EEE806 Research Methodology 2016 2

Live Curious: Life-Long Learning
If you are, you breath.

If you talk, you ask.
If you breath, you talk.
If you ask, you think.
If you think, you search.
Research Methodology If you search, you experience.
If you learn, you grow. If you experience, you learn.
If you grow, you wish.
If you find, you doubt.
By If you wish, you find.
If you doubt, you question.
If you question, you understand.
Prof. Okechukwu Ugweje
If you understand, you know.
Dept. Of Electrical & Electronics Engineering If you know, you want to know more
2016 Lecture Guide And if you want to know more, you are alive.
Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 1 Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 2
Research Methodology Research Methodology

without adequate training and supervision, the
neophyte researcher can unwittingly become an
Module 1 unguarded projectile bringing turbulence to the field,
fostering personal trauma (for researcher and
researched), and even causing damage to the
discipline. [1]
A. Research Concepts
Expertise is earned not given
Research Methodology What is Research? - 1
The word research is composed of two syllables, re
and search.
Re = a prefix- meaning again, anew or over again
search = a verb- meaning to examine closely and
carefully, to test and try, or to probe
Definition of Research? Together they form a noun describing a careful,
systematic, patient study and investigation in some
field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or
principles
Even if you are on the right track, youll get
run over if you just sit there.
-- Will Rogers
What is Research? - 2 What is Research? - 3

Research is the process of hunting for facts or truth Research is systematic, because it follows certain
about a subject steps that are logical in order. These steps are:
Organized scientific investigation to solve problems, Understanding the nature of problem to be studied
test hypotheses, develop or invent new products and identifying the related area of knowledge.
The systematic investigation into existing or new Reviewing literature to understand how others have
knowledge approached or dealt with the problem
A systematic attempt to provide answers to questions Collecting data in an organized and controlled
A systematic way of asking questions, a systematic manner so as to arrive at valid decisions.
method of inquiry Analyzing data appropriate to the problem
A careful and systematic process of inquiry to find Drawing conclusions and making generalizations
answers to problem of interest
What is Research? - 4 What is Research? - 5
Research is the process of finding out something that Research follows a scientific method
we (everyone) dont already know This means that it makes an integrated use of
Scientific research builds upon the extant knowledge inductive and deductive reasoning
base and it is methodical, repeatable and verifiable This makes it very useful for explaining and/or
Methodical means that you can specify, in predicting phenomena.
advance, a procedure to accomplish your stated The basic assumption of the scientific method is that
objective every effect has a cause
Repeatable means that it can repeated severally
with the same report
Verifiable means that it can be verified by someone
else other than you.
What is Research? - 6 What Constitutes a Research Topic?

General Schematic characteristics of Research Unanswered question
Unsolved problem
Concern
Query
No Problem! Statement of inquiry
No Research!! Improved methods/techniques
Research as Acquiring Knowledge Purpose of Research
Research is a well-structured, properly reported study To solve a prevailing problem / answer question
must provide answers to all questions regarding the To provide solutions to complex problems
what, why, when, how, where, and who associated To make new discoveries (discover new knowledge)
with the research.
To develop new products
The problem statement offers the context necessary
To expand our knowledge about things
for addressing the why question
To investigate laws of nature
How? To predict about something in the future
What? Who? To explain a new phenomenon
To generate new knowledge
Where?
To get PhDs, Masters and Bachelors?
Why? When? A combination of any of the above
Purpose of Research Consider the following

Add new information through A general manager of a car manufacturing company was
concerned with the complaints received from the car users
New facts that was not known before
that the car they produce have some problems with rating
Validates results of previous research sound at the dash board and the rear passenger seat after
Tests theories few thousand kilometers of driving
Explains findings of a previous research He obtained information from the company workers to
Find out new relationships among present identify the various factors influencing the problem
phenomena He then formulated the problem and generated guesses
(hypotheses)
He constructed a checklist and obtained requisite
information from a representative sample of cars
He analyzed the data thus collected, interpreted the results
in the light of his hypotheses and reached conclusions
Consider the following Which of these is Research?
You will notice in the example above that the [1] Ahmed Farouk prepared a paper on computer usage in
researcher went through a sequence of steps which secondary schools after reviewing literature on the subject
were in order and thus systematic available in his university library and called it a piece of
research.
Secondly, the researcher did not just jump at the
conclusions, but used a scientific method of inquiry [2] Emeka Okoro says that he has researched and completed a
in reaching at conclusions document which gives information about the age of students
at NUN, their CGPA, their parents income and distance of
The two important characteristics of research are their schools from their homes.
it is systematic and [3] Taiwo Olushola participated in a workshop on curriculum
development and prepared what she calls, a research report
it follows a scientific method of enquiry.
on the curriculum for civil engineers. She did this through a
literature survey on the subject and by discussing with the
participants of the workshop.
Which of these is research?... High Quality Research!

None of the above examples can be classified under Is based on the work of others
the name research Can be replicated (duplicated)
WHY ?
Is generalizable to other settings
You will know it when you have understood the
concept and meaning of research Is based on some logical rationale and tied to theory
Is doable!
Generates new questions or is cyclical in nature
Is incremental
Is an apolitical activity that should be undertaken for
the betterment of society
Acceptable Research Criteria Acceptable Research Criteria
When you say that you are undertaking a research Philosophies: means approaches e.g. qualitative,
study to find answers to a question, you are implying quantitative and the academic discipline in which you
that the process; have been trained
is being undertaken within a framework of a set of Validity: means that correct question
philosophies ( approaches); Reliability: refers to repeatability and accuracy
uses procedures, methods and techniques that Unbiased and objective: means that you have taken
have been tested for their validity and reliability; each step in an unbiased manner and drawn each
is designed to be unbiased and objective conclusion to the best of your ability and without
introducing your own vested interest
Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or
highlight something
Research Characteristics - 1 Research Characteristics - 2

Originates with a question or problem Research is a process of
Guided by specific problem, question, or hypothesis collecting, analyzing and interpreting
information to answer questions
Requires clear articulation of a goal
But to qualify as research, the process must have
Follows a specific plan or procedure certain characteristics such as:
Often divides main problem into sub-problems 1. Controlled,
Accepts certain critical assumptions 2. Rigorous,
Requires collection and interpretation of data 3. Systematic,
Cyclical in nature 4. Valid and verifiable,
5. Empirical, and
6. Critical
Research Characteristics - 3 Research Characteristics - 3
1. Controlled: 3. Systematic:
Implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two The procedure adopted to undertake an
variables (factors), you set up your study in a way investigation follow a certain logical sequence
that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting Research steps cannot be taken in a haphazardly.
the relationship Some procedures must follow others
2. Rigorous: 4. Valid and verifiable:
Ensure that the procedures followed to find Whatever you conclude on the basis of your
answers to questions are relevant, appropriate findings must be correct and can be verified by you
and justified and others
In this case, the degree of rigor varies markedly
between engineering, physical and social sciences
Research Characteristics - 4 Poor vs. Good Research - 1

Criteria Poor Research Good Research
5. Empirical: Research problem Unclear and unfocused Sharply focused
Any conclusion drawn are based upon hard & scope Related to academic debate
Literature review A list of items, Critical evaluation of relevance,
evidence gathered from information collected from Relevance is unclear, up-to-date literature,
real life experiences or observations. Little or no evaluation, Linked to focused feasible
Research questions research questions
6. Critical: missing, impractical or
unfocused
Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the Methodology Little appreciation of Cohesive design,
methods employed is crucial to a research enquiry. research design Excellent review of research
No justification of choice design options,
Process of investigation must be foolproof and free Not linked to the literature Linked to the literature
Analysis and Unclear findings, unrelated Clear findings discussed in an
from drawbacks
discussion to research question, analytical manner that generates
Process adopted and the procedures used must be Little or no attempt to new knowledge and insight,
discuss in relation to Linked to the literature
able to withstand critical scrutiny. literature review
Poor vs. Good Research - 2 What is NOT Research?
Criteria Poor Research Good Research Research IS NOT information gathering
Conclusion Some conclusions but not Conclusions clearly linked to
linked to research questions research questions Gathering information from resources such as
Implications and limitations of Attention given to implications and books, journal, Internet, etc., is not research
results not addressed limitations
Research IS NOT the transportation of facts
Referencing Plagiarism through omission of All sources cited in the text and
inadequate referencing full bibliographic details listed at
Merely transporting facts from one resource (other
the end peoples work) to another (your work) doesnt
constitute research
Communication Difficult to follow, Many spelling Clear flow of ideas
and grammar mistake Appropriate spelling and grammar Research IS NOT reading and understanding what
other people has written
When your work does not contribution to new
knowledge it is NOT research
What is Bad Research? Research Methodology

The opposites of good research as discussed above
Looking for something when it simply is not to be
found
Plagiarizing other peoples work Types and Classification
Falsifying data to prove a point of Research
Misrepresenting information and misleading
participants
There are various types of design used in research,
all with specific advantages and disadvantages
Which one a scientist uses, depends on the aims of
the study and the nature of the phenomenon.
Research Methods - 1 Research Methods - 2
Research can be classified according to the perspectives: Classification of main types of research
1. Purpose of the research (why do it) the reason why Type of Research Basis of Comments
it was conducted Classification
2. Process of the research (how to do it) the way in Applied or Basic Outcome of
which the data were collected and analyzed; structured research
(quantifying extent of problem) vs. unstructured Exploratory, Descriptive, Purpose of Explanatory,
(exploring nature of problem without quantifying it) Analytical or Predictive research Correlational
3. Outcome of the research (benefit) whether the Quantitative or Process of research Structured,
expected outcome is the solution to a particular Qualitative Unstructured
problem or a more general contribution to knowledge Deductive or Inductive Logic of research
4. Logic of the research whether the research logic

moves from the general to the specific or vice versa
Research Methods - 3 Research Methods - 4

Classification of Research by Purpose Classification of Research by time:
Cross-sectional
Longitudinal
Classification of Research by Methods

Classification of Research by Methodology
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Exploratory vs. Experimental
Research Methods - 5 Key Categories of Research
Approach Common Stage of Categories of
Type of Data Problem Theory
Experimental Quantitative Evaluation Testing/Revising
Causal- Quantitative Evaluation Testing/Revising
Comparative
Historical Quantitative or Description Testing/Revising
Qualitative
Developmental Quantitative Description Building/Revising
Correlational Quantitative Description Testing
Case Study Qualitative Exploration Building/Revising
Grounded Theory Qualitative Exploration Building
Ethnography Qualitative Description Building
Action Research Quantitative & Applied Building or
Qualitative Exploration Revising
Research Types - Exploratory Research Types Exploratory

Conducted into a research problem or issue when there are Typical techniques include case studies, observation
very few or no earlier studies to which we can refer for and historical analysis
information about the issue or problem
can provide both quantitative and qualitative data
Focus is on gaining insights and familiarity with the subject
area for more rigorous investigation at a later stage
very flexible as there are few constraints on the nature
of activities employed or on the type of data collected.
Aim of study is to look for patterns, ideas or hypotheses, rather
than testing or confirming a hypothesis Approach is usually very open and concentrates on
Assess which existing theories and concepts can be applied to gathering a wide range of data and impressions
the problem or whether new ones should be developed Rarely provides conclusive answers to problems or
A hypothesis is a proposition that can be tested for issues, but gives guidance on what future research, if
association or causality against empirical evidence. any, should be conducted
Empirical evidence is data based on observation/experience
Data are known facts or things used as a basis for inference
or reckoning.
Research Types Descriptive - 1 Research Types Descriptive - 2
Deals with collecting data and testing hypotheses It deals with the question What Is of a situation
or answering questions concerning the current It concerns with determining the current practices, status
status of the subject of study or features of situations
Conducted to describe phenomena as they exist Data collection is either done through asking questions
Goes further in examining a problem than exploratory from individuals in the situation (through questionnaires or
interviews) or by observation
research
Undertaken to ascertain and describe the Example: Peter O. Peretti and Kris G. Majecen (1992)
characteristics of the pertinent issues interviewed 58 elderly individuals, from 68 to 87 years of age,
Research questions start with what or how using a structured interview to investigate the variables that
affect emotional abuse among the elderly
because the aim is to describe something
As a result of the interviews, they found 9 variables are
common to elderly abuse, including lack of affection, threats
of violence and confinement
Research Types Descriptive - 3 Research Types Descriptive - 4

Other Examples Note:
What type of packaging for a box of chocolates do Descriptive and historical research provide a picture of
consumers prefer? events that are currently happening or have occurred in
What information do consumers want shown on food the past
labels? Researchers often want to go beyond mere description
Which car advertisements on television do men and and begin discussing the relationship that certain
women of different ages prefer? events might have to one another.
How many students study accounting in China The most likely type of research to answer the
compared with students in Australia? relationship among variables or events is called
How do commuters travel to work in capital cities? correlational research.
Research Types Correlational - 1 Research Types Correlational - 2
A continuation of descriptive research Correlational research are studies that are often
Aims to understand phenomena by discovering conducted to test the reliability and predictive validity
causal relations among them of instruments used for division making concerning
Goes beyond merely describing the characteristics selection of individuals for the likely success in a
Establish a relationship or interdependence 2 or more course of study or a specific job
aspects of a situation/factors/variables Some authors consider this research as a type of
A correlation study aims at determining the degree of descriptive research, since it describes the current
relationship between two or more quantifiable variables conditions in a situation
The relationship if determined could be used for making However, the difference lies in the nature of
predictions conditions of the studies
A high value of relationship, however, does not signify a A correlational study describes in quantitative terms
cause and effect relationship which must be verified the degree to which the variables are related
through and experimental study
Research Types Correlational - 3 Research Type - Explanatory or Analytical

An Example of Correlational research A continuation of descriptive research
In a study of the relationship between temperament and Aims to understand phenomena by discovering
attachment behavior in infants, the correlation among and measuring causal relations among them
different types of attachment behaviors, how securely
Goes beyond merely describing the characteristics
attached the infants were to their mothers, and the
infants general temperament were examined (by Analyzing and explaining why or how the
Vaughn et.al., 1989) phenomenon being studied is happening
The researchers found that an infants temperament Identifies and, possibly, control the variables or
does not predict how securely attached the child is to factors in the research activities, as this permits the
his or her mother. critical variables or the causal links between the
characteristics to be better explained
A variable is a characteristic of a phenomenon that
can be observed or measured
Research Type - Predictive Research Type Predictive
Goes even further than explanatory research Possible Research Questions
Forecasts the likelihood of a similar situation occurring In which city would it be most profitable to open a new
elsewhere retail outlet?
Aims to generalize from the analysis by predicting Will the introduction of an employee bonus scheme lead
certain phenomena on the basis of hypothesized, to higher levels of productivity?
general relationships What type of packaging will improve the sales of our
Solution to a problem in a particular study is applicable to products?
similar problems elsewhere, if solution is valid and robust, How would an increase in interest rates affect our profit
based on a clear understanding of the relevant causes margins?
Provides how, why and where answers to current Which stock market investments will be the most
events and also to similar events in the future. It is also profitable over the next three months?
helpful in situations where what if questions are being What will happen to sales of our products if there is an
asked economic downturn?
Research Type Case Studies Research Type Case Studies

Empirical investigation of particular phenomenon Doing Case Study Research
(unit) Use qualitative and quantitative data:
Unit of analysis could be individual, group, Documentation, archives
organization, community, country, etc. Interviews
Purpose is more exploratory, i.e. hypothesis Direct observation (cf. ethnography)
development
Analysis:
Single vs. Multiple cases:
Heavily dependent on researchers aptitude
Multiple cases are suggested to compare and
contrast different cases Group of researchers are beneficial
Certain single cases are warranted: revelatory / Multiple data affords triangulation.
critical / extreme / unique
Research Type - Epidemiologic Research Type - Clinical Trials
Epidemiologic research looks at the way things Clinical trials are research design that involve trying
affect an entire population of people. out a particular approach to health
In this type of study, researchers simply It look at specialized groups of people rather than
observe what's going on. whole populations, and they seek to determine
E.g., what's going on could involve a disease and whether a particular approach to health might have
how often that disease was occurring benefits for a particular group of people
Researchers don't actively try out any particular E.g., researchers conducting a clinical trial might
approach to health when they conduct an want to evaluate the possible benefits of high-fiber
epidemiologic study snacks for digestion and overall health in a group of
teenage girls, or a group of adult males at risk for
colon cancer
Research Type In-Vitro Studies Research Type - Historical

In vitro studies encompass other basic approaches to Purpose of historical research is to arrive at conclusions
research that do not involve people at all concerning trends, causes or effects of past occurrences
Instead, various aspects of food, nutrition, and health can be This may help in explaining present events and anticipating
studied at a tissue or organ level, or even at the level of future events
individual cellular activity The data are not gathered by administering instruments to
Particularly when a researcher is trying to understand a individuals, rather, they are collected from original documents
biochemical process inside the body, which is very important in or by interviewing the eye-witnesses (primary source of
the study of food and nutrition, it can be almost impossible to information)
develop a precise understanding unless a large number of In case primary sources are not available, data are collected
factors can be carefully isolated and controlled from those other than eye-witnesses (secondary sources)
Real, living people with trillions of cells and thousands of
The data thus collected are subjected to scientific analysis to
biochemical reactions taking place inside each cell are simply
assess its authenticity and accuracy
too complicated to analyze to draw insights into very
specialized events occurring with the body's biochemistry.
Research Type Historical Research Type Ex-Factor
Example: In some research, both the effect and the alleged cause
Nancy Burton and Lyle Jones (1982) examined trends have already occurred and are studied in retrospect
in achievement levels of African American versus White Such research are referred to as Ex-post Factor (after the
children. fact)
They examined high school graduation rates between It is a Systematic empirical inquiry in which the scientist
these 2 ethnic groups who were born before 1913, does not have direct control of independent variables
between 1913 and 1922, between 1923 and 1932, etc. because their manifestations have already occurred or
They also examined a variety of historical indicators in because they are inherently not manipulable --- Kerlinger
more recent groups of African American and White (1973)
children. Researcher has no control on the variables or cannot
One of their conclusions is that differences in manipulate the independent variables (IV) which cause a
achievements between these groups are decreasing. certain effect (dependent variables) being measured
Research Type Ex-Factor Research Type Experimental - 1

Since this type of a study lacks manipulation of We already know that correlational research can help
variables, the cause-effect relationship measured are establish the presence of a relationship among
only tentative. variables but it could not give us any reason to
Some authors categorize Ex-post facto studies into the believe that variables are causally related to one
category of descriptive research. another
Though it too describes conditions that exist in a How does one find out if the characteristics or
situation, it attempts to determine reasons or causes for behaviors or events are related in such a way that the
the current status of the phenomena under study. relationship is a causal one?
The procedures involved in this study are quite different
Two types of research can answer this:
than those in descriptive research.
(1) experimental research, and
(2) quasi-experimental research
Research Type Experimental - 2 Research Type Experimental - 3
Experimental research is where participants are The primary characteristic of experimental research is
assigned to groups based on some selected criterion manipulation of at least one variables and control
often called treatment variable over the other relevant variables so as to measure its
Quasi-experimental research is where participants effect on one or more dependent variables
are preassigned to groups based on some The variables (s) which is manipulated is also called
characteristic or quality such as differences in sex, an independent variables, a treatment, an
race, age, neighborhood, etc experimental variables or the cause
Some of the examples of an independent variables
These group assignments have already taken place could be: temperature, pressure, chemical
before the experiment begins, and the researcher has concentration, type of material and conductivity.
no control as to what the people will belong to each
group
Research Type Experimental - 4 Research Type Experimental - 5

Example of Experimental Research The groups receive the specified treatment for an
Experimental research will always have two or more equal amount of time during the semester.
groups for comparison on the dependent variables The participants are measured for their performance
It is the only type of research which can establish truly on the achievement test before and after the program
the cause and effect relations so as to measure the gain.
Consider an Example In this experiment, the experimental or independent
A researcher in technician education is interested in variables is the method of instruction and the
studying the effects of two methods of instruction- dependent variable, is the achievement of students.
structured lecture method and programmed The difference in the gain on achievement between
instruction on the achievement of students in a the two groups will show the effect of the methods of
course of one semester in Applied Mechanics. instruction.
Sixty students in the class are divided randomly into
two groups of thirty each
Experimental vs. Nonexperimental Basic vs. Applied Research
Experimental Non-experimental Basic Research Applied Research
Independent variables (IVs) 1. Causal- Pure, fundamental Central purpose to solve
and Dependent Variables an immediate problem
(DVs) comparative research
2. Descriptive Discovery of new Improved products or
Cause-and-effect processes
Extraneous variable 3. Correlational knowledge; theoretical
in nature has immediate
controls 4. Historical application
Three fundamental Has no immediate
characteristics Infers beyond the group
application or situation studied
1. At least 1 active IV
Takes many years for Interpretation of results
2. Extraneous variable
controls the results of basic relies upon Basic
3. Observation of DV research to find some research
response to the IV practical utility
Quantitative Research - 1 Quantitative Research - 2

A qualitative approach is one in which the inquirer Quantity is the unit of analysis
often makes knowledge claims based primarily on Amounts
constructivist perspectives (i.e. multiple meanings of
individual experiences, meanings socially and Frequencies
historically constructed, with an intent of developing a Degrees
theory or pattern) or advocacy/participatory Values
perspectives (i.e. political, issue-oriented,
Intensity
collaborative or change oriented) or both.
--- (Creswell, 2003, p.18) Uses statistics for greater precision and objectivity
Based on the deductive reasoning
Quantitative Research - 3 Qualitative Research
Characteristics of Qualitative Research Qualitative researchers study things in their natural
Takes place in the natural setting settings, attempting to make sense of or interpret
Uses multiple methods that are interpretive phenomenon in terms of the meanings people bring
Is emergent rather than tightly prefigured to them.
Fundamentally interpretive (role of researcher as interpreter) --- (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000, p.3).
Researcher views social phenomena holistically
Researcher systematically reflects on who he or she is in the In qualitative study inquirers stated research
inquiry and is sensitive to his or her personal biography and
how it shapes the study
questions, not objectives (i.e., specific goals for the
research) or hypotheses (i.e., predictions that involve
Researcher uses complex reasoning that is multifaceted,
iterative, and simultaneous variables and statistical tests)
Researcher adopts and uses one or more strategies of --- (C., 2003, p.105)
inquiry
Quantitative vs. Qualitative Quantitative vs. Qualitative - 2

Quantitative Qualitative Quantitative Qualitative
Numerical, measurable Generally non-numerical Field & lab experiments Action research
Explanation, prediction Explanation, description Surveys Case studies
Test theories Build theories Formal methods (e.g. Grounded theory
Known variables Unknown variables mathematical modelling) Ethnography
Large sample Small sample Differentiate between data
Standardized instruments Observations, interviews gathering & data analysis!
Deductive Inductive
Clearly stated questions In-depth descriptions of
Rational hypotheses situations
Extraneous variable Interpretive and
controls descriptive
Statistical analyses
Quantitative vs. Qualitative - 3 Quantitative vs. Qualitative - 4
Difference with Difference with
Quantitative research Qualitative research Quantitative research Qualitative research
respect to: respect to:
Approach to Structured/rigid/predetermined Unstructured/flexible/op Dominant Reliability and objectivity (value- Authenticity but does not
enquiry methodology en methodology research value free) claim to be value-free
To describe variation in Dominant Explains prevalence, incidence, Explores experiences,
Main purpose of To quantify extent of variation in a
a phenomenon, research topic extent, nature of issues, opinions meanings, perceptions
investigation phenomenon, situation, issue, etc.
situation, issue, etc. and attitude; discovers regularities and feelings
Emphasis on some form of either and formulates theories
Measurement of Emphasis on
measurement or classification of Nature of more analytical in nature, drawing more descriptive and
variables description of variables
variables findings inferences and conclusions, and narrative in nature
Sample size Emphasis on greater sample size Fewer cases testing magnitude and strength of
a relationship
Narrows focus in terms of extent of Covers multiple issues
enquiry, but assembles required but assembles required
Focus of enquiry
information from a greater number information from fewer
of respondents respondents
Research Methodology Research Objectives - 1
The research objective is a concise

statement of what you intend to find out
Research Objectives
that we dont already know
Exactly what will your research

This is probably one of the
contribute to the knowledge base? hardest parts of a research
Research Objectives - 2 Research Objectives - 3
Research objective should reflect the solution of the Examples of bad research objectives
problem 1. The objective of my research is to provide a
If you can not state the problem, you can not do the quantum leap in the design of anti-gravity boots
research
2. The goal of this project is to develop an integrated
Is the problem significant enough? modeling tool for the hardening process
Is it feasible (practical/possible for you to do it)?
3. The goal of this project is to develop innovative
Is it free of unknown hazards/dangers? advances to enhance wire sawing processes
Is it clear (unambiguous)?
4. This research will bridge the accuracy gap in
these processes by developing theoretical and
technological means to implement significant
gains in accuracy
Research Objectives - 4 Research Objectives - 5

5. This project aims to advance the research in Examples of good research objectives
predictive modeling for manufacturing process 1. The objective of this research is to test hypothesis
optimization H
6. The proposed study will significantly advance the 2. The objective of this research is to measure
theory of random fields parameter P with accuracy A
7. This study will develop modeling and simulation- 3. The objective of this research is to prove
based technologies for building construction conjecture C
8. New methods in robust optimization are proposed 4. The objective of this research is to apply method
for optimizing complex models under uncertainty. M from field Q to problem X in field R
Research Objectives - 6 Research Methodology
5. The objective of this research is to measure the
cross-section of the muon-nutrino interaction at 5
GeV accurate to 10%
6. The objective of this research is to test the
hypothesis that chip formation in high-speed
machining of brittle materials is determined by Research Process
parameters x, y and z
7. The research objective is to account for
uncertainty in engineering design decision making
through the application of utility theory
Research Process - 1 Research Process - 2

The research process deals with the ways and Conceptual Map of the Problem-Based Research Cycle
strategies used by researchers to understand the
world around us.
The research process is similar to undertaking a
journey.
For a research journey there are two important
decisions to make-
1. What you want to find out about or what
research questions (problems) you want to
find answers to;
2. How to go about finding their answers.
Research Process - 4 Research Methodology
Steps of the Scientific Method
The scientific method has a similar structure to an
hourglass
starting from general questions, narrowing down
to focus on one specific aspect, B. Research Methodology
then designing research where we can observe or Methods
and analyze this aspect
At last, the hourglass widens and the researcher
Methodology and Method are often (incorrectly)
concludes and generalizes the findings to the real
world used interchangeable, but they are not the same
This distinction is not clear cut, even in established
literature!
Research Methodology - 1 Research Methodology - 2

Research Methodology (RM): May be regarded as the science of studying how
Is a highly intellectual human activity used in the research is done scientifically
investigation of a problem Is the study of various steps that are generally
Deals specifically with the manner in which data is adopted by a researcher in studying his/her
collected, analyzed and interpreted research problem along with the logic behind them
A formalized approach to conduct research Should have a sound theoretical basis, conceptual
frameworks and assumptions used to inform research
A series of steps and deliverables
The general approach to inquiry in a given field
Represents a way to develop research
systematically, a way to do scientific inquiry
Research Methodology - 3 Research Methods
A research methodology consist of phases, sub- Research Method/Design:
phases, which will guide the researchers in their Specific Methods, Techniques, or Procedures
choice of the methods, techniques, procedures, tools, used to conduct research or collect and analyze
etc., appropriate at each stage of the research and data
also help to plan, manage, control and evaluate the
progress of research Specific techniques, tools or procedures applied
to achieve a given objective
Research methods in engineering include
Research Methodology in Engineering/Science mathematical analysis, simulation,
Is a collection of methods, procedures, techniques, measurements (data gathering), experimentation,
tools and documentation aids which will help development of algorithm, software development,
researchers in their efforts to conduct a research in comparative analysis, etc.
the field of Engineering/Science
Types of Research Methods Methodology vs. Methods - 1

Field & lab experiments Methodology Methods
Surveys Explains the methods by which you The specific methods
Formal methods (e.g. mathematical modelling) 1. may proceed with your research by which you conduct
research into a topic
Action research
Case studies Involves the learning of the various Involve conduct of
techniques that can be used in the experiments, tests,
Grounded theory
2. conduct of research, conduct of surveys and the like
Ethnography tests, experiments, surveys and
critical studies
Which one should be used?
Aims at the employment of the Aim at finding solutions
Depends on the nature of the design 3. correct procedures to find out to research problems
solutions
Methodology vs. Methods - 2 Methodology vs. Methods - 3
Methodology Methods We can say that Research Methodology has many
If the subject into which you If the subject into which dimensions and Research Methods do constitute a
conduct a research is a scientific you conduct a research is part of the research methodology.
subject or topic a scientific subject or topic The scope of research methodology is wider than that
then research methodology then the research of research methods
pertaining to the scientific methods include the
topic involves the steps experiments, tests,
regarding how to go about study of various other
conducting the research, the results of different
tools of research, advanced experiments performed
techniques that can be used in in relation to the topic
the conduct of the or the subject and the
experiments, etc. like
Choice of Methodology & Methods Selecting Appropriate Methodology

Depends on Types of Research Questions
Research Questions/Problems Generally we have 3 types of questions:
Research Aims/Goals/Objectives 1. Descriptive questions
Researcher Beliefs and Values
2. Difference questions
Researcher Skills
3. Relationship questions
Time and Funding
This general classification scheme helps not only
with the design of the study, but also in choosing
What is the nature of the problem being investigated?
the type of data analysis procedure
Is the problem being investigated subjective or
objective?
Descriptive Questions Difference Questions
Purpose: Purpose:
Seeks to describe phenomena or characteristics of a Seeks to make comparisons between or within
particular group of subjects being studied groups of interest
Answers the question what is Often associated with experimental research
Asking questions of the research participants Is there a difference between the control group
Testing or measuring their performance and the experimental group?
Survey research Treatment vs. control
Qualitative research Pre-test vs. post-test comparisons
Comparison of one group to another on the basis of
existing characteristics
Non-experimental research
Relationship Questions Research Methodology

Purpose
To investigate the degree to which two or more
variables co-vary or are associated with each other Module 2
Rather than analyzing the differences between
groups, researchers characterize the
relationships among them Steps in Conducting
Does not establish cause-and-effect Research
Only identifies extent of relationship between
variables
To fail to prepare is to prepare to fail
Some Definitions Steps of doing Research
Research Skills
Skill: The learned capacity or talent to carry out Irrespective of the category of a
pre-determined results often with the minimum outlay research study, the steps followed
of time, energy, or both - Wikipedia.com in conducting research are
essentially the same.
Most of the skills can be learnt or improved over
time, if one wants
1. Selecting and Defining a Problem
Some talent is needed, but alone it is not enough
2. Describing Methodology of Research
People with great talent and no skills obtain much 3. Collecting Data
less than what they could do 4. Analyzing and Interpreting Results
Not only technical skills 5. Drawing Conclusion
Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 1-2 101 Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 102
Research Methodology Selecting and Defining a Problem

This marks the beginning of a research study and is
the most difficult and important step. This involves:
1. Identifying and stating the problem in specific
terms;
2. Identifying the variables in the problem situation
1. Selecting and and defining them adequately;
Defining a Problem 3. Generating tentative guesses (hypotheses) about
the relation of the variables or in other words the
The formulation of a problem is often solution of the problem, or writing explicitly the
more essential than its solution questions (research questions) for which answers
are sought; and
- Albert Einstein
4. Evaluating the problem for its research ability.
Selecting and Defining a Problem Research Problem or Question
All this is not done in a vacuum The foundation of the research process
To achieve this, you must review the literature First, and arguably the most important, step
related to the problem to know what other
researchers have done and discovered and to identify Recall that a Research Problem can be
the possible methodology for conducting the research
Unanswered question
Unsolved problem
Statement of inquiry
Concern
Query
Selecting a Research Topic Selecting a Research Topic

What are some considerations when 4. Newness / Relevance
selecting a research topic? 5. Manageability
Answer Expertise, time, resources
1. Personal interest / Passion, Curiosity Free from personal bias
Most important 6. Feasibility
2. Importance / Contribution to the field Time constraints
3. Significance Ethical constraints
Theoretical value Organizational support
Practical value Availability of equipment
Timeliness 7. After graduation employment possibilities
External review
Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 1-2 107 Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 1-2 108
Sources of Research Topics Refining Your Topic
Discussion with faculty Refinement needed for effective and efficient research
Faculty ongoing projects (if any) Narrow your topic
Identify a theoretical framework
Previous student projects (B. Sc. M. Sc to PhD)
Specifically and unambiguously define terms
Peer-reviewed journals in your field
State research questions and hypotheses
Personal experiences
Existing literature Recommendations for future A literature review will help you
research See if your idea has been tried before
Include all relevant constructs
Select instruments
Anticipate common problems
Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 1-2 109 Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 1-2 110
Finding a Research Problem - 1 Finding a Research Problem - 2

Three categories of people selecting a research From where ???????
problem Theoretical basis
1. Those who know precisely what they want to do Professional practice
and have a well conceived problem Personal experience
2. Those who have many interest areas and are Curiosity
having difficulty deciding exactly what they want to
study Controversy
3. Those who do not have any idea about a Replication
worthwhile research problem Literature Review
Other People
Which category do you fall into? ...???
Finding a Research Problem - 3 How to get a Good Idea
Requires that you do a Literature Review on the Talk to a mentor and other knowledgeable
subject of interest professionals about the research interest
Articles in Professional Journals, Magazines, Develop research problem that matches your
Conferences, etc. interests, background and training
Electronic Abstracts and Indexes Base research problem on current state of knowledge
Web Searches Research problem should present logical next step
Books, Monographs, Government Reports in progression from what is known, to important
Professional Standards issue that is not known
Legislation and Regulations Reports Determine that the research problem is addressable
by some methodology/methods
Journalistic Sources
Identify research resources as well as any constraints
Advocacy Groups
Getting Started Problem Formulation

The absolute requirement for a research project is a Perhaps the most important step in the research
good idea process is problem formulation
The problem formulated from this idea must be: A well-defined study begins with a clearly defined
Clear and testable problem/question
Of limited scope (i.e. can be completed in less This is the purpose of the study, i.e., to solve a
than a lifetime) problem or answer a question
Important as well as interesting The problem is rarely clear-cut
New, unique, extend knowledge, solve an Slight variations in research questions can lead to
important problem substantial changes in the research process
Drives decisions related to research design,
measurement, sampling, etc.
Problem Formulation Steps in Identifying the Problem
Some questions to ask during problem formulation 1. Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you
Is additional background information necessary? 2. Dissect the broad area into subareas
What are specific research questions and what 3. Select what is of most interest to you
information is needed to make the decision?
4. Raise research questions
How will the information be utilized?
Should research be conducted? 5. Formulate objectives
6. Assess your objectives
7. Double-check
Determine Research Objectives - 1 Determine Research Objectives - 2

Make sure you have a strong reason why such Actively involve yourself (and other experts) in
research is worth doing NARROWING and REFINING the problem
Study the impact? Narrowing the focus, Scope/Population
Study the usage? Situation (time, condition, subject availability,
Performance studies researchers readiness, resources available, etc.)
Program effectiveness Measurements
Etc.
Issue(s) dealt with?
Build your reasons based on facts (previous studies,
existing problems, etc.) Setting the scope of the problem (this is my lineI
wont go beyond it)
(See slide on the aims of research)
Ten Commandments for Picking a The Scientific Method
Research Project Systematic; cyclic; series of logical steps.
1. Pick an area on the basis of your interest Identifying the problem
2. Look for an under occupied niche that has potential
Formulating a hypothesis
3. Go to talks and read papers outside your area of interest
4. Build on a theme Developing the research plan
5. Find a balance between low-risk and high-risk projects Collecting and analyzing the data
6. Be prepared to pursue a project to any depth necessary Interpreting results and forming conclusions
7. Anticipate the results before doing the study
8. Differentiate yourself from your mentor
9. Do not assume that clinical/laboratory research is easier
than basic/applied research
10. Focus, focus, focus
Research Methodology Describing Methodology of Research

You need to state the purpose of the study and to define the
problem clearly
This guides you in deciding methodology of research which
involves:
1. Identifying the method of research;
2. Specifying the subjects of study (e.g. heat flow problem,
2. Describing the Performance Analysis, etc.);
Methodology of Research 3. Selecting an adequate representative sample of
subjects;
4. Selecting/constructing valid and reliable instruments for
measuring the variables in the problem; and
5. Selecting a research design and describing procedure to
be employed for conducting the research study.
Research Methodology Collecting Data
This step involves conducting the study as per the
designed procedure (manipulating the experimental
variables in the case of an experimental method),
administering instruments for measuring variables
and/or gathering information through observation.
It also involves tabulating the data thus collected for
3. Collecting Data the purpose of analysis.
Data Collection Techniques - 1 Data Collection Techniques - 2

Secondary research not necessary Stage in the Typical Questions
Process
Survey Research
Determine Can existing data be used to advantage?
Lots of ways to collect data data collection What is to be measured? How?
method and What is the source of the data?
Measurement
forms Can objective answers be obtained by asking people?
Constructs / Variables How should people be questioned?
Equipment Should the questionnaires be administered in person, over
the phone, or through the mail?
Frequency of data collection Should electronic or mechanical means be used to make the
Numerical methods observations?
Should structure or unstructured items be used to collect the
Simulating data?
Programming Should the purpose of the study be made known to the
respondents?
Should rating scales be used in the questionnaire?
Data Collection Techniques - 3 Research Methodology
Stage in the Typical Questions
Process
Design sample Who is the target population?
and collect the Is a list of population elements available?
data Is a sample necessary?
Is a probability sample desirable?
How large should the sample be? 4. Analyzing and Interpreting
How should the sample be selected?
Who will gather the data?
Results
How much supervision is needed?
What operational procedures will be
followed?
What methods will be used to ensure the
quality of the data collected?
Analyzing and Interpreting Results - 1 Analyzing and Interpreting Results - 2

When the results of the study are generated, what do you After completing the analysis results are tied together or
do with it? summarized
Analyzed to provide information for testing the The results are interpreted in the light of the hypotheses
hypotheses and/or the research problem
Appropriate statistical methods of analysis are used to Results must be discussed in relation to:
test the hypotheses the existing body of knowledge,
You can perform the analysis manually, by using a hand consistencies and inconsistencies with the results of
calculator or a computer as per the demands of the other research studies, and
problem, and the available facilities
then the conclusions are drawn.
This is followed by writing the research report
This may be followed by making oral presentation
Analyzing and Interpreting Results - 3 Research Methodology
Edit / clean / code the data
Analyze
Interpret
Stage in the Process Typical Questions 5. Planning and Managing

Analyze and interpret the Who will handle the editing of the Research Project
data data?
How will the data be coded?
Who will supervise the coding?
What tabulations / statistical tests / Learning the skills of research
analysis techniques will be used?
management
Research Plan - 1 Research Plan - 2

A successful research project must have a written Purposes of a written research plan
research plan Forces the researcher to think through every aspect
A research plan is a detailed description of the of the study
procedures that will be used to investigate the Facilitates the evaluation of the proposed study
problem Provides detailed procedures to guide the study
General components of a research plan A well thought out research plan
A justification for the hypotheses or exploration of saves time,
the research problem provides structure to the study,
A detailed presentation of the steps to be followed reduces the probability of costly mistakes, and
in conducting the study generally results in higher quality research study
A research plan can be articulated in a proposal
Research Plan - 3 Research Plan - 4
A strategy must be developed for gathering and A research plan must itemize the following:
analyzing the information that is required to test the
A clear and specific objective(s)
hypotheses or answer the research question
Four parts: The responsibility matrix
Selection of a relevant research methodology All planned activities to be undertaking which is
Identification of subjects or participants finite and bounded
Description of the data-gathering procedures All deliverables must be itemized and justified
Specification of the data analysis techniques
Most research projects operate under constraints
Pilot studies, preliminary results, , all must be
determined in advance! What are the constraints on your project ?
Research Project Constraints Project Management Tools

Time? How long does it take to take to do research To plan a project in detail - essentially when you need
Clarity of scope to allocate funding or resources - you will need to
analyse it in detail.
What are you trying to achieve in the research?
Some available tools fort analysis
Are you clear on the limits of the investigations?
How will you know when the project is complete? 1. Mind Map
Access to literature / resources 2. Drill Down

Access to supervisor 3. Gantt Charts
Funding 4. Risk Analysis
Publishable quality
Mind Map - 1 Mind Mapping - 2
One of the challenges of learning is that For Example:
understanding something is not sufficient to Students at a leading university who received an A
remembering it on the final exam were given the same exam a
Thinking that you understand what you have seen, month later
heard, or read can actually short-circuit your memory, None of them passed it, proving that the final exam
if you neglect to create mental associations for recall was final indeed
Unless you train your memory it is likely to get worse
over time, not better
Unless you retain and review what you have learned,
you are likely to lose 80% of it within 24 hours
Mind Map - 3 Mind Mapping - 4

Drawings have been used for centuries to analyze Set out all possibilities and issues
problems and map out information, e.g., Mind Map Helps gives structure to project
A Mind Map is a graphical way to represent ideas and Makes linkages more evident
concepts
Mind mapping trains your mind for more efficient
It reinforces your understanding, giving you a visual retention and recall
framework on which to organize and associate ideas
University students have found mind maps useful
It is a visual thinking tool that helps in structuring info,
helping you to better analyze, comprehend,
synthesize, recall, and generate new ideas Mind Maps store everything you need on one page,
and encode the info in memory-rich nuggets for easy
Mind maps are tools which help you think and learn
recall
Useful at the earliest stage of a project
Mind Mapping - 5 Mind Mapping - 6
Compact notes improve recall
Learning without note taking forces you to go
back and review from scratch
On the other hand, taking extensive notes provides
too much information and too few memory cues
Use key words, symbols, and pictures packed with
meaning and associations that work for you.
Weave them together by color, positioning, outlines,
or arrows
Mind Mapping - 7 Test Drive Mind Maps

In the centre of the page, write a phrase which
summarises your research idea
Now allow your ideas to flow..
project
for me Why am I doing research ?
the future
Why is this project
happening ?
risks How is it happening ?
impact (methodology)
Who will benefit ?
Challenges
for me project
Drill Down - 1 Drill Down - 2
To plan a project in detail requires that you analyze it Usually people vastly underestimate the amount of
in detail and then allocate resources time needed to implement projects
The drill down technique enables you to do this This is true particularly when they are not familiar with
It is a simple technique for breaking complex the task to be carried out
problems down into progressively smaller parts They forget to take into account unexpected events or
A technique used to identify all tasks associated with unscheduled high priority work
a project People also often simply fail to allow for the full
Drill down is useful for identifying all the tasks complexity involved with a job
involved, but one of the most difficult elements of At this stage you are learning the skills of research
project planning is the allocation of time to each task management so ask for input from more experienced
researchers about your plan.
Drill Down - 3 Drill Down - 4

Drill Down is important to get time estimates right for For this technique, start by writing the project aim
two main reasons: down on the LHS of a large sheet of paper
Time estimates drive the setting of deadlines for A little to the right, write down a list of points relating
delivery of projects, and hence peoples' to the project:
assessments of your reliability reasons for doing the project,
They often determine the allocation of resources ideas about methodology,
and hence their efficiency
plans for evaluation, etc.
It will show exactly where you need further info
This process of breaking the problem down into its
component part is called 'drilling down'.
For each of these points, repeat the process
Drill Down - 5 Drill Down Example Bank Robbery
Keep on drilling down into points until you fully Get a job in bank Will the cash be
understand the factors contributing to the project Research what Involve a bank identifiable?
is in vault insider
If you cannot break them down using the knowledge Where will we buy
Use press and construction
you have, then carry out whatever research is financial equipment?
necessary to understand the point knowledge
Has anyone done
Alternatively, discuss this with your supervisor this before?
Rob Bank and Buy house nearby
Drilling into a question helps you to get a much get away Set up business to
deeper understanding of it Get into hide soil removal
vault
The process helps you to recognise and understand Dig tunnel Get plans of
building
the factors that contribute to it
How will money be Buy construction
Drill Down prompts you to link in information that you laundered? equipment
Get away
had not initially associated with a problem Where do we lie low?
Drill Down Example Thesis Drill Down Example Proposal
Assignment Gantt Chart - 1
You are the chairperson of a proposed conference at A project (e.g., Thesis) is a collection of tasks that
Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja must be completed in minimum time or cost
You are required to plan and organise an IEEE A Gantt chart, commonly used in project
conference at Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja management, is one of the most popular and useful
Drill down the different tasks which must be achieved ways of showing activities (tasks or events) displayed
for a successful conference against time.
On the left of the chart is a list of the activities and
along the top is a suitable time scale.
Each activity is represented by a bar;
The position and length of the bar reflects the start
date, duration and end date of the activity.
Gantt Chart - 2 Gantt Chart - 3

This allows you to see at a glance:
What the various activities are
When each activity begins and ends
How long each activity is scheduled to last
Where activities overlap with other activities, and by
how much
The start and end date of the whole project
To summarize, a Gantt chart shows you what has to
be done (the activities) and when (the schedule).
Gantt Chart - 4 Gantt Chart - 5
You can use Gantt Chart to:
Lay out your research tasks to be completed
Show when these tasks should be carried out
Assist the allocation of resources is necessary
Work out the critical path for a task that must be
complete at a particular date
Identify relationships between research tasks
Estimate time for each task such as
Completing chapters
Conducting experiment or programming
Allocate time for meetings, information gathering
Projects Risks Risks in the bank job

Identify sources of risk Get caught digging tunnel
Assess likelihood of risk Tunnel collapses
Assess magnitude of risk Tunnel route blocked by pipes / rock
Develop response Vault empty / disappointing
Forensic evidence left
Sources of Risk in Master/ Research Behind Schedule ?
Discover that someone has already done it! If you discover or anticipate a delay, it is essential to
Your laptop with all your records is stolen or crashes take action
Report the implications of delays
Unable to get hold of a key sources of information
Discuss changes in plans- involve others so they
Supervisor leaves University and takes up another can make suggestions
job elsewhere
Redirect resources
You did not finish on schedule as required by the Avoid persecution
University and gets expelled
Respond early
Loss of motivation Be flexible
Involve your supervisor(s) and others
Research Methodology Statement of the Problem - 1

Statement of the Problem (SoP) is a concise
statement of the problem that the research will
Module 3 address
A clear Statement of the Problem is essential to
original and worthwhile contribution to knowledge
A very specific statement which clearly identifies the
Statement of the Problem problem being studied
The SoP refines an idea into a problem or question
The formulation of a problem is often and make it sufficiently specific so that it is amenable
more essential than its solution to investigation
- Albert Einstein
Statement of the Problem - 2 Statement of the Problem - 3
It presents justification, by direct reference to A research statement of the problem can be:
previous work, that the problem is previously The answer to a question that you have posed
unsolved
The solution for a problem you have identified
It will usually identify the key variables as well as give
some information about the scope of the study A statement that takes a position on a debatable
It may present discussion of why it is worthwhile to topic
address this problem
May include inherent sub-problems, if appropriate By making direct reference, you must demonstrate
Tells the reader how you will interpret the significance that problem has not been previously solved
of the subject matter under investigation that problem is worth answering
Statement of the Problem - 4 Statement of the Problem - 5

Problem statement usually occur in the introduction or Controls the entire argument of your research
beginning chapter of a research report Determines what you are required to say
It introduces the problem to be discussed and (briefly) Determines what you cannot say
describes the proposed solution
The rest of the research gathers and organizes
evidence that will support solution of problem After research when you write a paper, every
paragraph in your paper exists in order to support
Formulation of problem statement takes place after your research statement
an initial review of related literature and the distillation
process Accordingly, if one of your paragraphs seems
irrelevant to your research, you have two choices: get
rid of the paragraph, or rewrite your paper
Purpose of Problem Statement Key Points in Problem Statement
Represents the reasons/motivation behind your Demonstrate a precise understanding of and the
proposal (based on the specific domain of study). motivation for the problem you are attempting to solve
It specifies the conditions you want to change or the Clearly convey the focus of your project
gaps in existing knowledge you intend to fill (this is
Indicate the relationship of your project to larger
the specification of the research problem)
problems and justify why your particular focus
Should be supported by evidence has been chosen
Specifies your hypothesis that suggests a solution to
Demonstrate that your hypothesis is supported by
the problem
evidence and observations
Shows your familiarity with prior research on the topic
and why it needs to be extended Demonstrate that your problem is doable and that
your experimental design is appropriate for validating
Even if the problem is obvious, your reviewers want
your hypothesis
to know how clearly you can state it
Formulating a Research Problem Identify a broad field of interest

1. Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you First you need to be knowledgeable about
2. Dissect the broad area into subareas your topic of interest
3. Select what is of most interest to you Read the literature - most likely it will
4. Raise research questions tell you what needs to be done
5. Formulate objectives Especially workshop and conference
papers in the area of research
6. Assess your objectives
Use papers references to get to original
7. Double-check papers
Keep an annotated bibliography of
papers, noting (1) Main contribution (2)
Open questions (3) How it relates to
your interests, work
Identify a broad field of interest Dissect broad area into sub-areas
Attend professional conferences/Seminar/Workshop You need to consider potential problems
Carry a notebook to record notes, thoughts, etc. Consider hot topics carefully
Seek the advice of experts Thoroughly understand the problem
Break problem into manageable pieces
Talk to experts when they visit your school
Develop methods that work for you
At conferences and workshops
When to work deeply, broadly; when to put aside
Question previous works assumptions Set aside blocks of time to focus on research
Work consistently on the problem
Select what is of most interest to you Raise research questions

It is neither advisable nor feasible to study all What is the effect of customer expectation on
subareas customer satisfaction?
Go through your list and delete all those sub-areas in What is the effect of service quality on customer
which you are not very interested satisfaction?
What is the effect of word of mouth communication on
customer satisfaction?
Formulate Objectives Formulate Objectives
Your objectives grow out of your research questions Paraphrasing research questions as research
The main difference between objectives and research objectives
questions is the way in which they are written Research Question Research Objective
Research questions are obviously that questions Why have organizations To identify organizations
introduced early objectives for introducing
Example: retirement? retirement schemes.
1- To determine the effect of customer expectation on What are the To describe the consequences
customer satisfaction consequences of early of early recruitment for
2- To find out the effect of service quality on customer retirement schemes? employees
To explore the effects of early
satisfaction
retirement for the organization
3- To identify how word of mouth communication impact
on customer satisfaction

Assess your objectives Double-Check
Objectives transform these questions into behavioral that you are really interested in the study
aims by using action-oriented words such as: that you agree with the objectives
'to find out', that you have adequate resources
'to determine', that you have the technical expertise to undertake the
study
'to ascertain' and 'to examine,
to measure,
to explore.
Examine your objectives to ascertain the feasibility of
achieving them in the light of the time, resources and
technical expertise at your disposal.
Considerations in Selecting a Research Characteristics of an Effective Research
Problem Statement
Interest, A research answers the questions
Magnitude,
How? or Why?
Measurement of concepts,
Level of expertise, A research passes the
Relevance, So what? test
Availability of data, What does this topic have to do with anything?
Ethical issues.
Why should I care?
Why should others care?
Qualities of Outstanding Research Problem How to arrive at Research Statement

Research problem must contribute new knowledge A research is the result of a lengthy thinking process
Research question must be important
Formulating a research is not the first thing you do
Research problem should represent a sustainable after reading papers or articles
research interest
Research problems is the basis of peer-reviewed Before you develop an argument on any topic, you
publications, recognition have to
collect and organize evidence,
Common mistakes in developing a Research Problem
look for possible relationships between known facts
Dont try to be research-trendy (such as surprising contrasts or similarities), and
Avoid topics as opposed to clearly defined research
problems think about the significance of these relationships.
How to arrive at Research Statement Features of Effective Research Statement - 1
Once you do this thinking, you will probably have a A research statement is not:
workable research topic or idea, A fact or observation
a basic or main idea,
Incorrect: The United States has many homeless
an argument that you think you can support with people
evidence but that may need adjustment along the
way. Correct: Because the homeless population is still
widespread in the United States, Congress,
organizations, and individuals must do more to
improve the problem
Features of Effective Research Statement - 2 Features of Effective Research Statement - 3

A research statement is not: A research statement is not:
A generalization An exaggeration

Incorrect: Men take all the good jobs and get paid Incorrect: Fad diets are extremely unhealthy
more
Correct: Recent research shows that men are still Correct: Many fad diets are dangerous because
earning a significant amount more than women in they may harm the human body, they often lack
the same positions; therefore, employers and the proper nutrients, and they may easily cause a
government must do more to narrow this gap. person to regain original weight.
A question An announcement

Incorrect: Is it right for the media to portray Incorrect: This essay talks about how legalizing
women the way they do? marijuana is incorrect.
Correct: The media and Nollywood portray Correct: Marijuana must not be legalized
women as very beautiful and thin; doing so has a because it will lead to greater social ills.
negative effect on young girls self-esteem.

Vague or general
Written in first person
Incorrect: Jane Austen was a good author.
Incorrect: I believe second-hand smoke is bad for
people.
Correct: Jane Austen was one of the greatest
authors of all time because of her unique use of
characterization and plots detailing significant Correct: People of all ages should avoid second-
social issues. hand smoke because it poses one of the
deadliest health risks today.
xWays of Constructing Research Statement -
Ways of Constructing Research Statement - 2
1
1. Analytical Research Statement 2. Persuasive
An analytical statement breaks down a text(s) into A persuasive statement makes a claim based on
its component parts, evaluates the data, and opinion, evaluation, or interpretation about a topic
presents this breakdown and evaluation to the and proves this claim with specific evidence
audience as an argument. If you have been asked to argue a point or choose
State your point of view on the topic directly and a side on an issue, this is likely the type of research
often in one sentence. This sentence is the you will use.
research statement, and it serves as a summary of
the argument you'll make in the rest of your paper 3. Expository
An expository (explanatory) research explains
something to the audience
Ways of Constructing Research Statement - 3 Ways of Constructing Research Statement - 4

4. The Essay: 5. The Umbrella:
Contains essays topic point, and three supporting Contains essays topic, point, and alludes to
reasons reasons why the reader should believe you.
Do not directly state the supporting reasons, but
Example: instead allude to them.
To reduce the number of highway fatalities
[topic and point], our country needs Example:
[purpose=persuasive] to enforce the national Although thought to be humane and necessary,
law that designates twenty-one as the legal animal testing [topic] for medical and cosmetic
minimum age to drink, set up check points on purposes does not live up to its promises [point
major holidays, and take away licenses from and reasons].
convicted drunk drivers [three reasons].
Writing Tips for Problem Statement Delimitations
Do not paint the problem in general terms: All research has limitations and thus certain work that
little is known about ... will not be performed
no research has dealt with ... The work that will not be performed is described as
Usually arguing for something that isnt makes for a the delimitations of the research
weak need statement Delimitations define the scope of the study
Instead explain the consequences of the information That is, they set the boundaries of the study
void
Normally under control of the researcher (you)
Think about sub-problems and further delineate your
statement
Delimitations Limitations
Examples include Limitations are very similar to delimitations, but they
Number and kinds of subjects tend to focus on potential weaknesses of the study
Treatment conditions Possible shortcomings of the study . . . usually cannot
Tests, measures, instruments used be controlled by the researcher
Type of equipment You will, of course, try to eliminate extremely
Location, environmental setting serious weaknesses before the study is
commenced
Type of training (time and duration)
Number of iterations of programs May be a result of assumptions not being met
No study is perfect; the researcher recognizes the
weaknesses
Limitations Assumptions
Examples include Assumptions are those things that the researcher is
Sampling problems (representativeness of subjects) taking for granted
Uncontrolled factors and extraneous variables Assumptions can also be the basic, fundamental
Faulty research design and techniques conditions that must exist in order for the research to
proceed
Reliability and validity of measuring instruments
Compromises to internal/external validity Basic premises required in the study... the researcher
does everything possible to increase the credibility of
the assumptions, but does not have absolute control
E.g.,: a given test instrument accurately and

consistently measures the phenomenon in question
Assumptions Research Variables

Assumptions could be made about A variable is a characteristic, trait, or attribute of a
(1) The motivation of the subjects, person or thing that can be classified or measured
(2) Whether subjects responded truthfully, Attitude
(3) The validity of the measuring instrument, and Gender
(4) Whether subjects followed directions correctly Heart rate
Voltage, Current, Bit Error Rate
Variable - the condition or characteristic which in a
As a general rule youre better off documenting an
given study may have more than one value
assumption than ignoring it
Quantitative measured numerically
Overlooked assumptions provide a prime source of
debate about a research projects results. Discrete or Continuous
Qualitative categorical in nature
Research Methodology Some Ways to Find a Topic - 1
1. A Flash of Brilliance
You wake up one day with a new insight or idea
New approach to solve an important open problem
Warnings:
Some Ways to Find a Topic
This rarely happens if at all
Even if it does, you may not be able to find an
advisor who agrees
There is no one size fits all
But, here are six common ways to find a topic
Some Ways to Find a Topic - 2 Some Ways to Find a Topic - 3

2. The Term Project + 3. Re-do & Re-invent
You take a project course that gives you a new You work on some projects
perspective
Re-implement or re-do
E.g., theory for systems and vice versa
The project/paper combines your research project Identify an improvement, algorithm, proof, etc.
with the course project You have now discovered a topic
Warnings: Warnings:
This may be too incremental You may be without a topic for a long time
It may not be a topic worthy of a M.S./PhD thesis
Some Ways to Find a Topic - 4 Some Ways to Find a Topic - 5
4. The Apprentice 5. 5 papers = Thesis
You work on a number of small topics
Your advisor has a list of topics that turn into a series of conference
Suggests one (or more!) that you can work on papers
Can save you a lot of time and anxiety E.g., you figure out how to apply a
technique (e.g., branch and bound)
Warnings: to optimize performance tradeoffs
Dont work on something you find boring, badly- Warnings:
motivated,
May be hard to tie into a thesis
Several students may be working on the
same/related problem May not have enough impact
Some Ways to Find a Topic - 6 Research Methodology

6. Idea From A B
You read some papers from other fields/subfields.

Apply this insight to your (sub)field to your own Examples of
E.g., graph partitioning to compiler optimizations
Problem Statements
Warnings:
You can read a lot of papers and not find a The great tragedy of science, the slaying of a
connection beautiful hypothesis by an ugly fact.
Or realize someone has done it already! -- T.H. Huxley, Biogenesis and Abiogenesis
Problem Statement: An Example Problem Statement: An Example
Problem statement involve three things: The properties of water at the nanoscale are crucial
1. Shared context, in many areas of biology, but the confinement of
2. Perception of a problem, and water molecules in sub-nanometer channels in
biological systems has received relatively little
3. Proposed solution. attention Advances in nanotechnology make it
http://cnx.org/content/m17223/latest/
possible to explore the role played by water
molecules in living systems, potentially leading to the
What is shared context? development of ultrasensitive biosensors.
Status quo. Where are the shared context, perception of a
A set of ideas that are well-known and can be problem, and proposed solution.
agreed upon by all readers
http://cnx.org/content/m17223/latest/
Problem Statement: An Example Problem Statements w/o Shared Context

Hardins notion that individuals inevitably consider their 1. The problem was to investigate the effects of exercise
own interests over those of the collective whole does in on blood lipids among college-age females.
fact hold in considering traffic congestion. In the absence
of inexpensive and timely transportation alternatives, 2. This study was designed to determine the relationship
commuters will favor their own cars, thus crowding streets between stability performance and physical growth
and reducing their value to the collective group. However, characteristics of preschool children.
by presenting feasible alternatives and regulating use of 3. The study was designed to identify those
personal automobiles, government entities can reduce characteristics which differentiate between students
this effect, thereby ensuring the continued value of who binge drink and those that do not.
transportation infrastructure to the collective group.
Where are the shared context, perception of a 4. The problem of the study was to determine if there is
problem, and proposed solution. a relationship between self-efficacy and self-reported
alcohol usage among middle-aged adult females.
Task-Oriented Pattern Discovery for Predictive Web
MoJo: A Distance Metric for Software Clustering
User Modeling
The software clustering problem has attracted much attention An essential task in building personalized and adaptive systems
recently, since it is an integral part of the process of reverse is the automatic discovery of predictive models for user behavior.
engineering large software systems. A key problem in this Existing approaches, such as clustering, correlation analysis, and
research is the difficulty in comparing different approaches in an association discovery, tend to generate shallow patterns which do
objective fashion. [Needs more detail what the difficulty is] not capture the full complexity of users' online behavior. Nor can
We propose a metric that calculates a distance between two the generated patterns explain the users' underlying interests
partitions of the same set of software resources. We hypothesize which lead to specific types of behavioral patterns. To better
that this metric can be used to effectively evaluate the similarity of capture users' underlying interests or information needs, we
two different decompositions of a software system. introduce the notion of task.
We begin by introducing our model and present a heuristic A task is a set or sequence of actions which are likely to be
algorithm that calculates the distance in an efficient fashion. We performed commonly by users in order to meet a specific
evaluate the performance of the algorithm and the effectiveness information need or perform a specific function. These tasks are
of the metric. not directly visible, but can be captured and characterized either
[Need more about the experiments and how they might be by a combination of users' interactions with the site and the site's
used to validate the hypothesis] content and structure. (cont.)
Persevere - You Will Find a Topic Assignment

Download an IEEE journal paper on your area of
There are no guarantees - Interest. Using this paper, answer the following
questions:
that is what makes it research!
1. Identify the research problem
And, youll often have difficult/stressful times 2. Identify the purpose statement or statement of the problem
3. Identify the hypotheses, if any
But remember - 4. How did they collect the data?
drive distinguishes the great scientists What equipment/methods/procedures did they use?
5. How did they analyze the data?
6. Did they support or reject the original research hypothesis?
Why?
7. What were the conclusions? Future studies?
Research Methodology Module Learning Objectives
Identify the objectives/goals/function of reviewing the
I
literatures
Module 4 Discuss what is meant by literature review
Identify the processes of reviewing literatures.
Enumerate steps/process of literature review
Literature Review Start the literature review for course project
Enumerate the components of literature review
Analyzing the past to prepare for the future
Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 225 Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 1-2 226
What is a Literature Review? - 1 What is Literature Review? - 2

Literature review (or surveys) is a study of scholarly LR is central to the research process and can help
articles, books and other sources relevant to a refine a research question through determining
particular issue, or area of research inconsistencies in a body of knowledge
A Literature Review (LR) seeks to describe, It can help inspire new research innovations & ideas
summarize, evaluate, clarify, and/or integrate the while creating greater understanding about a topic
content of published reports It is an integral part of the entire research process
It aims to review the critical points of current and makes a valuable contribution to almost every
knowledge on a particular topic step of the research
Identify information, methods and ideas that may be
Its brings the reader up to date with current literature
relevant to your project
on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such
as the justification for future research in the area
What is Literature Review? - 3 What is Literature Review? - 4
Undertaking a LR requires : Reviewing the literature involves:
1. identification of a topic of interest, searching,
2. searching and retrieving the appropriate literature, collecting,
3. analyzing and synthesizing the findings, and prioritising,
4. writing a report reading with a purpose and seeking out key issues
and themes, and
then presenting and discussing these critically.
N.B. you cannot effectively start the literature
review search without an idea of the problem
you wish to investigate.
What is Literature Review? - 5 What is Literature Review? - 6

Please note that literature review is NOT just a For example, one section of a LR might read as follows:
summary of the literature
Researcher A suggests that X is true. Researcher
Rather it is an organized synthesis of topic or each B also argues that X is true, but points out that the
subtopic discussed about the larger topic. effects of X may be different from those suggested by
It requires a synthesis of different subtopics to come Researcher A...
to a greater understanding of the state of knowledge
It is clear that subtopic X is the main idea covered in
on a larger issue
these sentences. Researchers A and B agree that X is
It works very much like a jigsaw puzzle true, but they disagree on Xs effects. There is both
The individual pieces (arguments) must agreement and disagreement, but what links the two
be put together in order to reveal the arguments is the fact that they both concern X.
whole (state of knowledge)
More on this later
Reasons for Literature Review - 1 Reasons for Literature Review - 2
A literature review has a number of functions: 1. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem
1. Bring clarity and focus to your research LR can play an extremely important role in shaping
question / problem your research problem
2. Improve your methodology It helps define the relationship between research
problem and the body of knowledge in the area
3. Broaden your knowledge base in your
Enables a novice researcher to gain insight into
research area
suitable research designs, as well as providing
4. Contextualise your findings information on data collection and analysis tools
Identify similar work and other people working
in the same fields
Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory
previous studies (to identify opposing views)
Reasons for Literature Review - 3 Reasons for Literature Review - 4

2. Improve your methodology 3. Broaden your knowledge base in your research
LR acquaints you with the methodologies that have area
been used by others to find answers to questions LR ensures that you read widely around the subject
similar to the one you are investigating area in which you intend to conduct research study
Tells you if others have used procedures and Allows you to know what others have found regarding
methods similar to the ones that you are proposing same or similar questions, what theories have been
put forward and what gap exit in the research area
Helps you to identify which procedures and
methods worked well for them and what pitfalls Avoid reinventing the wheel (at the very least,
they have faced with them stop you from making same mistakes as others)
Increases your breadth of knowledge of the subject
Ensures the chosen research problems are
researchable
Reasons for Literature Review - 5 Qualities of a good Literature Review
4. Contextualise your findings A good literature review is characterized by:
LR helps identify how your findings compare with the 1. A logical flow of ideas;
existing body of knowledge
LR helps answer questions to your questions compared to 2. Current and relevant references with consistent,
what other have found appropriate referencing style;
What contribution have you been able to make to the 3. Proper use of terminology; and
existing body of knowledge?
How your finding differ from others? 4. An unbiased and comprehensive view of the
Carry on from where others have already reached previous research on the topic
reviewing the field allows you to build on the platform of
existing knowledge and ideas
Provide intellectual context for your own work, enabling you
to position your project relative to others
Points to Discuss in Literature Review Types of Literature Review - 1

What is the problem and why is it important? Types of literature reviews include
Is the problem clearly defined? 1. Narrative or traditional;
try to state the problem as simply as you can 2. Systematic review;
Is the research methodology well stated?
3. Meta-analysis; and
Hows the data being created and manipulated?
4. Meta-synthesis.
Is the manipulated data sufficiently interpreted?
What is the contribution of the study?
Is the conclusion related to the problems?
Is the evidence sufficient enough to support
conclusion?
Types of Literature Review - 2 Types of Literature Review - 3
1. Narrative or traditional Purpose of Narrative or traditional Review
Critiques/summarizes the literature and draws Provides the reader with a comprehensive
conclusions about the topic in question background for understanding current knowledge
and highlighting the significance of new research.
It is typically selective in the material it uses,
although the criteria for selecting specific sources Inspires research ideas by identifying gaps or
for review are not always apparent to the reader inconsistencies in a body of knowledge, thus helping
the researcher to determine or define research
It is useful in gathering together a volume of questions or hypotheses
literature in a specific subject area and summarizing Help refine or focus a broad research question and is
and synthesizing it useful for both topic selection and topic refinement.
Helpful in developing conceptual or theoretical
frameworks

2. Systematic review To assess the reliability/validity of the review, the
Amore rigorous and well-defined approach to reviewer needs to present the precise criteria used
reviewing the literature in a specific subject area to:
Used to answer well-focused questions about a Formulate the research question
problem Set inclusion or exclusion criteria
Details the time frame and methods used to Select and access the literature
evaluate and synthesize findings of the question Assess the quality of the literature reviewed
Analyze, synthesize and disseminate the
findings.
Purpose 3. Meta-analysis
To provide as complete a list as possible of all The process of taking a large body of quantitative
the published studies relating to a particular findings and conducting statistical analysis in
subject area order to integrate those findings and enhance
understanding
While traditional reviews attempt to summarize
results of a number of studies, systematic It is a form of systematic review which is largely a
reviews use explicit and rigorous criteria to statistical technique
identify, critically evaluate and synthesize all the It involves taking the findings from several studies
literature on a particular topic on the same subject and analyzing them using
standardized statistical procedures
This helps to draw conclusions and detect patterns
and relationships between findings
Types of Literature Review - 8 Knowledge Continuum of LR - 1

4. Meta-synthesis Thus there are levels of competencies when completing
conceptual task (e.g., literature review) [2])
A non-statistical technique used to integrate,
evaluate and interpret the findings of multiple Howell formulated a 4-phase knowledge continuum
qualitative research studies
Unlike meta-analysis, where the ultimate intention is
to reduce findings, meta-synthesis involves Levels of competency
analyzing and synthesizing key elements in each when completing a
conceptual task ([2],
study, with the aim of transforming individual [3], [4]
findings into new conceptualizations and
interpretations
http://crossfitbloomfield.com/the-four-stages-of-competence/
Knowledge Continuum of LR - 2 Knowledge Continuum of LR - 3
www.womenembracingbrilliance.com
1. Unconscious Incompetence:
being unaware of something, its relationship to other
things, and how it can be used in conjunction with
other things
2. Conscious Incompetence:
becoming aware that one does not know what can
be known
3. Conscious Competence:
beginning to surmise, envisage and hypothesise the
http://www.actionpodcast.com/2009/05/unco
nscious-incompetent-802/
nature of something, its relationship to other things,
how it can be used, but not yet being able to use it as
intended
Knowledge Continuum of LR - 4 Knowledge Continuum of LR - 5

4. Unconscious Competence: Aligning Research Problems, Questions and Aims
achieving expert level of knowledge of something In a well-designed research project, the researcher
and its relationship to other things, how it can be has a clear conceptualisation of what the general
used, can conceptualise it as newly understood problem and the questions one should answer
events, and being able to utilise it, and understand through ones own research
the general interrelationship and interaction Once you understand the general problem and
potentials between that thing and other things research question, you have to expound them in
greater detail into more specific sub-problems and
sub-questions
Student Knowledge Continuum - 1 Student Knowledge Continuum - 2
Phase 1: Unconscious Incompetence Phase 2: Conscious Incompetence
Many students start doing LR, collecting data with This is when students begin to appreciate how little
no defined problem statement they do know of the topic
They read each reference in detail rather than using They set out without a plan and write
abstracts and summaries to establish relevance, unsystematically without knowing where they must
They start summarising the literature with no plan in stop creating pages upon pages of copious notes
mind, and end up with a document without a proper
layout, showing no coherence and progression,
They rely on the supervisor to tell them what they
must leave out
In many cases ending up perpetrating intentional or
unintentional plagiarism, This is the stage of conscious incompetence
This is the first and probably the worst case scenario,
It reflects a mind state of unconscious incompetence,
Student Knowledge Continuum - 3 Student Knowledge Continuum - 4

Phase 3: conscious competence Phase 4: unconscious competence
Student becomes aware of the fact that s/he is The student has become a true researcher
coming to grips with the major references that relate Student creates proper problem statement and
to the problems extracts key concepts from it for refereed literature
Due to the students newfound confidence it is Using key concepts derived from problem statement,
sometimes difficult for the supervisor to properly the problem statement itself becomes the filter that
advise the student what to do and not do, ensures that only literature relevant is reviewed
This leads to disagreements about what should and It also enables the researcher to determine to what
shouldn't be included in the LR and often leading to extent identified problems have been solved,
unfounded mistrust on the side of the student. enabling the researcher to remove solved problems
and reformulate the original problem statement, the
research objectives and the research questions
Procedure for Literature Review - 1 Procedure for Literature Review - 2
There are 5 steps involved in conducting a 1. Search for existing literature in your area of study
literature review: Start with at least some idea of the broad area of
1. Search for existing literature in your area or topic the problem you wish to investigate, in order to set
of interest; parameters for your search
2. Review the literature selected (not in detail); Pick the most recent and related article to start
3. Develop a theoretical framework; with
4. Develop a conceptual framework; Search with the keyword of the research topic
5. Writing up the literature reviewed Key Words
Essential for searching the literature
Must be both general and specific
E.g. Patch antennas, dielectric, electrically small, mutual coupling

Use broader keyword (term) if the documents Be very careful to check your sources when doing
retrieved are few literature review
Use narrower keyword if the documents retrieved Only peer-reviewed articles are acceptable for
are too much citation
Professional conferences and journals often have
Use synonym or related terms to enhance the
each article reviewed by multiple people before it is
search even recommended for publication
Employ Boolean operator: AND, OR, NOT to control IEEE digital libraries, IEE, ACM and Elsevier, etc. are
the search good places to start looking for legitimate research
Start looking for another related articles through:
DO NOT read the entire paper at this stage. Read
New search terms found in the related articles
only Abstracts, and or Introduction and/or Summary to
List of references in the chosen article establish relevance.
Please note that many articles in the Internet Sources of information include
and trade magazines are not peer reviewed! Books Observations
The Internet can be a good source of information, Journals Reports
but it is also full of pseudo-science, poor Records
Conference Proceedings
research and non-peer reviewed documents
Magazine Archives
Make sure you verify the claims of any
Letters Interviews
documentation that has not been peer reviewed by
other professionals in the industry Internet
Data bases

2. Review the literature selected Where there are significant differences of opinion
Now that you have identified relevant articles, start among researchers, give your opinion about the
reading them critically to pull together relevant validity of these differences
themes and ideas Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is
Take note of important points in the article as it known - the gaps that exist in the body of
relates to your research knowledge
If you do not have a theoretical framework, use
separate sheets to group ideas together
Then slot the findings from the reviewed material
into each idea or framework
As you read further, go on slotting the info where it
logically belongs under the themes developed
3. Develop a Theoretical Framework (TF) TF refers to the theory(ies) that a researcher chooses
As you start reading the literature, you will soon to guide him/her in his/her research.
discover that the problem you wish to investigate It is the application of a theory, or a set of concepts
has its roots in a number of theories that have been drawn from one and the same theory, to offer an
developed from different perspectives explanation of your event, or shed some light on a
Use this to develop your framework particular phenomenon or research problem.
A TF is a frame of reference that forms the basis for Theoretical Framework
observations, definitions of concepts, research helps the researcher see clearly the variables of the
designs, interpretations, and generalizations, study;
E.g., the frame or carcass of a house that rests provide a general framework for data analysis
on a foundation which defines the overall design essential in preparing a research proposal using
of a house descriptive and experimental methods

4. Develop a conceptual framework The conceptual framework stems from the
A Conceptual Framework is a written or visual theoretical framework
presentation that: It is usually based on theoretical framework which
becomes the basis of your study
explains either graphically, or in narrative
form, the main things to be studied the key
factors, concepts or variables and
the presumed relationship among them.
(Miles and Huberman, 1994, P18)
Conceptual framework provides the structure /
content for the whole study based on literature and
personal experience
Procedure for Literature Review - 13 Structuring the Literature Review - 1
5. Writing up the literature reviewed Two popular methods of structuring LR are:
While reading the literature for theoretical 1. Concept-Centric
background of your study, you will realize that Concepts determine the organizing framework of
certain themes have emerged a review
List the main ones, converting them into This method synthesizes the literature
subheadings.
2. Author-Centric
subheadings should be precise, descriptive of the
The author determine the organizing framework
theme, and follow a logical progression
of a review
Now, under each subheading, record the main
This method fails to synthesize the literature
findings with respect to the question, highlighting
the reasons for and against an argument if they
exist, and identifying gaps and issues
Structuring the Literature Review - 2 Structuring the Literature Review - 3

You may recall that LR is NOT just a summary of the Across the top of the chart you record sources, and
different sources along the side of the chart you record the main points
For this reason, it can be very difficult to keep your of argument on the topic of research, and Vice Versa
research organized
Topic: _________________________________
It is especially difficult to organize the info in a way
Source Source Source Source Source
that makes the writing process simpler #1 #2 #3 #4 #K
One way that seems particularly helpful in organizing Idea A
LR is the synthesis (or Concept) matrix. Idea B

---
The matrix is a chart that allows a researcher to sort Idea J
and categorize the different arguments presented on
an issue
As you examine your first source, you will work All problem-based research therefore begins with
vertically in the column belonging to that source, ignorance, because conducting research about
recording information about each significant idea known subjects would be like reinventing the wheel
presented in the work A well-designed research project has a clear
Follow a similar pattern for your following sources conceptualisation of what the general problem is, and
the questions to be answered through the research
As you find info that relates to already identified main
points, put it in the pertaining row. A structured step-by-step approach facilitates the
production of a comprehensive, valid LR
In your new sources, you may find new ideas that you
need to add to your list at the left
Matrix methods help achieve traction, coherence,
Etc. progression and closure in research

1. Problem-research question alignment matrix 2. Concept matrix
used to ensure that identified sub-problems are Used to present a concept-centric rather than an
properly aligned with the research questions author-centric LR
ensures that research process is problem-solution Ensures that LR is essentially a qualitative content
oriented analysis of available published literature
Is a study of the research with the aim of collecting
extract sub-problems from general problem
info about its structure, process and relationships
statement, and
Thereby increasing familiarity of research object
aligns research questions with each sub-problems and establishing the credibility of the project
Considers previous research, attempting to link it
with the study currently planned
Matrix Method Matrix Method
The matrix method allows you to: Matrix method protects the reviewer against ignorant
Sharpen the focus of your research and assumptions about the research topic due to lack of
Enable you to rapidly progress from initial level of knowledge about the topic under investigation
conscious incompetence to the level of unconscious Matrix analysis of LR can be used to summarize
competence complex aspects of knowledge of a topic and provide
This means that research mostly an eagles eye perspective of the topic
Begins at a stage of total ignorance of research topic
Progresses to a realization of the extent of ones
ignorance,
To a stage of limited knowledge about the topic, and
If one persists, to a stage of expert knowledge of topic.
Concept Matrix Method - 1 Concept Matrix Method - 2

A Concept Matrix can help to organize and constrain You first generate the concept matrix by surveying
a literature review only the abstracts and summaries of references
There are no right or wrong matrices, but only Once the appropriate literature has been identified,
functional matrices you commence with the literature survey proper
Constructing the matrix is based on personal this entails a critical analysis of each reference to
creativity, proficiency and originality of the researcher identify potential solutions to the problems
(i.e., you) This is followed by critical analysis of individual
references by comparative analysis of all references
that are listed under a particular concept to establish
differences of opinion,
converging opinions and
consensus among experts under review
That is, references that have been ticked on a The key concepts on the matrix therefore become the
particular column of the concept matrix are subjected key concepts embedded in the headings in the LR
to critical comparative analysis The CM enables you to subject all literature to critical
In this approach, you systematically read each article, comparative analysis
considers the validity, and classifies the reference It also enables you to establish at a glance whether
thematically you have identified enough references under each
Importance is that you must realize that you cannot concept
use everything in an article but should instead Realize that earlier versions of LR matrices may be
concentrate on aspects that relate to the problems modified as your understanding of their research topic
under investigation grows

The layout of the Concept Matrix is straightforward To determine the relevance of the reference, it is
Leftmost column contains references to be reviewed sufficient to scan the abstract (where the content of
listed in abbreviated IEEE style the reference is summarised prospectively) and the
summary/ conclusions section (where the content of
The head of each column displays a concept that was the reference is summarised retrospectively)
extracted from the problem statement of the research
If a relevant concept is discussed in a particular
reference a 1 (one) is placed in the appropriate cell
In order to determine the relevance of a source you
do not have to waste time by reading the whole article
Concepts
Policy
E-Education
E-Learning
Services
Access to ICT
E-Schools
E-Strategies
Development
Community
Inclusiveness
Digital
Development
Institutional
Innovation
Evaluation
Readiness
World
Networked
Development
Economic
This approach enables the you to conduct a critical
References comparative LR of all references listed under each
Barabash et al. [1] 1 concept
Bridges.Org. [2] 1
Brown et al. [3]
Buckner and Stoner [4] 1
1
1
This approach frees you from the tyranny of being
Cette et al. [5]
Chasia [6] 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 trapped within a particular reference, and from merely
De Villiers [7]
Finlay [8]
1
1 1 1
providing general paraphrases of references
Gilwald [9]
Govindsamy [10]
1 1
1 1 1 It also enables supervisors to establish at a glance
Hiralal [11] 1 1 1
Hoffman and Novak [12] 1 that only relevant literature is being reviewed and
Jacobs and Herseiman [13] 1 1
Jiamton and Sills [14] 1 captured in the bibliography section
Kelly [15] 1 1
Markle Foundation [16]
Matthew [17] 1
1 1
1
1
1
References that do not appear on the concept matrix
Mbarika et al. [18]
Melody et al. [19] 1 1
1 should not form part of the LR and should not be
A typical concept matrix showing which concepts are discussed in references for a included in the bibliography
literature review on e-Readiness [6]
Concept Matrix Method

Concepts
Concept Matrix Method - 10
source
concept per
Total relevant
Policy
E-Education
E-Learning
Services
Access to ICT
E-Schools
E-Strategies
Development
Community
Inclusiveness
Digital
Development
Institutional
Innovation
Evaluation
Readiness
World
Networked
Development
Economic
References
With CM you can easily keep track of how many
Total sources per concept
Barabash et al. [1] 1
4 2
1
5 4 3 3 2 3 4 2 1 6
references deal with more than one concept in the
Bridges.Org. [2]
Brown et al. [3]
3
1 1
1
1
1 1
overall topic under investigation as well as how many
Buckner and Stoner [4]
Cette et al. [5]
2
2
1
1
1
1
sources deal with a particular concept
Chasia [6] 5 1 1 1 1 1
De Villiers [7] 1 1 This allows the you to differentiate between core
Finlay [8] 3 1 1 1
Gilwald [9] 1 1 references that deal with multiple aspects of the
Govindsamy [10] 3 1 1 1
Hiralal [11] 3 1 1 1 research topic, and references of a more peripheral
Hoffman and Novak [12] 1 1
Jacobs and Herseiman [13] 2 1 1 nature, and with well researched and less well
Jiamton and Sills [14] 1 1
Kelly [15] 2 1 1 researched concepts
Markle Foundation [16] 3 1 1 1
Matthew [17] 3 1 1 1
Mbarika et al. [18] 1 1
Melody et al. [19] 1 1
A typical concept matrix with an added row indicating the total number of sources per
concept as well as the total number of relevant concepts per source that focuses on e-
Readiness [6]
Benefits of concept matrix
Summarizes visually the number of sources per
concept,
Summarizes how many different relevant concepts
a particular reference covers enabling you to
distinguish
between primary and secondary references,
between major and minor concepts
Bar graph showing the number of sources per concept on the concept matrix
for a literature review that focuses on e-Readiness [6]
How to Review Literatures? - 1 How to Review Literatures? - 2

Compare: Synthesize:
Try to find the similarities among literatures Combine several literatures into an idea
Explain how each article is similar to the others. Summarize:
Contrast: Restate the article with your own words in a concise
Try to find the differences among literatures way
Explain how each article differ to the others
Criticize:
Put your own opinion on what is written in the
literatures
Criticize the strength and weakness of the research
E.g. of Problematic Literature Review - 1 E.g. of Problematic Literature Review - 2
Case One Case Two
The student was a doctoral candidate and could not another doctoral candidate who argued that he was using
grounded theory to inductively generate a new theoretical
determine when to stop his literature review and
framework from collected data because he could not find
ended with a literature review of 180 pages. When enough literature to review on his topic. The supervisor
his supervisor requested that the student cut this agreed that the grounded theory approach could be
down, the response was You tell me what to cut appropriate if the research theme falls within an emerging
out. The student belonged to the conscious field of knowledge generation. Surprisingly, produced 100.
incompetence branch of the competency quadrant. The supervisor then pointed out that the grounded theory
approach would be inappropriate because the student had
This student should never have been accepted for a
found more than enough theoretical literature to review. The
doctoral study. supervisor argued that the student should not use grounded
theory and that he should reduce the theory to at least 45
pages.
E.g. of Problematic Literature Review - 3 Where to Place Literature Survey

Case Three A literature review may constitute an essential
The business student started a proposal and was chapter of a thesis or dissertation or essential section
advised to use headings. He used some headings on a peer-reviewed article
and when advised to list a specific heading argued Usually, LR is placed in Chapter 2 of your thesis or
that he would slot it into the introduction. The dissertation (more on this in later modules)
students supervisor eventually could not make out Recall that reviewing literatures will enhance the
head or tail of the unsystematic literature review statement of the problem(s)
that was presented. Reviews must have logical connection to the
problems statement
Research Methodology References and Citation - 1
All written research presentations (proposal and
reports) must have references and citations
Referencing is a standardized way of acknowledging
sources of information and ideas that are used in the
research in a way that uniquely identifies its source
Referencing / Citation References are the empirical support for claims in a

report that are not directly observed by the researcher
They are needed for researchers to remain empirical
in their descriptions of topics
Validity of your research References and Citations are just as important as
any other part of your report
References and Citation - 2 Why do we Reference?

With citation you will avoid repeating what has been To avoid plagiarism accusations
published
To display a knowledge of current literature
Citation: To demonstrate support for your ideas, opinions and
Shows your credibility as a researcher point of view
Gives proper credit to other authors and To provide examples or evidence to support own
researchers research
Protects you from accusations of plagiarism
To acknowledge the source of others work
To allow readers to follow-up and read cited authors
argument
When do we Reference? References List - 1
Cite sources whenever you are quoting, Reference section must include a list of ALL the
paraphrasing, or summarizing work that is not yours sources used in the research
Quoting directly is discouraged Reference list allow readers to investigate the subject
Facts, Figures, Ideas and Theories not common in greater depth.
knowledge A reference list contains only the source of
Information rewritten in your own words (paraphrase) information that are cited in the report
regardless of the sources Any source not cited in the text should not be
included in the list
References List - 2 Reference/Citation Styles

All sources of information used in the proposal/report IEEE (Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers)
must be cited regardless of the source: Engineering, Information Technology,
Books APA (American Psychological Association)
Journal, magazine psychology, education, and other social sciences.
Conference Proceedings MLA (Modern Language Association)
Interviews literature, arts, and humanities.
Lectures AMA (American Medical Association)
Newspaper articles medicine, health, and biological sciences.
Website Chicago Citation Style:
used with all subjects in the "real world" by books,
magazines, newspapers & non-scholarly publications
IEEE Citation Style - 1 IEEE Citation Style - 2
IEEE style is used primarily for publications in 1. In Text Citation
engineering, electronics, telecommunications, Cite references in numerical order beginning with
computer science and information technology the main text, not the preliminary pages.
IEEE Author Tools web site at Once you number the reference, use the same
www.ieee.org/web/publications/authors/. number in all subsequent citations.
IEEE style encloses citation numbers within the text
The style is sometimes referred to as alphabet-
of a paper in square brackets [1] rather than as
number system: 1
superscripts or in bracketed form (Ugweje, 2001),
Citation by number from an alphabetically arranged
numbered reference list It is not necessary to mention the author(s) of the
source unless it is relevant to your text.
The references are numbered in the order they are
mentioned in the text
IEEE Citation Style - 2 IEEE Citation Style - 3

Similarly, it is almost never useful to give the dates of Multiple References
references when you cite them in the text. If you do Separate citation numbers with commas [3], [5]
include author names in text, list all authors if there
To cite more than one source at a time:
are one or two, but use et al. for more than two.
(Note that et al. is not italicized.) Examples:
One author: Smith [1] reports Preferred Acceptable
Two authors: Smith and Jones [12] report [1], [3], [5] [1, 5, 7]
Three or more authors: Smith et al. [23] report [1]-[5] [1-5]
It is not necessary to say in reference [27] ; the

phrase in [27] is sufficient.
IEEE Citation Style - 4 IEEE Reference List - 1
Actual example in a Journal Article 2. Reference List:
List of all sources at the end of the work
List references in the order they were cited (numerical
order, starting with [1]), not alphabetical order.
Align bracketed numbers and flush left, forming their
own column that hangs out beyond the body of the
references
This is called a hanging indent (examples later)
Allow space such that reference bodies remain
aligned when bracketed numbers increase to double
and (if necessary) triple digits.
IEEE Reference List - 2 IEEE Reference List - 3

List only one reference per bracketed number. Style for Titles
The names of all authors should be given in the Set the titles of books (handbooks and manuals),
reference list unless there are more than six, in periodicals, conference proceedings, and standards
which case you may use et al. (no comma before in italics with headline-style capitalization
et) after the name of the first author. capitalize the first and last words, and all
Footnotes and other words and phrases not part of important words in between;
the reference format should not be included in the Set the titles of articles, book chapters, reports,
reference list. Phrases such as for example should theses and dissertations, conference papers and
only be given in the text. presentations, and patents in quotation marks with
sentence-style capitalization
capitalize first word of title and subtitle, as well as
proper names and most initials
Spacing Punctuation
Place punctuation inside quotation marks.
Please note the correct spacing and punctuation for
author names: E.g, Periodicals.
D. L. Tao, C. Siva Ram Murthy, and S. Al Kuran Abbreviations

Either spell out the entire name of each periodical,
T.-C. Hsu and L. A. Stein-Rosenberg
or use accepted abbreviations. Either way, be
1st Initial. 2nd initial. Last Name, consistent.
Abbreviations are: vol., no., p. (1 page only), pp.
Do not write last name first (range of pages), Jan., Feb., Mar. (optional), Apr.
(optional), Jun. (optional), Jul. (optional), Aug.,
Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec.

Books Journals
Enter full book title, as given on the copyright page [Citation Number] Author name[s], "article title,"journal title ,
Capitalize all words in the title, except for "of," "and," "for," volume number, issue number, month (abbrv.), pages,
"in" etc. publication year.
[1] D. Jones, Technical Writing Style, Toronto: Allyn and Bacon, [4] K.A. Nelson, R.J. Dwayne Miller, D.R. Lutz, and M.D.
1998. Fayer, "Optical generation of turntable ultrasonic waves,"
[2] D. Beer, R.F. Martin and P. Fingle, Photosensory Jour of Applied Physics, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 1144-1149, Feb.,
Transduction, New York: Jonh Willey & Sons, 1993. 1999.
[3] A. Rezi and M. Allam, Techniques in array processing by
[5] V. Aalo, O. Ugweje, and R. Sudhakar, Performance
means of transformations, in Control and Dynamic Systems,
analysis of a DS/CDMA system with noncoherent M-ary
vol. 69, Multidimensional Systems, C. T. Leondes, Ed. San
orthogonal modulation in Nakagami fading, IEEE Trans. on
Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1995, pp. 133-180.
Veh. Tech., vol. 47, pp. 2029, Feb. 1998.
example of a chapter
Conference Proceedings Reports
[Citation Number] Author name[s], "article title," conference Technical reports, internal reports, memoranda
title, city of conference, month, publication year, pages. Provide report number and month if available.
The word in before the conference title is not italicized
[8] K. E. Elliott and C. M. Greene, A local adaptive
[6] O. C. Ugweje and V. A. Aalo, Performance of selection protocol, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL,
diversity system in correlated Nakagami fading, in Proc. Tech. Rep. 916-1010-BB, 1997
IEEE Veh. Tech. Conf. (VTC97), Phoenix, AZ, May 1997,
pp. 1488-1492. Ph.D. dissertation and Masters Thesis
[7] S. Al Kuran, The prospects for GaAs MESFET technology [9] H. Zhang, Delay-insensitive networks, M.S. thesis,
in dcac voltage conversion, in Proc. of the Fourth Annual University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL,
Portable Design Conf. 1997, pp. 137-142. 1997.

Manuals Course materials
[12] O. C. Ugweje, Equalization Techniques, class notes

[10] Bell Telephone Laboratories Technical Staff, for EEE 513, Department of Electrical and Electronics
Transmission System for Communications, Bell Engineering, Nigerian Turkish Nile University, Abuja,
Telephone Laboratories, 1995. Oct. 19, 2015.
- example of a handout
- (treat title as article, give specific date)
[11] Motorola Semiconductor Data Manual, Motorola
Semiconductor Products, Inc., Phoenix, AZ, 2007. [13] J.-M. Jin, Electromagnetic Field Theory. Class notes
for EEE 544, Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign, 2008.
- example of a packet/book (treat title as book)
Catalogs Patents
[14] Catalog No. MWM-1, Microwave Components, M. [17] K. Kimura and A. Lipeles, Fuzzy controller
W. Microwave Corp., Brooklyn, NY. component, U. S. Patent 14,860,040, December
14, 1996.
Unpublished Sources
Standards
[15] T. I. Wein, private communication, Sept. 2005.
[18] IEEE Criteria for Class IE Electric Systems, IEEE
[16] G. Kinneavy, An approach to graphs of linear Standard 308, 1969.
forms, unpublished.

E- Sources (IEEE) Personal Communications (e.g., conversations,
letters, interviews, e-mails, phone talks, etc.)
[19] A. Harnack and G. Kleppinger, "Beyond the MLA IEEE style states that you cite only published works,
Handbook: Documenting Electronic Sources on the forthcoming published works, and unpublished
Internet." Kairos, [Online serial] 1 (2), (1996 Sum), materials available to scholars in a library, a depository,
Available at: http://english.ttu.edu.kairos/1.2/ Accessed or an archive.
May 27, 2016.
For interviews or other "non-recoverable" info,
referencing needs to be done in the text itself.
[20] R. J. Vidmar. (1992, Aug.). On the use of atmospheric "In a personal interview with Bill Gates, he suggested
plasmas as electromagnetic reflectors. IEEE Trans. that he would soon rule the world."
Plasma Sci. [Online]. 21(3), pp. 876-880. Available:
http://www.halcyon.com/pub/journals/21ps03-vidmar "In a letter to the author, Professor Mueller detailed
his experiences with using this data collection
- example of a journal article software."
Examples Harvard / APA Referencing - 1
A.k.a Name and year system
In-text Citation
(Author last name, initials, year), next to where the
information is cited
If 2 authors, then both last names are written.
If more than 2 authors, then only first authors
name is written followed by abbreviation et al.
If a single statement requires more than one citation
then citation are arranged chronologically from
oldest to more recent, separated by semicolons.
Research Methodology Module Learning Objectives

Identify the structure of research proposal
Discuss the need for research proposals
Module 5 How is a research proposal usually evaluated?
How can we write key sections of a proposal?
Write a good research proposals?
Research Proposal
To write well is to think well

(Ghebremendhin & Tweeten, 1994)
Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 327 Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 1-2 328
Module Learning Objectives A Research Proposal
I hear, and I forget
I see, and I remember A good proposal is a good idea, well expressed,
I do, and I understand with a clear indication of methods for pursuing
--- Confucius the idea, evaluating the findings, making them
known to all who need to know, and indicating
The more you write - the more research papers you the broader impacts of the activity.
write - the easier writing will be and the better writer Source: http://www.nsf.gov/
you will become
This is the truth!
Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 1-2 329 Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 330
Purpose of a Research Proposal - 1 Purpose of a Research Proposal - 2

Let me do the study? 1. To inform the reader of nature of your proposed research
Plan, then do What is the problem?
What is its extent?
Provide a road map
Opportunity for advice 2. To convince the reader, especially supervisors and
reviewers, of the value of your proposed research
Check quality / rigour / do-ability
Is this project worth the time and money?
Avoid costly mistakes Will it make a difference to the world?
Convince supervisor and you
3. To demonstrate your expertise and competency in a
particular area of study
Do you have the qualifications to conduct this research?
Source: Planning and writing your Research Proposal, by Caroline Have you informed yourself of the existing theory and
Malthus, Te Puna Ako Learning Centre data relevant to your topic?
Purpose of a Research Proposal - 3 Research Proposals - 1
4. To plan the research project and provide a step-by-step Recall that Research refers to a search for knowledge
guide to the tasks necessary for its completion. Research means a scientific and systematic search for
What are the key stages of the work? pertinent information on a specific topic
How do the various components fit together? In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation
5. To request support from individuals and agencies who The purpose is to discover answers to questions
provide supervision, oversight or funding. through the application of scientific procedures
What kinds of support does the project need?
Are all participants properly protected? Any research study should therefore have a proper
6. To contract with the agencies and individuals involved, proposal in written form before it is actually carried
(e.g. supervisors, foundations and participants). out
How will tasks be assigned and resources expended? It is like a blue print of a building plan before the
What does each contribute to the collective endeavor?
construction starts
Research Proposals - 2 Research Proposals - 3

A research proposal is a document that describes the Writing a research proposal is both science and art
intended research including: A good research proposal is based on scientific
Problem and sub-problems What ?
facts and on the art of clear communication
Hypotheses Why ?
Writing a formal research proposal should be started
Delimitations Who?
by the time one has decided on the topic for the study
Definitions How ?
After you have gotten the ideas, then state the
Assumptions When? problem in writing
Importance Design steps to solve the problems methodology
Past research Use all related theories, methods, techniques
Preliminary result, if any.
Research Proposals - 4 Research Proposals - 5
Proposal for research should include: A limited level of Literature Review (LR) is necessary
Introduction of the proposed research for the proposal
Objective of research LR usually precedes a research proposal
Justification for the research Without LR, you wont know if your problem has
Background /Review of literature been solved or what related research is ongoing
Methodology It is through LR that you will justify the need for such
Time frame and work schedule/Gantt chart research
Personnel needed / available LR brings clarity and focus to your research problem
Facilities needed / available It avoids reinventing the wheel
Budget
Standard Requirements Required Sections in Proposal

Title At the very least, your proposal must contain the
following sections:
Research question
Aim and objectives Title: ____________________________
Rationale and context Abstract
1. Introduction
Methodology/Methods
2. Statement of the Problem
Plan of work
3. Objectives
Resources / Support 4. Motivation
Ethical Issues, if any 5. Justification
Reference list 6. Methodology
Appendices 7. Contribution of Research
8. Outline of Thesis
Title and Title Page Title and Title Page
Title should be concise, complete, and descriptive Examples
Pulse, Echos, and Goo
vs
Title page should have the following: The Applicability of Ultrasound in Determining Mechanical
Tentative Title of research Properties of Materials
Author(s), Which one is good or bad?
Affiliation,
A Comparison of Extended Surfaces
Date
vs.
For proposal, it has to be on a separate page Enhancing Convective Heat Transfer using triangular and
cylindrical Extended Surfaces
Which one is good or bad?
Abstract Abstract
Abstract or executive summary is always part of the Content of Abstract
front pages of any written presentation Contains essential information only it is brief!
Abstract is a miniature version of the proposal Covers research highlights
It comes first and should stand alone Gives the research problem and/or main objective
Structure ~ 200 words (use word count in MS Word of the research
to make sure that your abstract is not too long!)
Indicates the methodology /methods used
What will be done
How it will be done Gives an idea of the proposed findings and
conclusions
The expected primary results
The significance of the results
Quantitative with uncertainties
Introduction Introduction
Background of the study or research Make sure you answer these questions:
Introduce the main concept behind the research Why does it matter? importance?
Should not be generalizing anything at this stage
Why is more information needed?
You should be specific on the concept or content of your
research What has been done on this problem before?
Purpose - What you will do and why you will do it Whats the point of the research?
Clearly state goals What was your contribution?
You must use scientific literature to justify the
Introduction should be short about one or two pages
what and why
Scope - Range, how much, limits of applicability of You want your reader to fully understand the
what you will do significance of your research
Prof. Okey Ugweje
Nile University of Nigeria, 345 Prof. Okey Ugweje
Nile University of Nigeria, 346
Abuja Abuja
Literature Review (see Module 3) Statement of the Problem (see Module 4)

Reviewing of the literature provides an overview of the As much as possible, clearly state the problem you are
topic and references related to what is currently known trying to solve
(unknown) about the topic a.w.a brief description of the proposed solution
It helps the researcher gain good knowledge in the field of
Discussion of why it is worthwhile to address this problem
inquiry
It should contain what is already known and the gaps Justification, by direct reference to previous work, that the
about the research topic problem is previously unsolved
It also helps the researcher to have insight on different This statement tells the reader what to expect from your
methodologies/methods that could be applied research
It is important to make it coherent, relevant and easily By making direct reference, you must demonstrate
readable knowledge (a) that problem has not been previously solved
Provides background for the problem or puts the problem (b) that problem is worth answering
into historical perspective
Nile University of Nigeria,
Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 347 Prof. Okey Ugweje 348
Abuja
Aims and Objectives Aims and Objectives
This is a very important and pivotal section and Aims and Objectives should be
everything else in the study is centered around it
The objective of the proposed study should be stated Clear and specific
very clearly
Useful and do-able tasks
The objective should be specific, achievable and
measurable Limited in scope
Too many objectives to be avoided
Related to a question or sub-questions
Even just one clearly stated relevant objective would
be good enough
If there is more than one objective the objectives
should be presented in the appropriate order of
importance

Motivation Justification
Purpose of the study Can you present cogent reason why we should allow
Why will you be doing this research? you to conduct this research.
Justify why you think this problem is worth studying Can you show supervisor that this is not a waste of
time for everybody
Did your research proposal pass the so what test?
Prof. Okey Ugweje

Abuja Abuja
Methodology - 1 Methodology - 2
The proposal should also present the methodology to This may include:
be adopted in the research Study design
It should describe the procedures to be adopted to Study population / Sampling specifications
solve the problem, measure effects, analyze the data
Sample size needed
Your methodology should be systematic, a step-by-
step method of solving the research problem Instrumentation
It is essential to discuss procedures clearly and Specific procedures
completely with considerable amount of details. Algorithm, flowchart, .
Methodology - 3 Methodology - 4
Description of process Time Frame & Work Schedule
Proposal should include the details of all processes The proposal should include the sequence of tasks
to be adopted in the study to be performed, the anticipated length of time
How exposures, outcome variables are going to be required for its completion
measured should be described in detail It can be presented in tabular or graphic form (Gantt
A brief description of how the data will be collected chart)
and processed
Flow charts and other diagrams are often useful for
What statistical tests of significance would be used? highlighting the sequencing and interrelationship of
different activities in the study
Contribution of Research Outline of Thesis
What are the contributions you will make to the In this section, briefly describe the outline of the
knowledge space whole thesis. What will be in Chapter 2, 3, 4, ..
After your research, what will your contribution to Then you may attach a complete outline of your
knowledge space be? thesis (see example below).
Prof. Okey Ugweje

Abuja Abuja
Results Summary and Conclusions

An idea of the expected result could be discussed in
your proposal Tell them what you said
Any preliminary result whatsoever should be Summarize of your proposal
presented and discussed
Start with a restatement of objectives
This will add validity to your proposal
Summarize the most salient points of your proposed
research
How does the preliminary finding support your What you are proposing to do (the problem)
hypothesis or the problem?
Again describe briefly the methods
What do they mean?
State the expected results
How have you interpreted your findings?
Prof. Okey Ugweje

Abuja Abuja
Summary and Conclusion References (see Module 3)
Conclude your proposal Validity of your research
What are the perceived challenges Recall that References and citation are just as
Weaknesses and strengths of your proposed important as any other part of your proposal
research References are the empirical support for claims in a
Possible applications of study (how it can be used) research that are not directly observed by you
They are needed for researchers to remain empirical
in their descriptions of topics
Cite sources whenever you are quoting,
paraphrasing, or summarizing work that is not yours
When you use an idea from a book, paper, website,
etc., you need to cite that idea
Prof. Okey Ugweje
Abuja Abuja
References Writing Research Proposals - 1

Citing: Review other proposal before you begin not easy to
Shows your credibility as a researcher find examples
Gives proper credit to authors and researchers Get an idea how others write proposal
Protects you from accusations of plagiarism Some writings are not readable dont repeat
mistake
Please use applicable approved citation/referencing Begin writing with sections you know the best
style Its ok if the way you think is not linear
Any scientific proposal without citation and Write first whatever comes up into your mind
references is unacceptable But, do not forget to revisit it again later on
Your proposal will be REJECTED if it lacks proper You can jump from one part to another if it feels
and approved citation and referencing comfortable to you
Prof. Okey Ugweje 363 Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 364
Abuja
Writing Research Proposals - 2 Writing Research Proposals - 3
Arrange your proposal into sections Enhanced your writing with picture, graphic, table,
Start re-organize your writing into a certain structure etc.
Do not hesitate to move paragraph around A picture is worth a thousand words
Make sure you cover all parts of a proposal in that Dont forget to provide captions and numbers for your
structure figures, graphics, tables, etc.
Figures need captions, always below and numbered!
Print each draft on a different version
Tables need captions, always on top and numbered!
Once you feel exhausted, print the version & read it
Remember to refer to Figures and Tables in your text
Find someone to go over what you have written describing them
Make comments whenever you feel necessary Do not include a Figures or Tables in your proposal
without describing them

Example of a Figure Example of a Table
Figure 1. A cat with human instincts
Make your writing clear and unambiguous Use similar or parallel wording whenever possible
Make sure you have written complete sentences Be consistent in choosing words
Make sure your sentences make a paragraph Explain the difficult word
Make sure you understand each word you choose
Make sure each paragraph in a section are
to use
interrelated and that the discussion flows from one
paragraph to another
Using simple and correct English synthesis and
Make a bridging sentence to move to another
grammar will be appreciated.
paragraph as well to another section
You will not be graded on vocabulary.
Avoid one sentence paragraphs
Writing Research Proposals 8 Writing Research Proposals - 9

Use table of contents to help you focus on your draft Before you submit your proposal, make sure you read
Start writing a table of content according to the it again and again and again .
structure of your document Here is the catch: If you do not understand what you
Make sure you balance the content of each section write, how do you expect others to understand it?
Do not hesitate to re-arrange the proposal after It is suggested that you ask your friends and
writing a table of content, and vice versa colleagues to read it before you submit to your
supervisor
If you are proficient with MS Word, you can generate
Table of Content easily
Sample Outline
Sample Outline Sample Outline
Sample Outline Sample Outline
Sample Outline
Your Role as the Researcher? Your role as the researcher
Look out for the unexpected: positive and negative Problems may not be where you think they are
Source: Planning and writing your Research Proposal, by

Caroline Malthus, Te Puna Ako Learning Centre Source: Planning and writing your Research Proposal, by Caroline
Malthus, Te Puna Ako Learning Centre
Your role as the researcher Research Methodology

Listen to your supervisors
You cannot graduate without
him/her
Use any available support
Experts in the field
Other researchers FinallyAvoid Plagiarism
Research committees
Learning center
Humans are natural copiers
Accept feedback and rewrite your
proposal whenever applicable
Plagiarism - 1 Plagiarism - 2
All knowledge in your head has either been copied
from some place or originally discovered by you
Most knowledge was copied. This is true in most
settings
General knowledge is copied
Most teachers lectures are copied knowledge
Human culture would not exist without our keen ability
to copy!
Humans are natural copiers, but that is not what is
Paraphrase!!! meant by the term plagiarism.
Plagiarism - 3 Plagiarism - 4
Among other things, plagiarism refers to taking Lineage of Ideas:
others work and representing it as if it were your Original sources of research are all the proof we
own have for some facts. Without the paper trail of
In academics this is bad because with plagiarism: academic thought:
One cannot assess students performance accurately People could pass off incorrect ideas as facts
We would have to keep re-proving theories
The person who makes his or her livelihood by
scholarly pursuit is being robbed of credit Contexts that generated facts and ideas get lost
Research becomes highly inefficient as it
It masks the lineage of ideas and facts.
becomes incredibly difficult to find full
information on a topic.
Plagiarism is to academics as pension Scam is to
Nigerian Civil Servants.
Plagiarism - 5 Congratulations! Your Proposal has been
To avoid plagiarism: accepted!! Now wake up and do it!!!
1. Document every source for information that is not
general knowledgethis includes facts and ideas
2. Cite every time a fact or idea is used unless it is clear
that one citation is referring to a group of facts/ideas
3. If you quote material, put quotation marks around the
quoted stuff and include a page number within the
citation
4. It is alright to paraphrase material, but you still have
to cite from where the paraphrased material came
5. When in doubt, cite the source
Improper citing is grounds for rejection of Proposal

Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 390
Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 389
Research Methodology Research Reports - 1

The purpose of the written report is to present the
results of your research, but more importantly to
Module 6 provide a persuasive argument to readers of what
you have found
A research report (RR) presents the results of
research, but more importantly provides a persuasive
Research Report argument to readers of what you have done
A RR is a completed study that reports an
investigation or exploration of a problem, identifies
If research was not written up, did it questions to be addressed, and includes data
really occur? collected, analyzed, and interpreted by the researcher
Research Reports - 2 Research Reports - 3
A RR is written for the purpose of communicating the Apart from the fact that the report should be written in
findings of research, in a manner that is clear, easy to clear and understandable language, it must be well
read and to use laid out and follow mandated style
Research reports must be complete, well organized Such structure should be sufficiently concise but at
and carefully drafted if their contents are to contribute the same time adequately detailed
to fields in which the research efforts are made It should contain both general discussion and specific
An essential means of communication to the peers treatment of the material without confusing the reader
the value of the research work done
Functions of the Research Report Functions of the Research Report

It serves as a means for presenting in an organized It serves as a basic reference material for future use
manner in developing research study in the same or related
the problem studied, area
methods and techniques used for collecting and It is used to evaluate researchers ability and
analyzing data, competence to do research
the findings, It is used for judging the quality of the completed
conclusions and research project
Recommendations for further studies
It provides factual base for formulating policies and
strategies relating to the subject matter studied.
Characteristics of an ideal Research Report Characteristics of an ideal Research Report
An ideal report should have the following properties: All the sources of information should be cited so
Should be presented in a systematic and attractive that any person can verify the facts on the basis of
manner described sources
Difficulties and problems faced during research
Should be clear and easily understandable
work should necessarily be described to avoid any
titles, photographs and graphs should be used artificiality. Such guidelines are very helpful and
wherever necessary advantageous for further and future researchers
proverbs and exaggerations should be avoided. An ideal report also indicates the points useful for
research in future
The analysis of facts should have logical and
scientific base so that no one should have the doubt Suggestions provided should be unbiased, creative
that the report is based on assumption ideas. and useful.
Precautions for Writing Research Reports Precautions for Writing Research Reports
Report should be long enough to cover the subject Readers are often interested in acquiring a quick
but short enough to maintain interest knowledge of the main findings and as such the
In fact, report should not be means to learning more report must provide a ready availability of the
and more about less and less. findings
A research report should always sustain readers For this purpose, charts, graphs and the statistical
interest tables may be used for the various results
Abstract terminology and technical jargon should be The layout of the report should be prepared strictly in
avoided in a research report accordance with writing rules
The report should be able to convey the matter as The report should be free from grammatical mistake
simply as possible - report should be written in an
objective style in simple language
Classification of Research Report Technical Report
Research Reports can be classified in a variety of Technical report is essentially technical in nature
ways namely and written in technical language.
Technical report It may contain technical appendix for methodological
Popular report details, copies of measuring instruments, scale,
Interim report programs, simulation process, etc.
Summary report
In all cases, the audience to whom a research report

is addressed has to be kept in view in the preparation
of a research report
Popular Report Interim Report

Popular report is for audience like executives, Interim report will be a suitable kind of a report to
administrators and other non technical users present data as and when the phase of the project
Avoid complicated statistical techniques that will be work gets completed.
difficult to understand It contains narration of what has been done so far
Table, graphical, and pictorial representations should and what was the outcome
be wherever possible It presents a summary of the findings of that part if
analysis which has been completed
Summary Report Types of Technical Research Reports
Summary report is generally prepared for the Dissertation and theses proposals
consumption of the lay audience Dissertations and theses reports
It is written in non-technical, simple language with a Journal articles
liberal use of pictorial charts Conference proposals/papers
It contains brief reference to the objectives of the Reports for policy makers and schools
study and major findings and their implications.
Steps in writing Research Report - 1 Steps in writing Research Report - 2

After the data analysis is over, report writing cannot 6. The format of the report (always varies according
be started abruptly to the type of report)
It requires careful pre-planning involving the following 7. Outline of the contents (what to cover and what
consolidations and steps: not)
1. The target audience (Public/Children/Scientists etc.) 8. Style of writing
2. The communication characteristics of the audience 9. Proper footnotes and bibliography
(Level of Knowledge).
10.Proper citation and referencing
3. The intended purpose of the report (Award of
Degree/Project/Diploma, etc.)
4. The type and scope of report (M.Sc./Ph.D./Scope and
Limitations)
5. The style of reporting (simple/clear)
Writing the Research Report - 1 Writing the Research Report - 2
1. Begin writing the report as soon as you can 3. Be aware of nature of report and intended audience
Do not leave it until you have finished your data For student research project, ensure you adhere to criteria
collection before you start writing up laid down by your institution in terms of content,
presentation, length and so on
Many sections, can be drafted during or even before
For a journal, ensure that your research fits the scope of the
data collection
journals objectives as well as its editorial requirements
2. Write down ideas as soon as you get them, rather than
For a report on consultancy, ensure that you are clear about
leaving them to the writing-up stage the requirements of your audience
Keep a research diary where you can safely note any
ideas 4. You will not be able to write the final report out first time
Not all of your ideas will be useful, but it is certain that Reports may be rewritten a number of times before it
some of them will be! reaches completion
Do not imagine that you will be able to remember these Plan for at least 2 iteration of your research report
ideas at a later date Do not be discouraged when the first draft is not perfect.
Writing the Research Report - 3 Stages of Writing Report - 1

5. Make sure before you begin writing that you make 1. First clarify the nature of the report, and its intended
backups of your work at every available opportunity audience
Whatever you do, do not assume that whatever you If any examples of past reports are available, read
save on a hard drive will be safe! as many as you can both good and bad!
You should keep your backups in a separate
location 2. Identify any predetermined requirements, for example
As a further safety measure, print out what you maximum word length, formatting, such as double
have written so far at regular intervals. spacing or required referencing style, and so on.
Ideally you should familiarise yourself with past
projects, etc. so that you have an idea of the final
product before you start.
Stages of Writing Report - 2 Stages of Writing Report - 3
3. Throughout the duration of the research you should be 6. Evaluate the content of the first draft, either through
collecting together the information necessary to complete reading it yourself or, preferably, getting somebody else to
the report, such as your review of literature, analysis of read it with a critical eye.
the primary data, list of references and so on.
7. Rewrite and re-evaluate the report as appropriate. You
4. Prepare an outline plan of the report. may need to do this more than once!
At least this should include a list of chapter headings,
8. Final editing and proof reading.
sub-heading and more detail if possible.
Once you have got this far, the temptation is to skip
The more detailed your initial outline, the easier you will
over the final proof reading and simply submit the
find the process of writing up the first draft of the report.
project.
5. Write a first draft of the report. You should not anticipate Do carefully read over to check spelling and grammar.
the first draft being your final submission!
9. Submission of the report!
Structure of Written Presentation - 1 Structure of Written Presentation - 2

A RR has a number of clearly defined sections Beginning:
Your audience, purpose, and contents should Discuss the activity and why activity is important -
influence the organization and format provide context
Your professor or supervisor may have very specific
guidelines Middle:
Your school may have a format you must follow Describe how activity was performed and what was
found
A journal may have a format you must follow
Request for proposal may indicate required End:
guidelines Summarize - tell what it means
Did you meet goals, recommendations, difficulties,
Carefully consider your decisions
Structure of Written Presentation - 3 Structure of Written Presentation - 4
RRs generally include these sections in this order:
1. Title Page Start with broad
1. Front Pages Abstract
2. Abstract knowledge base
2. Introduction 3. Acknowledgements Intro
3. Main Body 4. Contents
List of Tables
4. Conclusion Narrow to focus Results
List of Figures
5. References 5. Introduction of report
6. Appendices 6. Literature Review Discussion
7. Methodology
8. Results and Discussion Broaden again,
9. Conclusions relate back to beginning
Please note that there Conclusions
are many variants 10. Reference List
11. Appendices
Front Pages Abstract

Title page Always comes first
Signature Page Microcosm of entire paper contains key information
Declarations Letter of Transmittal of the research
Dedications Contains essential information only it is brief!
Acknowledgement Covers research highlights
Abstract / Executive Summary Gives the research problem and/or main objective
Table of Contents of the research
List of Figures Indicates the methodology used
List of Tables Presents the key findings and conclusions
Glossary/Acronyms
The Abstract an example The Abstract an example 1
High speed electronic beam switching is a desirable High speed electronic beam switching is a desirable
feature of smart antennas. feature of smart antennas. Most smart antennas are
too large for most applications and require significant
power during normal operations.
Copyright: David Thiel 2009 Copyright: David Thiel 2009
Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja
The Abstract an example 1 The Abstract an example 1

feature of smart antennas. Most smart antennas are feature of smart antennas. Most smart antennas are
too large for most applications and require significant too large for most applications and require significant
power during normal operations. A thirteen element power during normal operations. A thirteen element
switched parasitic antenna was optimised for gain,
switched parasitic antenna was optimised for gain, speed and beam coverage. Antenna characteristics
speed and beam coverage. were determined at 1.8 GHz by finite element
modelling and measurements on a prototype.
The Abstract an example 1 The Abstract an example 1
feature of smart antennas. Most smart antennas are feature of smart antennas. Most smart antennas are
too large for most applications and require significant too large for most applications and require significant
power during normal operations. A thirteen element power during normal operations. A thirteen element
switched parasitic antenna was optimised for gain, switched parasitic antenna was optimised for gain,
speed and beam coverage. Antenna characteristics speed and beam coverage. Antenna characteristics
were determined at 1.8 GHz by finite element were determined at 1.8 GHz by finite element
modelling and measurements on a prototype. The modelling and measurements on a prototype. The
antenna had a gain of +9.8 dBi, a footprint of less antenna had a gain of +9.8 dBi, a footprint of less
than one half wavelength squared and was switched than one half wavelength squared and was switched
ion less than 100 s. ion less than 100 s. This is a better performance
compared to previous antennas.
The Abstract an example 2 The Abstract a general guide

Another Example: 2 sentences on the wider field context and
Wavelet packet based MC/MCD-CDMA communication system significance
M. M. Akho-Zahieh and O. C. Ugweje 2 sentences on the research method
2 sentences on the results and conclusions.
A novel wavelet packet based multicarrier multicode coded
division multiple access (CDMA) system is developed and
analyzed. The effect of wavelet family and the number of wavelet
packets superstream are investigated in terms of signal-to-noise
plus interference ratio. Performance of the system is compared to
several CDMA based systems. Results show that the system
performs significantly better than other systems.
Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 427 Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja
Introduction The Body
Introduction of the topic / An overview of the report Literature Review
Methodology
WHAT you have done aims/objectives/scope Experimental and/or Theoretical Methods
WHY you have done it Motivation & justification
Source of data
HOW you have done it structure/ signposting.
Data collection techniques
Limitations, Assumptions, Methods/Methodology Data processing and analysis technique

Chaptalization/Sectionalization Presents and interprets data
Results and Discussion
You want your reader to fully understand the
significance of your research
Literature Review (see Module 3) Methodology

What do we know. Information needs
What we do not know (research gap) Research design
How your study fits the research gap Research strategy
What you may expect to find (hypotheses). Methods
Sample
Relate the literature to your study.
Procedure
Be critical if appropriate.
Analysis
Is it repeatable to the reader?
Methodology Results
You have to explained the rationale behind your chosen There is no one correct way to present your results.
means of collecting information Some ways could be:
Are your research methods the most appropriate given Address each hypotheses, research questions
your chosen hypothesis or research question, and your By independent and dependent variable
subsidiary questions or objectives? By research method
Are you making assumptions? You know what you did in By participant (qualitative interviews)
terms of research methods have you expressed Visual representation of results is good:
yourself clearly and given adequate details? Would
someone else be able to replicate your study on the basis Graphs, tables, diagrams, charts
of the information you have given? Points out the most significant portions of findings
Any limitations? Anything you might have done Indicates key trends or relationships
differently? Highlights expected and/or unexpected findings
Discussion Discussion
Assesses and comments on research results Do your findings find support in the literature?
Explanation for Results Were your findings predicted by the literature?
Discuss the implications of your results in light of your
research objectives. How does your research add to the literature?
Comments on unexpected results, offering hypothesis If your findings differed from expectations, then are
for them there any possible explanations why?
Comparison to literature
Does the particular theory or model you have used
Your research should build on existing knowledge so still hold true in light of your research?
refer back to the literature review
Does your research confirm previous studies? Deviate If the theory or model seems flawed, then how can it
from them? be refined in light of your research?
Common error: Discussing your own findings without
any reference to existing knowledge.
Summary and Conclusion References (see Module 3)
Summarize the most salient points of your research Must be consistent with text
(tell the reader what you found out about your topic) Use approved style
Conclusions IEEE (Institute of Electrical & Electronic Engineers)
Engineering, Science, Information Technology,
What are the key findings?
APA (American Psychological Association)
Should relate to aims/objectives in introduction.
psychology, education, and other social sciences
What remains to be learned? MLA (Modern Language Association)
Weaknesses and shortcomings of study literature, arts, and humanities
Strengths of study AMA (American Medical Association)
Possible applications of study (how it can be used) medicine, health, and biological sciences
Recommendations Chicago Citation Style:
Widely used by all subjects in the "real world" by books,
May include recommendations for future research magazines, newspapers & non-scholarly publications
Appendices Key Weaknesses

Must relate to the research (directly or indirectly) Abstract lacks specific detail
Copies of data collection instruments Introduction no justification, aim and objectives unclear
Technical details on sampling plan Literature review not related to the research question,
no critical awareness, limited sources, limited relevance,
Complex tables
inappropriate theory.
Derivations
Methodology lacking specific detail, justification, limited
Programs / Algorithm awareness of reliability, validity, generalisability
Simulations Results focus on graphs, limited analysis, lacking
Interview transcripts relevance
Questionnaires/ Question tallies Discussion not revisiting the literature, simply repeating
Printouts, program scripts, etc. results, lack of awareness of the implications of the
findings
Conclusions unrelated to results/discussion.
Writing style - Dos and Donts Writing style - Dos and Donts
No DONTS (RED FLAGS) DOS
Use Past tense
1 Use contracted forms Use full forms
Third person 2 Use colloquial expressions Use written expressions
3 Repeat the same expression if Delete or use a different expression,
Usually timing of events is not included unless it is possible e.g., a pron
essential to data collection 4 Repeat the same meaning in Delete semantic repetition
different words unnecessarily
Sections and subsections (one level? two level? three 5 Use questions in the text body Use direct statements
level?). 6 Use omnibus words Use precise expressions
7 Use multi-word phrasal verbs or Use single-word verbs
Quotes from other authors not common! verb phrases
8 Use first and second persons Use third persons
9 Use personal-opinion Delete them
expressions
10 Use choppy sentences Use compact phrases and Ss involving
coordination and/or subordination
Creating Equations General Presentation Weaknesses

Engineers and Scientist usually have mathematical Word limits not adhered to
expressions in their studies Inappropriate formatting
These expressions must be well presented Inappropriate use of visual material
Use standard forms for scalar symbols (often lower case, Incorrect spelling and grammar
italics, not-bold) and vector symbols (upper-case, bold).
Lack of signposting/linking.
The symbols must be the same font on every occasion
used in the equations and in the main text.
All symbols must be defined.
MS Equation editor allows for equation creation.
There are standard upper-case and lower-case type
settings.
Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 444
Research Methodology What is Thesis? - 1
A thesis or dissertation (hereafter thesis) is a major
written work reporting on an identifiable piece of
research conducted by a candidate for a higher
degree
A thesis today, therefore, is a right of passage
Thesis/Dissertation It is an unabridged documented evidence that the
candidate is capable of conducting independent
research and of reporting its findings
The distinguishing mark of graduate research It is the usual requirement for higher degrees such as
is an original contribution to knowledge PhD, MSc., MA, MBA, JD, MD or DDS
What is Thesis? - 2 What is Thesis? - 3

A research oriented thesis is a valuable artifact A Thesis is a formal document whose sole purpose is
to make an original contribution to knowledge
They are retained in the libraries of universities where
they were submitted and are made available in full or Thesis must show 2 important things:
abridged format as the original report of a research Identified a worthwhile problem or question which
project has not been previously answered
Although it is true that the thesis written by most Solved the problem or answered the question
researchers ends up NOT being their most significant Your contribution to knowledge generally lies in your
contribution, it is NOT true that theses are not solution or answer
significant contributions
To make an original and useful contribution to A Thesis is an argument
knowledge, thesis must answers these questions: An exposition of an original piece of research
What is the research question? The product of an apprenticeship
Is it a good problem to solve? Probably the largest (most self-indulgent) piece of
Is it a useful problem to work on? work youll ever do
Has the problem been solved before? Something that could be published:
Did the Thesis convince the audience that the E.g. at least one paper in a scholarly journal
question was adequately answered? but you will probably never publish the whole thesis
Has the Thesis made an adequate contribution to
knowledge?

Prof. Okey Ugweje Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja 449 Prof. Okey Ugweje 450
Abuja

Theses are largely free from page limitation A Thesis is an attempt to persuade
They usually contain a wealth of background or general The key to persuasion is organization
information (pertinent to the topic) and are extremely A picture is worth a thousand words
useful for quickly learning about a given subject matter Don't use a 1000 words where 500 will do
They must contain a sizeable literature review and must It can assert an argument, explain a topic, and/or
provide easy to follow evidence and description of the analyze an issue
method used, data collected, controls placed, etc.
It is specific in presenting the writer's position
As such well-written theses tend to be excellent sources It limits both scope and topic of the paper
of learning how to design and conduct research
It captures the reader's interest and focuses that
Many Institutions mandate the style of writing to interest on the topic
follow in a Thesis
Quality of Thesis Research Master's Thesis vs. PhD Dissertation
Does it meet publication standards? Different expectations for Master's theses and for
Will it be useful in your school? Doctoral dissertation
Will it advance knowledge? The significance and level of discovery in Doctoral
Will it add scholarly knowledge about a topic or dissertation
research problem? Ph.D. requires a more difficult problem to be solved,
Will it help address some pressing educational, and consequently more substantial contributions
scientific, social, problem? Contribution to knowledge of a Master's thesis can be
an incremental improvement in knowledge, or
application of known techniques in a new area.
The format is the same for Masters and Ph.D.
Statement of the Problem Thesis Structure - 1

A clear Statement of the Problem is essential to Any formal document requires a framework
original and worthwhile contribution to knowledge The Outline of a Thesis is the necessary framework
Originality and value of your contribution requires As a formal document, every item in a Thesis
thorough review of the existing literature on the must be in the appropriate place
subject, and on closely related subjects
Your audience, purpose, and contents should
By making direct reference, you must demonstrate influence the structure/organization/format
(a) that problem has not been previously solved Your school may have a format you must follow
(b) that problem is worth answering Your supervisor may have very specific guidelines
you must adhere to
Please refer to Module 4 and 5 for details Your department or college or faculty may have
specific requirements also
Thesis Structure - 2 Thesis Structure - 3
A Thesis Outline is the framework for writing your The outline involves logical thinking and reasoning
thesis Thesis Outline also suggest the scope of your
It consist of one or more pages containing research
Title Once outline is generated, you are in a better position
Chapter headings, to write your Thesis
Sub-headings, After outline is generated, your new aim is just to
Required numbering methods write a paragraph or section about one of your
subheadings
Some notes, descriptions and comments on what
is involved
Thesis Structure - 4 Thesis Structure - 5

Once you have an outline, present to your supervisor
for approval
This step is important as it gets you started in your
research and write-up Beginning
It also serves as a notice of approval of your Thesis
Supervisor may need a copy of the Outline for A Thesis Body
reference
Also outline must be shared with co-adviser and other End
committee members
Sample Organization of Thesis Front Pages
Front Pages Title page
Abstract Signature Page
Introduction First Chapter
Declarations
Thesis Body
Dedications
Background/Literature Review/Fundamentals
Acknowledgement Should not prepare these
Methodology Several
Chapters Abstract pages until research
Data Presentation & Interpretation
Table of Contents report is completed
Experiment/Simulation
Discussion of Results List of Figures
Summary and Conclusions Last Chapter List of Tables
References Acronyms
Appendices
Front Pages - Acknowledgments Front Pages Others

You should acknowledge: For the following front pages, please see approved
1. Any significant technical help that you have received format from NTNU
from any individual Signature Page
2. The source of special equipment, cultures, or any Declarations
other material Dedications
3. Any outside financial assistance, such as grants,
contracts or fellowships No particular format needed for the following front
You may show proposed wording of Acknowledgement pages
to the person whose help you are acknowledging Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Acronyms
Front Pages Abstract (see Module 5) Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
Always comes first Chapter 1 of your thesis should be the expanded
Microcosm of entire paper contains key information version of your proposal containing the following
of the research 1.1 Introduction
Contains essential information only it is brief! 1.2. Statement of the Problem
Covers research highlights 1.3. Motivation
Gives the research problem and/or main objective 1.4. Justification
of the research 1.5. Methodology
Indicates the methodology used 1.6. Contribution of Research
Presents the main findings and conclusions 1.7. Outline of Thesis
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW Chapters 3, 4, 5, .

In Chapter 2, you should present your detailed The rest of the chapters will contain different topics
literature review or background study based on the actual research conducted
It is expected that the literature review will be Regardless of the research, there must be results and
complete discussions
Please refer to Module 3 for detail analysis of

Literature review
Results and Discussions - 1 Results and Discussions - 2
Assesses and comments on research results Explanation for Results
Visually and textually represents research findings Comments on unexpected results, offering
Visual representation of results: hypothesis for them
Graphs, tables, diagrams, charts, maps, Indicates key trends or relationships
What do they mean ? Highlights expected and/or unexpected findings
How have you interpreted your findings? Comparison to literature
This part of the Thesis is fundamental, where you Does your research confirm previous studies?
must spell out clearly and systematically an argument Deviate from them?
that will lead to a conclusion. Explanation for how info can be applied in broader
context
Results and Discussions - 3 Results and Discussions - 4

Visual Design Graphics:
A reports visual design can make or break its Should be used to illustrate specific points
communication success Should be incorporated in a way that is natural to
Visual Design includes: reports content/context
Should be explained fully in text using references
Use of graphs and other graphics
such as Fig. 1 shows
Use of white space Should be cited if taken from a source
Results and Discussions - 5
Summary and Conclusion - 1
Graphics a caveat Summarize the most salient points of your research
Graphics do not speak for themselves! (tell the reader what you found out about your topic)
For this reason, textual information should come Start with a restatement of objectives
before graphics. Again describe briefly the methods
State the important results
General layout should focus readers on key Describe the extent to which you achieved what you
information set out to do
Use white space to guide readers attention State the important conclusions
Created through use of headings, subheadings, You may include possible weaknesses/limitations of
and visuals the methodology and interpretations

Summary and Conclusion - 2 References/Bibliography
Reflections on the project Referencing is a standardized way of acknowledging
How well did you performed at different stages of the sources of information and ideas that you have
the project? used in your document
What would you do differently next time and why? References are the empirical support for claims in a
What was learned through the research Thesis that are not directly observed in the research
What remains to be learned They are needed for researchers to remain empirical
Possible applications of study (how it can be used) in their descriptions of topics
Recommendations for the future References or Works Cited are just as important
as any other part of your Thesis
what would you recommend doing next?
Please refer to Module 3 for Details

Appendices Research Result Publication
Appendices Ways research results may be published
Derivations 1. A thesis/dissertation
Programs
2. A journal article
Simulations
Interview transcripts 3. A conference paper
Questionnaires 4. An article in a trade or scholarly periodical
Screen dump
5. An Institutional research report
Printouts, and previous reports
6. A research monograph
Please refer to Module 8 for Details

Research Methodology
Module 7
Oral Research
Presentation
Presentation is the Killer Skill we take into
Great Speakers arent born, they the real world. Its almost an unfair
are trained advantage.
-- Ethan Rasiel & Paul N. Friga, The McKinsey Mind
Learning Objectives Why Give A Presentation?
Explain presentation A presentation is a way of communicating ideas and
State the features of a good presentation information orally to an audience
Identify the elements of presentation Presentation is a skill developed through experience
and training
Itemize the tips and techniques for great
presentations
Three Main Purposes of Oral Presentation
Inform
Persuade
Educate
Why Give A Presentation? Preparing the Presentation - 2

Instructional Techniques of Presentation To prepare a presentation, ask yourself the following
Instruct questions:
Lecture What is the purpose of the presentation?
Discussion Who will be attending?
Brainstorming
What does the audience already know about
Role Play the subject?
Exercises
What is the audience attitude towards me
(e.g., hostile, friendly)?
Great presentations require some preplanning and
preparations What was most difficult about this
concept/idea? Most interesting?
Preparing the Presentation - 3 Preparing the Presentation - 4
What is the context of my speech? How can I incorporate an example of how this
Location? idea/concept is used in the real world?
Time constraints? How will I create an introduction that will engage my

audience?
Audience?
Format? What is the best way to conclude my presentation?
The Presentation Sequence Features of a Good Presentation

Build Rapport Content
Open Your Presentation Contains info that people need
Present Main Points
Account for how much info the audience can absorb
Conclude Your Presentation in one sitting
The following are important

Content Structure
Audio-visual Aids Logical beginning, middle, and end

Sequenced and paced so that the audience can
Delivery
understand it
Number of Slides Opening Your Presentation
As few as possible A good presentation starts out with introductions and
an icebreaker such as a story, interesting statement
Do not use more than required or fact, joke, quotation, or an activity to get the group
wormed up
Omit irrelevant items Introduce yourself
Why should they listen
The audience will appreciate a small number of
Get attention, build more rapport, introduce topic
slides, handled well, rather than a large number
not properly explained Humor or Short story
Startling statistic
Large number of slides induces PowerPoint Make audience think
Fatigue Syndrome Invite participation
Get audience response
Completing the Opening Keep Slides Non-cluttered - 1

Clearly define or explained your topic Avoid too much data/info on one slide
If informative
Do not show schematics that are too detailed
Clear parameters for content within time
If persuasive Omit unnecessary or irrelevant information
Whats the problem

Who cares
Whats the solution
Keep Slides Non-cluttered - 2 Keep Slides Non-cluttered - 3
To much info on one slide To much info on one slide
Figure 1. CMXRos photosensitization on a
subpopulation of mitochondria induces rapid m loss
C in non-irradiated mitochondria. (C) Quantitative
C determination of Rh123 retention in non-irradiated
(mean % of Fafter/Fbefore)
100 mitochondria of cells. Control cells to indicate either high
A 100
Rh123 retention
80 m and low m were either treated without or with
Rh123 retention
0 scans 128 scans 80 CCCP (20 M) respectively (n=20, n=15 respectively),
60
60 loaded with Rh123 but not photoirradiated (Irr-). Other cells
40
loaded with Rh123 alone (n=13) or with Rh123 and
Rh123 40
20 CMXRos (n=9) were subjected to partial irradiation (Irr+).
0 20 Three regions of interest in the non-irradiated zone from
Rh123 Rh123 Rh123 Rh123 each cell were arbitrarily selected to determine the
+CMXRos +CCCP 0
Rh123 Rh123 Rh123 Rh123 fluorescence intensity of Rh123 in pixel units. The mean
CMX- Irr - + + - +CMXRos +CCCP
Ros
fluorescence intensity ( SEM) of Rh123 in each cell was
Irr - + + - obtained by averaging the pixel values of the three regions
D of interest. Measurements were taken before and after
100
D partial irradiation. The fluorescence intensity of Rh123
Hig h de lta-ps i-m (% ce lls )

retained in non-irradiated mitochondria (Fafter) following
B 80 10 0
Hig h de lta-p s i-m (% ce lls )

0 scans 128 scans irradiation was expressed as a percentage of the initial
60 80 fluorescence intensity (Fbefore) in the same cell prior to
irradiation. Cells containing non-irradiated mitochondria
40 60
with Rh123 retention values above 60% and below 20%
20 40 were considered as manifesting high m or loss of m
respectively. No cells tested showed intermediate levels of
0 20
Rh123 retention. (D) Fraction of cells manifesting high
Rh123 + CMXRos Rh123
0 m in non-irradiated mitochondria (see above). Cells were
Rh12 3 + CM XRos Rh1 2 3 loaded with Rh123 and CMXRos (n=21) or Rh123 alone
(n=16). Black bars indicate cells before irradiation. Open
bars indicate cells after 128 scans under partial irradiation
condition.
Slides must be Easy to Read - 1 Slides must be Easy to Read - 2

Avoid abbreviations that are not defined Font sizes must be big enough
Do Not use lab jargon that are not conventional and Font sizes should be proportional to the size of the
widely in use room
You want to make sure that the audience at the
Ask yourself if the audience can be reasonably back can see your slide
expected to understand the terms you use on the Dont use black font on dark backgrounds
slides
Avoid the serif fonts, small fonts, skinny like
Times New Roman, or Courier
Use Sans-serif fonts like Arial
(use bold if it needs to be very small)
Proper Sizes of Text and Graphics Improper Size of Graphic
Use the available space properly
Keep the font sizes large and readable
Make sure the graphics are big enough
100
Rh123 retention
80
60
Dont show a very small image or table surrounded 40

20
by a sea of blank space 0

Rh123 Rh123 Rh123
+CMXRos +CCCP
Rh123
Irr - + + -
Better Size of Graphic Order of display items

Make sure the order is correct before you start
If an item needs to be repeated during a presentation,
100
make sure there is a duplicate in the correct place
Rh123 retention
80
60
Avoid shuffling through items during a presentation:
40 the audience will (rightly) think you are not
20 properly organised
0
Rh123 Rh123 Rh123 Rh123
+CMXRos +CCCP
Irr - + + -
Decoration Effective Presentation Techniques
Make sensible use of colours and borders Presentation Style Projection
Dont let PowerPoint Backgrounds dominate your Body Language Modulation
data or statements Posture Use of Text
Gesture Speed of speech and
Mannerism presentation
It is the content that the audience should remember, Position Clarity of presentation
not the colours and the special effects! Enthusiasm Use of pointing Devices
Vocal qualities
Projection
Body Language - 1 Body Language - 2

Your body communicates different impressions to the Throughout your presentation, display:
audience Eye contact
People not only listen, they watch you Facial Expression
Displaying good posture tells the audience that you Gestures
know what you are dong Posture and body orientation
A good posture helps you to speak more clearly and Proximity
effectively Voice
Body Language - 3 The Body of the Presenter
Your hands are effective tools for directing attention. How you use the space that you have available is
Use them but dont abuse them important.
Eye contact is a vital part of any person-to-person How much contact can you have with your audience
communication. Try not to stare and are you able to freely move about?
Feel free to move about in your area but avoid
What types of visual aids are available to you?
wandering
If your audience has to turn in their seats to see How do you deal with anxiety?
you, youve gone too far
Posture Gestures
Stand upright Use your hands to make points
not hunched
Bodily movements help to keep the audience
Hands should be in use for the talk interested
not in pockets
not behind your back
Its like having a conversation with someone
Face the audience
that imaginary person?
dont turn your back on them,
especially when pointing to the screen
You are telling them a story!
Mannerisms Position
Avoid distracting mannerisms Sitting down to give presentations is not a good idea
This applies to involuntary hand movements Stand so the audience can see you
or to bodily movements
Dont stand between the projector and the screen
if you cast a giant shadow
Watch other people give lectures or seminars and
youll see some strange things! Avoid blocking the view of a substantial proportion of
the audience
Be aware of the needs of the audience,

at all times
Enthusiasm Voice Projection

Look and act interested The audience must hear you clearly especially
but dont overdo it! those sitting at the back!
Be positive in your approach Vocal qualities
Vocal Techniques (The Voice)
If you dont look interested, your audience can Volume (Loudness)
hardly be expected to be motivated to listen to the Tone (A characteristic of a sound)
talk Pitch (How high or low a note is)
Pace (How long a sound lasts)
Project your voice to an imaginary person

standing at the back wall of the room
Voice Modulation Use of Notes
Dont speak in a monotone Dont read from prepared text
vary voice and expression
Avoid reading the words straight off a slide
You can use voice modulation to:
emphasise important points Use your notes as prompts or reminders
indicate uncertainties
The slides will contain cues to help you explain and
insert a bit of humour elaborate
Monotonous presentation can be wrongly

interpreted as lack of enthusiasm!
Clarity of Expression Use of Pointing Devices

Avoid abbreviations or lab jargon Point to the specific part of the slide you are talking
about
If you think your work is very specialised, briefly
explain basic concepts Avoid vague waving of the pointer in the general
in terms of the make-up of direction of the screen
the audience When using a laser pointer, you may need to hold it in
two hands to avoid the shakes
Ask yourself if the audience can be reasonably
expected to understand the terms you are using
Why bother to make elegant visual aids if you dont
use the material properly?
Speed of Speech Speed of Presentation
Dont talk too fast Move through in a well-paced manner
the audience needs to be able to follow
Give each slide its due time..
Dont talk too slowly ... but not more than is needed
the audience may get distracted or
even sleepy Avoid overly long Introductions
Dont rush the results and conclusions (losing the

Just talk at a natural pace take home message!)
Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse
Visual Aids Challenges of Good Presentation

Visual aids assist in your presentation but they should Nerves
never upstage you or be the sole focus of the
presentation Habits
Visual aids make the abstract concrete - Equations, Questions
diagrams, reactions, complex procedures
Sometimes you cant describe things properly; you
just have to show them
Simplicity is beautiful and much easier to work with
PowerPoint and other slide-show presentation aids
are powerful tools
Avoid large blocks of text and overly complicated
diagrams
Dealing with Nervousness - 1 Dealing with Nervousness - 2
Be prepared Practice as many times as possible, this gives you
Plan and rehearse the chance to feel the rhythm of the presentation and
correct any difficulties.
Deep breathing!
May sound naff, but it works Before you speak, tighten and release your muscles.
Engage with your audience This gives the extra adrenaline something else to do.
Makes you feel more relaxed

Take a few slow deep breaths before starting to
Know the room. speak. Breathing is key!
Be at your physical and mental best when speaking.
Dont expect perfection
Dealing with Questions Features of Poor Presentation - 1

Questions show people are listening! Little/no eye contact
Allow time to deal with them No engagement with the audience
Decide when to answer them Mumbling
Often because not engaging with audience
Try and anticipate questions
Reading from a paper
Dont be afraid to stop and think Too fast, monotone
What if I dont know the answer? Little/no structure
Open it to the floor Lack of clarity
Too much information
Take details and answer later
Bad visual aids
Repeat the question back if you dont understand it
Features of Poor Presentation - 2 Conclusions
You are the important part of your presentation! Summarise the main points of your presentation
So dont let the visual elements of your presentation Relate these back to the initial question
say it all. Link these to the specific aims
Never write all the information on your PowerPoint Outline the implications
Never read out everything that is on a PowerPoint
PowerPoint serve as a prompter for you THIS IS THE TAKE HOME MESSAGE
Try to do this on one slide

Do not finish your presentation without it!
Do not let your audience leave without it
Research Methodology Importance of Publishing Research

Findings
The primary motivation for academics to publish is to
Module 8 serve themselves; to save their own careers
The converse of this statement might be true
Publishing Your Lack of publication does not serve the career of the
Research average researcher or academics
In most cases there are higher motivations and
responsibilities that results in publishing research
Publish or Perish findings
-- an old saying in the academic circles
Motivation and Responsibilities of Motivation and Responsibilities of
Publishing Research Findings Publishing Research Findings
1. Sharing Knowledge 3. We must share our experiences with our colleagues
Research costs money and those who supply the to assist them in their quests.
money must get something of value in return
4. We must expose our work to critique by those who
2. Knowledge Increase
can evaluate our work in terms of value, interest and
Knowledge is the only commodity in the world that accuracy.
actually increases in value and extent only when
shared. Your duty is to increase knowledge. 5. We must publish so that we can give credit to those
Through research the totality of the human body of whose work has been instrumental in us arriving at
knowledge increases. our findings.
Human knowledge belongs to all humanity, it must be 6. In academia, your professional value can only be
shared and made available publicly. evaluated in terms of your research output
Research Methodology Research Result Publication
It is usually a lot easier to write

Thesis or Dissertation or Research
Journal Reports than it is to write Journal
Paper.
Journal Papers - 1 Journal Papers - 2
Each discipline has a number of journals where the A journal should have predictable and suitable
research findings may be published. Two categories: sections with the right headings and content
1. Peer reviewed organized in a logical and predictable order
2. Non- peer-reviewed Most journals do dictate or recommend a particular

structure
A peer-reviewed journal is one in which the articles
submitted for publication are reviewed by a panel of There are formats explicitly or implicitly for each
experts peers who read and evaluate the suitability journal and for many types of research reporting
of publication of the material
Only peer-reviewed publications are of significance
as scientific research publication
Research Methods Conferences Proceedings - 1

Almost every discipline also has a number of
conferences associated with it. Conferences may be:
1. Commercially or trade oriented
2. Professionally/scholarly oriented, or
3. Research oriented
Conference Proceedings
Professional/scholarly conferences provide
opportunities for high level professionals and scholars
to get together and exchange ideas, methods and
techniques attend tutorials or to establish
collaboration
Conferences Proceedings - 2 Conferences Proceedings - 3
Usually a set of proceedings are published which These papers are usually peer-reviewed and
contains the copies or abstracts (sometimes full text) although accommodation is usually made that the
of the various or all of the presentations work is still in progress or that stringent validation
Research oriented conferences are the venues where may not have been performed on the results,
a dynamic discipline exposes the world to the nevertheless, effort is made that only robust and high
research work-in-progress or emerging research quality work is presented
directions The reputation and the quality of a conference is only
Research oriented conferences are usually in the a function of the quality of the peer-review performed
form of a series of paper presentations by the
researchers or their close associates
Conferences Proceedings - 4 References

Conference papers are usually limited in terms of [1] M. Punch, Politics and Ethics in Qualitative Research. In Denzin, N & Y
Lincoln (editors): The Handbook of Qualitative Research. CA, Sage, 1994
page numbers allowed and the presentation slides
[2] W. S. Howell, The empathic communicator. University of Minnesota:
used during the presentation Wadsworth Publishing Company. 1982
Each conference usually has its own styles, rules and [3] K-L. Thomson and R. V. Solms, Towards an Information Security
Competence Maturity Model, in Computer Fraud & Security, May 2006
requirements pertaining to how a paper is prepared,
[4] K-L. Thomson, R. von Solms and L. Louw, Cultivating an Organizational
reviewed, published and presented. Information Security Culture, in Computer Fraud & Security, October 2006.
Of course all the rules of good writing style pertinent [5] R. Klopper, The Case for Cyber Forensic Linguistics. Alternation Vol. 16,
No. 1, pp. 261-294, 2009
to journal papers also apply to conference papers.
[6] R. Klopper and S. Lubbe, Using Matrix Analysis to Achieve Traction,
Coherence, Progression and Closure in Problem-Solution Oriented
Research Alternation Special Edition 4, 403 419, 2011

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Live Curious: Life-Long Learning

If you are, you breath.

Research Methodology Research Methodology

Expertise is earned not given

What is Research? - 2 What is Research? - 3

What is Research? - 6 What Constitutes a Research Topic?

Purpose of Research Consider the following

Which of these is research?... High Quality Research!

Research Characteristics - 1 Research Characteristics - 2

Research Characteristics - 4 Poor vs. Good Research - 1

What is Bad Research? Research Methodology

4. Logic of the research whether the research logic

Research Methods - 3 Research Methods - 4

Classification of Research by Methods

Research Types - Exploratory Research Types Exploratory

Research Types Descriptive - 3 Research Types Descriptive - 4

Research Types Correlational - 3 Research Type - Explanatory or Analytical

Research Type Case Studies Research Type Case Studies

Research Type In-Vitro Studies Research Type - Historical

Research Type Ex-Factor Research Type Experimental - 1

Research Type Experimental - 4 Research Type Experimental - 5

Quantitative Research - 1 Quantitative Research - 2

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Quantitative vs. Qualitative - 2

Research Methodology Research Objectives - 1

The research objective is a concise

Exactly what will your research

Research Objectives - 4 Research Objectives - 5

Research Process - 1 Research Process - 2

Research Methodology - 1 Research Methodology - 2

Types of Research Methods Methodology vs. Methods - 1

Choice of Methodology & Methods Selecting Appropriate Methodology

 Relationship Questions Research Methodology

Research Methodology Selecting and Defining a Problem

Selecting a Research Topic Selecting a Research Topic

Finding a Research Problem - 1 Finding a Research Problem - 2

Getting Started Problem Formulation

Important as well as interesting The problem is rarely clear-cut

Determine Research Objectives - 1 Determine Research Objectives - 2

Research Methodology Describing Methodology of Research

Data Collection Techniques - 1 Data Collection Techniques - 2

Analyzing and Interpreting Results - 1 Analyzing and Interpreting Results - 2

Stage in the Process Typical Questions 5. Planning and Managing

Research Plan - 1 Research Plan - 2

Research Project Constraints Project Management Tools

Access to literature / resources 2. Drill Down

Mind Map - 3 Mind Mapping - 4

Mind Mapping - 7 Test Drive Mind Maps

Drill Down - 3 Drill Down - 4

Drill Down Example Thesis Drill Down Example Proposal

 Gantt Chart - 2  Gantt Chart - 3

 Projects Risks  Risks in the bank job

Research Methodology Statement of the Problem - 1

Statement of the Problem - 4 Statement of the Problem - 5

Formulating a Research Problem Identify a broad field of interest

 Select what is of most interest to you  Raise research questions

Qualities of Outstanding Research Problem How to arrive at Research Statement

Features of Effective Research Statement - 2 Features of Effective Research Statement - 3

A generalization An exaggeration

A question An announcement

Features of Effective Research Statement - 6 Features of Effective Research Statement - 7

Ways of Constructing Research Statement - 3 Ways of Constructing Research Statement - 4

E.g.,: a given test instrument accurately and

Assumptions Research Variables

Some Ways to Find a Topic - 2 Some Ways to Find a Topic - 3

Relationship Questions Research Methodology

Gantt Chart - 2 Gantt Chart - 3

Projects Risks Risks in the bank job

Select what is of most interest to you Raise research questions

D. L. Tao, C. Siva Ram Murthy, and S. Al Kuran Abbreviations

Literature Review (see Module 3) Statement of the Problem (see Module 4)