BIOLOGY 11 THIRD LE LECTURE NOTES

2nd SEMESTER 2016-2017

by
KENNETH LEO

ANIMAL FORM AND FUNCTION

Overview. Anatomy is the study of the biological from of an organism. And using anatomy, an
organisms physiology, the biological function, may also be studied because scientists found a correlation
between the form and function of an organism. An example of this would be the wings of a bird and the
wing-like structure found in flying squirrels. The wings are used for flying and the wing-like structures in
squirrels are also used for gliding from one place to another.
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Hierarchal Organization of Body Plans

There are five main levels of organization in organismal complexity: Protoplasmic grade, cellular
grade, cell-tissue grade, tissue-organ grade, and organ-system grade. PowerPoint

Protoplasmic Grade of Organization. This level of organization is found in unicellular organisms

(an example would be Paramecium). In this level, all life functions are performed inside a single cell,
with the protoplasm differentiated into different organelles having different functions.

Cellular Grade of Organization. In this level, cells that have different structures are group
together. Because of their different structures, the division of labor of the cells is pretty evident since each
cell would be performing a different function.

Cell-Tissue Grade of Organization. The difference of this and the cellular grade of organization is
that the cells here are similar therefore forming a structure called the tissue. This tissue would be
performing a specific function.

Tissue-Organ Grade of Organization. Different tissues are grouped together to form an organ.
This organ carries out a specific task for the organism it belongs to. For example, in Planaria, the seminal
duct is a reproductive organ which helps in the asexual reproduction of the organism.

Organ-System Grade of Organization. This organization is only present in higher forms of

organisms, which means that unicellular organisms dont have an organ-system organization. In this level,
different organs group together and form a system which performs a set of different functions. Example,
the stomach, intestines and the esophagous work together and form the digestive system.

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 CELLULAR COMPONENTS: TISSUES

Tissues are groups of similar cells specialized to perform a single function. The study of tissues is
called Histology. In animals, there are 4 main categories and these are: epithelial tissues, connective
tissues, muscular tissues, and nervous tissues.

Epithelial Tissues

Epithelial tissues serve as covering for the external and internal surface of the body. Outside the
body, it serves as a protection covering and inside, it lines body cavities, and also ducts and passageways.
This type of tissue is also responsible in secreting mucus and other specialized products such as hormones
and enzymes. Its divided into two parts: the apical surface and the basal surface. The apical surface
which the name suggests is found exposed to the air and this is where the hairs, or cilia/microvilli/flagella,
are found. On the other hand, the basal surface or basement membrane (also called basal lamina) is where
the cells at the base are attached.

Since epithelial tissues are covering, they have to be compact and closely joined in order to serve
their purpose. The cells are joined together by three intercellular links: the tight junctions, desmosomes,
and gap junctions.

At tight junctions, the plasma membranes of two adjacent cells are stick together by specific
proteins. The role of the tight junction is to form a barrier around the cell in order to prevent any leakage
of extracellular fluids at the epithelial cells. For example, the tight junctions are the reason why our skin
is watertight. Desmosomes (or anchoring junctions), acts like a rivet, fastening two cells together.
Intermediate filaments made up of keratin helps the desmosomes do its job. Gap junctions (or
communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels. It has the same job as the plasmodesmata in
plant cells.

Epithelial tissues can be classified into types according to layering: simple epithelium, stratified
epithelium and pseudostratified epithelium (Campbell p871 and Hickman p194). And the epithelial cells
are classified as cuboidal (dice-like), squamous (flat like tiles), and columnar (like bricks on end).

1. Squamous Epithelium The simple squamous epithelium is composed of a single layer of

flattened cells which permits exchange of materials via diffusion. This type of tissue is found in
linings of blood vessels and lungs (where gas exchange is very important). On the other hand,
stratified squamous epithelium is composed of two or more layer of flat cells and is adapted to
mild abrasion which is why it is located at the skin, oral cavity, oral canal, and vagina. The reason
why it can withstand mild abrasion is that it regenerates fast because the basal layers of cell are
undergoing continuous mitotic division.

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 2. Cuboidal Epithelium Single layer of short boxlike cells that are specialized for secretion. It
makes up the epithelium of the kidney and other salivary glands.

3. Columnar Epithelium A single layer of bricklike cells is called the simple columnar
epithelium. This is found in places where secretion and active absorption is important. Example,
it lines the intestines which secretes digestive juices and absorbs proteins. Stratified columnar
epithelium is found at the anorectal region and the salivary duct.

4. Pseudostratified Epithelium This type of epithelium is composed of only one layer of cells
that have varying sizes that makes it look like a stratified epithelium. In vertebrates, it forms a
mucous membrane at the respiratory tract.

Special Types of Epithelium

Transitional Epithelium this is a type of stratified epithelium specialized to accommodate

great stretching. Because of this property, it is usually found in the urinary tract and bladder
(dicks??? Jk). At unstretched phase, the tissue layer appears to be four to five cells thick but when
stretched, it would only look like it has one or two layer of extremely flat cells.

Glandular Epithelium The glandular epithelium secreted or absorbs chemical solutions. There
are two main types based on how the products are released: 1.) exocrine glands and 2.) endocrine
glnads)

Exocrine glands (exo-outside, crine-secrete) produce and secrete enzymes using a duct.
This type of gland is located over the target where the enzymes are going to be secreted.
Examples are sweat glands, mammary glands, and salivary glands.
Endocrine glands (endo-inside) are ductless glands that secrete homones directly into the
blood stream. They are located inside the target, i.e. pineal gland, pituitary gland, and the
hypothalamus.

There are special terms of some epithelial tissues. Endothelium refers to the lining of the blood
and the lymph (clear fluid that circulates through tissues to cleanse them) and mesothelium are squamous
cells lining serous cavities such as peritoneal and pleural cavities and also lining of visceral organs.

Connective Tissues

The main function of connective tissues is to provide mechanical support. They also hold many
tissues and organs together and in place. They store energy, protect against infection, repair damaged
tissues, and play a role in exchange of metabolites between the blood and tissues. These tissues are
scattered in an extracellular matrix that generally consists of a web of fibers embedded in a uniform
foundation which may be liquid, jellylike, or solid (also called the ground substance). This ground
substance is composed of chondroitin sulphate.

The cells of the connective tissue can be classified as either fixed or wandering (from the blood).
Belonging to the fixed cells are fibroblasts which secretes fiber proteins and macrophages which engulfs

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foreign particles by phagocytosis. Other examples of fixed cells are adipose (fats) and mesenchymal cells
(multipotent cells which can differentiate into a variety of cell types). Wandering cells include white
blood cells, which has the same function as macrophages but found inside the blood specifically.

Types of Connective Tissue Fibers

Collagenous fibers made up of collagen and provides strength and flexibility

Elastic fibers made up of elastin and responsible for making the tissue elastic (ability to return
to its original position when stretched)
Reticular fibers composed of collagen and its very thin and branched property makes it useful
in joining connective tissues to adjacent ones.

Major Types of Connective Tissues in Vertebrates

A. Fibrous connective tissue This connective tissue is dense with collagenous fibers which makes
it very strong and flexible. This is the reason why it is found in tendons (connects muscle to
bone) and ligaments (connects bone to bone).

B. Loose connective tissue The most widespread connective tissue in the vertebrate body because
it binds epithelia to underlying tissues (example would be the skin). The name loose connective
tissue is from the loose weave of its fibers, which is composed of all the three types. This tissue
also has two cell types which predominates its loose mesh: fibroblasts and macrophages

C. Adipose tissue A specialized type of loose connective tissue that stores fat in adipose cells
distributed throughout its matrix. Adipose cells are cells that cannot be destroyed by the human
body (which is why it is harder to lose weight that to gain some). Since it stores fat, adipose tissue
serves as a pad and insulator of the body and uses fat as fuel.

D. Cartilage This contains collagenous fibers in semirigid form embedded in a gel-like ground
substance made up of chondroitin sulfate, a protein-carbohydrate complex. The chondrocytes are
responsible for secreting chondroitin sulfate.\

Hyaline cartilage made of hyaline.

Elastic cartilage

Fibrocartilage