1 Introduction to AC Drives 11 Introduction ‘wn inpotat factor in worldwide industrial progress ding the past several sbwals as ben the increasing sophistication of factory automation, Man "uctrng. fines ina industrial plan ypclly involve one or more viable eo mor dies which sere o power convey els, robot ams, neta ‘ra tel proces lines, paper lean plate and be processing Uns to oe ae Prior othe 19805 all ach picts regued the use of de noir dive singe ae motos were not capable of te ajutubl o sooty ain seed since ey inherently operated synchronously or ely synch oony with he eqoeney of elec input. The inbeent disadvantages of de ses, however, have prompted continual atemps to find beter solatons 19 ‘ic problem, To a args exten, applications which require omy pada "ang in sped are nw ein replaced by what can cll general purpose Pies fn general soc ae ives fen feat acon advantage ver heir de "nner and in adtion, fe lower maintenance, sulle moe ie an ‘wyed reliability. However, the conuol Hexbiliy avaiable with these ‘hss is vey limited andthe applition i, he mai, restricted to fan, np an compressor types of application where the sped asd be regulated ‘nl mghly and where transient esonse a low peed pecormance are not Drives used in machine tol, spins, high speed elevator, dymamome ‘osm wits, oliag mils, lass Noa lies and tele have much ore Wisiated requirements and mas ord he Bexbly to allow fo eg ‘ua fa numberof vrale, sch speed, poston, acceleration an ome Sich high performance aplcations typically require a high sped holding tense espn. Uypicly Peter dan 0a far the speed Hoop. UntilFor de dies igh peo son. on i ak that como ane tachi comida te cna Ha se moor counterpart However, with coin alvanemci of irl, ‘ese con} complexes ae rapidly being overcome, The eral replace ment of de drives as aleady bop, fr example im machine oo! ives, and te dives ea be expected to contin 0 osrae tem ove the net decade ‘sal oo carly to determine derives wil eventually be relegated tothe his tory book & hve nearly all eter common me ‘ert mplidyne andthe ike However, he nest era wl suey wines ‘mak inereace im te we 3 des. nes sch a ray cor 1.2 Review of DC Drives Figue 11 shows the ofthe most common types de ves, consisting of ons, wo and four rant drive respectively. In Figure 1.1) the one quad rant onverter consist single bride operating i anwo pulse or thre pulse tnale depending upon the ype of supply. Te tr “one guaran x used 0 "ooo tat the nize is ape of only one polarity of voltage and cure ae, ly mary epeation oe aceleration in the forward ection ean be iit with single ude devs. Adm othe de ematue voltae is ‘in hy ps ooo he Bride which spl a preseribed cure! 19 "hea ht a hs ros a reer loge. Braking torque is accom shay he ovata th ad which gs he motor eo Balt wh he gu rs thee mt i moved In Figur th nr nll fof baking is obtained by reves ‘he Held ure in the machine, which, mtn, reverses the coun em. La this case the motor is spied fom a Faro rx use ace converter. The ory ofthe convener utp voltage ci hen be reversed by means of phase ‘Song there reversing the poms flow 50 that operation is possible ia ew0 ‘grants. Since the Fld winding hus an intel le inductance, the response ofthis yer ring he Logue reversal Limited 0 about a ew tens of second, Spd evra can ako Be bine by reversing the el the motor eahes ze speed. However, ice the rq hemes r0 while the field curent is ever, spa! petoance aca 270 spel 6 alversely feted an asin evra tone espe pons wt is te spd by lr plete devo sal cent atm pnb th cl can pan he ever In ths ease, foupe ca ervey by ft zing the cae in the ee provid ng ering current and then increasing the cureat in the averse parle) ee. The response of the ridge snow inte nly by the arma leakage luca, the sampling theorem limit ofthe convert, and he common “pity ofthe de motoe Care mast te taken upon reversing the de euent rca short ici path exists if bath the forward an reverse ries i cs simultaneous. Hence, che uets a both Beidges mast remain 270 1 few milliseconds 1 allow the forward condeting ge to recover ts S Figure Major de moor dive eyes with bh singe phase and tree pte supply. Aditonal eompaent or hte phase SPS Shown aged Hocking ait belore tring om the verse conducting bridge. Spot reer: sols easly acomplishe hy severing the rls ofthe forward td revere ‘sng rie as Me on wevese wih Tk terse | scoe | |Se!"| pene geste ——--| Atne| | Sere | der Figue L2 Basic ac mosor dave employing a tink ind ‘verted by alte side converter to de qunties and sbsequenty by a machine side convener the ae voles and cent of variable fequncy as requied hy the mur eth converters consist of sre of sok sate switching ‘kvices nth can fan ave wi the machine ie conveson fantion ieomplae hy on the coer in thee of the de dive, Nom ha the machine se ever tgetier With the a mote cas be conser 3s he ektonucincil vant of he eer, 1.3 Comparison of DC and AC Motor Drives 1.30 Commutatorond Brass {11 DC moor amare have two major weak points, the mechs commute and tesh sorb. Nether ofthese cmponents eis on ie cage i tion motors. The absence ofthe mechanical commutalor means tit Higher speeds are posible with te cou ndton mor. A higher armature ‘ages cn be wed with a induction mora to ination te olage tat can te supported tween adjacent commutator seginents in Je maine amatr.Tranet response i as inte By thereof rs of artnet Tent which scythe ay of the ris cme te reversal thee reo in he arate nk ceition, The nos pie a ean 2 ye anit por send pb een ahs ye apy hi Ie a the tin atric rsa nae mor No such nent ita exists 8 an action stra he rate of current ie ‘apiece inst a moto bated nly hy the leakage indactance ofthe tnschine andthe unt of vohage avaiable to force Me cute trom one 1.42 Power vs, Spee Range luca ofthe presence ofthe commutor the spec ofthe de machine aero nite. In general for large motors not possible oon de os wilh a speed*power pret greser than 26 x 10° (kW). For ‘sample it fie oleate & 1800 pn, 1380 AW de motor for prc Inletion motors ofthis ating canbe consacid fo sped caching sever oes him witha great iu 1.8 iceney "he eticiencyofndvton motors se or variable speed operation ae goer ally eomparabe an equity eter tan the eqn! de mar eicieney. sca though the presence of the rotor cage xls an kitonl loss component swt encountered nde machin. Since the induction moor cage ce ot Be ‘isan tallow for dee online st when dren rom conver, the ge resistance canbe selected solely to provide optim ring. perfor ‘nace and minim os. Also, de mxtr loses sah a bruh drop can he ‘inte 184 Power Faster In general the de eomener of a de ive operates With an input fms onaponent power factor sich ranges fom 00 bout 09 and increases sypoimately in proportion to the sor speed Unity power Far can be seve hocase the converter equzes Some vllage map allow for sp Hy volage dips dypamic reuiements and to preven! ss of commutation “pity inte version ex Msg Ye ton rotor lyse at lapping power fart ypc 1195 at Fr ain nthe 300 KW soe a app hy hed ik tierce saves, Wah ak pe wah abl ers ating ws the machine sde convent the input fundamental component power ‘ctr eins hgh play above 095, egardes ofthe mor see. 135 Inertia ‘An ac machine ofthe sae power ring an speed wil mm havea lower inet thas de motor equivalent, In de mache parameter tat affects ‘coruttion thes clled reactance voltage of th amare windings which Felis co the commatating capability of the motor. The need to keep ths Parameter within cera bounds, constains the length of core and hence Fests nan increased danetr fr gen power an sped. The lower inertia ofan induction motor alates to Faster speed esponte for 4 chine with sual torque producing capability 1.6 Proection Monitoring and protectin of «squire cage induction motor simpler than for de tor Without direct on ine seing espaily and with he abity ofthe squimel cage rotor to withstand mach higher temperatures tha the st to, simple stator temperase monitoring gives comprehensive thermal pote: tion forthe emre machine. Alo, for igh power applications it is wsually rnecesiry 10 use a do cicut breaker f© provide protection for lange de ‘machines These beakers are very expensive and require regular maintenance, However, DC circuit breaker eed not be uid fer a ive systems 1.7 Motor Maintenance An csc prt of any economic compasion the cost of Keping Spare wll the roqency of msintenance. A suply of brushes and bros holes tie necessary sock items for de mis. A de motor must be repay taken ‘out of service Io cbeck or replace brushes and at less frequent intervals 10 resurface the conor Maintenance ofthese brsbe is partially burden ‘som harsh enionmental condtons. Except forthe bearings an inuton rotors essentially mantenance fre. 1.38 Ruggedness Being onthe rotting member, the rotor windings ae the “Achiles hea! of any oar I this rears the que eage rotor ile far moce robust han the {e michie, Progresive degradation of insulation duet eleccal sessing, Conperion oer nd nn Mane 1 thermal eyling and creep i eliminated ina aqurel cage winding. Ove he years induction motors have teen sucesflly used under conditions which ‘Couldnt be ausalned by ote electrical machine strates, If deterioration of the rotor does occu, such a a broken bar o end ig, the machine soem ‘able of conned operation, pchaps reduced power, uni! msntnance fan be scheduled. Modern computer data acquisition and signal reessing Techigues have made possible the carly detsion of broken bar an thei 139 Stands Performance [A ormal de mache cxanot develop high torque for estnded periods at Mandstil since the armature curren! then flows thrh a parila group of ‘mature coil and commutator segments under this condition. Although spe ial mil uty motors can be purchased to provide raed torque over several seconds they are esenally oversized relative 1 the indoeton moto whic as ch imitation 13.10 Sle and Weight Mainly because ofthe commutator asembly, de machine of he same toque capacity 1 sgntcmty lrger than the equivalent indostion machine, As & ‘ul the “Togpi” of the motor larger esting in increased rel cee 0 howe the moter. Access doors mst be ler anlar cranes need be wed for maintenance All ofthese factors ead 0 rete ovrl cost fr he ist: aon. Table 1.1 shows comparison ofthe tw motos for thre widely diferent sizes comresponting 1 6 MW, 75 kW and L.5 KW [1]. The dt forthe 40 smaller machines ae for sandardsquirel cage machines while the lrger rmichne i pecilly designed fora variable speed sppieion Machines se cifically designed fr variable speed would noemally have a higher effcierey eo relaxation ofthe ne stating requirement. Not the subtlimpove ‘ment in efieny and redistionin inertia avail inthe 6 MW cage in tion machine 14 Comparison of Synchronous and Induction Machines, “The synchronous motor is anater machine whch possesses many ofthe vantages ofthe induction motor However, te synchronous mache acs ‘ip ring, brutes and an iulied winding on the rotor except for smallere i Ad Se motors where the fel winding can be replaced hy pemmanent magnets The ‘Schronos machine canbe oper 4 ity or even leading power factor Testing in a smalls KVA requirement forthe machine sige converter tha or the inaction motor. However, 8 we will ce later in he book, operation at tumiy power factor races the ore tansient espe ofthe machine. ALS, tongue response is reduced due 1 the relatively high value of synchronous “De 11 Compaen nto and DC Matos or The iver Sas Mashin. age Medium ‘Saall Size Machine | cage | pc | cue | pc | cae | DC Tae Raingikw) | oon | ooo | | mS [1s | 1s Sota] o> | 6 | 1500 | 1300 | 1500 | 1500 Mcieney | 951 | 92 | 93s | ae [| 5 | © oe Twenia | sa00d | cana | 07s] 0673 | 0.0089 | o0o38 ken) ‘Leng Gad] 1500 | too | wa | waa | s228 | a6 | Wanem | aio | a | as |» | 7 | mt wea] - | - [3s | #0 | = | es eatance which mut be compared withthe amature leskae inductance of ‘he de mator. Application of wounded sychronos motor dives ae ther Fore iit to very high Rorepower applications i which ther overall cost favors the synchronous motor oer an indoction moor. A important factor in thi os trade off the price advantage of ¢tyssor bide which canbe onmated simpy by means of the syachonous mote ef versus afore ‘mutated bie Since the switch self mst be eld upon to inert the ‘tet nan induction moto de ts iherent lagging power factor, expen ‘Sve power siching devies suc as bipolar ranssors mast be used which Freqenly gives cot advantage in igh horsepower application othe sy ‘hnous motor dive, However, a ete power switching devices sich as sue tr thyristors (GTO) comin to deren in cot eh stations sre ‘apt 0 amish in the fare "The future fr variable speed permanent engnet mar drives, 09 the ‘her hand, bright However, aves conceming the cost of the ene limit ‘hei application to relatively small values of horsepower 15 Inverters for Adjustable Speed The process of converting de to ae power is cll inversion and i isthe verter which reese varble frequen fom the de source which swe to deve am indtion motor at a variable sped. In general we basic pes of ‘inverter exist which ae tty ferent in heir Bebavor. The so called Volt- ge Si (oe Souree) Inverter abbreviate a VSI sore common an this ty oFinventer creates aelaively well defied switced vollage waveform tthe terminal ofthe motor The de bus mlnainod a ola fb the use ofa large capacitor inthe de ink. votage swee inven dies fom the vohage Sl inverter in that the de ink is established witha de source (ater for Instance) The esting motor cients then governed primarily by the motor lead andthe speed. The VS sao termed a voltage source inverter. However iC islea that the dink ise aly ot power source f the lnk woage is supported only by an energy sorape clement such asa 8 capacitor: The VSLis ‘ypc subdivided into two forms the vo alle seep inert andthe pale eth modulated inverter The Second type of inverter, the Curent Si or Sours) Invener (CS provides a switched caren waveform atthe mor terminals. The debs is insecure fy exe of large intro the dink, The votage wavelorm snow governed primarily by the motor oad and speed 16 The Six Step Voltage Stiff Inverter (VSI) [2] {A simplified diagram ofa tsi tre phase voltage sf inven bide fs stow in Figure 13. Now tat he sacar of thi iit follows the genera epction of an edrive shown a Figure 1.2 Te rectifier serve to etablish a ‘ke potetl in much the same manne as ie the de motor dive. In aon, rave lag electrolytic apacitor is ised to ‘sitfen'the link vole and Provide a path For he rapidly changing currents ru by the avert eis the ms value ofthis ipl current wich determines the value ofthe capacitor sed. The capacitor of appreciable ve und ct, frequently 2.00 9 2080MS 4S) — Induction ‘ie ‘igue 1.3 Basi te pase vag tf aver (VSI) ‘misma andi major os tem in he system. also wu 0 interpre ‘ome inductive reataee between the eter thea supply oii ale ‘rent and 0 reduce the severity ofthe commutation sips produce by the recier This series ngedace i so helpful ia atenuating the volage spikes ‘whi may ener trough the rectfer bilge due to switching or Hhting ‘tikes ou in the wet sytem. ‘The inverter ats somewhat asthe equivalent ofthe commutator assembly in de metor and convert the devote 19 a variable reqeney a voltage The ivener bie is similar to the rect used in ade motor deve except. becase ofthe lagging power actor presented by the induction motor, the ty ‘sts mast be repliced with devices which are capable of being tured off sell son The choice a preset * Thyssons plus Exteral Commutation Network * BiplaJuncion Tait (BITS) Mos Fe EtestTamitors (MOSFET) * suated Gate Bipolar Transistors IGBTS) * Gate Tur OFF Thyistors (GTO) *# Mos Contolled Tayisors (CTS) Since thsstos ent inberetyeapable of tr off hey require extemal commutation cicuiy aot showa in Fgue 13. The ip of cormttion ct cuits are numerous but typically requie ove additonal commutation thyitor snd one capacitor (rp of apc) per pase. Sine the capacitor needs 0 hve its plurity evened in peepaation ara comimtation,sehnigue knows 1s resnant reversals used which ree a as nea en ws resonant ei Sep Vag ter u reveral induct per puse. Im adiin, extra anabing circuits ae placed sow and in sees with ech ths onder to ke them within thc pe ie tolerances with espect to their om nd tuo cpabites. The result sa complex cieithiving numerous component and requcing a precisely ‘med rng sequence to prevent acetal sho cits. Tyrie ave One importa advantage over transistors which i thei ability to withstand 8s. ‘anal fal curt fr a eit tine before protective devices (eso cicit breakers) operate, However, when ued aan externally commuted switch ‘hey ate present of more interest for hisrcl than fr practical reasons ‘Transistors have nearly completely replaced tyristrs in inverter circuits alow S00 KW. They are avaiable i aings to 1800 V and several ned amperes and icresses in the volgen hve been occur sos yearly, They have the grat advantage of bing able to be tuned of aswel 0 ur ‘on the cute in the device. Hence, avila components to accomplish am ‘ff are ot needed. Saubbiag is sl necessary if the ansistrs are to be wed ‘cur their maximum rang, whichis penerly an coaomic necessity. OF the ‘ransstor fly. the bipolar junction transistor or BIT i he lowest cost and hus most widely used. The cea reuired to dive the tansistor base however, relatively complex andi sully fabricate in a Dtlingon config rion o reduce the demand oa the bse current diver. Asal reverse voage ust typically be appli to the base of tansisor nthe of sue snd a am off iis usually necessary to extct current fom the hve. IGBTs sited ‘ee bipolar tanssion) ant MOSFETs meta oxide semicondactoe eld effet transistors) are moe recent ston tothe tars faily an promise « replace BITS in lower power applications, They do at safer fom second byeakdowo, a destrctve loss mechanism in biol tains tat must be ‘arefuly controled, Since both devices are te off by fll effet teche ics, te curent demand on the gate div is minimal and they can even be lured off with an integrated circuit chip. Overall losses, pats coun, and ver cost are markedly reduced with these devices resaing in an incre ingly competitive product even thouph the devices remain more expensive than 8T Gate tur of thyristors (GTOs) apé MOS Contllss Thyisiors (MCTS) ac relative newcomers to the seene and promis o ave the benefits of bath thyristors and uapssiors.GTOx are uth raed on and tured of by applying shor gate urea pues However, they rut complex gate icity similar 1 WIT GTOs are presently welale to $00) yl und ae becoming widelysed in inverters opentng al he wity median vole vel (>1000 V). Such vollages af a nesessary operating contion when the rating of the mote «exces few hundred horsepower Th ation fo the un of element denoted a an ideal switch in Figure 13, ‘each arm of the ridge norm contains an inverse pall connected diode “These diodes which at called the reumt curent or feedback dade, rust be provided o allow for an aerate path forthe inductive motor current which ‘tives to How when the main power device is turned ft. When regener tion occur the oles af main power device and diode revere, The diodes no return the regenerated pomer to the dink whe the tyeistrs cry the ea: tive eure. The ei of power tothe dink wll asthe link voltage above ity moral value and steps mont be ake to absoe this regenerated power 10 prevent «dangers lnk volage buildup. Typically a resistor is switched in rll withthe de nk apie abso this energy oe input bridge nade bi-directional ty ang & second inverse paral bridge im uch the same manaer a Figure 1.1(0. "Te basic operation ofthe six sep voltage inverter cn be undestod by considering te invert effectively cost ofthe si ideal switches shown in Figure 13. While itis posuble 1o energie he motor by having only t40 siches closed in sequence at oe te, now accepted that itis preferable to bave three switches cloed at any last since this aegy produces & higher output volage ver any operating condition (4). This second patern produces the voltage waveforms of Figue 1.4 atthe terminals , b and ‘efered fo the neative de potatiln, The numbers wren onthe level pts (ofthe waveforms ids which witches are closed This sequence of switch- ing is inthe order S6, 612,123, 234,345, 456 and tack 10 56. The line © Tine las Ve Ye dT to nesta WogES VV Vo thea Have he ‘waveform shown in Figur 1.5. Thelin t line voage coisa rms fod ‘mena component of by, Vico fas ®t Uy “Thus «standard 460, 60 He induction motor would require $90 vols atthe teins of the motr to operate the metor ait ated voltage and speed For ths ean 4 00 vol debs is quite andar in he US for inverter dives. Aithough the indton motor fants a atve rater thn a passive low te fective inpedanees of ach pase rma alee. Tha fr “We ep Vg tne 8 a Figure 14 lusting the sx connections of the induction tor when stitched by asx ep voltages verter voltage drops are concerted, the machine maybe rpreseted by tree equiv len impedances as showa is Figure 1 forthe si possible coanections Note ‘hata specifi phase is atemately switched from postive ple to negative pole and that ts alerately in series withthe semining two phases conaecte in lll or its in pra with ope of the two pits and in series withthe ‘er Henoe the voltage drop ars the phase i always 1/3023 ofthe de hus voltage with she polarity ofthe woe drop aeos the phase being dete ‘ined by whether ti connected tothe postive oe negative pole. A plot of ne ofthe three motor lise wo line voltages i lo given in Figure 15. Note that harmonics of order thee and multiples of hee ae ase fons oth he inet line and the line neva voltages (nd consequently abet from the ex ens). The presence of ix step ithe ie o etal voltage wavefoon ithe reason for this iype of inverter eng calle see inverter. Fourier aly. sv of these waveforms indicate a quar wave type of seerctre progression1 : wl he i v 4 T bel —— oe Figue LS Line-o-tie and tine-w-aeweal voltages sero the induction nner pas when opeaing from ik sep Yollage inverter ‘Sey eer Spl a PCa Teen ee ‘fhe harmonies. That is the line ie ad ie ata wavetorms contain 1th ofthe ith harmonic. 17th ofthe seventh Riemonc, eho the elev cath harmonic and forth, 1.7 Six Step Inverter Speed and Slip Frequency Control “Techniques tn general. the moor equires a nary constant amplitude si gap fx fo sats- Tacory working of the motor. Since he ar gp iste imegrl of he vt ape impressed acoss the magnetizing indstace a, assuming thatthe it iP voltae i sinusoidal, tag = frit = [Voqsinond Hence, the motor requires constant ratio of volts Ae pasa small tlliional boost to overcome suo resistance) an the de volage most be iste in aos iret proportion to fegueney. A varibl diet voltage can he realy obtained by using the controled esi in Figure 13. tn ths cae ‘the inverter continues to operat inthe sell si sep mode giving he sme tootoe voltage wave forms a shown in Figue 1. at all seeds, However, the frequency is reduced the arpite ofthe waelorms can be reed it het propotion assuming del coal as shown in Figure 1.6 Ingenta the large de link capacitor prevent the spite of thea voltage rom being increased a ply a the fequeey. which s developed with peactially no slay by simply feeding iggsring pulses tthe inven switches, Hence, ‘stomary to slave the regsency tthe dik lage as shown in Figue 1-7 {0 prevent the motor from ever rcivng an igpppriste vue of Voit ‘Of thew contol handles’ equency conto by arth most cil as small changes in frequency peoduce Inge changes of sip frequency and, ene, lage changes in cunent apd tre. By saving the fequeney command tothe de bus voltage, te rate of change of requncy i general inte to ‘ale to which he mato can espond without draving a excessive cent or witout regeneraing. However his oly solves al th problem since the slip Hoquency is alo influenced by toler speed. A michancal overload wll \Wikly increase the ip equeney al Heace mir cue, This ovens. m1 0 Figure 16 Six step lne-o-netra inverter ouput volage waveforms a thre diferent ine frequencies aust be detccted uickly and the inener frequency reduced accordingly 50 that the slip frequency and cutetare kept low: An eves condition is most, easly sensed by monitoring the d ink cient. Silay an overbauling fad tll reverse the mtr toric and cate regearation anda rise of de nk ol ‘ge if the regenerated power exceeds the loses in the inverter. I theres 0 provision to accept this regenerated power, the motor fequeney mast be Incase o prevent excessive regeneration. Thus both ink crrent and vot ‘ge cnibute exert semsed vtabes in any contol seem ‘ep meer Sola Stuy itl Tse n Vos t, =! avi aye a Ait its Figue 1.7 Open lop speed conto! sytem wit its on aceleraton, Frequency and eurent ‘The most common meted for fequeney control 0 use & vole con tole oscillator (YCO} 1 ste ver fequeney, This canbe eal inter Teed to the demanded speed sigal va sseeration and deceleration limits which preven excessive slip rest ofa sen change of speed densa. In cases where speed regulation is of concer, improved repton can be ‘sie by increasing the equney 38 function fd ink curent(e load) "hereby adjsing the slip frequency while Keeping the rotor speed roughly constant, Speed accuracy approaching 1% ean be rely achieved ia ths man- nor, These controls ze show in Fig 1.7. Note that this 1ype of mo ie 'neffect. an open loop speed conor snce pedis no sensed exp Sich drives ae well ited 10 appieationsin which ped regulation requ ens ne est (1-2), Since a vl ener and send haarisnot reared his typ of conrler iin wipe sein indus ag eral purpose drive IE dsed, sip reuencycan be controle sty i dg pees rans ces tte wo the motor shal. The inverter equency ci hen he pened by the digital adaiion of the shaft speed pulses and sip feguency ples tied from a VCO which deters sip fequeney This ation process most be cared ot ata high fequeney so that each inverter pevod of 60 degrees is comprised of age numberof shaft pulses to which are aed numberof ip frequency pales which suena tht the inventor periods ar of retonable unifonn dation, If reeneraton is reed te reverse sgn of the speed er signal must case the slip frequeney VCO to ‘obirct aft poles fom the sbaltransducer on pls fr pulse Basis reduce the inverter fremency below synchronism and consequently proce repetention. A typical numer of pales coresponding to fll slip is 20-30 The adtontalrcion proces must coretl tke int account coincident or overlapping pues. However, his a eaivey simple problem with morn ‘igi leone. Figure 8 shows sch st arangement shouldbe noted tha precision peed contol ean be obtained without the ned fra closed oop speed conto the Induction moti exchanged for 8 syncronous reluctance or permanent magnet moto. Sped olin pesion isthen ally dependent onthe stably ofthe VCO. Ifthe VCO is epaced by ‘cyl oss, vider and phase locked! loop, then the precision ca be fe tat of the ery. This tecique his fond extensive aplication a the be spinning nds wheres large number of motors mst be speedo tolled wih rest precision and in exact ynchonis with each ter 18 The Pulse Width Modulated Tnverter (PWM) [2] ‘The PWM inven again ulizes the vliage si ink bt combines bot vokage contol and fequency coueo within the inverter sell eperes fom a fixed voage de source, Lc. an unonlled diode eter or a atery (or perhaps bot Te this case the power switches in he inverter ae switched a high frequency thus operating in effet as choppes. In genecl. modula io eetrigus fall no to elses thse which oper a ftedsritching rato the fundamental swiching Frequency (bck o picket fence mod in) and those in whi he switching ao continu changing, lly ae {7 aes ree i Ae Figue L8 Closed loop sped contol with distal ation of speed and sli tsqueney. ‘Sinusoidal to syethsize amore nearly sinasidal mtr cuenta sine ‘ida pulse wideh modulation oe sisal PWM. 10 Block Modaation ‘lock modulation isthe simplest type of modolation and is closes to sine sit step operation Insta of varying the mpi ofthe motor vlige wae ‘orm by variation of he de ink voltge, it varied hy switching one o wo of the inverter thyisors at a fixed switching ato and ajstng the nes the resin plses to contol the motor voluge to sai the speed. The number of Puls is manained constant over a predeterised sped range although the number of pulses may change dere at evra prescribed speeds. ‘Asimple form of lock madultion is shown in Figure 1.9 whe the chop Ping is limited to the mide 60 depres of each device conduction ered ‘esting in sininum switching day the senior mice, I pei — Ai Figue 9 Typical blk modslaton waveforms showing voltages ‘fom lief negative de tava inet line vag Van he simiaes between block stodulton ad the sx sep mode the argue Putas at low sped te much es severe than fr test step inverter. The huonis typical fix step inverter are preset also with lock modulation, but thee are also higher harmonics asoited withthe chopping fren, ‘The motor loses and mate nos, however, ae signin compared to moe ‘legantmltion gorithms an this cod is no longer wid se 12 Sinwoidal PWM Modulation The objestive of sinusoidal PWM iso syhesize moor voages to produce tents et 04 squid ts economically posible. The loner exer vot ‘ge harmonics cube geulyateused leaving tpialy only 2 or 4 hte Jes of substan amplitude close othe chopping or caer frequency. The ‘ota now tends fo tte much more stony at low speed. Tague put ‘ios are vill eliminated and the extra moter losses caused by the inverter se substantially reduced, To counterbalance thee advantages, the inverter ‘ons comple, the chopping frequency high «ypealy 500-2500 for {GTOs nd up to 5,00 oe more for IGBT transistor, and inverter loses ae !gher than for he six step mode of operation, In one math for appoint. Inga sine wave a high frequency angular wave i compared wilh funda mental fequeney sine wave shown in Figur I.10. When the low fequency TUTTO Beaaves § kot Figue 110 Masiaon of sims pulse with molaton vorentn sin waves ew wit 20 degrees pin plc, he vichig a tern fortes mere evi ens 182 Synchronous Asynchronous Modulation 1 the caer and modlton are 1 he synchronized, there mist be a Hed tamer of eater yes in each moduli yee If this number i chosen ‘se good inna cent wavefanm a ln regency, sy at 1 Ha then the rato carr foquency tna Fequeny wil be nthe nigh: nd 10-2001 he meri tho nd at true of 100 Ba,the chopping frequency Roce 10-20 kM Ts siching rnc ar ‘oo igh For norma hyo ners nde 0 ih even fo ilar ‘eamssor verte. Hence lebnigue of gear chain” mit be employes ‘which reduces the awiching ratio in slpm athe fandmesal frequency Increases. As showa i Figue Ll, commercially avaiable system empl. {ng custom chip designed for sich a purpose is now avilable (5). Hysteresis snus be include at each chang in switching fequency aio o thatthe sy tem doesnot vel continously Berween wo dering switching eatios at cor tain sped, own Fgue L.11Musation of “ear ehansiog” in 2 pals width modulated Whereas the carer equeney must bea fixed rato of fundamental fe quency at moderate an high peed o prevent undesirable subharmonic from spreaing,ssyacronous operation ofthe cri equeney becomes acs sbleatlow speed whee the ffs of the iering number of eae eels per ‘modulation cycle is sal. However, change over to synchronous operations euied at some speed and some type of phase loking technique must be inode to achieve the synchronic, ‘Wile Figue [10 provides a good picture ofthe modulation proces, one ‘te post of sing» miroprocesior i inte the ‘analog’ solution btn by the intersection a tangle wave an sine wave comes only ‘one of many pose, Tis scale natal moda cab repo 19 _nvatage by eprom whic the meraating waveform x pece ee With Mie nner PAM 2) » ise cost, Lsumple tthe cartier equeney. An example of eae and TAC AE “TOC LLL. Figure 1.12 Switching pater using regular sampling modulation ssitching aio of 9 [6 14 Pulse Dropping Referring to Figure 1.10 it can be nae thatthe center ples of the PWM rodlation are narower than the pulses wher the fundamental ola passes through ero. These center ples typically become progressively more and ‘nore arrow asthe sped (and hence vltag) increases. When the condcton Pubes Become very narrow thee is insuicient tie to reverse bis the off ing pomer device nfrce coma systems, Hence, the vag 270 This device increases na postive seme ta soon the device wl pun conduct. td igh fnses wil coeur, Hence the elation scheme cls fora peiin below this minim tine then this puke mast he oad aogether and A cancelling ajustinent made ones puse to corel for he change inthe fundamental compontat. ace sai, pulse droping mist be coupled with 8 smal hysteresis fo void eyeing across the threshold condition, 185 Changeover Sie Step Mode Without pulse dropping techniques is apparent that sinsoial modultion Preven the motor terminal phase voltage from aching its maximums vale (0.8 ¥p since ‘notches of misimur width imposed by the switching iit tins of the soi state switching devices preven fl fundamental vlage fom ting reached. Operation ata reduced ‘maximum’ fundamental vollge i ‘os since the atendant motor must be designed fr lower voltage, imply- ing in tr, higher currents for ven horsepower requiemest. This increased uent duty then impaeson te cic of switching device wed the inverter design and results in more coy sytem, This dsvantge can he overcome Sf the modulation goes lowed to ‘sate’ at high speeds, so that the ‘waveform takes on is severl frm back modolton and, nly ul i Sep operon. During the intervening proces when the taston is made from sinusoidal PWM through he various Block mas to suare wae opera in, addtional harmonics il exist which cause ex being in the moto, However since the motor is running ea it aed speed, cooling god and there is an oneal Beef 1.86 Losses Caused by verter {3} ‘The ne-sinwsoidal ouput of the inveer cra xt loses inthe mtr: The six step mode is worst wit respect o volte emonic content with 20% of ‘he Sth harmonic, 14% af he Teh and sofort, Sinusoidal PWM rece the low onder harmonics to very small proportions, tat significant harmonics remain ato near whe cries requenc: requeey depenent loses sch ‘kin effect ad iron oses often result in motor Tones being greater under PWM operation thin wih «six sep inverter. Diferet manufacturers give ‘varying deprees of dering, bat sypically the motor can give 80-908 of is nameplate ouput at it ated speed without an inte fom i ae operating temperature. At lower speeds ext desing required o counteract te poor cooling. The avers sso hs itrellowes eae by device conduction val ge dap, loses inthe aula Volpe supplies and pulse drives, sith Ing les oss snubs oer cis oa the switching capi oF ‘he power switching device ad lowes the commutation sires themselves litany). The liste ofthese loses increase with inverter oni regency A temps to synthesie the hes posible sine wave forthe motor by selene 1 high carer Gequeney may well rete more loses inthe ever than t ‘aves in the motor Over efcenis a ull peed foe an sven (od induc on motor dive lie between 70% forthe smal instil divest ver 90% Forlag drives sacha those we for acon. 17 Tongue Pasion True pulsations, sometimes called cging tongues, te alvays preset when ‘he motor cumen is on-sinusokal, ut forall but he lowest sped the rior inet effectively smo thom ot to give a uniform sped The sx step vol- ‘ge sf invenerprodoes nticeale torque puatons below about 3 He owover, with snail PWM these effets are virally eliminated na in logue plaions which ae a inberent ssa of the harmo i the applied voltage waveform torque tanseet may occur whenever thee 2 ‘alle change of mote vllge or fequncy. The late en be avoided elee- rol, bt considerable are mast he tkenin the desin ofthe modulation ‘etete, particularly whe changes in plse number occur though pulse drop- ing. to ensue ta the effective Fondameatal voltage before and afters unal- ter 1K Induction Motor Speed Cont Using « PHM Inverter Fite 1.13 shows speed contol based we ofa PWM inverter Noe ‘ht in this ise he ine day’ iteduced by the nk apa ean beaded. ‘Wile the voltage and frequency can now be changed almost stanly, acceler tion and deceleration limits ae again used to prevent changing te sip to ‘pil, which a noted previously, could resin an over euent condition 19 The Current Stiff Inverter (CSD, Since induction moors have rationally been designed operate from ol age source, the voltage iff inverter was developed nd sed ist ice i, in Feil, a approximation ofthe waveform peesented tothe motor bythe uti fig. The caren if inverter onthe ether han is very ferent in concept ‘Cent fe inserter dives have Ben i eon for soot wen yeas. They have, however several penis which wmke them tractive as wel satfi gue 1.13. Basic induction moter speed conto! Hock diagram using & PWM inverse inevitable number of undesinble elects. As the name implies the inverter ‘switches of CS ar fe rom constant cuentsouce. Whe ate constant ‘curentsource ean never bea reality itis reasonably approximated by acon trolled eter or ehapper with erent contol loop as Well slg de ink ductor to stooh the cute, The srt is shown in Figure 115 nice a 2 2 x 5 Phase - ACS F LF aK it 1Eee igre 114 Schon of eran if inwenter (CS Dive eum eee ” he uronic sequently noe te Hee mtr phases y he top al of he ver nd turns fom ater ofthe phases ote dink By ‘hs btom tao the inverter. Sine the curen consant ter wil be 200 ‘kage op sors the stator winding slf-inductace and a conta vlage ‘hp aos the winding resistin Hence, the tr terial olage is uot ‘ct hy the invenr ht by the mote Siace the moter is Weund with siauso- “ly debated windings the consequent voltages which appear on he tet ta of the motor ae nearly siusoital. Kelly, he cute waveform isan at sels ofthe voltage waveform of «sx tp vlage stiff nvr. In oct, the moor crrent cannot change stantancouly ad he rans fois eazent saveform uve afte slope. Dring thse arsine cent trsfr from one inverter hyrisor to the nex Wt he ai of one of six com Inuaing captors, A stetch ofthe mstoe vole a cuents s shown in Migue 115 ‘Avery atractive fete af CSTs tabi ede through a comma tion fire and co ream aatally 10 normal operation, This Feat is in naked conto sos voltae fo inverter in which costly preventive mes sins re neces AnaberBeeft ofthe CSI is i abi to regenerate ilo the uty soppy hy simply reversing the polarity of the recier de ouput ‘oitgs, Again this in contrast withthe VSI where the current ow rater han ae olage most he reversed, thereby requiring an addtional inverse parallel ‘eonnsced six pulse bridge. Ths agai 6a desible advantage over a VSL (Opeation ofthe motor at negate slip automatically causes a reversal in he ink voltage since he ink cure rather hun voltage iste contlled vai> th. Hence, powers automatically regenerated into the a apply "An importa inition in he application of CS dive the fact ha ‘pon lop operation inthe manne of VSL i ot poste Figure 1.16 sows the torguelpeed curve of atypical induction motor fe fom beth a vliage urce and eurent cure. A masked peaking’ exis i the case ofthe eur fen source inverter, Ispction of his torguepeed cure sages wo Ps ‘Me operating points: ane on the negatively sloped region which i usally ‘pared a sible and one onthe positively sloped region which occurs a ‘need below the point whee the masimum Logue is reacbed (beaklown fone) and is generally unstable (Jepending, however upon the load ogue ‘sage characteris) ‘Caefl esaminaton of the pint tthe sable side ofthe torque speed curve eval thal continu operation ele ere Beate th worFigue 1.13, Musson ofthe 6 connections ofan induction moto when sighed se sap cue sf ievertr showing mote Ing ox in he machine at this pins igh resuking in saturates operation and facesve manctiing cuenta ra loses. Othe ther and tthe ater int the socalled unable oi eux the machine ier ts aed vale ‘ed Joss are at excessive, (Not tht hs pot comexpond othe tion ofthe torqued curve fr rtd voltage wth he torgupecd curve for ‘ate erent. this point hath vlage und cera are tus atte rated tes) Unfrtnalely being on th unstale side othe tongue peed curve 5, No Sawation | BL votage characterise i iar a asso 10 ‘ROTOR SPEED IN PER UNIT Figure 1.16 Induction motor torgue-spead cures operating fom a ‘lige sours anda crent score ‘ure! source) mens thar operation is imposible without some soto eed- tack conto which foxes the machine renin this operating point. Oe system i 8 motor yoltge conto loop which eglaes the motor vag by ‘Solin heap phase contol rectifier for de ik ehoppe). A epreseats- tive block diagram o sytem of this type is shown in Figure 1.17. Typically, sintral cent op is sed showa withthe volage enor serving as et ‘sence signal forthe eueateeglarr. Some IR drop compensation i fen [abo and, since motor current an dein erent ar proportional, hisses iy accomplished. Additonal compensting circuits are ustlly employed 0 "Tho size nd cost of the ae commutating capacitors andthe de link indoor tne the major disadvantage ofthis inven The eapactr ate large Recase "hey st absorb the ttl ener sve inthe leakage Held of dhe winding ‘when the creat is commute, tn ode to keep this energy interchange at 8 ‘oinimam, eters of special design ae advantageous. Lo paticular, these ‘rs are dei havea al ape reactance as pl, Unfors aly this equines ats with conventional ter sin ince sal Tookage retances ily a we desi srt he pit of view oftl tm] C4 Se ee Figure L17 Block diagram of CSt-industion motor deve with motor voltae fedback continwos ing. Finally, the use of histor athe han transistors o tu ‘off yess inthis cat can be noted. While the CSI could potentially employ svices with tom off apa. hey would no enhance the perfor- mance of he conver inicaly snc the rate of change of moor eurent tna ts the voltage se Aros the moor would remain ed bythe capaci “Tum off deve can be ase in cuentS Unk configuration i the capacios af reo from tr commuting requirements and simply placed ‘ros the ermnas of he machine. Figute 18 shows a motor dive configu L aay +e k L Figure 1.18 Cureat sf aver dive employing tar off devices (GTO show as a lust) ration which i becaming increasingly popular in high horsepower applic ig etme ee tion this case, the Hc op wis a euenily sche, ome at 3 te, o fed he ink errent imo the merieapacitor network acne of the ation tree sic ets the cent othe Hk. The espacio are m0 ‘elected to abso only the harmonic creat nd need ot be Sized to absorb ‘he tl enegy in he commited pase dui switching. The meter cuent fermich ore sinosoial han te square wate cueat impressed onthe ctor ‘nthe conventions scheme. Pulse with mulation is gain wed to suppress the low frequeny Stk nd 7th haronie torque pulsations which ae snerent, insn sep operation. A majccsadvanage of this scheme ithe potential for resonance between the capacitors andthe motor inductances. Care must be {kent avoid impressing coment hamonics othe moteeapucitor network ‘wh wl excite one ofthe system resonant fequeaies This posi ‘nc avoded by cael ve of pale width modulation. However, sine the motor Prac must be known to impletieat sch an approach, the vei pes ‘ly aot pope for general purpose applications 1.10 High Performance Drives vs. General Purpose Drives ‘At poset, the vast majority of ae ves manuficired inthis county and sioad concern applications which do not regu fst ansint respons, ‘Aocordingy, the design of ental iis to service such a dives are based ‘on the socalled "per has” Teqavaent iit of he induction mote 78), Sic an equiva cic, however, is desved assuming steady sate condi tins, Inthe ease of an indcton machine, tbe resulting equivalent eit "sates tat the tpt ower ca be epresented by an equivalent rote resi tor of (I-S\Ry/S where Ste per unit lip, While this resor i preset inthe suivant ctu uring tates, ii «Fitton resistor which des not truly represent he elcical behavior of he eto. Thus, te electrical time ‘constants auld fom this equivalent cuit are icoret, Design of ‘pend contr such as Figure 1.7 can sil proeed since pees stn open oop fasion snd the motor vollages and currents are not sed except 0 = form limiting fantion. Hence the electra ime constants donot markedly ‘nfbence the conta gains. ‘When a closed lop spood cont och as Figure 1.18, was implemented on this basis however Pesume gute pparent ht the motr tine constants hur began ofuene the contol gaa 9, When sped replat require ncn a tight hs contol lil yes ayn ped repulation a a ewper ent However, contin increase in gain nove yo Yegulaton ard improve transient resquns eas to an isa and performance degradation tow speed which ca not be pede om the pe phase eevee Clear. ational factors are involved ia contol of an ladetion machine. ‘These questions were largely answered by K. Huse i his csc PAD thesis in 1969 which alo pointed the way to improved contol (10)-In this Work, the event aed for th conto ofthe spi! position of rotor fx and tor cuent wat identified. Iwas emphasized thatthe eectromagnetic torque Is ‘undaentlly the ross prt of fix and current in mich the sme manner sober a and de machines. This i conta! othe conventional per phase ‘equivalent circuit approach which, ia effec, views ore reduction as ony frequency dependant ad ignores spatial coasidrations. Tht i, txque pr \hction becomes equivalent to the power dissipated ina resistance inversely proportional oper unit aoe sip i.) RS The requirement fr sce sail posionng ofthe stor ampere tras vt spect othe rotor fx as edo a emphasis on preciseepation ofthe stator euneat hase a information as Lo the spatial poston of the roto Hk densi. Thi form of modulation, termed curet regulated pulse width mods lai oe CRPWM willbe dscused in Chapters 4 and 6. This ye of approach to ac motor con is variously calle field rlnted canto o vector contol depending upon stether the motor variables ae viewed as distributed el {quanti ax densties and MMF) or circ wrod, (ux Linkages and ‘ures simplified block diagram oa high performance drive shown it Fig. 1.19. Note the presence ofthe iner current oop which is notably absent Figure 119. Simplified block diagram of high petommance induction mato dive incepaig eld via ono Fr he gona pee dive coer The een fH vce eon ‘sth fst the i roduing compen and tone pring component of the sar curt are ei and then exes as eguvaent thee phase ‘umentconands.Reglton then wed to cose tha testator cares are oth repaductions of he commande vals ‘While the principle ffl oriented contol srelaively strighforsard familia wit motor behavior beyond tha afforded by the simpler per phase ‘suivant cre is cleely neces. Inthe next chaper we rer 0 the Insc derive ate seat adel of he induction machine Tn sbsequent ‘apes we use this mol fo develop Keen undertandig of he principles involved in the design of ld oriented contles for bah induction and syoctronous machiges References iL ND Mateo. "Eatin lege nisin Mor Coat hemes” Maral 12} RACDins tener ol nen ane Pa of iver n2.29 sarang” Lavy of Wisco Repo ECF 1 IAL TA Lipoid PO Tula Compr of To Tye Sq Woe Is) 1 Hoo ant W0Roink “olan PM Spe Camol smo Fate AC Ma Eston Comes Appin vol 2- No.2 ey 11 Cama Va ped with Coie Sp lacie Moen Conk Red of {EEE nal owe Conve Ca NO (Sp. SLI 1M) 17.8 PD. ApwtandG Sp Tndsin Mot Como See fo Bay ones Sosy Ata Marig Ose, 07-11 11 AB Pant. 7D. Ate ant TA tips, Socom Colo 4S AC ed: