in normal concrete. Furthermore,
rubberised concrete showed higher damping ratio in comparison to normal concrete.
The damping ratio of concrete containing rubber particles grew with the amount of
rubber, however the relationship is nonlinear, and due to the dynamic modulus of
31
elasticity is decreasing with the addition of rubber, an optimum content of rubber should
be added. This was concluded to be less than 30%.
Hemandez-Olivares et al. (2002) studied the damping properties of concrete containing

very low rubber fractions (3.5% and 5%).The dissipated energy in the viscoelastic
regime and under compressive dynamic load were examined and it was concluded that
there is an obvious relationship between age, frequency and fibre volumetric fraction.
Moreover, under higher frequency there was more energy dissipation than under lower
frequency. The mix incorporating a higher fibre volume (5%) dissipated more energy in
comparison to one with lower content (3.5%); this characteristic, made it a better
candidate for absorbing and dissipating energy under dynamic actions.
The damping properties of the current research are evaluated through a cyclic three-
point bending test on reinforced concrete beam incorporating SBR granules.
2.6 Concluding Remarks
The use of waste tyres in the concrete mix is the first of its kind in Australia and is the
purpose of this research. The majority of waste tyres in Australia pose a waste problem
in the worst case or an under-utilised resource at best.
Waste tyres are a valuable potential resource as they are made from rubber, steel and
textile, all of which can be recovered and used for other purposes. Therefore, by using
such materials in concrete, the mentioned costs would be eliminated while the natural
sites used for landfill would be more protected. Moreover, the use of waste tyres in the
concrete mix would ease demand on Australias constrained supply of natural
aggregates.
SBR sourced from waste tyre is employed in different applications such as asphalt
mixture, mortars, concretes, and geotechnical applications.
Using SBR in concrete has both advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, it
improves the damping, ductility and toughness of the concrete and produces an
environmentally friendly construction material; on the other hand, it decreases some of
its mechanical properties such as compressive strength and modulus of elasticity.
32
Two different sets of tests are carried out in this research to determine different
characteristics such as ductility, energy absorption and stiffness of the control and
modified reinforced concrete beams: 3-point bending and 4-point bending tests.
In 3-point bending tests, the section of uniform stress is non-existent and maximum
under the centre of loading point. In 4-point bending test, however, the section of
uniform bending stress is larger and exists between two loading points (one-third of the
beam length) where shear forces are zero. This will be discussed in more detail in
Chapter4.
33
CHAPTER 3
INVESTIGATION INTO THE

FRESH, HARDENED AND
DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF
ELASTOMERIC MODIFIED
CONCRETE (EMC)
Chapter 3. Investigation into the Fresh, Hardened and Dynamic Properties of EMC
3. Investigation into the Fresh, Hardened and Dynamic Properties

of Elastomeric Modified Concrete (EMC)
3.1 Preface
This chapter initially introduces the raw materials used in the concrete mix and their
proportion in different mixes. Elements related to specimen preparation, such as
preliminary tests prior to mixing, mixing procedure, and specimen moulding, are
discussed in Section 3. Section 4 is divided into three major parts; fresh state, hardened
state, and tests relevant to dynamic properties, and their results and discussions.
Finally, the main conclusions are argued in the last section.
It is important to clarify at the beginning of the chapter that at the initiation of the
project, SB Latex was utilised to improve the bond between the SBR granules and the
cement matrix, although, as it is discussed in this chapter, the properties of concrete mix
were reduced rather than improved. Therefore, after making the control concrete mixes
and two elastomeric modified concretes with SB Latex and observing the undesirable
results, the rest of the mixes were made without SB Latex.
3.2 Raw Materials
3.2.1 Shrinkage Limited (SL) Portland Cement
The cement used in this study was shrinkage limited Portland cement (PC). Shrinkage
Limited Cement (SL) is a Portland cement created for applications where the reduction
of concrete shrinkage is desirable for reducing the potential for cracking and enhancing
the structural integrity of concrete.
Shrinkage limited PC is a special purpose PC manufactured from specifically prepared

clinker and gypsum (CaS04-2H20) and often contains up to 5% by mass of mineral
additions in accordance with Australian Standard (AS) 3972-2010 Portland and blended
cements specification requirements. The significant material composition of SL
Portland cement is shown in Table 3-1.
34
Chapter 3. Investigation into the Fresh, Flardcned and Dynamic Properties of EMC
Table 3-1- Significant Composition of SL Portland Cement
Chemical Entity Proportion
Portland Cement Clinker 20-95%
Gypsum 0-5%
Calcium Oxide 0-3%
Limestone (CaCCh) 0-5%
Hexavalcnt Chrome Cr (VI) (Cement) <20 ppm
Crystalline Silica (Quartz) <1-10%
Some of the main physical and chemical properties of SL Portland cement based on the
requirements of AS 2350.2 - 2006 can be seen in Table 3-2.
Table 3-2 - Physical and Chemical Properties of SL Portland Cement
Physical and Chemical Properties
A fine powder varying in colour from grey to off-

Appearance (dry)
white
odour Nothing distinctive
Melting Point >1200C
Specific Gravity 3.15
Slight, reacts when mix with water and creates an

Solubility in Water
alkaline solution
Up to 40% of the fresh dry material below 10

Particle Size
microns
(Australia 2011)
3.2.2 Fly Ash (FA)
In this research, fly ash (FA) sourced from Eraring Power Station was used as a
supplementary cementitious material (SCM) addition to partially replace PC at 30%.
35
Eraring FA is a natural pozzolan and low in lime content. Eraring FA does not have
significant cementitious properties, nonetheless, in the presence of water, it reacts
chemically with Ca(OH)2to produce compounds with cementitious characteristics.
Typical composition and properties of Eraring FA tested based on the requirements of

AS 3582.1 (1998) are illustrated in Table 3-3 and Table 3-4.
Table 3-3 - Chemical Composition of Eraring Fly Ash by XRF method
Oxide Percentage
(%)
A1203 26.60%
CaO 2.30%
Fe203 3.70%
K20 1.40%
MgO 0.50%
Mn203 0.10%
Na20 0.50%
P205 0.30%
Si02 61.70%
Ti02 1.00%
S03 0.10%
Table 3-4 - Typical Properties of Eraring Fly Ash
Relative Particle fineness

Test LOI @ 750C LOI @ 950C
Density
MS ii ml
Value 1.70% 1.80% 2100 kg/m3 81%
3.2.3 Fine Aggregate and Coarse Aggregate
The fine aggregates and coarse aggregates used in the preparation of all mixes were
sourced from Dunmore, Australia. 50/50 blended fine/coarse manufactured sand was
used as fine aggregates. 10 mm and 20 mm crushed Latite gravels were employed as
coarse aggregate. Coarse aggregates comply with the grading requirements of the
specification listed in Table 1 AS 2758.1(1998). Moreover, prior to batching, the fine
36
and coarse aggregates were prepared to be in Saturated Surface Dry (SSD) condition.
The particle size distribution of aggregates utilised in this research based on the
requirements of the AS 1141.11.1(2009) sieving test method is shown in Table 3-5 and
Table 3-6.
Table 3-5 - Particle Size Distribution (sieving method) of Fine Aggregates
Passing Sieve (%)
Fine (14mm)
Grading SBR
Aggregates
Granules
6.7 mm 100 100
4.75 mm 98 100
2.36 mm 81 18
1.18 mm 65 2
0.6 mm 55 0
0.3 mm 38 0
0.15 mm 8 0
75 pm 4 0
Table 3-6 - Particle Size Distribution (sieving method) of Coarse Aggregates
Passing Sieve (%)
10mm Coarse 20mm Coarse (12-15mm)

Grading
Aggregate Aggregate SBR Granules
26.5 mm 100 100 100

19.0 mm 100 95 100
13.2 mm 100 51 100
9.5 mm 87 14 29
6.7 mm 49 6 0
4.75 mm 11 4 0
2.36 mm 3 3 0
1.18 mm 2 2 0
75 pm 0 0 0
37
The properties of coarse aggregates and blended 50/50 sand are as follows:
Table 3-7 - Properties of Aggregates
Water
Aggregate Particle Density
Absorption
Type on a SSD'Basis
(%)
10 mm 2.7 1.8
20 mm 2.71 1.6
Blended sand 2.65 1.2
1. Saturated surface dry (SSD)
3.2.4 High Range Water Reducing Admixture (HWR)
High range water-reducing admixture (HWR) was used to achieve the desired slump of
80 20 mm. The HWR selected for this research was a polycarboxylic-ether based
super plasticiser that increases workability and decreases water demand in high-
performance concrete, where high durability is required.
Whilst the selection of this admixture adds another variable to the concrete mix, the
results are still able to be analysed due to the predictable behaviour of this additive.
3.2.5 Water
Drinkable grade water conditioned to 23 2 C was used for all mixes. Furthermore, a
fixed water-cementitious-material ratio (w/cm) of 0.35 was used in this study.
3.2.6 Styrene Butadiene (SB) Latex
The SB latex used in this research was carboxylated styrene butadiene copolymer latex
that is designed to be added to concrete or mortar to improve bond, strength, and
chemical resistance. This type of SB latex is classified as a non re-emulsifiable bonding
type.
The SB latex was determined to have a relative density of approximately 1.0 kg/litre
and a solid content of 48% which is an important fact when adjusting the water content
of the mix design.
38
The polymer particles in latex are spherically shaped with size ranging from 0.05 to
0.50 pm in diameter. Moreover, the elastic behaviour of this material can help with the
energy absorption of the concrete. It is worth mentioning that the carboxylated group is
also known to affect the workability of concrete. In light of this, a lesser amount of
super plasticiser needed to be used in mixes where latex was present.
3.2.7 Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR)
The SBR granules used in this study were sourced from waste passenger and four-wheel
drive tyres with the size of particles varying from 1 to 4 mm and 12 to 15 mm. The
relative density of the SBR granules was determined to be 920 kg/m3. Illustrations of the
typical small and large SBR granules used in this study are shown in Figure 3-1 and mm
Figure 3-2, respectively. The 1 to 4 mm SBR granules were used to partially replace
blended fine and coarse manufactured sand at different proportions of 5%, 10% and
15%, and the 12 to 15 mm SBR granules were employed to partially replace 10mm and
20mm manufactured coarse aggregates at different proportions of 2%, 4%, 6% and
10%.
Figure 3-1 - SBR granules 1-4 mm Figure 3-2 - SBR granules 12-15 mm
39
3.2.8 Steel Reinforcement
The steel reinforcing bars used for this research have the following properties:
Nominal Diameter: 12mm
Yield Strength: 500MPa
Tensile Strength: 560MPa
Figure 3-3 shows the stress versus strain diagram for tensile test of one of the steel
reinforcing bars.
-Stress vs Strain
Proof Strength 0.20%
0.005 0.01 0.015

Strain
Figure 3-3 - Stress versus Strain of the Steel Reinforcing Bar
The Proof Strength 0.2% line is drawn based on the specification of AS 1391-2007,
section 14.
3.3 Specimen Preparation and Testing
3.3.1 Experimental Program and Concrete Mix Proportion
The experimental program and concrete mix proportions of the control and test mixes
are shown in Table 3-8, Table 3-9 and Table 3-10, respectively. SBR granules were
replaced by total mass of aggregates. The mix design is based on the recommendations
of industry.
40
Table 3-8 - Experimental Program
SBR Granules (%) 10mm 20mm

Fly Blended SB
Coarse Coarse
Mix Ash 50/50 Latex
Aggregate Aggregate
(1-4 mm) (12-15mm) (%) Sand (%) (%)
(%) (%)
C 0 0 0 100 100 100 0
CF 0 0 30 100 100 100 0
CL 0 0 0 100 100 100 10
CFL 0 0 30 100 100 100 10
RL5 5 0 30 95 100 100 10
RL10 10 0 30 90 100 100 10
R5 5 0 30 95 100 100 0
RIO 10 0 30 90 100 100 0
R15 15 0 30 85 100 100 0
RB-2 0 2 30 100 99 99 0
RB-4 0 4 30 100 98 98 0
RB-6 0 6 30 100 97 97 0
RB-10 0 10 30 100 95 95 0
Table 3-9 - Raw Material Proportions of Control Mixes
Blended 10mm 20inm

Water SB
PC FA 50/50 Coarse Coarse
Mix latex
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) Sand Aggregate Aggregate (kg/nr) (kg/m3)
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
c 430.0 0.0 635.0 390.0 700.0 150.5 0.0
CF 301.0 129.0 635.0 390.0 700.0 150.5 0.0
CL 430.0 0.0 635.0 390.0 700.0 150.5 43.0
CFL 301.0 129.0 635.0 390.0 700.0 150.5 43.0
41
<N
Tcf-
X
2 c
q o o o o o o
CO
Ncf
03
n- d O o d d
C/3 w
O
o o o q q q q q q
Qd "5 ^
B3 C ^ 04 co 04 oi mi ii 04 m d
</3 2 w co nO co NO On 1 1 04 CO m3
O
o q q q q q q q
2 E
2 ~x) m3 m3 m3 m3 m3 m3 m3 m3 m3
# If
Table 3-10 - Raw Material Proportions of Mixes with SBR Granuf

M 13
*1 O O q q q q q q
D C
U ot: m3 mi m3 m3 mi oo ii d d
_ nr On ON ON ON ON oo oo r- NO
NO NO NO NO NO NO
I it e NO NO NO
1 <
a
cn
5 c*
os 'S ^
DU C O O O o O o q q q
U O = d d NO 04 od
ON ON ON ON ON oo OO r~~ O'
co co 03 m m 03 m m m
1
O "
o ^
^ "p
o -=
T) CJj o O o q q q q q
o i, ___ ON ON oo m co m CO
SJ w o NO O NO m co m m CO
NO m3 NO m3 m3 NO NO NO NO
1 i
a i
CQ C/3
<
U-
oin
o
r^(

co
O> O cs
c/3 G
o O o q q o o o O 3 &
43<s
6X oi oi oi oi On
Gfi ON
04
ON
04
ON
04
ON
04 04 04 <N 04 n | al
,1 r1 rx it 1( 1 1 feb CQ
<
b d p
c3Hc d onCQ Bg
x-*s
5DX) 1 n
v CQ
O q q q q q q q
1 O O o o o o o o
o
co co co co 03 03 m m CO
U
a. <2 <S
oX "O
"OG G
CO .2
C/3
o on CQ
X m3
O o m3
04 \C < _) od Cd
1 _1 cd CQ ac CQ CQ
i Cd al od cd al od 2 al > > >
3.3.2 Preparation of Materials
The preparation of all materials was done based on the specifications of AS 1012.2
(1994) section 8. All materials were brought to room temperature prior to the batching.
Fine and coarse aggregates were prepared to be in a uniform moisture SSD condition.
All of the admixtures (SB Latex and HWR) were prepared in accordance with the
relevant manufacturers recommendations.
There is an exception for the preparation of the specimens for the measurement of the
fundamental transverse and longitudinal resonant frequencies. As the relevant standard
was not available among Australian Standards, all of the preparation and testing was
carried out based on ASTM C215 - 08.
3.3.3 Preliminary Study Prior to Mixing
a) Sieve Analysis of Aggregates
Sieve analysis was performed following the specification of AS 1289.3.6.1 (2009). The
results of the analyses are presented in the previous section in Table 3-5 and Table 3-6.
b) Density of Rubber
As the density of SBR particles were not specified by the supplier, a separate test was
carried out based on AS 1141.5 and the result is 920 kg/m3.
c) Moisture Content (MC) of Aggregates
Prior to each mix, the MC of blended 50/50 sand, 10mm coarse aggregates and 20mm
coarse aggregates were measured in accordance with the requirements of AS 1289.2.1.1
(2005). The relevant adjustment to the value of water added to the mix was based on the
calculated MC. The amount of MCs varied as shown in Table 3-11.
Table 3-11 - MC of Aggregates
Aggregate Type MC Variation (%)
20 mm Coarse Aggregate 0.43 - 1.32
10 mm Fine Aggregate 0.47 - 1.18
50/50 Blended Fine Sand 0.32-3.00
43
3.3.4 Measurement of Materials
Materials were measured in accordance with the requirements of AS 1012.2 (1994)

section 9 for each batch by mass, to the following accuracies:
a) Cement and water: 0.2%
b) Aggregates: 0.2%
c) Admixtures: 0.5%
Moreover, the total volume of SB Latex used in the relevant mixes was included in the
calculation of the final amount of mixing water.
3.3.5 Mixing Concrete
Based on the requirements of section 10 of AS 1012.2 (1994), prior to the mixing, the
inside of the mixer was moistened and the mixer was cleaned between batches.
Moreover, the mixer was charged with materials in the order set out in clause 10.4.4
with a slight modification for mixes containing SBR granules as follows (clause 10.4.4):
a) The mixer was charged with the coarse aggregates, then the fine aggregate.
b) After that, the SBR granules were added to the rest of the aggregates.
c) The mix was operated for 2-3 minutes to ensure that the SBR granules are dispersed
uniformly and then stopped.
d) Cement (and FA where needed) was added.
e) The mix was commenced as illustrated in Figure 3-4.
44
Load materials including SBR

granules
0 min
Mix for 2min, add water as

estimated, and admixtures (SB
Latex and HWR) within first
minute
2 min
Rest for 2 min
4 min
Mix for 2 min
6 min
Stop and measure slump within

the next 3 min
9 min
Mix for 2min, add extra water

if required within first minute
1 1 min
Stop and measure slump within

14 min the next 3 min
If slump incorrect If slump correct
Discard Sample
Figure 3-4 - Mixing Procedure for Concrete
45
Figure 3-5 - Adding High Range Water Reducer (HWR) to the Mix
3.3.6 Compaction by Vibration
The procedure for the compaction by vibration of MOR test specimens was conducted
in accordance with section 7.4 AS 1012.8.2, and that for the compressive strength test
was conducted in accordance with section 7.4 AS 1012.8.1 (2000). The dynamic testing
was performed based on ASTM C 192/C 192 M. Vibration was performed in a way that
no segregation or honey combing was observed, even in mixes incorporating SBR
granules.
Figure 3-6 - External Vibration Table
46
3.3.7 Sampling
Based on section 11 AS1012.2 (1994), concrete was sampled directly from the mixer
carefully without having any segregation. Furthermore, sampling and then testing of the
specimens were performed within the time limits specified in clause 12.1.1.
Specimens for the determination of properties of hardened concrete such as static chord
modulus of elasticity (MOE), modulus of rupture (MOR) were prepared in less than 20
minutes.
3.3.8 Specimen Moulding
Cylindrical specimens of dimensions 100 mm diameter by 200 mm high were moulded

for compressive strength testing in accordance with the test method requirements of AS
1012.8.1 (2000). For MOE, cylinders measuring 150 mm in diameter and 300 mm in
height were prepared in accordance with the prescribed test method requirements listed
in AS 1012.8.1 (2000). Rectangular beams of dimensions 100 mm by 100 mm by 350
mm were prepared for MOR testing in accordance with the listed test method criteria of
AS 1012.8.2 (2000).
Figure 3-7 - Specimen Cylinder and Prism Moulds
47
3.3.9 Finishing
There was a slight difference in the finish of the samples with SBR granules, and more
effort was needed to be put in order to achieve the acceptable level surface tor the
specimen.
3.3.10 Specimen Demoulding and Curing
The MOR and compressive strength test specimens were demoulded after 24 hours and
then cured in lime-saturated water in line with the standard temperature zone curing
conditions specified in Section 9 of AS 1012.8.1 (2000) and Section 9 of AS 1012.8.2
(2000). The remaining specimens were demoulded after 48 hours, since the rest of the
conditions were identical.
Compressive strength testing was carried out after curing for 7, 28 and 56 days, as
described in test method AS 1012.9 (1999). In addition, MOR was taken after 14 and 28
days of curing based on the testing criteria listed under test method AS 1012.11 (2000).
The MOE test was carried out after 28 and 56 days curing in accordance with the listed
test method requirements of AS 1012.17 (1997). Moreover, the dynamic modulus of
elasticity specimens were tested after 14 and 28 days of curing based on the
specification of ASTM C215 - 08.
Figure 3-8 - Specimen Curing Tank
48
3.4 Testing Program
3.4.1 Fresh State
For each concrete mix, the properties measured for the fresh state were slump, air
content (AC) and wet density following criteria listed under AS 1012.3.1 (1998), AS
1012.4.1 (1999) and AS 1012.5 (1999) test methods, respectively.
Figure 3-9 - Air Content Test
Figure 3-10 - Slump Test
49
The results of the tests are as follows:
Table 3-12 - Results of the Fresh Properties Tests
Wet
HWR
Mix Density AC (%)
(ml/m3)
(kg/m3)
CL 70 2420 3. 0
W ith SB Latex
CFL 80 2370 3. 2
RL5 462 2352 1.8
RL10 692 2319 1.9
C 60 2510 0. 8
CF 75 2450 1. 0
R5 708 2394 0.8

W ithout SB Latex
RIO 1231 2357 2.6
R15 1538 2314 2.7
RB-2 1077 2427 1.05
RB-4 1092 2413 1.2
RB-6 1338 2399 1.2
RB-10 1415 2363 1.8
50
3.4.1.1 High Range Water Reducing Admixture (HWR)
The amount of HWR needed for each mix is illustrated in Figure 3-11.
(a)
g 1000
OC 800
RL10
(b)
E 1000
e? 800
400
1 OAA - ----------- ---------- - -

1 oUl)
1 /TAA
loUU JI ................ ....... ....... _........ - . .----------------------------------------
14UU ................. ....

g IZUU %
g' 1lUUU
AAA I
1 1
r................ ..................... 77?
Oi 800 T~...- ~..... . ......
1 1 i
* 600 4
4UU I
a aa
....... 1 1
200 -j.... .....
C CF
1
RB-2 RB-4
%
RB-6 1IB-K3
Figure 3-11 - HWR Amount of Concrete Mixes

51
The above figures show that mixes with FA were generally found to require less HW R
than mixes without FA. This could be due to the shape and surface texture of FA
particles contributing to improved rheology of the concrete. It is reported in literature
that FA contains round and smooth glassy particles, which decrease the water demand
in the concrete mix and enhance workability (Ferraris et al. 2001).
Furthermore, as shown in the figures above, there is a similar trend in the amount of
HWR needed to reach the targeted slump and the amount of SBR granules added to the
concrete mix. Increasing the proportion of SBR particles leads to decreased workability,
regardless of the presence of SB Latex, larger size of SBR granules or smaller ones.
This is supported by the study of Batayaneh, which summarised the slump performance
as shown in the table below Batayneh et al. (2008):
Rubber Slump
Content (%) (mm)
0 75
20 61
40 36
60 18
80 10
100 5
Based on Figure 3-12, it can be concluded that replacing coarse aggregates with larger
size of SBR granules can increase the required HWR more than the case where tine
aggregates were replaced with smaller size of SBR granules.
52
SBR(l-4mm)
SBR (12-15 mm)
Linear (SBR (1-4

mm))
Linear (SBR (12-15
mm))
SBR granules Percentage (%)
Figure 3-12 - HWR amount for Different SBR Granules Sizes
As shown in Figure 3-13, when SB latex was added to the mixes the amount of HWR
required to attain the same slump was noted to decrease significantly. This indicates
that the addition of SB latex further improves workability. The ball bearing action of
entrained air, entrapped on polymer particles, and the dispersing effect of carboxylated
surfactants in the SB latex, is the most likely cause for this noted increase in workability
(Ohama 2004).
1400
1200
1000
^ 800
E 0 Mix Incorporating SB
Latex
% 600
X Mix Without SB Latex
400
200
SBR Granules Percentage (%)
Figure 3-13 - HWR amount for Mixes with or without SB Latex
53
3.4.1.2 Wet Density
The wet density of each concrete mix is presented in Figure 3-14:
(a)
C 2350
- 2300
RL10
(b)
s 2350 -
- 2300
(C)
o 2350
RB-6 RB-10
Figure 3-14 - Wet Density of Control Mixes and Mixes Incorporating SBR
Granules
54
The wet density of EMCs was found to decrease with increasing addition of SBR
granules, as shown in Figure 3-14. A possible explanation behind this noted reduction is
the relative density differences between the aggregates replaced and SBR granules. This
is supported in a report by Aiello & Leuzzi (2010) that due to the lower density of
rubber, a gradual decrease in the density was examined with an increased replacement
of mineral aggregates. There are further studies which confirmed the above trend, such
as in research by Khatib & Bayomy (1999). The above outcome can lead to a
conclusion that there is a possibility of using the light weight rubberised concrete in
architectural applications as previously recommended by Siddique & Naik (2004).
Moreover, there was slightly greater decrease in wet density when fine aggregates were
replaced with the smaller size of SBR granules as opposed to the larger size, as shown
in Figure 3-15:
-t 2380 SBR (1-4 mm)

SBR (12- 15 mm)
2360
---- Linear (SBR (1-4 mm))
---- Linear (SBR (12-15 mm))
Figure 3-15-Effect of Different Sizes of SBR Granules on Wet Density
55
3.4.1.3 Air Content (AC)
The percentage of AC of concrete mixes is presented as follows:
(a)
J.J
'l
J -
V A ^
5s Z, J
c 0
1 2 '
SW 1 Js H
U
< 1 '
A
U. Jc ,
AU i 1 i
CL CFL RL5 RL10
(b)
J.J ~
'y
j -
N O C 1
0s- A.u
C A
S i s
u
h i
< 1
A C
U.5
A0 ---------------,---------------- 1-----------------1 i i
C CF R5 RIO R15
(c)
O 1.5
RB-10
Figure 3-16 - AC of Control Mixes and Mixes Incorporating SBR Granules
56
From Figure 3-16, (b) and (c) it is noted that the AC of the control mixes was lower
than the mixes with SBR granules, with the exception of the R5 (5% 1-4 SBR granules).
It is also observed that the AC increases with the increase in percentage of both sizes of
SBR granules, potentially due to the non-polar surfaces of rubber particles and their
tendency to capture air within their roughened surfaces {'Green Capital ; Siddique &
Naik 2004). Figure 3-16 (a) shows a contradictory result which may be due to the effect
of the SB Fatex on the SBR granules in the mix.
However, among mixes with SBR granules, it is observed, as shown in Figure 3-17, that
the AC calculated is greater in mixes incorporating SB Latex, which could be due to the
action of surfactants contained as emulsifiers and stabilisers in the SB latex contributing
as entrained air (ACI-Committee-548 2003). This trend is observed up to approximately
8% of SBR granules. One possible reason for this could be the more effective influence
of the non-polar surface of rubber particles and their inclination to seize the air bubbles
in their roughened surfaces rather than the action of surfactants in SB Latex. More
investigation is needed to confirm the reasons behind this phenomenon.

2)-> ~
c
s
c l -
o < Mix Incorporating SB
e ____ ____ ___ Latex
(J ' -5
Mix Without SB Latex
< 1
r\
U.D
C
A
U i i >
() 5 10 15
Percentage of SB Granules (%)
Figure 3-17- Effect of SB Latex on AC in Mixes Incorporating SBR Granules
57
3.4.2 Hardened Concrete Properties
Properties of hardened EMC are summarised in the table below where each value is an
average of three tests.
Table 3-13 - Hardened EMC Properties
Compressive Strength MOE

MOR (MPa)
(MPa) (GPa)
Mix
Identification 28 56 14 28
7
28 days
days days days days days
CL 47.5 56 61 34 6.3 7.1
CFL 35 40 50 33 4.8 5.4
RL5 25.5 39 39.5 33 5.2 5.9
RL10 23 32 35 30 5 5.7
C 61 73 76.5 44 6.8 7
CF 46 57.5 70 43 5 5.6
R5 33.5 48 50 39 5.4 6
RIO 28.5 41 42 33 5.6 6.4
R1 5 25 32 35.5 32 4.5 5.3
RB-2 42 51.5 67 43 6.1 7.1
RB-4 40 48.5 49 39 6.2 7.3
RB-6 38.5 46 46.5 37 6.7 7.4
RB-10 30 32 39 33 5.8 5.9
3.4.2.1 Compressive Strength
With increasing additions of SBR granules in EMCs, compressive strength is noted to

be lower when compared to the equivalent strength for control concrete after 7, 28 and
56 days. This observation can be supported by different references such as Ganjian et
al., (2009). Moreover, the compressive strength of all mixes is observed to increase with
age. As expected, this observed increase in strength with age is most likely due to the
hydration process of PC and pozzolanic activity of FA continuing in the formation ot
calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) strengthening phases (Newman & Choo 2003). This
phenomenon occurs regardless of the presence of SB Latex in the mix and the size of
the mineral aggregates replaced with SBR granules.
58
Chapter 3. Investigation into the Fl esh, Hardened and Dynamic Properties of EMC
(b)
0 7 days
28 days
56 days
(c)
90
iZ 7 days
E3 28 days
1 30 4- 56 days
5 10
RB-2 RB-4 RB-6 RB-10
Figure 3-18 - Compressive Strength at Different Ages of Curing
59
3.4.2.2 Effect of SB Latex on the Compressive Strength
As shown in Figure 3-19, adding SB Latex to the mix resulted in a decrease in the
compressive strength for all of curing ages.
90
80 r
7days
E28days
56days
CL CFL RL5 RL10
Figure 3-19 - Effect of SB Latex on the Compressive Strength
3.4.2.3 Effect of SBR Granules Size on Compressive Strength
As shown in Figure 3-20, compressive strength decreased more with the replacement of
fine aggregates with smaller size of SBR Granules than the replacement of coarse
aggregates with larger size of SBR granules. This could be due to the result illustrated
in Figure 3-15, where the replacement of fine aggregates reduced the density more than
the case where coarse aggregates were replaced with larger size of SBR granules.
Another possible reason could be the different sources of SBR granules, where the
smaller sizes were sourced from passenger and 4WD cars, whilst the larger sizes were
sourced from truck tyres. This statement is acknowledged by (Valadares 2009) in his
study.
60
SBR Granules (1-4

mm)
SBR Granules (12-15
mm)
------Linear (SBR Granules
(1-4 mm))
------Linear (SBR Granules
(12-15 mm))
18 -I------------ I-------------- T------------- T
0 5 10 15 20
Figure 3-20 - Effect of SBR Granules Size on Compressive Strength
3.4.2.4 Compressive Strength to Density Ratio
Another relationship which could be evaluated is that of Compressive Strength to

Density ratio. As an example, the compressive strength to density ratio of mixes
incorporating only SBR Granules is shown in Figure 3-21. It can be seen that the
undesirable effect of substitution of mineral aggregates with SBR granules is greater
than the beneficial influence of reduced density. There is no improvement in strength to
density ratio, while from time to time the curve became steeper and the negative effect
became worse.
0.026
0.024
5 0.022
c
9 <3 0.02
-e
SBR (12-15 mm)
1 3 0.018
SBR (1-4 mm)
35 | 0.016 -----Expon. (SBR (12-15 mm))
> ^
1 0.014 -----Expon. (SBR (1-4 mm))
Figure 3-21 - Compressive Strength - Density versus SBR Granules Percentage
61
3.4.2.5 Modulus of Rupture (MOR)
As demonstrated in Figure 3-22, mixes incorporating SBR granules, regardless of the

presence of SB Latex and the size of rubber granules, had lesser values of MOR than in
control concretes. However, an interesting trend can be observed in all figures; unlike
other relevant research studies carried out, which generally indicate a decrease in MOR
with increasing rubber content in EMCs, in this study a higher MOR was noted with
increasing SBR content. It is interesting to note that the higher MOR noted is consistent
with the research findings also reported by Yilmaz & Degirmenci (2009). From figures
below an optimum addition of SBR content to EMCs is also evident, with MOR being
reduced for either an increase or reduction in percentage of SBR granules.
The optimum point for different cases is evaluated in Table 3-14:
Table 3-14 - Optimum SBR Granules Percentage for MOR
Optimum
Mix Series
Point (%)
Mixes incorporating 10% Latex + SBR Granules (1-4 mm) 5
Mixes incorporating SBR Granules (1-4 mm) 10
Mixes incorporating SBR Granules (12-15 mm) 6
62
(a)
014days
28days
RL10
Mixes incorporating 10% Latex + SBR Granules (1-4 mm)
(b)
8
7 - ----------------------- ----- ----------
6 %
* '
1I I
a- 5 -
s4r 3_ 0 14days
at
0 3 4 28days
%
1
n --------------- |---------------------------1 i i
C CF R5 RIO R15
Mixes incorporating SBR Granules (1-4 mm)
(c)
0 Mdays
28days
RB-10
Mixes incorporating SBR Granules (12-15 mm)
Figure 3-22 - Modulus of Rupture of Concrete Mixes
63
3.4.2.6 Effect of SB Latex on MOR
In mixes incorporating both SB Latex and SBR granules, a lower MOR is observed.
This fact is illustrated in the figures below:
6------------------------------------------------
a Mixes Incorporating
SB Latex
Mixes Without SB
Latex
0 5 10
SBR Granles Percentage (%)
Figure 3-23 - Effect of SB Latex on 14 Day MOR
a 5
ft.
4
& (Mixes Incorporating SB
o
3 Latex
C3
Q Mixes Without Latex
ac 2
n
1
Figure 3-24 - Effect of SB Latex on 28 Day MOR
64
3.4.2.7 Effect of SBR Granule size on MOR
Based on the results shown in Figure 3-25, there is a larger decrease in the amount of
MOR when fine aggregates were replaced with (1-4 mm) SBR granules rather than the
replacement of coarse aggregates with (12-15 mm) SBR granules. For the same
replacement percentage of mineral aggregates (e.g. 5%), a higher value is obtained tor
mixes incorporating (12-15 mm) SBR granules.
d. 6 SBR granules (1-4 mm)
SBR granules (12-15 mm)
---- Poly. (SBR granules (1-4 mm))
---- Poly. (SBR granules (12-15

mm))
Percentage of SBR Granules (%)
Figure 3-25 - Effect of SBR Granule size on MOR
3.4.2.8 Relative Compressive Strength versus Relative MOR
In Figure 3-26, the relative 28 days compressive strengths and MORs of rubberised
mixes versus control ones are plotted. The relative strength is calculated as below:
28 days of rubberized mixes

Relative strength x 100 (2)
28 days of control mixes
As we can see in the following figures, the relative MOR of almost all mixes is more
than 100%, which means MOR increased by the addition of SBR granules. There is one
exception where the relative MOR is less than 100%; this could be due to the disturbing
effect of SBR granules more than a specific amount. Conversely, the relative
compressive strength is always less than 100%, showing the decrease in the
compressive strength of the hardened concrete by the addition of SBR granules.
65
Furthermore, it can be concluded that the presence of SBR granules in the mix can
affect the compressive strength more than MOR.
(a)
140 -r-
^ 120
100
0 28 Day Compressive
Strength
28 day MOR
o 20
Percentage (%) of SBR (1-4 mm) Incorporating SB Latex
(b)
^ 140
? 120
Ii
5ex 100
c
o 80 | 28 Day Compressive
60 -i- Strength
p
40 28 Day MOR
OL
20
0 i
Percentage (%) of SBR (1-4 mm)
(C)
^ 120
S 100
H28 Day Compressive
Strength
40 - 28 Day MOR
Percentage (%) of SBR (12-15 mm)
Figure 3-26 - Relative 28 Day Compressive and MOR strength
66
3.4.2.9 Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)
According to the study by Ganjian et al. (2009), replacing aggregates with rubber
particles will reduce the amount of MOE. This is due to the fact that the characteristics
of aggregates affect the MOE, and the greater the MOE of aggregates, the larger the
MOE of the resulting hardened concrete will be. In another report by Pacheco-Torgal et
al. (2012) it is stated that since there is a relationship between the compressive strength
and the MOE, it is predicted that the MOE should decrease by the addition of rubber
particles to the mix. Turatsinze & Garros (2008) obtained the following results for
compressive strength and modulus of elasticity:
Table 3-15 - Compressive Strength and MOE results of a Similar Project
Rubber Compressive Modulus of

Content (%) Strength (MPa) Elasticity (GPa)
0 43 35
10 30 23
15 20 19
20 15 15
20 12 10
Turatsinze & Garros (2008)
The reduction of the modulus of elasticity can also relate to the low modulus of
elasticity of SBR granules themselves.
In the figures below the results of the MOE of the specimens and their relationship are
demonstrated.
67
(a)
40
o- 30
28 day Modulus of
Elasticity
0 28 day Modulus of
Elasticity
RL10
(C)
28 day Modulus of
Elasticity
RB-2 RB-4 RB-6 RB-10
Figure 3-27 -MOE Value of Concrete Mixes

68
35
HMix Incorporating SB
Latex
Mix without SB Latex
0 5 10
Figure 3-28 - Effect of SB Latex on the amount of MOE
As illustrated in Figure 3-27, the value of MOE reduced with the increasing addition of
SBR granules to the mix.
Using up to 5% of SBR granules did not change the MOE significantly (less than 10%)
It can also be concluded from Figure 3-28 that the addition of SB Latex decreased the
MOE.
3.4.2.10 MOE as a Function of Compressive Strength
According to European Standard NF EN 1992 - 1 - 1 the average value of MOE is

related to the average value of compressive strength by the equation below:
MOE = 22 x (^)03 (3)

v10 7 v 7
As illustrated in the figure below, EMC does not follow the rule governing ordinary
concretes.
69
1-4 mm SBR granules
Experimental
Eurocode 2
28 day Compressive Strength (MPa)
Figure 3-29 - MOE as a Function of Compressive Strength - Empirical versus

Experimental Prediction
12-15mm SBR granules
a- 40
Experimental
Eurocode 2
28 day Compressive Strength (MPa)
Figure 3-30 - MOE as a Function of Compressive Strength - Empirical versus

Experimental Prediction
70
3.4.3 Dynamic Properties
The fundamental transverse, longitudinal and torsional resonant frequencies of concrete

specimens were calculated based on the requirements of ASTM, C215 08. In
accordance with the test procedure there are two approaches to determine the
fundamental resonant frequencies:
1) The force resonance method
2) The impact resonance method
In this research, the second procedure is used, where a supported specimen is struck
with the use of a small hammer and the response is measured by an accelerometer on
specific place on the specimen. The fundamental frequencies of two different modes
(transverse and longitudinal) after 14 and 28 days of curing were investigated by proper
location of the striking point and the accelerometer.
As indicated in section 5.3 and 5.4 of the standard, there are different variables that can
change the final values of frequency and dynamic modulus of elasticity, such as the
condition of manufacture, the moisture content, specimen size and specimen shape;
therefore special care was taken to produce specimens with same conditions and to keep
the ambient features identical, in order to get the most accurate results.
A metal impactor was used as shown in Figure 3-33, and the impact duration was short
enough that the highest resonant frequencies could be excited and measured.
Waveform Analyzer
or
Frequency Counter Impactor
nn
* Amplifier
Figure 3-31 - Schematic of Apparatus for Impact Resonance Test
(Photo is derived from ASTM C215 - 08)
71
The prismatic specimens were struck as illustrated in the figures below, extracted from
ASTM C 215-08:
a) Transverse Mode
Support for
pickup
0 224 L
b) Longitudinal Mode
j1 Needle Pickup
Q) Accelerometer
Driver or Impact
Cross section containing

node for fundamental 0.5 L
frequency
Figure 3-32 - Positions Where Specimens were Struck in Different Modes
(Photo is driven from ASTM C215 - 08)
Figure 3-33 - Hammer Used for Dynamic Test
72
Figure 3-34 - Dynamic Test (transverse mode)
3.4.3.1 Calculation
The frequency for different concrete specimens was derived from relevant figures
obtained from the LabView program by testing the specimens. Examples of such figures
are shown on the next page.
73
a
>
Oa
-J
c
c
OJ

OJ
a.
<Z)
a'
5J
s
o
U
'Ki>
H

C3
s
;>
Q
ir-
m
rn
<L>5
3
_0X)
U.
The value of dynamic E is also calculated from equations 1 and 2 of section 10 of

ASTM C215-08:
Dynamic E (transverse frequency) = CMn (4)
Where:
M= Mass of specimen, kg
n = fundamental transverse frequency, Hz
C= 0.9464 (L3T/bt3), m'1
Lc= Length of specimen, m
t, b= dimensions of cross section of prism, rn, t being in the direction in which it is

driven
T = correction factor
And,
Dynamic E (longitudinal frequency) = DM (n'f (5)
Where:
n= fundamental longitudinal frequency, Hz
D = 4 (L/bt), nf1 for a prism
Generally, most of the recent studies on rubberised concretes were focused on the
mechanical properties of the concrete such as the strength and workability (Zheng et al.,
2008); few of them investigated the dynamic properties of such concrete. For instance,
in research by (Hemandez-Olivares et al. 2002) the dynamic modulus of rubber-filled
concrete at low frequencies and under compressive dynamic load, the damped energy in
viscoelastic regime and under compressive dynamic load were examined. The research
demonstrated clear relationships with age, frequency and fibre volumetric fraction.
Under higher frequency a higher dissipated energy was observed. Furthermore,
75
specimens with higher fibre volumetric fraction (5%) dissipated more energy than those
with lower amounts of fibre (3.5%).
Zheng et al. (2008) investigated the vibration frequency and damping capacity of
rubberised concrete on a simply supported beam with the free vibration method. He
used different percentages of rubber in the concrete mix. It is observed that the dynamic
modulus of elasticity of rubberised concrete is lower than that of plain concrete. It is
also determined that by the addition of rubber granules, the damping ratio increased;
however, the relationship is not linear.
3.43.2 Results: Fundamental Transverse and Longitudinal Resonant

Frequencies
The results of the fundamental transverse and longitudinal resonant frequencies of the
concrete specimens are shown in Table 3-16 and Figure 3-36 and Figure 3-37.
The relationship between the transverse and longitudinal resonant frequencies is shown
in Figure 3-38.
Table 3-16 - Fundamental Transverse (n) and Longitudinal (n') Resonant

Frequencies
From figure
Mix
Identification Frequency (Hz)
tt n'
C 2300 5280
CF 2200 5100
CFL 2200 5100
RF5 2100 4800
RLO 2000 4650
R5 2100 4900
RIO 2100 4900
R15 1950 4500
RB-2 2200 5100
RB-4 2180 5100
RB-6 2150 5080
RB-10 2120 4850
76
2000
5 1900
Figure 3-36 - Transverse Frequency
4800
3 4600
Figure 3-37 - Longitudinal Frequency
77
oo
r--
C/0
C/3 cn cn -J
<D JJ JJ
s 5 CQ DC cx
Ui
CQ QQ
oo
<3 s
j
1i-i 1v a a oo 00
a a a X
QQ
CtL
CQ
s
o S' s
c3
i
1 CQ CC cX oo 00 lO) o
C/0 QQ CQ iA
o a oo 00 I/O
o o
+
CQ
a:
QQ
S
o ? s + +
X X + +
OO oo m o CD <D
13 13
1/^
13 hJ _j 13 13
O o
+
5 cs
-J
CQ QQ
J _J
+ X X + + QQ oo oo CQ QQ
<u a> X 00 oo oo
13 13 aj ss
13 J _l 13 13 o o _ _
-1 -J -1 o O C/3 O C/3
CQ CQ s>-^ JD <D a>
gure 3-38 - Longitudinal Frequency versus Transverse Frequency

CQ GO CQ QQ
00
go
oo c/o c3 c3 3 3 1 13 1
CD CD <d <D
t c C c J-h .S 2
c
.5 >-
O o
o o o u 'J J a j a -j a
X X

3.4.3.3 Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity
The Dynamic MOE obtained from the values of frequency calculated from relevant
graphs is shown in Table 3-17 and Figure 3-39 and Figure 3-40:
Table 3-17 - Dynamic MOE
From Figure
Mix
E (dynamic) (GPa)
Identification
Transverse Longitudinal
C 44 50
CF 40 46
CFL 38 43
RL5 35 39
Material
RL10 31 36
R5 35 41
RIO 35 41
R15 29 34
RB-2 39 45
RB-4 38 45
RB-6 37 45
RB-10 36 40
79
C A
C rV A A
O^y^y oE \> n
Figure 3-39 - Transverse Dynamic MOE
55
Cu
O 50 fs///.
'////
UJ ////
'////
- 4*5 '////, '////
S s///
////
'///;
'////
r////
f 40
////
////
////
'////
'////
'////
'////
//// '////
//// '////
.E 35 '////. '////
T3 //// '////
5 //// '////
//// '////
I 30 //// '////
'////. '////
'////. ////
'////. '////
25
C A ,r > fe
^ <?<$> 4? 4>
Figure 3-40 - Longitudinal Dynamic MOE
As illustrated in the above figures, and predicted in the literature, the addition of FA and
SB Latex decreased both the longitudinal and transverse dynamic MOE. This behaviour
is also seen in measuring the static chord MOE.
The addition of SBR granules decreases the MOE, however this undesirable effect is
more prominent when more than 10% of mineral aggregates are replaced with SBR
granules.
80
The replacement of coarse aggregates with the larger size of SBR granules (12-15 mm)
decreases the MOE less than the case where fine aggregates were replaced with (1-4
mm) SBR granules.
Figure 3-41 depicts the relationship among different modes for dynamic E. In most
cases, the relationship is linear.
81
<N
OO
m<D m<L> m<d

3 3
in<D maj | J-H

u-,
3
3 a a a
CC32
CQ QC OC
a a CO CO
QQ CQ
CO
o-\
CQ CQ o Ss
oo CO o
i-H un
g r^ iA
(N
+ t + + +
s 3s sc3 ajX
cS J 03 cc
CQ QQ
_) hJ
a:
CO CO CO CO CO
CQ QQ

o o
gure 3-41 - Longitudinal versus Transverse Dynamic MOE

O
o H -1 o o
llltl
0?dD) leuipnjiSuoi - a 3iiubuXq

3.4.3.4 Damping Ratio
Using the relevant graphs (e.g. Figure 3-35 ) captured by testing the specimens, the
damping ratios of the specimens were calculated as given in the table below and in
Figure 3-42.
Table 3-18- Damping Ratio (%)
Longitudinal Transverse
Cl 1.85 1.89
CF 2.3 1.3
CFF 2.6 2.3
RF5 3.18 1.59
RF10 3.6 1.8
R5 2.44 1.5
RIO 2.84 1.96
R15 3.18 2.4
RB-2 2.9 3.14
RB-4 3.22 3.5
RB-6 3.44 3.84
RB-10 8.00 3.96
The high result of damping ratio (%) for longitudinal mode of mix RB-10 seems to be
the feature of the longitudinal result of this mix as it was observed in the other samples
of the same mix as well. This could be due to the percentage of SBR in the concrete
mix.
83
(a)
Figure 3-42- Damping Ratio (%)
According to the above figures, the addition of SBR granules increased the
damping ratio (%) of the specimens in comparison with the control concrete.
This fact was predicted in the literature.
The presence of SB Latex, in most of the cases, increased the damping ratio.
The value of damping ratio is greater for the larger size of SBR granules.
84
3.4.3.5 Comparison of Dynamic MOE with Chord (static) MOE
The results of the Chord MOE test and the value of E obtained from dynamic test are
compared and shown in Table 3-19:
Table 3-19 - Comparison of Dynamic MOE with Chord (static) MOE
E (dynamic) (GPa) Chord

Mix
MOE
Identification Transverse Longitudinal (GPa)
C 44 50 44
CF 40 46 43
CL 38 43 34
RL5 35 39 33
RLO 31 36 30
R5 35 41 39
RIO 35 41 33
R15 29 34 32
RB-2 39 45 43
RB-4 38 43 39
RB-6 37 45 37
RB-10 36 40 33
3.4.3.6 Dynamic modulus of elasticity versus compressive strength
The graph below shows the relationship between the Transverse Dynamic MOE and the
compressive strength. It can be concluded that with the increase in the amount of
compressive strength, a higher MOE can be obtained.
85
0% SBR granules
5 - 15 % SBR granules
2 - 10 % SBR granules
Linear (0% SBR

granules)
Linear (5- 15 % SBR
granules)
Linear (2-10 % SBR
granules)
Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity - Transverse (GPa)
Figure 3-43-Compressive Strength as a Function of Dynamic MOE
3.4.4 Modes of Failure
Various studies regarding the failure modes of rubberised concrete are available in the
literature review; (Toutanji 1996) indicated in report that the concrete mixes containing
rubbers showed a ductile failure and withstood outstanding displacements prior to
failure.
In the current research, the failure of the control concrete is observed to be explosive
(Figure 3-45), whereas by the addition of rubber the failure became more gradual and
less explosive. Moreover, specimens containing SBR granules remained intact even
after the failure (Figure 3-44 and Figure 3-46). This could be due to the bridging of the
rubber across the cracks which can decrease the crack propagation within the specimen.
It can also be seen in Figure 3-47 that there is a pull out failure; in other words, the
specimens disintegrated at the interface of the cement and rubber instead of failing
throughout the aggregates.
It is predicted that the gradual failure of the hardened concrete containing SBR granules
could help with ductility and the ability to bear loads even after ultimate failure load.
The statement above is supported in a study by Eldin & Senouci (1994), which showed
that the rubberised concrete did not show the typical brittle failure, but instead was
observed to have a ductile, plastic mode of failure.
86
Figure 3-44 - Compression Failure of Specimen Incorporating SBR Granules
Figure 3-45 - Flexural Failure of Control Concrete under Flexural Test
87
Figure 3-46 - Flexural Failure of Specimens Incorporating SBR Granules under

Flexural Test
Cement-rubber
Interface Failure
Figure 3-47-Cement-rubber Interface Failure of Specimens Incorporating SBR
88
Figure 3-48 - Dispersion of SBR Granules in the Hardened Concrete
The following figures (Figure 3-49) show the specimens in post maximum failure load.
(a)
89
(c)
Figure 3-49 - Compressive Failure at Post Maximum Failure Load
(a) Specimen Incorporating 5% SBR Granules (1-4 mm)
(b) Specimen Incorporating 10% SBR Granules (1-4 mm)
(c) Specimen Incorporating 6% SBR Granules (12-15 mm)

90
3.5.1 Fresh Properties
HWR
An increase of SBR granules used in the mix resulted in an increase in the

amount of HWR required to achieve the same slump.
Mixes with FA were generally found to require less HWR in order to get to the
targeted slump than mixes without FA.
Replacing coarse aggregates with the larger size of SBR granules can increase
the required HWR more than the case where fine aggregates were replaced with
the smaller size of SBR granules.
When SB latex was added to the mixes, the amount of HWR required to attain
the same slump was noted to decrease significantly. This indicates that the
addition of SB latex further improves workability.
Wet Density
With the addition of SBR granules, there was a decrease in the wet density in all
mixes.
There was a slightly greater decrease in wet density when fine aggregates were
replaced with the smaller size of SBR granules.
Air Content
It is noted that the AC of the control mix was lower than the mixes with SBR
granules, with the exception of the R5 (5% 1-4 SBR granules), it is also
observed that the AC increases with the increase in percentage addition of both
sizes of SBR granules
The amount of AC calculated is more in mixes incorporating SB Latex
91
3.5.2 Hardened Properties
Compressive Strength
Compressive strength is reduced in comparison to control concrete, with

increasing additions of SBR granules used in EMCs. Moreover, compressive
strength of all mixes is observed to increase with age
The addition of SB Latex to the mix resulted in a decrease in the compressive

strength for all curing ages
Compressive strength decreased was greater when fine aggregates were replaced
with the smaller size of SBR Granules than the replacement of coarse aggregates
with the larger size of SBR granules
MOE
With increasing additions of SBR granules to EMCs, a decrease in the MOE was
observed. This behaviour is independent of the presence of SB Latex in the mix
and is the same for different sizes of SBR granules. However, at low percentages
of rubber granules (<5%) the decrease is insignificant and the results are almost
the same for the control concrete and rubberised ones.
It can be observed that the addition of SB Latex to the mix decreases the MOE
of the specimens by 23%.
MOR
A higher MOR was noted with increasing SBR content in EMCs. An optimum
SBR content of 10% for the SBR size of (1-4 mm), 6% for (12-15 mm) and 10%
for SBR size of (1-4 mm) incorporating SB Latex, were also established, beyond
which MOR decreases accordingly.
There is a larger decrease in the MOR when fine aggregates were replaced with
(1-4 mm) SBR granules rather than the replacement of coarse aggregates with
(12-15 mm) SBR granules.
It can be concluded that the presence of rubber granules in the mix can affect the
compressive strength more than the MOR.
92
3.5.3 Dynamic Properties
Fundamental Transverse and Longitudinal Resonant Frequencies:
The addition of SB Latex to control mixes did not change the value of either the
transverse or the longitudinal frequency. However, rubberised mixes
incorporating SB Latex exhibited a lower frequency in comparison with
rubberised mixes without Latex.
An increase in the percentage of SBR granules reduced both the transverse and
longitudinal frequencies to less than that of the control specimens. The
magnitude of this decrease was less in mixes incorporating larger size of SBR
granules, while no decrease was observed when only 2% of coarse aggregates
were replaced by (12-15 mm) SBR granules.
Dy namic Modulus of Elasticity
The addition of both fly ash and SB Latex to the mix decreased the Dynamic
MOE in both the transverse and longitudinal modes. As can be seen in Ligure
3-39 and Ligure 3-40 the dynamic MOE of rubberised concrete with Latex is
less than that of rubberised concrete without Latex.
The addition of SBR granules to the mixes decreased the dynamic MOE of both
modes. There was less decrease when coarse aggregates were replaced with (12
15 mm) SBR granules.
In Ligure 3-41 the relationship between Dynamic E of the longitudinal mode

versus the transverse mode is shown. When one increased, in almost all cases
the other is increased, which demonstrates the consistency of the results.
In Ligure 3-43 the relationship between dynamic E and compressive strength is

illustrated. It can be concluded that an increase in the compressive strength
results in an increase in the dynamic MOE, or vice versa.
Damping Ratio
As predicted, based on literature, the addition of latex increased the damping

ratio in almost all cases for both modes.
93
It is also observed that the value of damping ratio increased in the presence of
SBR granules. This increase was greater where coarse aggregates were
substituted with (12-15 mm) SBR granules in transverse mode.
3.5.4 Failure Mode
EMC specimens containing SBR granules did not exhibit the same failure
pattern as that of normal concrete. No fragmentation was observed after failure
and the specimen remained intact even after failure.
94
CHAPTER 4
INVESTIGATION INTO THE

STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF
THE ELASTOMERIC MODIFIED
CONCRETE
Chapter 4. Investigation into the Structural Properties of the Elastomeric Modified Concrete
4. Investigation into the Structural Properties of the Elastomeric

xModified Concrete
4.1 Preface
In Chapter 3 the mechanical and dynamic properties of the control and EMC concretes
were investigated. Due to the fact that most of the studies have been focused on the
mechanical and physical properties of EMCs, there is a need for further investigation,
such as examining the energy absorption of EMC under dynamic loading. Chapter 4
reports on EMC reinforced beams made and tested in order to fulfil this need, and also
to study the effect of SBR granules on real members. The best mix from each size of
SBR granules was chosen and a beam was fabricated according to the chosen mix
design.
In this chapter the design of the control and EMC beams based on Ultimate Strength
method and their experimental program are introduced. Three destructive and non
destructive tests were carried out on the beams: four-point bending, three-point bending
(cyclic) and hammer. These three tests and their results are examined in sections 3, 4,
and 5 respectively.
4.2 Fabrication of the Beams
4.2.1 Design
Beams were designed based on the specifications of Ultimate Strength Design Method
and the final dimensions were as follows:
Height 150 mm
Width 200 mm
Length 1,900 mm
Length between supports 1,800 mm
These dimensions were chosen due to the limitation of the maximum capacity of the
mixer in the laboratory, which was 80 litres. Moreover, the ratio of the horizontal
distance between the application points of the nearest reaction to the depth of the beam
prevents any shear failure.
95
For the steel reinforcement, the bottom reinforcement was 3 N12 bars, while the top
reinforcement was 2 N10 bars. The cover for the steel bars was 25mm and N8 bars at
150mm spacing were used as stirrups. A typical steel reinforcement for the beams is
shown in Figure 4-1.
2N10
NT @ 150mm
Figure 4-1 - Typical steel reinforcement for the beams
Using the Ultimate Strength Method, the expected maximum force using the below
equations were: (for the schematic drawing of the beam please refer to Figure 4-7)
Mu - 0.90 x fs x As x d (6)
PL
Where:
P: the load applied (kN)
fs: the ultimate strength for the steel reinforcement (500 MPa)
As: the area of the 012 steel reinforcement (339.3 mm )
d\ the effective depth (200-25-6 = 169mm)

96
L\ the span length (1,800mm)
M: the maximum bending moment (kN.mm)
Therefore,
Mu = 25803.8 kN.mm
And the maximum expected force is:
P = 43 kN
Checking if the beam fails in tension:
fc- the compressive strength of concrete beam was assumed to be 60MPa
s: strain in concrete (assumed to be 0.003)
The strain for steel reinforcement was assumed to be 2.5x 10'3
100 0.003
0.0025
0.003 _ 0.0025
x 1690x
Solve for x = 92.18 mm
fsx As = 0.85 fcbx
As = 940.24 mm2 < As design

97
4.2.2 Casting and Curing
Other than the control beams fabricated in accordance to the control mix designs, 5
other beams were made and chosen in light of the results of the first phase. Therefore,
the number of the beams and their mix designs are as follows:
Table 4-1 - Beam Experimental Program
Number
Mix Design of Test on the Beams
Beams
C: Four-point bending
Control mix with 100% Portland cement 2 Three-point bending
Dynamic Test (hammer test)
CF: Four-point bending
Control mix with 30% FA 2 Three-point bending
Dynamic Test
CF: Three-point bending
1
Control mix with 10% SB latex
CFF: Three-point bending
1
Control mix with 10% SB latex and 30% FA
Four-point bending
RSBR10:
2 Three-point bending
10% (1-4 mm) SBR granules and 30% FA
Dynamic Test
RSBR6: Four-point bending
6% (12-15 mm) SBR granules and 30% FA 2 Three-point bending
Dynamic Test
RSBR5F10:
5% (1-4 mm) SBR granules, 10% SB latex and Three-point bending
1
30% FA
The four-point bending and three-point bending (cyclic) tests were destructive tests for
which one beam was allocated to each. However, the dynamic test (hammer test) was a
non-destructive test and the beams used for the four-point bending test were utilised for
dynamic test as well.
98
The mix preparation of all beams was done based on the same procedure as indicated in
section 3.3.
Each beam was wet cured for 7 days and air cured until the test day. They tested at least
56 days after fabrication.
Prior to testing, all sides of the specimen were checked to be at right angles with the top
and bottom. All surfaces were smooth, free of holes and where needed, especially under
the loads, the contact surfaces were capped to eliminate any gap.
Figure 4-2 - Beam Moulds
99
Figure 4-3 - Beam Reinforcement Cage
4.3 Four-point bending Test Set up
4.3.1 Experimental Program
In the table below the name and the number of beams fabricated for four-point bending
test is shown:
Table 4-2 - Four-point Bending Experimental Program
Number
Mix Design
of Beams
Cl:
1
Control mix with 100% Portland cement
C2F:
1
Control mix with 30% FA
R3SBR10:
1
R4SBR6:
1
100
4.3.2 Test Channels
In order to investigate the load-deflection and stress-strain relationships of the beam,

ten channels were employed to capture the data via different tools as follows:
Two channels for load cells
Three channels for Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs)
Three channels for strain gauges on the body of the beam
Two channels for strain gauges on the reinforcing bars
4.3.3 Four-point bending Test Set up
The test set up is shown in Figure 4-4 and Figure 4-5 and the location of the channels is
illustrated in Figure 4-7.
Figure 4-4 - Four-point Bending Test Set up (LVDT and Strain Gauges)
101
Figure 4-5 - Four-point Bending Test Set up (supports)
Figure 4-6 - Strain Gauges on the Surface of the Concrete
102
o
The following procedure is adopted:
Two hydraulic jacks were employed to apply the force onto the beam; they were
located at one third of the span. One load cell was located under each jack to
record the applied force.
Two supports were located at each end of the beam. One end of the support was
designed as a roller while the other support was designed as a hinge (to have a
simply supported system)
Three Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) were used to measure

the deflection at different locations of the beam. Two LVDTs were positioned at
one third of the span and one LVDT was positioned at the centre of the span.
Two strain gauges were used to measure the strain in the steel bars; they were
positioned at the centre and one third of the middle bottom steel reinforcement.
Three other strain gauges were used to measure the strain on the concrete; they
were positioned at the middle span on the front surface of the concrete beam.
Each concrete beam was placed between the two supports, and by using the two jacks
the beam was loaded monotonically. The force, LVDTs and the strains were sampled at
set intervals by the data logging equipment. The concrete beams were loaded until
failure occurred.
4.3.4 Parameters Calculated in Four-point Bending Test
Using the data from the four-point bending test, the following parameters were
calculated for each beam:
The load and the corresponding deflection at the first crack:
Location of the first crack
The first crack is very dependent on the actual choice of this location. In ASTM
Cl018 this location is described as: "...the point at which the curvature first
increases sharply and the slope of the curve exhibit a definite change...", which
means that this determination may be influenced by subjectivity. Generally, the
104
curve lacks a distinct point where the slope is altered because of the micro cracking
and the resultant multiple cracks prior to peak load.
The load and the corresponding deflection at proportional limit:

Proportional limit is defined as a location on the curve where the elastic region
finishes and beyond which the slope changes. This limit is prior to the yield
point.
The maximum load and corresponding deflection: the deflection at the

maximum load that the beam can take before failure.
El value: In other words, the flexural stiffness, as the effective moment of

inertia (I) for the concrete beam will change when the beam starts to crack. Due
to the fact that it was outside the scope of this research to investigate this, by
only calculating the modulus of elasticity (E) associated with I, I is eliminated as
a variable. This is calculated using the following equation:
23 PL3
El
1296A
(7)
Where:
El: Flexural Stiffness (kN.m2)
P: applied force (kN)
L: beam span (m)
A: Deflection (mm)
Ductility Factor: defined as the ratio of maximum post-yield deformation to

yield deformation which usually comes from steel yielding.
105
The different parameters described above, are shown in Figure 4-8.
R4SBR6
Displacement (ran)
Figure 4-8 - Parameters Calculated in Four-point Bending Test
4.3.5 Results
In order to have an idea of the compressive strength of the beams after 28 days of curing
and on the day of test, 6 cylindrical specimens, with the same specification indicated in
section 3 of Chapter 3, were made on the mix day. The results of the compressive
strength test are shown in Table 4-3.
106
Table 4-3 - Compressive Strength of Four-point Bending Observation Specimens
Specimen Name on the Day of Testing the
after 28 Days
Beam
Cl 72.0 84.5
C2F 58.0 80.0
R3SBR10 40.0 42.0
R4SBR6 45.0 53.0
The Load - Deflection graph of the beams are shown in Figure 4-9.
As can be seen in Figure 4-9, the maximum load was reduced when SBR aggregates
were added to the concrete mix. This statement is supported in a study by Turatsinze
and Garros (Turatsinze & Garros 2008).
It is important to note that the reason the maximum load dropped in beams
incorporating SBR granules is the possibility of a slight variation in the yield and tensile
strength of the reinforcement bars used in this project.
The results of the four-point bending test are shown in Table 4-4. In the following tables
Load refers to the sum of both load cells, in other words Load equals to P1+P2.
107
oo
o
0
cC OL
CQ on
CQ
OO
r<n <Pun
qc 01 u U
-
(Load
-
gure 4-9
(N>0 Poi
Table 4-4 - Load and Deflection at Different Points of Four - point Bending Test
Load at Deflection Deflection

Load at Deflection at
Specimen First at First Maximum at
Proportional Proportional
Name Crack Crack Load (kN) Maximum
Limit (kN) Limit (mm)
(kN) (mm) Load (mm)
Cl 15.15 0.74 87.4 9.89 121.13 34.27
C2F 10.00 0.45 90 9.6 119.44 26.82
R3SBR10 11.07 0.54 74 9.92 93.72 16.54
R4SBR6 12.00 0.76 85.03 11 100.64 20.4
In Table 4-5 the amount of ductility factor is calculated as below:
D tit f t Deflection at Maximum Load

^ Deflection at Proportional Limit v
Ductility factor could have different definitions and the above one is selected suitable
for comparing the results in the current study.
Table 4-5 - Ductility Factor and El at Different Points of Four - point Bending
Test
El Between the
First Crack and the
Specimen El at First Crack
Ductility Factor Proportional Limit
Name (kN.m2)
(kN.m2)
Cl 3.46 2119 830
C2F 2.79 2300 905
R3SBR10 1.67 2108 695
R4SBR6 1.85 1634 738
109
The following graphs show the results of Table 4-4 and Table 4-5:
140
120
100
^7
i I|
* 80
t:
C5

1 a Load at First Crack
Load at Proportional Limit
1 j Maximum Load
& 1 m A m
& J' c
# b?
O&
Figure 4-10 - Four-point Bending Test Results
35 1
30
E
25 j Deflection at First Crack
o
c
20
w
o Deflection at Proportional
Co
Q "1
10
Limit
E Deflection at Maximum
5 la Load
0 4 I
<3* c!>
Figure 4-11 - Deflection at Different Points of Four-point Bending Test
110
a Ductility Factor
Cl Beam 1 C2FBeaml R3SBR10 R4SBR6
Figure 4-12 - Ductility Factor of Beams
2.5
a El at First Crack
E3 El between the First Crack

and the Proportional Limit
xC ^ xalp
.\V
Figure 4-13 - El at Different Points of Four-point Bending Test
111
Table 4-6 demonstrates the results of the strain at beam mid span on the reinforcement.
Following from that, the stress on the reinforcement was calculated by multiplying the
strain by the E value of the bars. As discussed in chapter 3 the E value is the slope of the
Proof Strength which was approximately 190,000 MPa.
112
2
S o-
*i/3 -W
.2 5 ro in NO or
C/3 U 'w' 0-3 of m
mj
1 od
NO
NO m
-wj- S. -ft in
04
in
co fi
Ou J
'W
So
Sp o
CG o o O
O o
o
o o
g o- o o o o
o' o' o
ON
ON
ON ON
e Ed
3
Qd
=
Table 4-6 - Strain of Strain Gauge at Mid Span Reinforcement
-s
'2 S- { m ON
m
O' o m
.sri
o - ~o 0'
O'
On O' ON
t o- -3 04 Ol 04
C/J u -
ec
a*

si- or m
0-3 o
ON oT
O'
o
? U 5 in
oo
0.-3
o ^
O.
5S jl ^ oo in Ol NO
% e O NO
E 2 S oo od of
5? ~
Co
E ^ o O
O o
o o
o
o
CJ . o o co o
.Os ^W o' o'
ON o
ON o
ON
ON
1 *"* 1~H 1
oE u
OS
rS- ^
.
2
in oo or
220
ts s * ON ON O'
1 u I
go w
in O'

O u es Z in
o 04
O U. u -
s o NO
Od
Spccimc
od
Name
C2F
U oa CQ
CO
00
m or
od Cd
With the values in Table 4-4 the area under the graphs were calculated roughly as in
Table 4-7:
Figure 4-14 - Calculation of Area under Load - Deflection Curves
Table 4-7 - Area under Load - Deflection Curve (kN.mm)
Up to Proportional Up to Maximum
Up to First crack
Limit Load
Cl 5.6 469.0 2,542.0
C2F 2.3 458.0 1,801.0
R3SBR10 3.0 399.0 555.0
R4SBR6 4.6 497.0 873.0
The area under the graph up to the proportional limit can be assumed as the Modulus of
Resilience with a small change in its definition. The modulus of resilience is defined in
the literature as the area under the curve up to the yield point (Figure 4-15), (where the
material remains unaffected by the applied load and will return to its initial shape when
unloaded), however in this report, due to the fact that finding the yield point was not
114
possible, the area up to the proportional limit is calculated as the Modulus of resilience.
Based on the results presented in Table 4-7 the resilience of R4SBR6 was the highest;
this could be because of the presence of the larger size of SBR in the mix and the
mechanical properties of the SBR granule itself.
Modulus of resilience
Figure 4-15 - Definition of Modulus of Resilience
4.3.6 Discussion
The flexural behaviour of all the reinforced beams was similar, although the
flexural stiffness and final mode of failure varied depending upon the usage of
SBR granules. The modes of failure of all tested beams were flexural failure
combined with local top crushing.
Load at first crack for the control mix without fly ash was the highest, while this
amount did not vary much in rest of the beams. The corresponding deflections
did not follow the same trend and the mix with 6% SBR (12-15mm) exhibited
the greatest deflection. This could be due to the bridging of the rubber particles.
Load at proportional limit in the beam with 6% SBR (12-15mm) is very close to
the value of the control beam with 100% PC, while the deflection is more in the
rubberised beam than in the control one; this supports the idea that rubberised
beams are more resilient than ductile.
115
As was predicted, the maximum load was highest in the control mix without fly
ash and the second highest in the control mix with fly ash. Their resultant
deflections followed the same trend. The deflection at maximum load of the mix
with 10% SBR (1-4 mm) was the lowest; this could be due to the weak bond of
SBR granules and the cement matrix in higher amounts of rubber and load.
The ductility factor of the control beam with 100% PC is the highest and that of
the control with 30% FA was second highest. With the addition of SBR granules
to the mix, ductility decreased, showing that beams with SBR granules are more
resilient than ductile; this is discussed in Figure 4-12 and Table 4-5.
El at first crack did not vary between the beams with the exception of the beam
with 6% (12-15 mm) SBR granules which exhibited a lower EE Elowever, the
highest El between the first crack and the proportional limit is significantly more
in the control beam with FA than in the rubberised beams.
From Table 4-7 and Figure 4-14 it can be concluded that the beam incorporating
(12-15 mm) SBR granules is the most resilient one with the area under the curve
of around 497 (kN.mm), which justifies most of the observations above.
As shown in Table 4-6 the reinforcement in beams passed their yield point
except for the beam with 6% (12-15 mm) rubber particles.
116
4.4 Three-point Bending (cyclic test) Test
4.4.1 Experimental Program
The experimental program is shown in Table 4-8:
Table 4-8 - Three-point Bending Test Experimental Program
Number of
Mix Design
Beams
Cl:
1
Control mix with 100% Portland cement
C2F:
1
Control mix with 30% FA
C3L:
1
Control mix with 10% SB Latex
C4FL:
1
Control mix with 10% SB Latex and 30% FA
R5SBR10:
1
10% (1-4 mm) SBR grnules and 30% FA
R6SBR6:
1
R7SBR5L10:
1
5% (1-4 mm) SBR granules, 10% SB latex and
30% FA
4.4.2 Test Channels
In order to carry out the three-point bending (cyclic) test, there were six channels as
below:
One channel for load cell under the applied load
Three channels for LVDTs at half and one-thirds of the beam
Two strain gauges at half span and one-third of the reinforcing bar
117
4.4.3 Set up
The following test set up was used to test the reinforced beams as shown in Figure 4-16:
One hydraulic jack was used to apply the force to the beam; it was located at
mid span of the beam. One load cell was located under the jack to record the
applied force.
Two supports were located at either end of the beam. On support was a hinge
clamping system, while the other support was a roller clamping system.
Three Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) were used to measure

the deflection of the beams. Two LVDTs were positioned at one third of the
span and one LVDT was positioned at the centre of the span.
Two strain gauges were used to measure the strain in the steel reinforcement;
they were positioned at the centre and one third of the middle steel
reinforcement.
Each concrete beam was placed between the supports, and by using the jack, the
concrete beam was loaded monotonically (push) up to +20kN, then unloaded
monotonically (pull) up to -12kN, then the beam was loaded further (push) by an
increment of + 5kN. When the beam reached the next increment, the beam was
unloaded (pull) up to -12kN. The cyclic loading was continued until failure of the beam
occurred. The force, LVDT and the strains were sampled at set intervals by the data
logging equipment.
The goal of this test was to investigate the energy absorption for each concrete
reinforced beam; this was done by numerically calculating the area enclosed by the
force-displacement curves for each hysteresis loop.
118
-16 - The Three-point Bending Test Set up
gure 4-17 - Hinge Clamping Syst
o
3-
co
_q
13
O)
to
c
o
to
<L>
Figure 4-18 - Schematic of Three-point Bending Test

O)
13
CO
O)
\

CO
CL >: ----------------------- Q_
x CD
I_L|
3-
00 2
4.4.4 Results
In order to have an idea of the compressive strength of the beams after 28 days of curing
and on the day of test, 6 cylindrical specimens with the same specifications as those in
section 3 of Chapter 3 were made on the mix day. The result of the compressive
strength test is as follows:
Table 4-9 - Compressive Strength of Three-point Bending Observation Specimens
Compressive Compressive
Specimen Strength Strength on
Name after 28 the Day of
Days Testing
Cl 87 92
C2F 65 89
C3L 41 48
C4FE 39 47
R5SBR10 38 40
R6SBR6 45 47
R7SBR5L10 35 38
As predicted, and based on the observations in Chapter 3, the compressive

strength increased with age which is a result of the cementitious material
hydration.
The compressive strength of the EMC specimens is less than the control
specimens without SB Latex but not necessarily less than the control specimens
with SB Latex.
122
Figure 4-19 to Figure 4-28 show load-deformation curves for ten consecutive loading
cycles.
Cycle 1
Cycle 1
LVDT (mm)
Figure 4-19 - R5SBR10 Cycle 1
Cycle 2
Cycle 2
LVDT (mm)
123
Cycle3
....... . Cycle3
LVDT (mm)
Cycle 4
Cycle 4
LVDT (mm)
124
Cycle 5
LVDT (mm)
Cycle 6
Cycle 6
LVDT (mm)
125
Cycle 7
......- Cycle 7
LVDT (mm)
Cycle 8
----- Cycle 8
LVDT (mm)
126
Cycle 9
Cycle 9
LVDT (mm)
Cycle 10
Z 50
....Cycle 10
LVDT (mm)
Graphs for the other beams are given in appendices. The areas under Load-deflection
curves are given in Table 4-10 and Table 4-11 with corresponding graphs in Figure 4-29
and Figure 4-29.
127
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oo
Z Os N-
2 CN 1 oo 1 1 1 1
o SO oc
00 CN m
in m so
z
270.3
Os m m
1 "'t 't 1 Os
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r-
cn m,
Z Os 't SO
so so m
2 SO oo 1
o Tt OO CO H CN
r- SO cn
Z "t in SO SO
't
OO r- oo CO o
2 2
m oo 2 oo
SO ro < in m "f
oo r- m SO oo
Z r-~ *0 >n fN
2
o 2 mi mi "t m CN oo
sO CN CN ro CN
Table 4-10 - Area under the Hysteresis Loops
23.83
30.43
24.89
38.7
1.72
27.2
55kN
cn
t" ro cn t-" sq
5 cn cn SO SO
oo 2

m,
m
CN mi CN
CN
Os CN o
fN fN
z
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Tf
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---
z
2
Os
SO cn
UTi
cî
ir< sd
00 mi m
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ro Os SO r-
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m
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Z , 't
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rd
m,
n CN
Z in CN sO
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2
1 i
CU fO m 't
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13.46
Z OS CO rn oo
2 N- ro mi
1 CN
in sd fN
CN
o
R5SBR10
R7SBR5L1
R6SBR6
Specim en
C4FL
N am e
C3L
C2F
U
Table 4-11 - Total Area and Cumulative Area up to 30kN of Three-point Bending
Load-Deflection Curve
Cumulative
Specimen Total
Area Up to
Name Area
30kN
Cl 531 28.3
C2F 268 9.1
C3L 774 25.0
C4FL 627 35.1
R5SBR10 284 34.0
R6SBR6 519 56.1
R7SBR5L10 408 38.1
HCl
C2F
E3C3L
C4FL
R5SBR10
R6SBR6
^ R7SBR5L10
Figure 4-29 - Area up to 30kN under Three-point Bending Load-Deflection Curve
129
Cl
0C2F
EJC3L
BC4FL
R5SBR10
BR6SBR6
^R7SBR5L10
Figure 4-30 - Total Area under Three-point Bending Load - Deflection Curve
4.4.5 Discussion
All beams suffered a tension failure, and all exhibited almost the same general
flexural behaviour. The energy absorption for each hysteresis loop is shown in
Figure 4-19 to Figure 4-28 and is calculated in Table 4-10 and Table 4-11.
According to Figure 4-29 and Table 4-11, the area under each loop, which
represents the energy absorption of the relevant loop, is higher in mixes
incorporating SB latex especially where the applied load is less than 30kN. This
could be due to the fact that mixes associated with this form of SBR (emulsion)
have the ability to absorb more energy in comparison to the control concrete.
The energy absorption of the beam incorporating both SB Latex and 5% (1

4mm) SBR granules when loaded up to 30 kN is the highest among the others,
followed by the beam with 6% (12 - 15 mm) SBR granules. However, for the
mix with a higher percentage but smaller size of rubber granules, the energy
absorption is less than for the control concrete. This could indicate that there is
an optimum point in the amount of rubber in order to get the desired energy
dissipation.
On the other hand, the total area under hysteresis loops is the highest in the
control concrete with 10% SB Latex. This may be due to the effect of SB latex,
as it increases the flexural and tensile strength (Ohama 2004). Concrete beams
incorporating SBR granules have a higher resilience and the area under the curve
130
at lower amounts of load is more significant, whereas at higher loads, the areas
under the curves in beams without SBR granules are higher.
The maximum load in beams with 30% FA is borne by the control beam
incorporating 10% Latex. This also may be because of the presence of latex and
its increasing effect on flexural and tensile strengths (Ohama 2004).
From Table 4-9 it can be seen that the compressive strength of the concrete
mixes with SB latex was much lower than the control concrete mixes, however,
there was no dramatic change of the maximum load between the concrete
beams. This may be due to the effect of reinforcement and the SB latex.
4.5 Dynamic Test (hammer test)
The hammer test was carried out parallel to the four-point bending test in order to study
the transverse vibration (natural frequency and damping). The concrete beam was struck
in two different places (close to two different accelerometers) three times prior to
applying the load, and also after the failure. All results were interpreted using the
software LabVIEW and are shown in appendices.
In the figures below the location of the accelerometers and the two spots where the
beam was struck is demonstrated.
131
Figure 4-31 - Schematic of Dynamic Tests on Beams
C\1
m
Figure 4-32 - Dynamic Test Set up
m
CO
Beam was struck using

this side of the hammer
mf i4 ' ' f
' _-C*'
. . y
ill
.................
Figure 4-33 - Hammer for Dynamic Test
NMMMMHHI
Figure 4-34 - Accelerometer
134
Based on the figures above, five accelerometers were employed in order to capture the
data. These were placed according to the requirements of what natural frequencies were
intended to be obtained. As indicated in the Figure 4-31, the beams were struck close to
A2 and A3 to investigate the transverse vibration.
Table 4-12 - Dynamic Test Experimental Program
A2 A3
Before Applying Load Three strikes Three strikes
After failure Three strikes Three strikes
4.5.1 Theory:
In free vibration, a uniform beam is deemed to follow the Eulers differential equation:
^ 9>
Where I is the moment of inertia, E is the modulus of elasticity, and pA is mass per unit
length. The deflection curve is approximated as Equation 2:
y(x , t) = 0n(x)eiWnt (10)
This after substituting into the first equation will yield:
-/?40(*) = o(ii)
Where 0n is the characteristics function describing the nth mode deflection,
and pP= (12)
By applying the boundary conditions of hinge, simply supported beam into the
equation, and based on information given in Table 4-13 and Table 4-14, the first natural
frequency can be defined as shown in Table 4-13.
135
Table 4-13 - Boundary Conditions of Beams
Boundary
Description
Conditions
y=0
Pinned (hinge,
simply supported) d2y
dx2 ~
Natural frequency:
Values for /?2 are as follows:
Table 4-14 - Values of /?2 for Different Modes
n p p2
1 3.14 9.87
2 6.28 39.5
3 9.43 88.9
Un=znf (13) (Harris 1996)
136
4.5.2 Results:
4.5.2.1Calculation of the Frequency (theoretically)
From Equation 5 and Table 4-14 for the first mode, Table 4-15 is calculated as below:
Table 4-15 - Frequency of the Beams (theoretically)
C0n
El (N.m2) A (nf) L (m) P2 f (Hz)
(rad/s)
Cl 2,119,000 0.03 1.9 9.87 458.6 73.00
C2F 2,300,000 0.03 1.9 9.87 483.6 77.00
R3SBR10 2,108,000 0.03 1.9 9.87 472.1 75.10
R4SBR6 1,634,000 0.03 1.9 9.87 412.0 65.60
El: At first crack from four-point bending test
p2: 9.87
As can be seen in the table above the frequency of the beams does not vary much
among different beams.
4.5.2.2Calculation of the Frequency (from graph)
Frequencies were examined by utilising a program in Matlab. The following figures

relating to beam Cl were produced as in Figure 4-35 and Figure 4-36.
137
gure 4-35 - Sum of FRF for Cl (Before applying the load)
vC
m
gure 4-36 - Sum of FRF for C l (After failure)
O
m
The table of the results are as follows:
Table 4-16 - First Frequency of the Beams (from graph)
Before the Load

Beam Application
Identification
(Hz)
Cl 82.40
C2F 76.80
R3SBR10 76.70
R4SBR6 78.81
As can be seen in the table above, based on the numbers obtained from the graphs, the
frequency of the reference beam with 100% PC is the highest before applying the load
followed by the Beam with 6% SBR (12-15mm).
4.5.2.3Comparison of the Results of Theory and Experiments
The comparison of the results of theory and experiments is shown in table below.
Table 4-17 - Comparison of the First Frequency Results from Theory and
Experiments
Experiment Theory
Beam
Identification (Hz) (Hz)
Cl 82.4 73.00
C2F 76.8 76.98
R3SBR10 76.7 75.13
R4SBR6 78.81 65.57
As can be seen in Table 4-17, there is same difference in the value of frequency
obtained from experimental program and the number from calculation based on
theoretical equations. However, generally it can be concluded that the value of
frequency did not vary much among different mixes.
140
4.5.2.4CalcuIation of the Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity
Once the value of frequency is examined from the experimental test, according to
Equation 5 and Equation 6, the E value will be calculated by Equation 7.The results are
shown in Table 4-18:
_ ton2xpAL4 - _ (Qn / i /|\

/?4x/ ' In
Table 4-18 - Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity of the Beams
E
/(Hz) A (m2) L (m) P2 I(m4)
(GPa)
Cl 82 0.03 1.9 9.87 0.0001 26.74
C2F 76.8 0.03 1.9 9.87 0.0001 22.90
R3SBR10 76.7 0.03 1.9 9.87 0.0001 22.00
R4SBR6 78.81 0.03 1.9 9.87 0.0001 23.60
As seen in Table 4-18, the dynamic modulus of elasticity of the control concrete
with 100% PC is the highest, followed by the dynamic E of the beam containing
6% SBR (12- 15mm).
The value of E for the mix containing 10% SBR (l-4mm) is the lowest. This
could be due to the high percentage of rubber particles in comparison with other
beams. A similar observation is reported by Zheng (Zheng, Sharon Huo & Yuan
2008).
141
4.5.2.5Comparison of the Dynamic El and El from Four-point Bending Test
The comparison of the results of Dynamic El and El obtained from static test is shown
in table below.
Table 4-19 - Comparison of Dynamic El and Static El
El (Four-point
El (Dynamic Test)
Bending Test)
(kN.m)
(kN.m)
Cl 2,119 2,674
C2F 2,300 2,289
R3SBR10 2,108 2,196
R4SBR6 1,634 2,360
As demonstrated in the above table the value of Dynamic El is larger than Static
El for most cases. This conclusion could be related to the relevant statement in
section 5.2 of ASTM C215-08.
4.5.2.6Calculation of the Damping
By using the results of the hammer test and plotting the Acceleration-Time history
graphs, damping ratio in very low damping is approximated by the following equation
(Samali 2011):
t_ un~un+m> /i c\
2mmun+jn>
where:
un = displacement on the curve at nth cycle
un+m = displacement on the curve at (n+m)th cycle
m'= number of cycles
An example of the Acceleration-Time history graph is shown in Figure 4-37.
142
Table 4-20 - Damping Ratio of Beams before and after Failure
Damping Ratio
Beam (%)
Identification
Before Failure
Cl 3.71 3.89
C2F 3.27 2.67
R3SBR10 4.09 5.96
R4SBR6 4.96 6.12
The addition of rubber particles improves the damping properties of the concrete
mix. This statement is supported in a study by Zheng et al. (2008), which finds
that with the increase of rubber content, the damping ratio will be improved, up
to an optimum point of 30% rubber content.
The damping ratio of the beams after failure is more than the value prior to
performing the test. This is due to the presence of cracks in the beam during the
loading and after failure.
143
gure 4-37 - Acceleration Time History
'sT
't
4.6 Finite Element (FE) Modelling
Beams used for four-point bending test are modelled and analysed under the applied
loads in a FE programme named Atena and the results are shown in the following
figures. The dotted line is the curve obtained from the FE program and the continuous
one is from experiment.
As it can be seen, the results of the FE program are not fully matching the experiment
results. This can be due to the presence of micro cracks in the beams during the loading
and also the nature of modelling in computer-based programs.
The difference is more prominent in the modified concrete beams incorporating SBR
granules especially after the yield point. This can be due to the presence of SBR
granules that can act either as voids or cracks in the beams. More accurate modelling is
recommended for the future studies.
Modelling the non-linear behaviour of the beams is out of the scope of this study and
further work in order to obtain more accurate results is suggested.
145
MOxf
o
cn
(N
gure 4-38 FE Analysis of Beam Cl

E
E
c
_o
Vj
o
(N
c
aa.
<Y)
a
i
Lu
IT)
oooooooo
rf <N O 00 Tj- fN
(nm) Pbo1
to) PBOl
c
c
E
T3
B
V-
g-
Lb
gure 4-39 - FE Analysis of Beam C2F
C-
(M>1) Pbo1
Figure 4-40 - FE Analysis of Beam R3SBR10
oo
gure 4-41 - FE Analysis of Beam R4SBR6
In this chapter, the two chosen mixes from Chapter 3 were used to fabricate the beams.
This chapter highlighted the feasibility of using SBR granules in members as a higher
level than concrete specimens. The main conclusions of this chapter and the performed
tests are as follows:
4.7.1 Four-point Bending Test:
The general observation was the lower stiffness and maximum load for beams
incorporating SBR granules. This could be due to the weaker bond between
rubber particles and cement matrix. Moreover, as indicated, before the minimum
yield strength of reinforcement was 500 MPa, therefore, there is a possibility
that the reinforcement used in control concrete had larger yield strength in
comparison with the ones in rubberised beams.
The deflection of the beams did not vary much up to the proportional limit
before yield point, though, this value decreased between the yield point and the
maximum load for rubberised beams.
The presence of SBR granules increased the resilience of the beams, however,
the ductility factor decreased in rubberised beams.
Addition of SBR granules prevented the sudden brittle failure of the beams.
4.7.2 Three-point Bending Test:
The area under each loop, is higher in mixes incorporating SB latex especially
where the applied load is less than 30kN. This could be due to the fact that
mixes associated with this form of SBR (emulsion) have the ability to absorb
more energy in comparison to the control concrete.
The total area under hysteresis loops is the highest in the control concrete with
10% SB Latex. This may be due to the effect of SB latex as it increases the
flexural and tensile strength.
150
4.7.3 Dynamic (hammer) Test:
The value of frequency prior to Four-point bending test did not vary much
among different beams.
As predicted the highest dynamic MOE, belonged to the control beam with
100% PC.
The addition of SBR granules improves the damping properties of the concrete
beams.
151
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
Chapter 5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
5.1 Preface
The majority of the studies to date have focused on the investigation of the
characteristics of the EMC itself without studying its structural behaviour. In the current
research, the structural properties of EMC beams such as damping, ductility, dynamic
MOE were examined.
This concluding chapter includes the economic feasibility of using EMCs by comparing
the final cost of a project based on three different mix designs. It also summarises the
highlights of this report and introduces the future work areas followed by suggested
applications for EMCs.
5.2 Economic Feasibility of EMCs
In order to examine the cost of using SBR granules in the concrete mix, an evaluation
was carried out for a real project in the Iranian city of Ardebil, which has a high
earthquake risk. The characteristic strength of the concrete employed in this project was
fc=28 MPa. Based on section 6.3 of AS 1379 - 2007, the value of fm will be
approximately 32 MPa which is close to the value of the 28 day compressive strength of
mixes R15 and RB-10.
The total mass of the concrete consisting of the beams and columns is illustrated in
Table 5-1.
152
Table 5-1 - Mass of the Different Components of the Case Study in Ardebil
Number of Structura
Section Element Type Total Mass (tonne)
Elements
B3030 Beam 92 99.79

B3030 Beam 78 85.891
B3040 Beam 15 22.155
B3040 Beam 16 25.035
B4040 Beam 92 192.328
B4040 Beam 189 366.525
B4050 Beam 8 9.6
B4050 Beam 6 7.1
B5050 Beam 114 337.31
B5050 Beam 86 239.537
B6050 Beam 334 1176.442
B6050 Beam 172 569.113
C40-8T20 Column 4 6.72
C50-12T25 Column 26 68.25
C50-12T25 Column 48 126
C50-16T25 Column 12 31.5
C50-8T25 Column 28 73.5
C50-8T25 Column 2 5.25
C60-12T25 Column 52 196.56
C60-12T25 Column 16 60.48
C60-16T25 Column 44 166.32
C60-16T25 Column 44 166.32
C60-20T25 Column 12 45.36
C60-20T25 Column 24 90.72
C70-20T25 Column 44 274.829
C70-20T25 Column 48 300.384
C70-24T25 Column 20 124.828
C70-24T25 Column 2 12.066
C70-30T25 Column 44 269.623
C70-30T25 Column 34 210.333
Total Weight 5,360 tonne
Total Volume of the concrete for this project = 2,144 nr
153
In order to compare the cost of the mixes with and without SBR granules, the amount of
cement was decreased in the control concrete so that the value off'c became 28 MPa.
The final experimental program is shown in Table 5-2.
Table 5-2 - Experimental Program of Economic Feasibility of EMCs
10 mm 20 mm
Blended SBR
PC FA Coarse Coarse fc
Mix 50/50 Sand Granules
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) Aggregate Aggregate (MPa)
(kg/m3) (kg/m3)
(kg/m3) (kg/m3)
CF 260 105 635 390 700 0 28
R15 301 129 538 390 695 95 28
RB-10 301 129 633 371 660 54 28
The final price, based solely on the raw materials, is calculated with the values indicated
in Table 5-3.These values are suggested by the industry. It is assumed that the
remainder of the costs are identical between the different mixes, as no special difficulty
is experienced in supplying the raw material and producing the EMCs.
Table 5-3 - Cost of the Raw Materials Suggested by Industry
Raw Material Price ($/tonne)

Coarse Aggregate 40
Coarse Sand 32
Fine Sand 30
Cement 180
Fly ash 80
The final price for each mix is demonstrated in Table 5-4.
154
Table 5-4 - Final Price and the Amount of Saved Mineral Aggregates
Saved Mineral
Cost Total Cost Aggregate in Total
Mix fm (MPa)
($)/m3 ($)x 1000 Project
(tonne)
CF 32 118 254 0
R15 32 124 267 204.0
RB-10 32 125 269 116.0
Discussion:
As illustrated in Table 5-4, the cost of the three mixes is comparable. It is important to
mention that in mixes R15 and RB-10, while there is an appreciable difference in price
compared to the control concrete, there are less mineral aggregates employed in their
production.
In an environment of increasing scarcity of mineral aggregates, the price of aggregates

would increase, and the price differential between the control and the EMCs would be
reduced.
155
Chapter 5. Conclusion
5.3.1 Investigation into the Fresh, Hardened and Dynamic Properties of EMC
The general outcome of the current research is based on the laboratory studies given in
this report. Any other research regarding the substitution of mineral aggregates with
waste tyres may reach different conclusions with changes in SBR granules size,
experimental program, mix proportions, different types of cementitious materials,
curing procedure and the usage of admixtures and additives. The main conclusions of
this section are as follows:
An increase of SBR granules used in the mix resulted in a decrease in the

amount of slump; however the level of the workability of the mix was still
within the acceptable range. Adding SB latex on the other hand further improved
the workability and the amount of AC in the mix.
With the addition of SBR granules, there was a decrease in the wet density in all
mixes, meaning EMC is a candidate material for applications needing light
weight concrete.
Compressive strength is reduced in comparison to control concrete with

increasing additions of both SBR granules and SB latex used in EMCs.
Moreover, compressive strength of all mixes is observed to increase with age.
The reduction in compressive strength depends on two factors; l)size of the SBR
granules, and 2) The percentage of SBR granules in the mix.
With increasing addition of both SBR granules and SB latex to EMCs, a

decrease in the MOE was observed. However, at low percentages of rubber
granules (<5%) the decrease is insignificant and the results are almost the same
for the control concrete and rubberised ones.
A higher MOR was noted with increasing SBR content in EMCs. An optimum
SBR content (10% for the SBR size of (1-4 mm), 6% for (12-15 mm) and 10%
for SBR size of (1-4 mm) incorporating SB Latex) were also established, beyond
which MOR decreases.
156
It can be concluded that the presence of rubber granules in the mix can affect the
compressive strength more than it affects the MOR
The addition of SB Latex to the control mixes did not change either the
transverse or the longitudinal frequency. However, an increase in the percentage
of SBR granules lowered both the transverse and longitudinal frequencies to less
than that of the control specimens.
The addition of fly ash, SBR granules and SB Latex to the mix decreased the
Dynamic MOE in both the transverse and longitudinal modes.
The addition of both SB latex and SBR granules increased the damping ratio in
almost all of the cases for both modes.
The replacement of coarse aggregates with the larger size of SBR granules
performed better in the mix due to the fact that the decrease in compressive
strength, wet density, MOR, dynamic MOE and transverse and longitudinal
frequencies was greater when fine aggregates were replaced with the smaller
size of SBR granules than the replacement of coarse aggregates with the larger
size of SBR granules. Furthermore, the increase in damping ratio was greater
where coarse aggregates were substituted with (12-15 mm) SBR granules in
transverse mode.
EMC specimens containing SBR, granules did not exhibit the same failure
pattern as that of normal concrete. No fragmentation was observed after failure
and the specimen remained intact even after failure.
5.3.2 Investigation into the Structural Properties of the Elastomeric Modified

Concrete
Beams incorporating SBR granules generally exhibited lower stiffness and

maximum load. In spite of this, the deflection of the beams did not vary
significantly up to the proportional limit before yield point, but then decreased
between the yield point and the maximum load for rubberised beams.
The presence of SBR granules increased the resilience but decreased the
ductility factor in rubberised beams.
157
Addition of SBR granules prevented the sudden brittle failure of the beams.
In the cyclic tests, the total area under hysteresis loops was the highest in the
control concrete with 10% SB Latex. This may be due to the effect of SB latex
as it increases the flexural and tensile strength and has the ability to absorb more
energy in comparison to the control concrete.
The natural frequencies did not vary much among different beams. However, the
highest dynamic MOE belonged to the control beam with 100% PC.
The addition of SBR granules improves the damping properties of the concrete
beams.
5.4 Further work
As has been mentioned throughout the report, there are a number of results which
confirm the feasibility of using waste tyre in concrete. If the damaging effects of SBR
granules on EMC could be improved and the already found advantages improved as
well, the incorporation of this recycled material into the concrete will be a promising
approach for preserving the natural environment and decreasing the accumulation of
waste tyres, in addition to producing a concrete with significantly improved properties.
There are a number of suggested future works in order to improve the feasibility of
employing waste tyres into concrete. These suggestions include verification of the
existing research and results, new aspects that have not been investigated as yet, and
adjustments to the current testing methods. These areas are categorised as follows:
Further study is needed to determine the best replacement proportion of coarse

aggregates or fine aggregates, or both, with SBR granules, and the best size of
those in order to minimise their detrimental effects on EMCs.
Determining the best approach in terms of cost efficiency to improve the bond
between SBR granules and the cement matrix in order to improve some of the
mechanical and dynamic properties of the hardened concrete such as
compressive strength.
158
More investigation is required into the durability parameters such as freeze-thaw

resistance, porosity, permeability, alkaline reactivity, abrasion resistance, and
drying shrinkage, and also on fire resistance and sound dissipation.
Further work is essential to examine the long-term behaviour of EMC such as

creep, fatigue, and volumetric changes.
Verifying the best curing regime, the cracking characteristics and the
cementitious material hydration time.
Developing more suitable tests on non conventional concrete specimens such as

the determination of chord and dynamic modulus of elasticity.
Fabricating more complex structures, such as frames and joints, with EMCs and
performing relevant tests on them, such as evaluating their dynamic properties
by putting them on a shake table.
Developing more cost effective methods to produce shredded waste tyre suitable
to be utilised in concrete.
Investigating the usage of fibres into the concrete mix in addition to SBR
granules in order to compensate for the latters disadvantages.
Performing numerical models for EMC and analysing the non-linear part of the
load-deflection curve.
5.5 Proposed Applications
Based on the conclusions made in section 3.4, there are a number of applications that
can be proposed for EMCs.
It is important to mention that the following are only suggestions and that further study
is needed to confirm the suitability of using them in concrete.
Due to the higher MOR and damping ratio, the EMCs can be employed in
making paving slabs, and any other application where damping is a key
characteristic of a concrete, such as jersey barriers Fattuhi & Clark (1996)
suggested that EMC could be used as foundation pad for rotating machinery and
159
as dampers in railway stations. They could also be beneficial as shock-wave

absorbers in buildings.
EMCs have a lower density; therefore, they can be used where light weight
concrete is needed. In particular EMC could be utilised for making floating dock
jetties.
In terms of compressive strength, the worst 28 day value of 32MPa was

exhibited by the EMC with 15% (1-4 mm) or 10% (12-15 mm). However, the
amount of natural aggregates that will be preserved by replacing them with those
percentages of SBR granules could justify the usage of waste tyre in the concrete
mix. Therefore, in any application where a high strength concrete is not needed,
EMC can be used as an environmental friendly concrete.
There are other applications that have been recommended by other authors, though the
related characteristics were not investigated in this study. These suggestions are as
follows:
Pierce and Blackwell proposed the construction of flowable fill for trench fills
and foundation fdls (Pierce & Blackwell 2003).
Khaloo et al. (2008) recommended EMC as a sound and vibration energy

absorber.
5.6 Final Remarks
The presence of SBR granules in the concrete mix has both advantages and
disadvantages. It can enhance some of the properties such MOR and damping but
decreases other properties such as compressive strength and MOE. It is very important
to mention that employing waste material into concrete can save natural aggregates
significantly and can result in a sustainable design. Further study is needed to minimise
the detrimental effects of using SBR granules sourced from waste tyre in concrete.
160
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162
List of Standards
AS 1012.8.1-2000, "Method for making and curing concrete, Method 8.1: Compression and
indirect tensile test specimens", Australian Standard, 2000
AS 1012.8.2-2000, "Method for making and curing concrete, Method 8.2: Flexure test
specimens", Australian Standard, 2000
AS 1012.3.1-1998, "Method of testing concrete, Method 3.1: Determination of properties

related to the consistency of concrete - Slump test", Australian Standard, 1998.
AS 1012.5-1999, "Method of testing concrete, Method 5: Determination of mass per unit

volume of freshly mixed concrete", Australian Standard, 1999
AS 1012.9-1999, " Method of testing concrete, Method 9: Determination of the compressive

strength of concrete specimens", Australian Standard, 1999
AS 1012.11-2000, " Method of testing concrete, Method 11: Determination of the modulus of
rupture", Australian Standard, 2000
AS 1012.17-1997, " Method of testing concrete, Method 17: Determination of the static chord
modulus of elasticity and poisson's ratio of concrete specimens", Australian Standard, 1997
AS 1012.2-1994, "Methods of testing concrete - Preparation of concrete mixes in the

laboratory, Australian Standard, 1994
AS 1012.8.2-2000, "Methods of testing concrete - Method of making and curing concrete -

Flexure test specimens, Australian Standard, 2000
AS 3972-2010, "General purpose and blended cements, Australian Standard, 2010
AS 2350.2-2006, "Methods of testing portland, blended and masonry cements - chemical

composition, Australian Standard, 2006
AS 3582.1-1998, "Supplementary cementitious materials for use with portland and blended
cement - Fly ash, Australian Standard, 1998
AS 2758.1-1998, "Aggregates and rock for engineering purposes - Concrete aggregates,

Australian Standard, 1998
AS 1141.11.1-2009, "Methods for sampling and testing aggregates - Particle size distribution -
Sieving method, Australian Standard, 2009
163
AS 1141.5-2000, "Methods for sampling and testing aggregates - Particle density and water
absorption of fine aggregate, Australian Standard, 2000
AS 1289.2.1.1-2005 "Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes - Soil moisture content
tests - Determination of the moisture content of a soil - Oven drying method (standard
method), Australian Standard, 2005
AS 1289.3.6.1-2009 "Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes - Soil classification tests
- Determination of the particle size distribution of a soil - Standard method of analysis by
sieving, Australian Standard, 2009
ASTM C215 - 08 Standard Test Method for Fundamental Transverse, Longitudinal, and
Torsional Frequencies of Concrete Specimens, ASTM International, 2008
ASTM C192/C192M - 07 Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens
in the Laboratory, ASTM International, 2007
ACI 318-05 Building code requirements for structural concrete and commentary, ACI 2005
NF EN 1992-1-1-07 Eurocodc 2 Calcul Structures Beton Regies generates Annexe Nationale,

Eurpean Standard, 2007
ASTM D6270 - 1998 Standard practice for use of scrap tires in civil engineering applications,
ASTM International, 1998
164
APPENDIX
165
Appendix A - Comparison of the Results
Appendix A: Comparison of Results with other

Works
In this section a comparison between main properties of the concrete containing SBR
granules and a concrete incorporating Polypropylene fibres has been carried out:
Polypropylene (PP) investigation
In this research the two most common types, monofilament as shown in Figure , and
fibrillated PP, as shown in Figure are incorporated. As these are commercial fibres, the
supplier of these fibres have only provided us with some basic information, the
technical data for the monofilament and fibrillated PP fibres are shown in The PP fibre
percentage used in this pro ject is 0.25%, 0.5% and 1% of the mix volume.
Tabic 1 - Properties of PP Fibres
18 mm 19 mm
Technical Data Monofilament Fibrillated PP
PP fibre fibre
Nominal Diameter (pm) 22 55
Elongation at Break (%) 63 17
Softening (melting) point f C) 160 160
Density (grams/ml) 0.91 0.91
Youngs Modulus (GPa) 3.5 3.5
166
Figure 1-18 mm Monofilament PP fibre
Figure 2-19 mm Fibrillated PP fibre
Mixes incorporating PP fibres are as follows:
PF1: 30% FA + 1% fibrillated PP fibre

PM0.25: 30% FA + 0.25% monofilament PP fibre
PHM1: 30% FA + 1% high strength monofilament PP fibre
PML0.25: 30% FA + 0.25% monofilament PP fibre + 10%SB Latex
PFL0.25: 30% FA + 0.25% fibrillated PP fibre + 10%SB Latex
PML0.5: 30% FA + 0.5% monofilament PP fibre + 10%SB Latex
PFL0.5: 30% FA + 0.5% fibrillated PP fibre + 10%SB Latex
PML1: 30% FA + 1% monofilament PP fibre + 10%SB Latex
PFL1: 30% FA + 1% fibrillated PP fibre + 10%SB Latex
PHML1: 30% FA + 1% high strength monofilament PP fibre + 10%SB Latex
167
Fresh Properties of Concrete:

HWR
2500
2000
| 1500
E
cc
1000
X
500
Figure 3 - HWR of Mixes without SB Latex
Figure 4 - HWR of Mixes with SB Latex
168
Wet Density
2550
2500
2450

2400
î)
2350
>>
I
| 2300
o
2250 (lilpili I
2200 iiiiiiii i
2150 1
C A rh ^ s? v> ~s?>
^
# * V V <> <> <> o,N
Figure 5 - Wet Density of Mixes without SB Latex
2550
2500
"g 2400
2450
H.
' WD
e 2350
& \
a 2300
c
2
Q
u 2250
^ 2200
||| II
2150 Ift
Gv G<tv es-
^ ^ cv^ ^ ,<5> <y <>y o-
^ ^ <*v c * ^ ^
Figure 6 - Wet Density of Mixes with SB Latex
169
Air Content
Figure 7 - AC of Mixes without SB Latex
6 7
Figure 8 - AC of Mixes with SB Latex
170
Hardened Concrete Properties:

80 T
a
s 70 j
I06O
s
t 50
o
> 40 ipi|
S
c. 30
ft lliHl
miniin.if
|
U 20
C/5
10
*
A
O A A ^ ^ Jo ^
J * * & # #J
Figure 9-28 days Compressive Strength of Mixes without SB Latex
_ 80
C3
1 70
ov dv ^ ^ ^ 4> <? <?

J J <r * * &
Figure 10 - 28 days Compressive Strength of Mixes with SB Latex
171
Modulus of Rupture
8 -r
Figure 11 - MOR of Mixes without SB Latex
Figure 12 - MOR of Mixes with SB Latex
172
Dynamic Properties of Concrete:
Damping Ratio (%)

Table 2 - Damping Ratio of Mixes without SB Latex
28 days 28 days
Mix Damping Damping
(longitudinal) (transverse)
C 1.85 1.89
CF 2.3 1.3
PF1 2.17 2.1
PM0.25 2.11 1.64
R5 2.44 1.5
RIO 2.84 1.96
R15 3.18 2.4
RB-2 2.9 3.14
RB-4 3.22 3.5
RB-6 3.44 3.84
RB-10 8 3.96
Table 3 - Damping Ratio of Mixes with SB Latex
28 days 28 days
Mix Damping Damping
(longitudinal) (transverse)
CFL 2.6 2.3
PML0.25 2.28 2.51
PFL0.25 2.17 2.53
PML0.5 2.49 2.4
PFL0.5 2.11 2.66
PML1 2.96 2.43
PFL1 2.32 2.85
RL5 3.18 1.59
RL10 3.6 1.8
173
Frequency (Hz)
Table 4 - Dynamic Frequency of Mixes without SB Latex
28 days 28 days
Mix Frequency Frequency
(transverse) (longitudinal)
C 2300 5280
CF 2200 5100
PF1 2240 5088
PM0.25 2265 5191
R5 2100 4900
RIO 2100 4900
R15 1950 4500
RB-2 2200 5100
RB-4 2180 5100
RB-6 2150 5080
RB-10 2120 4850
Table 5 - Dynamic Frequency of Mixes with SB Latex
28 days 28 days
Mix Frequency Frequency
(transverse) (longitudinal)
CFL 2200 5100
PML0.25 2138 4891
PFL0.25 2160 4916
PML0.5 2112 4869
PFL0.5 2078 4901
PML1 2012 4545
PFL1 2072 4787
RL5 2100 4800
RL10 2000 4650
174
Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity (GPa)

Table 6 - Dynamic MOE of Mixes without SB Latex
28 days 28 days
Mix MOE MOE
(Transverse) (Longitudinal)
C 44 50
CF 40 46
PF1 39 38
PM0.25 41 41
R5 35 41
RIO 35 41
R15 29 34
RB-2 39 45
RB-4 38 45
RB-6 37 45
RB-10 36 40
Table 7 - Dynamic MOE of Mixes with SB Latex
28 days 28 days
Mix MOE MOE
(Transverse) (Longitudinal)
CFL 38 43
PML0.25 36 36
PFL0.25 37 36
PML0.5 35 35
PFL0.5 34 36
PML1 31 30
PFL1 33 34
RL5 35 39
RL10 31 36
175
Comparison of the Results of the Beams:
CQ CQ
O' oC U U
Figure 13 - Four Point Bending Load - Deflection Curve of the Beams

r-~
\o
o o o
Force
O o
(KN)
Max
in in
r-H NO ON CO NO H
OC OO OO r- C-- r- r-
oo m
Z p p (N
cm
1 003 l
oc NO OO m
cm CO ON
IT) m NO oo
mi
cm
>70.3
O' <n CO Cxi

1 ON ON ON
to oo NO NO m
r- cm cm
106.63
128.65
136.13
77.06
58.64
64.69
70kN
CO
' 1
Z in NO NO m NO
3 oo p oo p m o ^f Pj- 1; ON
m> oc oo --' m NO
no CO CM in 'n ct
Table 8 - Area under the Three-point Bending Hysteresis Loop
28.08
24.56
25.77
21.18
35.53
60kN
27.2
oo
31.1
I
oo
16.22
21.78
23.83
30.43
24.89
55kN
1.72
38.7
27.2
co
'7 t"- CO cm r- r~- CM

of <N p
(N NO NO p
2 OC
o CO rl ON CM o O
in CM cm cm m
19.24
20.98
19.46
24.71
45 kN
ON
27.2
20.7
cf
o
25
cr m m CO
Z oc oc o ON
oo p
NO sO
tn OC
o r-H 1 oi
CM
'xf cm
15.74
21.72
25.49
18.61
35kN
6.14
in t"-
Cn) 1
CM
m
7 m ON NO r- OO d-
s
;
NO
p in o p , (N ON)
o ON ---- ' cm CM n cm od
m
m r~~
z m m
p
2
in ' CO rxj
m cm
,_,
Z g in m NO
1 r-~ NO
NO 1 cm i O m P
o
CM
g
g
m m "It 0d rn
13.42
19.37
15.36
13.46
20kN
22.8
10.3
6.39
5.49
o
o
pecimen
NO
2
in

PF1%
mi
Name
C4FL
Ck
dL
C3L
C2F
02 CQ Oi
cm
o
U
00
in
C/3
NO
CQ
C/3 %
C/3 P
cx r- Oh
0^
oo
r-~
N o
o o o NO
CM CO
CO
K o,
CM
m
r-~ r- c- NO uo IT)
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s I
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MO NO o C
3 1 od CO (N (N
UO OO of ci r-'
r- CO 3Q.
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OJD
%ZJ E
Before the Load
O
r- oo
Application
oZJ oo oo r- C"-
r-~ oo oo r-
oo
JZ o< ON O^ ON ON
82.40
76.80
76.70
74.39
78.81
on NT,
3 o
oo
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J3
cc *
<y _
s:
Identification
__ , u
ai3
PM 0.25%
R3SBR10
o o O rn
o CO
co CO
CO CO
R4SBR6
Beam
o o
PF %
'j
C2F
3
o
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c < cr U
o im
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CM
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Cd cd oo
C2F
CQ CM
u CO
00 00
or O
Cd s
CO
Cd o_
Dynamic Properties:
ON
r-~
o
c-
o
Appendix B: Three-point Bending Test complete cycles
no
î-
JU jd
o
U U
Figure 14 - Three-point Bending Test Load-deflection Curve R6SBR6

o 1
co
NO
JD <u
o
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1 1
1
CM
in '
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o >
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(NT>I) PB01
1-Deflection Curve of R5SBR10
oo
o
(NM) Peoi
Urn
3
Sj
.f
16 - Three-point Bending Load-Detlcction Curve of R7SBR5L10
Appendix C - Four-point Bending Test Strain Graphs
Appendix C: Four-point Bending Test Strain

Graphs
Based on the data captured during the four-point bending test from the strain gauges
mounted on the concrete surface and on the reinforcement the following graphs are
provided as follows:
R3SBR10
10 kN
10 kN
Figure 17 - R3SBR10 Strain Diagram @10kN
20 kN
.................................... -- -..... 1 CA _ _
.......... inn _
TtTtr
.......... cn.
JV
\ r " i 1-m
ZU KIN
-600 -400 Jirfu 50- () -200 400
..... ........ - inn.
W - tw
i cn
182
60 kN
60 kN
-300ft -2000
183
70 kN
-470 kN
-3Q0Q__ -2D 00
80 kN
..... ..... ............ ........... .
_____- . _... _ _____ __ irt/tr

no
.... . ______ __ __ ____ ___ _______ CA
a. Qfv 1 xt
' i i...... i --------1---------------1 o U KIN
-4000 --3000 ÔO^HWtJso (J 1000 ">000
^ -11l AA
UU
- - - .... __ . _ _ ....... . 1 CA
184
R4SBR6
10 kN
10 kN
20 kN
______ __ _ __ _______ cn
I jU
1
_____ ___ ___ LAA....
rt/tr
.... ............. .. ....................cn......
ZmJ
a. ^n fm
i 1 r i i KIN
-400 ou 1 )
...=200^^0 200 400
......... 1 AA
i v7v7
..... .............. ......... ........ . 1 CA
185
Figure 31 - R4SBR6 Strain Diagram @60Kn
186
80 kN
80 kN
-3000- -20QQ
90 kN
90 kN
-300a-=20oa
187
188
Appendix D - Photos of the Beams
Appendix D: Photos of the Beams
Figure 36 - Three-point Bending Test Failure (30% FA +10% SB Latex)
Figure 37- Crack Propagation of Three-point Bending Beam Failure (30% FA)
189
Figure 38 - Three-point Bending Test Failure (30% FA)
Figure 39 - Three-point Bending Test Failure
(30% FA + 5% SBR (l-4mm) + 10% SB Latex)
190
Figure 40 - Three-point Bending Test Failure (30% FA+10%SBR(l-4mm))
Figure 41 - Crack Propagation of Three-point Bending Test Failure
(30% FA+10%SBR (l-4mm))
191
Figure 42 - Three-point Bending Test Failure (30% FA+6%SBR (12-15mm))
Figure 43 - Crack Propagation of Three-point Bending Test Failure
(30% FA+6%SBR (12-15mm))
192
Figure 44 - Four-point Bending Test (30% FA)
193

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Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology

School of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Investigation into the Ductile and Damping

Thesis submitted for fulfilment of requirements for

the degree of Master of Engineering

I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Samali, my principal supervisor and

Sustainable development has grown to be a major concern to the construction industry

This thesis reports on the fundamental findings of an investigation into an elastomeric

As = area of the steel reinforcement

ccr= critical damping coefficient

d = the effective depth

fs = the ultimate strength for the steel reinforcement

fc = the compressive strength of the concrete beam

fcm = average value of modulus of elasticity

/ = the moment of inertia

k = stiffness of the system

Lc = length of specimen, for calculation of concrete dynamic modulus of elasticity

L = the span length

M = mass of specimen for calculation of concrete dynamic modulus of elasticity

Mu = the maximum bending moment

m = mass of the system

m number of cycles for calculation of the damping of the beam

n = fundamental transverse frequency

nf = fundamental longitudinal frequency

P = the applied load

T = correction factor, for calculation of concrete dynamic modulus of elasticity

t, b = dimensions of cross section of prism, for calculation of concrete dynamic

co = natural frequency of the undamped system

con = natural frequency of the beam

p A = mass per unit length

AC: Air Content

ACI: American Concrete Institute

AS: Australian Standards

ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials

BSG: Bulk Specific Gravity

EMC: Elastomeric Modified Concrete

FA: Fly Ash

FRC: Fibre Reinforced concrete

HWR: High Range Water Reducing Admixture

LVDT: Linear variable differential transformer

MC: Moisture Content

MOE: Modulus of Elasticity

MOR: Modulus of Rupture

PC: Portland Cement

SB: Styrene Butadiene

SBR: Styrene Butadiene Rubber

SCM: Supplementary Cementitious Material

SL: Shrinkage Limited

SSD: Saturated Surface Dry

LIST OF TABLES XIV

LIST OF FIGURES XVI

1.2 Problem Definition 1

1.2.1 Sustainable Building and Construction 1

1.2.2 Damping Properties 7

1.2.3 Ductility Properties 8

1.3 Research Objectives 8

1.4 Research Significance 9

1.5 Thesis Layout 10

2.2 Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR)Sourced from Waste Tyre 11

2.2.1 Car Tyre 12

2.2.2 What is Waste Tyre? 14

2.3 Styrene Butadiene (SB) Latex 23

2.6 Concluding Remarks 32

3. INVESTIGATION INTO THE FRESH, HARDENED AND DYNAMIC