Blacksmithing

Welding & Fabrication

Department
 Introduction to Blacksmithing and Heat Treatment of
Irons and Steels

Forging is the oldest method of constructing items in iron and steel.

Blacksmithing is the link between sheet metal work and welding, to have such a skill and knowledge
will make the Apprentice an efficient and complete craftsman at his trade.

Metals forged at the correct heats lose none of their mechanical properties.
 Safety when working in Blacksmiths Shop

1. Switch off electric mains before filling up water tank at rear of forge.
2. Never use petrol to light fires.
3. Switch on extractor.
4. Never touch metal that has been left by the forge area.
5. Never leave hot metal about unmarked.
6. Never use machine without instruction first.
7. Never use grindstones or drilling forges without goggles.
8. When cutting hot metal make sure the metal falls close to the anvil.
9. When using hand tools, the striking heads should not be mushroomed.
10. All hand tools with wooden handles to be in good condition.
11. Wear suitable non burn overhauls.
12. Wear aprons when heavy forging.
13. Return all uncut metal to metal rack.
14. Clinkers must be cold before throwing out in bins.
15. Scrap metal to be with scrap metal bin.
16. Floor sweepings (not scrap metal) to be put in dustbins.
17. A clean shop is a safe place to work.
18. First aid point Instructors room.
19. Report all accidents to instructors.
 Blacksmithing and Heat Treatment of
Irons and Steels

Contents

Chapter Title Page

1 Blacksmithing and Heat Treatment. 1

2 Taking a Heat. 4
3 Blacksmithing Tools. 5
4 Basic Forging Operations. 8
5 Tongs. 15
6 Mechanical Properties of Steel. 16
7 Recognition of Steel. 16
8 Metals for Engineering 20
Composition, Properties and Manipulation
9 Formulae. 27
10 Heat Treatment of Carbon Steels. 32
Glossary of Terms. 47
 CHAPTER ONE
Blacksmithing and Heat Treatment

Para Page

1.1 Forging 1
1.2 Forge. 1
1.3 Fires. 2
1.4 Fuel. 2
1.5 Size of Fire. 2
1.6 Fire Lighting. 2
1.7 Management of the Fire. 2
1. Small Fire.
2. Hollow Fire.
3. Defeat of Clinker.

1.1 Forging

Forging is shaping by heating and hammering. An article may either be forged in one' piece
from a solid bar or it may be forged in parts, which afterwards welded together, in each case
the article is termed forged.

1.2 Forge

The forge is generally constructed in the form of a shallow open box.

At one side is fitted a cast iron plate with a projecting nozzle called the "Tuyere" through
which a blast of air is driven by a fan or bellows into the fire. The Tuyere is either cooled
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 conductively or water cooled, if water cooled it is most important to keep the tank at the back
topped up with water.

Neglect of this will result in the Tuyere burning through.

1.3 Fires

The efficient management of the fire is essential to the smiths as is the mastery of his tools.

1.4 Fuel

Smiths Coal - High grade washed coal.

Coke - small and clean.

1.5 Size of Fire

The size of the fire is governing the size of the work being forged.

1.6 Fire Lighting

Scoop out a small hole in front of the "Tuyere" nose; remove the clinker (hard non burnable
material).

Using paper tightly formed into a ball twice the size of a Tennis Ball and wood cut small in
length. 6 x (150 x 12.5mm).

Placing the paper in front of the Tuyere and then placing the sticks on top light the paper,
when the wood has started to burn well add small amounts of coke or coal, switch the motor
on and control the blast so that the fire breaks through, add a small amount of fuel until the
size of fire is reached to accommodate the work.

1.7 Management of the Fire

1. To keep the fire as small as possible.

The whole purpose of the fire is to heat the metal and anything more is both wasteful and a
nuisance. Never use more blast than is necessary to keep the fire at the size and heat
required for the job.

2. To prevent the fire from burning hollow.

The heat in the fire must be in the middle, immediately below the piece of metal being heated.
A hollow fire has no fuel to produce heat where it is wanted. Also the unburnt blast air will get
at the hot metal and oxidize the surface or may even burn it beyond recovery.

3. Cold clinker is like a crude black glass, hot it is like black treacle.
It is produced by the combination of oxygen in the blast with impurities which are more or less
present in all fuels.

As the fuel burns clinker is formed in a molten state and trickles down into the bottom of the
fire just in front of the "Tuyere Nose (b)".

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Here the clinker obstructs the blast and bits are blown upwards and stick to the hot metal.
When this happens, turn the air blast off, let the fire die down the hot clinker will then cool
enough to be removed, by inserting the poker into the lower part of the fire and then levering
downwards the clinker will come to the surface, using the slice remove and place at the side
of the forge.

Sectional View of Coke Fire

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 CHAPTER TWO
Taking A Heat by Forge or by Oxy/Acetylene Torch

1. Warm Heat 400C 752F

2. Black Heat 525C 975 F

3. Dull Red 600C 1112F

4. Bright Red 900C 1652F

5. Bright Yellow 1150C 2102F

Using either the Forge or Oxyacetylene torch the following heats are important in the working of Iron
and Steels.

1. Warm Heat.
For setting up road springs without removing the temper.

2. Black Heat.
No red colour is visible in day light but will glow faintly red in the dark.

3. Dull Red.
Easy bends on low carbon steels and forging high carbon steel.

4. Bright Red.
Simple forging on low carbon steel etc, bending, punching, hot cutting.

5. Bright Yellow.
The principal forging of low carbon steel, drawing down, upsetting, punching and cutting heavy work.

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 CHAPTERTHREE
Blacksmithing Tools
Para Page

3.1 London Anvil. 5

3.2 Sledge Hammers. 6
3.3 Flatter. 6
3.4 Set Hammer. 6
3.5 Swages 7
3.6 Fullers 7
3.7 Hot Set 8
3.8 Cold Set 8
3.9 Hardie or Anvil Cutter 8

3.1 London Anvil

There are several types of anvil, varying in shape, size and weight. The type in use generally is one
known as the 'single bick', approximately 2 cwts in weight, although larger ones of 3 cwts are
common.

They are made from medium carbon steel by drop forging, the flat top, or face, being afterwards
hardened slightly to withstand wear. On the square end will be found a square hole which is used to
hold the shanks of bottom tools, such as bottom swages, bottom fullers etc. There is also a small
round hole, which is used when punching holes in hot metal. Both holes vary in size according to the
weight and size of the anvil. A metal stand is usually supplied for the anvil to rest on.

(a) Body
(b) Cutting Table
(c) Beak/Bick
(d) Face
(e) Heel
(f) Throat
(g) Hardie Hole/Tool Hole
(h) Punching Hole

LONDON ANVIL

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3.2 Sledgehammers
Sledge hammers are used by the striker. These range from about 3kg to 9kg in weight, with a shaft
length of approximately 1 m.

Sledge Hammers

3.3 Flatter
A tool with a body size of about 1 square section, having a flat, square face of approximately 2V/.
It has an oval "eye" into which a wooden handle is fitted to enable the smith to hold it while it is being
struck with the sledge-hammer. It is used principally for dressing out hammer marks, and generally
straightening up flat and square section.

Flatter
3.4 Set Hammer
This tool is best described as a small flatter, having a small square flat face of approximately 1 1/s".
It is also fitted with a wooden handle in the same way as the flatter. It has a wide range of uses
but its main function is to dress out hammer marks, and straighten up (e.g. the flanges of angle
iron) where the flatter is too big

Set Hammers

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3.5 Swages

Normally used as a pair, consisting of a Top Swage and Bottom Swage, both having a half-round
impression on its face to fit round section, but each tool can be used separately. The bottom swage
has a square shank which fits into the square hole of the anvil, which holds it necessarily firm and
steady. The top swage has a wooden handle, fitted in a similar way to the flatter, and is struck with
the sledge-hammer. They are used for forming a smooth surface on round section, the hot metal
being impressed between the half-round sections of each tool. They are obtainable in various sizes.

SWAGES

3.6 Fullers

These tools are used on a variety of jobs, but principally for a smithing operation known as "Necking
in". They consist of a pair, the Top Fuller and Bottom Fuller, and can be used as a pair, or sepa-
rately. The top fuller has a wooden handle, fitted similarly to the flatter; the bottom fuller has a
square shank, similar to the bottom swage. The working part of each tool is shaped as a semi-circle,
the diameter of the semi-circle being the size of the fullers. Hot metal is placed in position on the
bottom fuller, the top fuller is held level and square to it, and struck with the sledge-hammer, the
metal being turned so that a groove is formed all round. Fullers are obtainable in various sizes.

Fullers

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3.7 Hot Set
Used exclusively for cutting red hot metal, this tool is drawn out into a thin blade, and is fitted with a
wooden handle. It is not hardened or tempered because of it being in contact with hot metal, but, as
the hot metal is soft, the un-tempered edge stands quite well, if it is not allowed to get too hot. A hot
set cannot be used on cold works, as this will simply turn the edge.

Hot Set

3.8 Cold Set

Used for cutting cold metal and therefore it is hardened and tempered. It is generally fitted with a
wooden handle, so that it can be held while being struck with the sledge-hammer. It is used for
cutting bars, and plate, cutting out rivets, bolts etc, but must never be used for cutting hot metal, as
this will soften it by destroying the temper.

Cold Set

3.9 Hardie or Anvil Cutter

Used for cutting small sections of metal either hot or cold. Can be used along with the hot set for
cutting large sections of metal, (50 - 100mm in dia).

Hardie or Anvil Cutter

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 CHAPTER FOUR
Basic Forging Operations
Para Page

4.1 Upsetting 9
4.2 Drawing Down. 10
4.3 Swaging 11
4.4 Fullering 11
4.5 Punching 12
4.6 Drifting 12
4.7 Bending 13

4.1 Upsetting

This means to increase the area of cross-section or to thicken the metal at any given point.

It is done by heating the metal at the appropriate place, holding it firmly on the anvil, and striking the
end with the hand hammer, or sledge-hammer.

This jolting action will cause the metal to thicken in the heated part, and is continued (reheating as
necessary) until the required size is obtained. Care must be taken to keep the bar straight
throughout the whole operation. Upsetting is sometimes called 'Jumping up', or "Staving up", all
meaning one and the same thing.

Upsetting

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4.2 Drawing Down

This term is used when metal is made smaller in width and thickness, and increased in length, or,
when the area of cross-section is decreased.

It is most common of all the smithing operations, because, if only a point is required on the end of a
bar, it is done by drawing down.

Metal is always drawn down in square section, irrespective of its final shape, because then, it is
drawn throughout its entire thickness, whereas if it was drawn in round section, the surface is
stretched, and the centre remains stationary. This causes a "hole" or hollow to form in the centre,
and in this condition, the forging is useless.

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4.3 Swaging

After the metal has been drawn down in square section, action can be taken to change it to round
section if required. It is most important to draw the metal to its correct size in square section before
attempting to round it off, and the rule is, if the finished size of the forging is " diameter, then the
metal is drawn to exactly " x . If the finished size is " diameter, then the metal is drawn to
exactly " x " and so on.

The next operation is to flatten the corners of the square, so as to make eight sides of equal width,
then the metal can be made round by using the appropriately sized top and bottom swages.

Swaging
4.4 Fullering

A term applied when Fullers are brought into use. These tools are used principally for a smithing
operation referred to as "Necking In", which has already been described in Lesson 2, but the Top
Fuller can be used for numerous other jobs. For example, it can be used in the drawing down of
metal; for spreading where maximum width is required as opposed to length, for obtaining a radius in
the shaping of hoops; for putting the curvature in the leaves of vehicle road springs to obtain the
height; for bending flat bar, strip and plate and for the bending of angle iron. Whenever a Fuller is
used, the operation is known as Fullering.

Fullering
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4.5 Punching

Used when punching holes in hot metal. This is done by clearly marking the place where the hole is
to be made with a centre punch.

A small, round, tapered punch is used to punch the hole, because the smaller the "digit" that is
punched out, the stronger the metal will be around the hole. Punch from one side until almost
through, taking care to keep the punch cool and straight, turn the metal over and punch back. The
hole is then opened to the size required by using punches which increase in size.

The metal must be kept continuously at an even, bright red heat when punching, to prevent the hole
being made to one side.

Punches

4.6 Drifting

This is a term used when a hole of exact shape and size is made in a piece of metal, and special
tools called "Drifts" are necessary to do it. These are pieces of metal machined to shape and size,
having a long taper at one end. Two are required, one called the "Rougher" with which the majority
of the work is done, and the "Finisher", used to finally tap through the hole to ensure accuracy.

Using the small round tapered punch; a hole is first made through the metal, and opened until it will
take the tapered end of the "Rougher" drift. This tool is then aligned correctly, and hammered into
the hole; the metal being turned so that is goes in equally from each side. This operation is repeated
until the "Rougher" drift will almost go through. The metal is then reheated and dressed straight with
the Flatter, and then the "Finisher" drift is carefully tapped through. The Drifts must be held upright,
and the metal kept at an even, bright red heat, throughout the whole operation.

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4.7 Bending

Angle bends in round or flat section material can be achieved by a variety of methods. The following
illustrations show several of the more widely used applications

Angle bends may be made by hammering in a vice, over the edge of an anvil, or over a block of
metal held in a hardie hole or in a vice.

When a piece of metal is bent sharply, the inside is compressed and bulged sideways, and the
outside is stretched.

To prevent this, the metal should be "worked up" before bending where the bend is to be made.

1.

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Bending Allowance

Length of material required:-

50mm straight plus 15mm straight plus of 12mm radius circle.

(Working with mean thickness of material).

Therefore total length required =50 +15 + (1/4 x 24 x ) = 65 + (6 x ) = 84mm approx.

2. Bending Link

Where a small radius is required, i.e. pipe clips or clamps, a bending link us used. This is
placed in the hardie hole of the anvil and the bend is made by a top fuller.

3. Fork Tool
A fork tool is used for bending round section material. The distance between the prongs must
slightly exceed the diameter of material being bent.

4. Vee Swage

Where sharp, square corners are required, a Vee Swage and fuller are used.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
Tongs
The blacksmith normally requires a good selection of tongs with which to hold his work during the various
operations, the main types of tongs for holding work as shown.

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 CHAPTER SIX
Mechanical Properties of Steel
Steel is primarily an alloy of Iron and Carbon. The carbon content can be up to 1.7 per cent but rarely
exceeds 1.4 per cent. Other elements may be added intentionally to this basic alloy, either to
enhance the normal properties, or to confer a wide range of other useful properties, such as very
high strength, toughness at low temperatures, corrosion resistance, heat resistance, or simply to
make it easier to form, or weld it. Other elements (Silicon, Manganese, Sulphur and Phosphorous)
are also present, and, if any intentional additions of other elements are made to steel, it is known as
an alloy steel; otherwise it is called a plain carbon steel. Carbon is the most important element in
steel, it is the hardening element, and the more carbon the steel contains, the harder will it be.

Silicon is used in the manufacture of steel as a cleansing agent, and it does much to ensure
soundness and cleanliness in steel castings and ingots. It is usually present in amounts between
0.1% and 0.25% as a residue. Within these limits, it has very little influence on the mechanical
properties of steel. Most specifications demand its presence as an assurance that the amount
originally present has been adequate for deoxidising purposes.

Manganese combines with the iron, and improves the tensile strength, it also combines with the
carbon to form carbide, and this increases the amount of Pearlite present in slowly cooled steels.
Pearlite containing Manganese carbide is usually much finer, and therefore tougher, and much
stronger. Steel containing Manganese reaches the hardening condition at a lower temperature than
would be the case if this element in steel were entirely absent, and by quenching from the lower
temperature reduces distortion and risk of cracking. Manganese is also a purifying agent in the
manufacture of steel. Sulphur in the plain carbon steels is kept as low as possible. Few specifica-
tions will tolerate amounts greater than 0.66%. It is objectionable on two accounts. Firstly, it com-
bines with iron to form a weak brittle structure, and may also lie along the crystal boundaries, thus
weakening the bonds which hold them together. Secondly, what is perhaps its most objectionable
characteristic, the iron sulphur compound melts at a relatively low temperature, and when the steel
is hot rolled, or forged, is responsible for the development of numerous cracks, thereby causing "Hot
Shortness".

Phosphorous, like Sulphur, is an impurity in steel and is limited by specifications to a maximum

content of 0.06%. Too high a phosphorous content results in "Cold Shortness" a failure of the
steel when it is subjected to stress, or shock. Where plain carbon steels are concerned, phosphor-
ous is a nuisance, and, in good quality steels, its presence is desired as little as possible.

The hardness of plain carbon steel increases progressively with increase in carbon content, so that,
generally, the Low and Medium carbon steels are used for constructional work, whilst the high car-
bon steels are used for the manufacture of tools, and other components where hardness and wear
resistance are necessary. Steel may be roughly classified according to carbon content as follows:-

Mild Steel 0 - 0.3% carbon;

Medium Carbon Steels 0.3% - 0.6% carbon;
High Carbon Steel 0.6% - 0.9% carbon;
Carbon Tool Steel 0.9% - 1.4% carbon.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN
Recognition of Steel
Para Page

7.1 Low Carbon Steel. 17

7.2 Medium Carbon Steel. 18
7.3 High Carbon Steel. 18
7.4 Spring Steels (Carbon & Silicon Manganese) 11
7.5 High Speed Steel. 12

There are various ways in which one class of steel may be distinguished from another, e.g. grinding
on an emery wheel and observing the type and colour of the sparks given off; dropping, and listening
to the sound; cutting about % through the bar, holding in the vice, and breaking, and then examining
the fracture; the colour code; and by heat treatment.

7.1 Low Carbon Steel

Carbon content 0.0%-0.3%

Hacksaw test After cutting 2/3 through the bar the bar will bend greater
than 90

Magnetic Yes
Sonority Medium pitched ring
Air cooled from red heat Soft files easily
Quenched from red heat No apparent change
Fracture Fine and crystalling
Grindstone spark test Bright yellow some bursts

Weldability Good
Forgeability Good 850C - 1250C

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7.2 Medium Carbon Steel

Carbon content 0.3% - 0.6% carbon

Hacksaw test After cutting % through the bar the bar will bend then
snap before 90is reached

Magnetic Yes
Sonority Medium pitched ring
Air cooled from red heat Soft files easily
Quenched from red heat Hard but can still be filed
Fracture Fine and grey crystals
Grindstone spark test Bright yellow sparks some bursts

Weldability Care must be taken, 3% nickel basic or austenitic

electrode

Forgeability 750C -1150C good

7.3 High Carbon Steel

Carbon content 0.60% -1.4% carbon

Hacksaw test After cutting % through the bar the bar will snap off at out
15-30
Magnetic Yes
Sonority High pitched ring
Air cooled Soft and fairly tough
Quenched from red heat Hard cannot be filed of cut with a hacksaw
Fracture Pale grey very fine crystals
Grindstone spark test Bright yellow all bursting

Weldability Oxy/Acetylene process 3 % nickel

Electric basic austenitic electrodes pre-heat to350C
Forgeability 700C - 850C good

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7.4 Spring Steels (Carbon & Silicon Manganese)

Composition 0.44% - 0.6% carbon

1.80% - 2.20% silicon
0.6 % - 0.9% manganese
Hacksaw test After cutting % through the bar the bar will
snap off at about 10-15
Magnetic Yes
Sonority Medium pitched ring
Air cooled from red heat Soft and fairly tough
Quenched from red heat Hard cannot be filed, shatters like glass when
hit lightly with a hammer
Grindstone spark test Streaks fork before bursting into sparks
Weldability Low heat welding arc
(peening after austenitic chrome nickel)
Forgeability Good 750C -1100C

7.5 High Speed Steel

Composition 0.65% - 0.80% carbon,

14% - 22% tungsten
0.25% - 30% silicon,
0 -1.5% vanadium
0 - 0.20% manganese,
0 - 0.5% molybdenum
3.0% - 5.0% chromium
0 -12% Cobalt
Sulphur & phosphorous low
Hacksaw test Nick all around the bar will snap or when tapped
with a hammer
Magnetic Yes
Sonority Very high pitched ring
Air cooled from red heat Hard brittle cannot be filed
Quenched from red heat Hard cannot be filed
Fracture Silky blue grey very fine
Grindstone spark test Blood red non bursting

Weldability Nil (can silver solder or braze tips to lath tools)

Forgeability Difficult 900C -1200C
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 CHAPTER EIGHT
Metals for Engineering Craftsman Composition,
Properties and Manipulation

Para Page

8.1 Wrought Iron. 20

8.2 Mild Steel. Low Carbon. 10
8.3 Medium Carbon Steels. 11
8.4 High Carbon Steels. 11
8.5 High Manganese Steels 12
8.6 High Speed Steel. 12
8.7 Silicon Manganese Steels. 13
8.8 Medium Manganese Steel.
8.9 Stainless Steel.

8.1 Wrought Iron

1. Uses

Ornamental ironwork; railings; chains; railway couplings; hooks, etc.

2. Composition

Wrought iron, or puddled iron as it is sometimes called, is at least 99% pure iron, and this is
achieved by oxidising out the impurities in grey pig iron, i.e. silicon, manganese, sulphur and
carbon, by the use of slags and gasses with oxidising characteristics, such as ferric oxide and
silica fettled in from burnt pyrites. Four stages of manufacture are involved; 1. The melting
stage, 2. The boiling stage; 3. The finishing stage; 4. The balling stage. It is this last stage that
gives the metal its characteristic fibrous appearance, for at this stage the metal is now a
malleable iron and in a spongy mass, from which is worked balls of 60 - 80 pounds in weight
which are removed from the puddling furnace dripping with slag, and forged under the
shingling hammer into rough blooms. This forging operation squeezes out a large proportion
of the slag, and welds the iron. The temperature of the blooms is then evened up in a soaking
pit and then passed through rolls to produce what are called 'Merchant Bars'. Better quality
wrought iron bars are made by cutting the Merchant Bars into short lengths, piling them into
faggots, re-heating to welding heat, re-forging and re-rolling. Repeated forging and rolling
gives successively better steel.

3. Properties

Fibrous and ropy steel with an ultimate tensile strength of 23 - 24 tons per sq in, it has a yield
point of 15 - 16 tons per sq in, and a 25 - 35 % elongation.

It resists corrosion to a remarkable degree and will withstand repeated shocks at intervals
long enough to effect recovery to its normal condition.
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 Its workability can be severely affected by the inclusion of minute quantities of phosphorous
or sulphur, or silicon, resulting in the metal being either 'cold short' or 'hot short', that is being
liable to fracture when cold, or to fracture when hot, but possessing the usual qualities at the
other range of heat.

It machines badly as a result of its construction except when drilling. Otherwise it can be
manipulated with ease and precision, and is unsurpassed for work requiring upsetting,
splitting, punching, and scarf, cleft and pocket welding. It is the material par excellence for
decorative wrought ironwork.

Wrought iron can be identified by the spark test, or by twisting and bending a small section
and observing the separation of the laminations.

It cannot be hardened by heating and quenching, and is not improved by heat treatment.

Most modern so-called wrought ironwork, although 'wrought' in the sense that it is 'worked', is
made from mild steel and not from wrought iron.

4. Welding Properties

Wrought iron can be welded by conventional methods and materials as for mild steel. It cuts
badly using the oxy-acetylene torch.

8.2 Mild Steel Low Carbon

1. Uses

Structural steel as in angle, channel and I and T sections, trailer chassis: machine-tool
frames: agricultural implement frames; and is probably the most widely used of all
engineering materials.

2. Composition

The term steel is generally applied to those alloys of carbon and iron, where the carbon is
present entirely in the combined condition, and is less than 2 % in total content, and mild steel
will contain never more than 0.25 % of carbon, but will be contaminated, as are all
commercial quality steels with manganese, sulphur, silicon and phosphorous in minute
amounts.

3. Properties

Soft, ductile, and easily worked either hot or cold. Forges well under heat, and machines
easily on all machining operations, but free machining qualities can be obtained in which
there is a small amount of lead from 0.15 to 0.30 % incorporated.

Mild steel cannot be hardened by merely heating and quenching, and this fact provides a
ready means of identification, in that its reaction to filing will be the same after such treatment
as it was before. The spark test will also help in identification.

Hardening is effected by the cyanide process or by soaking at red heat long enough for it to
absorb additional carbon from such materials as charcoal, leather, or other carbonaceous
elements, either solid, liquid, or gaseous, with which it is in contact, which will enable a thin
21 | P a g e
 skin of the surface of the metal to respond to heat treatment, the inner core maintaining its
normal characteristics. This is known as case hardening.

4. Welding Procedure.

Mild steel can be welded with gas, using copper-coated mild steel roads, SM1 or 3 % nickel
rods. For electric arc welding excellent results are obtained with mild steel or basic
electrodes. Because of its quantities it requires no further treatment after welding.

8.3 Medium Carbon Steels

1. Uses

Smith's tools; chisels; sets; dies; shear blades; mason's tools; hammers; miner's and quarry
drills; springs; spades; shovels; forks; ploughshares; beams and mould boards; structural
steel, etc

2. Composition

From 0.25 to 0.60% carbon, and will contain silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorous in
minute quantities, and iron to 100%.

3. Properties

Carbon renders the steel susceptible to hardening, although a carbon content of below 0.1%
will show no significant hardening when rapidly cooled. An increase in the percentage of
carbon results in a proportionate increase in hardness and tenacity, with a corresponding
drop in the toughness and ductility.

It can be identified easily by the spark test, and the higher the carbon content the less vivid
the smaller are the sparks, but more abundant closer to the grinding wheel.

The maximum forging temperature is 1150C and should be finished at 700C and the tem-
perature for annealing is 770CC whilst the hardening temperature for quenching is 800C to
820C. The tempering heat depends on requirements of the job and the higher this heat the
greater is the reduction in hardness with a corresponding increase in the ductility, for this
class of steel the tempering heat varies between 220C and 300C.

4. Welding Properties

Medium carbon steels can be gas welded with 3Va per cent nickel S.M.1 rods and electrically
welded with basic or austenitic electrodes, but in the case of springs a hard surfacing
electrode of 250 Brinell hardness should be used, peening the weld whilst hot to improve its
quality and fully hardening and tempering the spring afterwards.

8.4 High Carbon Steels

1. Uses

Special turning and planning tools; twist drills; cutters; mills and hobs; taps; dies; punches;
reamers; springs, etc.

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2. Composition

0.60 -1.8% carbon, but usually limited to a maximum of 1.5% carbon except in special
purpose compositions. There is the usual contamination from silicon, manganese, sulphur
and phosphorous, the balance to 100% being of iron.

3. Properties

Susceptible to extreme and deep hardening by the appropriate heat treatment, but must not
be used in shock applications. It will consequently grind to a very keen edge that will not be
easily dulled.

Identification by the spark test is perhaps easiest of all, the higher the carbon content the
greater the profusion of sparks.

It can be forged hot and is quite machinable in the annealed state, but careful treatment is
necessary as the grain structure can easily be affected. Maximum forging temperature is
850C and forging should finish before falling to 700C. Hardening is affected by quenching
at temperatures between 730C and 780C and, after grinding off the carburised surface to a
bright finish to reveal colour changes, can be tempered at 230C.

4. Welding Procedure

High-carbon steels can be welded by oxy-acetylene gas using 3 % nickel S.M.1 rods, and
by the electric arc process with basic or austenitic electrodes, but should always be pre-
heated to about 350C before commencing welding. The necessity for welding this class of
steel rarely arises, but should it do so, the qualities imparted by careful heat treatment would
have to be restored.

8.5 High Manganese Steel

1 Uses

Soil and rock ripper teeth; digger bucket teeth; dredger bucket teeth; ore and rock crushing
jaws and rolls; bulldozer blades; railway points; screenings; lifting magnet cover plates; safes
and vaults; etc.

2. Composition

1.0 - 1.4% carbon, 1.0 - 1.8% silicon, 10 - 16% manganese, with minute quantities of sulphur
and phosphorous.

3. Properties

Discovered by Robert Hadfield in 1842 it is remarkable for its extreme toughness and the fact
that its surface hardness increases with repeated impact.

This steel is non-magnetic, which quality provides a ready means of identification. It can be
hot forged with ease, but is very difficult to machine and even in its most ductile form requires
special tipped tools.

23 | P a g e
 Maximum ductility and toughness are obtained by heating to 1000C (1832F) and quenching
in water, the process being the opposite to that used for carbon steels.

Although in the past it has not been widely used in agriculture, today, with increasing
emphasis on mechanisation, it is gradually finding its place, due to its remarkable resistance
to abrasion, and for that quality alone it is likely to be used more and more on the farm.

4. Welding Properties

It cuts badly with the oxy-acetylene torch, and is generally unsatisfactory to weld by the same
means, but it can be readily welded by electric arc using austenitic electrodes with a 14%
content, or 18/8 stainless steel electrodes.

8.6 High-Speed Tool Steel

1. Uses

Restricted entirely to cutting bits for machine tools.

2. Composition

Carbon 0.65 0.8%, silicon 0.25 - 0.30%, manganese 0.20 per cent, chromium 3.0 - 5.0%,
Wolfram (tungsten) 14.0 22.0%, vanadium 0 - 1.5%, molybdenum 0 - 0.5%, cobalt 0 -
12.0%, with sulphur and phosphorous as low as possible, and iron to make 100%.

3. Properties

The principal advantage of these steels lies in their ability to retain their cutting edges even
when operating at speeds that will produce temperatures of red heat. It is, however, pointless
to use them on machine tools that have not the necessary power for driving at high speeds, or
the rigidity to prevent vibration from the deep cuts of which these tools are capable.

High-speed steels are readily machined in the annealed state or forged to shape as lathe,
planer, or shaper tools, but will be efficient only if great care is taken in subsequent heat treat-
ment, which demands very high temperatures.

Forging heat is between 1050C and 1200 C and must not be allowed to fall below 950C, at
which temperature re-heating is necessary. Normalising is essential after forging, and is done
by re-heating to 700C for half an hour and then cooling in still air.

For hardening and tempering in the hearth, heat the tool nose slowly, turning frequently until
bright red. Increase the blast to raise the temperature quickly until the tip of the nose just
begins to run. Withdraw immediately and cool the whole tool in an air blast, or quench in oil.
Temper at 230C first, and for better results temper again at 580C.

8.7 Silicon-Manganese Steels

1. Uses

This is essentially spring steel, but has some uses in the field of gear transmission.

24 | P a g e
2. Composition

0.45 - 0.55% carbon, 0.60 - 0.90% manganese and 1.80 - 2.20% silicon, sulphur 0.045%
max, phosphorous 0.045% max, and iron to 100%.

3. Properties

The best springs are made from materials that can store up the greatest amount of energy in
a given section of the material, without permanent deformation or failure: they should also
possess maximum resistance to fatigue and shock effects, and have a correspondingly high
deformation or deflection and recovery value. For these qualities it is essential the material
should have as high an elastic limit as possible. The silicon content is responsible for this high
elasticity.
Forging temperatures are 1050C - 1100C, and it is heat treated by quenching in oil at its
minimum forging temperature (900CC) and tempered at 500CC - 550CC.

4. Welding Procedure

Welding by electric arc is satisfactory but bevelling to a double V and pre-heating to 300C
is essential, and a ferritic-type rod should be used, the entire spring being re-hardened and
tempered on completion to eliminate the brittle zone adjacent to the weld. If, however, this is
impossible, local tempering of the weld zone can be accomplished by very careful heating to
3 or 4 inch either side of the weld to 500C - 600C by the use of a blowpipe, using chromatic
thermometers (coloured crayon heat indicators) for reliable guidance of the applied heat.

8.8 Medium Manganese Steel

1. Uses

H.T. bolts; coil and torsion bar springs: railway and tram lines; conveyor tracks; structural
steelwork; axles.

2. Composition

Varying widely from 0.4 - 1.8 % manganese alloyed with other elements such as nickel,
chromium, carbon, molybdenum, vanadium, and silicon, and are often not classified as
manganese steels, because manganese might not be responsible for the principal charac-
teristic of the metal, and in any case all modern steels contain some manganese, if only as a
de-oxidiser and to combine with the silicon to prevent formation of ferrous silicate, which is
always a source of trouble when re-smelting.

3. Properties

Variable, according to composition and ratio of constituents, but developing from 45 - 65 tons
tensile.

They machine reasonably well by conventional methods, and can be forged under proper
conditions.

Heat treatment in water or oil or either is dependent upon the composition, but hardening in
oil or water takes place from a temperature of 850C - 900C, and tempering from between
550C - 720C.

25 | P a g e
 It can be identified by the spark test, the sparks being very distinctive and emitting a slight
hissing sound.

4. Welding Procedure

If manganese steels are subject to intense heat their structure and characteristics will
undergo a severe change, therefore they must be welded at as low a heat as possible, and for
this reason they should not be gas welded.

When arc welding such steels the current values should be about 25% less than for
equivalent sizes of M/S electrodes, and it is advisable to use the lowest current that will pro-
duce a satisfactory weld, allowing time to cool between each run.

Austenitic chrome-nickel alloy electrodes are used with the best results, and maximum
current values quoted on the packet label should never be exceeded. The weld metal is soft
and ductile, resists cracking on cooling, but can be work hardened by peening if desired.

8.9 Stainless Steel

1 Uses
Kettles; autoclaves; hospital and domestic equipment; chemical and food processing and
storage plant; milking apparatus; bearing races; turbine blades; pump shafts, etc.
2. Composition
18% chromium & 8% nickel known as 18/8 stainless, 12%chromium & 12% nickel known as
12/12 stainless, and 18%chromium & 9% nickel know as Staybrite. These are known as the
chromium nickel steels, but there are many other varieties classified as plain chromium steels
and others such as high chromium low nickel steels which will not be considered here.
3. Properties
The 18/8, 12/12, and 18/9 group cannot be hardened by heat treatment and are
non-magnetic. They often develop a tensile strength of up to 90 tons per sq in, and may
contain small amounts of tungsten, titanium, molybdenum, copper, carbon, etc. Cold working
will increase the tensile strength, and hardness.
They can be worked cold, pressed, formed, bent, welded, brazed, and soldered, and free
machining qualities can be impacted by the addition of selenium or by high sulphur content.
It is not possible to mistake this steel for anything other than in the stainless range, but when
applied to a grinding wheel the sparks are long, bright yellow streaks terminating in spear
points; also, in their soft state they are completely austenitic and non-magnetic and are soft-
ened by quenching from heats at 1100C. (This process being opposite to that used for
carbon steel) and this may have to be done several times during cold working, and on
completion of manipulation in order to restore softness, ductility and maximum resistance to
corrosion, which latter is only achieved in the softest state.
4. Welding Procedure
Satisfactory welding by gas can be achieved by using stainless steel rods, or bronze welding
with 9% nickel bronze rods. Columbium stabilised stainless steel electrode produce good
results in electric arc welding.

26 | P a g e
 CHAPTER NINE
Formulae

Para Page

9.1 Ring 30
9.2 U Bolt 31
9.3 Half Clip(Pipe) 32
9.4 Full Clip 33
9.5 Split Link 34

9.1 Ring
In most jobs the length of metal required is cut to correct size before shaping.
To calculate the size of a ring:-
Formula - for a ring is MD x
The "mean diameter" equals the "inside" diameter of the ring, plus one thickness of metal.

Example:

Inside diameter of ring = 150mm

Thickness of metal = 25mm
Therefore mean diameter = 175mm
RING

175 x 3.142 = 549.85mm

Therefore length of metal required to make the ring is 550mm.

27 | P a g e
9.2 U Bolt

Formula for a "U" bolt is:-

MD + (2L-1W)
2

UBOLT
Where:-
"L" equals length of inside "U" bolt
"W" equals width of inside "U" bolt

Example:-

Length of U bolt 150mm

Width of U bolt 60mm
Thickness of metal 10mm
Mean diameter 70mm

MD = 70 x 3.142 = 109.97 = 110mm

2 2

(2L-1W) = 300 - 60 = 240mm

Therefore 110 + 240 = 350mm

Length of metal required to make the U bolt is 350mm.

28 | P a g e
9.3 Half Clip (Pipe)

The pipe-clip is made so that the height is slightly less than the radius of the pipe. This is to ensure a
tight fit when the two half-clips are bolted together round the pipe. The gap between the clips is
known as "Pull-up" and is usually about 5mm.

To mark out the metal previous to bending the lugs:

HALF CLIP (PIPE)

Formula = x D - 1 pull up + 2 lugs (ears)

2

3.142 x 85 = 133.6
2

One pull up = 5mm

Two lugs = 2 x 30mm = 60

Therefore 133.6 5 + 60 = 188.6

Therefore the length of metal to make one half clip is 189mm.

29 | P a g e
9.4 Full Clip

The pipe clip is made so that the height is slightly less in diameter of the pipe. This is to ensure that when
bolted down it fits tight, the gap is known as "pull-up" about 5mm.

Formula- ( X D) + d - Two pull ups

2
3.142 x 85 = 134 + 85 = 219mm (2 x 5) = 209mm
2

Therefore 209 + 2L = 2 x 30 + 269mm

Therefore length of metal to make a full clip = 269mm

FULL CLIP

30 | P a g e
9.5 Split Link

Length required to manufacture one split link

Material = 10mm dia LCS.

Internal diameter width = 63mm

Length = 100mm

Requirements for A = MD x = 114.683mm

2

Requirements for B = MD x /2 = 57.340mm

2

Requirements for C = MD x /2 = 57.340mm

2

NOTE the material for items B & C is prior to manipulating it into shape.

Two lengths = 200mm

TOTAL 429.363mm

31 | P a g e
 CHAPTER TEN
Heat Treatment of Carbon Steels

Para Page

10.1 Basic Iron Phase Diagram. 32

10.2 The Behaviour of Steel when:- 33
a. Heated
b. Heated, and allowed to Cool in Still Air.
c. Heated, and Quenched.
10.3 The Behaviour of Steel when:- 35
a. Normalising.
b. Annealing.
c. Hardening.
d. Quenching Media
10.4 Tempering. 37
a. The Hot Block Method.
b. The Single Heat Method.
10.5 Hardening and Tempering of Springs. 39
10.6 Health & Safety & Case Hardening. 40
10.7 High Speed Steel. 46

10.1 Basic Iron Phase Diagram

Each different type of steel produced has its own phase diagram.

This diagram below shows on the left side heat scaled in centigrade applied to the steel.
The base line displays the amount of carbon in the steel.

At 723C a line is drawn across the diagram, this is known as The Lower Critical Point and it
does not vary.

From 910C a line is drawn down to a point on the lower critical point at 0.9% then upwards to
900, this now forms the basic iron phase diagram from this all heat treatments of carbon
steel can be worked out.

Iron Phase Diagram

32 | P a g e
 When steel is heated no structural change takes place until the lower critical point is reached.
At this point carbon in the steel commences to form into a solid solution with the iron and this
change takes place throughout the critical range.

The transformation is completed at the upper critical point at temperatures above this the
steel consists of a solid solution of carbon in iron call "Austenite" which is a substance that is
non magnetic, extremely plastic and considerable contraction takes place.

10.2 Heat Treatment of Steel

The behaviour of steel when:-

a. Heated
b. Heated, and allowed to cool in still air
c. Heated, and quenched

When pure Iron is subjected to heat treatment, the "Alpha" to "Gamma" transformation (or
Ferrite to Austenite) takes place at 910C, a transformation that is reversible, but with steel,
as the carbon content increases up to 0.9%, the temperature of the transformation point is
progressively depressed from 910C to 723C. Beyond this critical content, however, the
change temperature rises again.

The temperature of the transformation point is known as "The Upper Critical Point". The
temperature of the "Lower Critical Point" is constant at 723C. The temperatures between the
Lower, and Upper Critical Points, are known as the "Critical Range". (See Iron Phase
Equilibrium Diagram).

When steel is put into a furnace and gradually heated at a uniform rate, and the temperature
taken at frequent regular intervals, it will be seen that the temperature rise is even. This even,
or uniform rise will continue until the temperature reaches that of the Lower Critical Point
(723C) when, for a time, it will remain stationary, and then rise at a somewhat slower rate,
until on reaching the temperature of the Upper Critical Point, it will continue to rise at an even
rate but the speed of change will increase to the original, (i.e. pre Lower Critical Point). The
check at 723C and the subsequent slowing up in the temperature rise happens, because at
that temperature the carbon begins to dissolve into the iron, and at the same time the steel
absorbs heat. At the Upper Critical Point, all the carbon is fully dissolved into the iron, and a
structure of austenite is obtained.

On cooling with steels at a carbon content less than 0.9% the change from Austenite to
Pearlite takes place over a range temperature indicated by the difference between the Upper
and Lower Critical Points. The first material to appear is Ferrite, and this goes on appearing
until the carbon content of the remaining Austenite has been enriched to 0.85%, then this at
once changes to Pearlite. With steels at a carbon content of 0.9% (the Eutectoid steels) the
Pearlite to Austenite, and Austenite to Pearlite transformation takes place instantaneously at
723C (The Lower Critical Point).

On cooling steels with a carbon content at above 0.9%, the change also takes place over a
range of temperatures (i.e. between the Upper and Lower Critical Points) but this time the first
material to appear is Cementite. This goes on until the carbon content of the remaining
Austenite is reduced to 0.85%, when this again changes at once to Pearlite.

Steel that has been allowed to cool in still air will undergo a structural change from Austenite
to Pearlite (plus the free constituent). When the rate of cooling is hastened by rapid
33 | P a g e
quenching, a structure known as Martensite is obtained. Martensite is an extremely hard and
brittle substance, and under the microscope appears as a needle-like structure. To obtain the
structure of Martensite, the steel must first be heated to slightly above the Upper Critical
Point, and quenched in an appropriate medium.

A slower or less severe quench gives rise to a structure known as Bainite and this substance
can be likened to a very fine Pearlite. Sometimes Martensite and Bainite appear in the same
piece of quenched steel, according to the rate of cooling, and size and shape of the
component, for example, with a large section, the outside "layer" will be fully Martensitic, and
the centre Bainitic, because of the slower rate of cooling for the latter.

With alloy steels, the depth of the Martensitic layer is increased, because the alloying
elements slow down the transformation rate. Thus, alloy steels may be hardened by less
drastic quenching methods than are necessary for plain carbon steels.

Crystals in Metal

BODY CENTRED CUBIC FACED CENTRED CUBIC

ALPHA IRON GAMMA IRON

34 | P a g e
 Iron Carbon Phase Diagram

10.3 Heat Treatment of Steel

a. Normalising
b. Annealing
c. Hardening
d. Quenching Media

Steel is heat treated to give it certain desired properties. These properties are determined by
the heat treatment to which the metal is subjected - the governing feature of which is the rate
of cooling.

When steel is required in a very soft condition, it is ANNEALED.

After forging, or after Cold Working, the metal is NORMALISED. To enable steel to cut
another metal, and to prevent wear, it is HARDENED.

To relieve brittleness, and obtain toughness, the steel is TEMPERED.

Normalising is a heat treatment, carried out to relieve stresses in the metal caused by forging
or cold working, at the same time the grain structure is refined.
35 | P a g e
The steel is heated to a temperature, 30-50C above the Upper Critical Point, and allowed
to cool in still air. Draughts should be avoided since they cause the steel to cool too quickly.

To soften steel, to make for easy machining, drilling, filing etc, the metal is annealed. This is
a heat treatment somewhat similar to normalising, except that the cooling is delayed. To
obtain the best results, a thermostatically controlled furnace is used.

Again the metal is heated to a temperature, 30-50C above the Upper Critical Point, and
held at that temperature long enough to ensure a fully austenitic structure throughout. The
furnace is then switched off, and the metal left inside to cool. If a furnace is not available,
annealing can be carried out by using the Smith's fire. The metal is heated to a full red heat,
allowing sufficient time for the heat to reach the centre. The air blast is then switched off; the
metal is completely covered with hot coke, and allowed to cool inside the fire. Another
method is to heat the metal to a full red heat, and then bury it in a heat retaining substance,
such as Lime, Dry Sand, or Dry Ashes.

To harden steel, the metal must be brought from hot to cold quickly, and this rapid rate of
cooling is accomplished by quenching. The more rapid the rate of cooling, the harder the
steel will be, but care must be exercised in choosing the appropriate quenching medium,
because certain steels will crack if quenched too quickly, or, if the component to be
hardened is of an intricate shape. The quenching medium is chosen according to the rate at
which it is desired to cool the steel, and the following list of media is arranged in order of
quenching speeds:-

5% Caustic Soda (i.e. 5 parts of caustic soda in 100 parts of clean fresh water).

5%-20% Brine (Brine is ordinary salt dissolved in clean fresh water, and the figures 5-20
refer to the percentage of salt. The greater the amount of salt means the steel will be
cooled more rapidly, and will therefore be harder).

Water (Water used as quenching medium must be clean and fresh from the tap).

Warm Water (This will give a much slower rate of cooling than cold water, but will be
somewhat more rapid than oil. It is advisable to use warm water as a quenching medium
in severe frosty conditions; when a metallurgists instructions are available; or, when very
warm, as a substitute for oil).

Oil (There are three types of oil suitable for quenching steel Mineral, Animal and
Vegetable. Mineral oil will give a more rapid quench than Animal oil and Animal oil is
quicker than Vegetable.

Air Blast (The air stream from a fairly large fan is concentrated into a small area, and the
hot steel is held in it until cold. This method results in a very slow rate of cooling, and is
generally referred to as "Air Hardening").

The very drastic quench resulting from the use of the caustic soda solution, or brine, is used
only when extreme hardness is required in components of simple shape. Water is generally
used for the hardening of high carbon steels. Oil is mostly used for the hardening of springs
(both "flat" and "coil"); certain types of high speed steel and for tools, made from high carbon
steel, that are wide, and thin in proportion, such as planer blades, wood chisels, bricklayers
bolster chisels etc. Air blast is used for other certain types of high speed steel.
36 | P a g e
 To harden a piece of steel, then, it must be heated to between 30- 50C above the Upper
Critical Point and then quenched in the appropriate medium which will produce in it the
desired rate of cooling. The medium used will depend upon the composition of the steel, and
the ultimate properties required. All components should be agitated in the medium during
quenching.

10.4 Heat Treatment of Steel - Tempering

a. The Hot Block Method

b. The Single Heat Method
A fully hardened carbon tool steel is very brittle, and the presence of stresses set up by
quenching make its use in this condition inadvisable, except in cases where extreme
hardness is required. To relieve this brittleness, a heat treatment called TEMPERING is
carried out. This is done by reheating the steel, after hardening, to a temperature dependent
on the work the steel tool has to do, such temperature always being below that of its Lower
Critical Point.
Tempering at temperature up to 200C only relieves stress to a certain extent, but between
230C and 400C the martensite changes to a structure called TROOSITE, which is granular
in form, consisting of a mixture of extremely fine ferrite and cementite, rather like an emulsion
of oil and water. TROOSITE is much tougher but softer than Martensite, making it stronger
and more reliably suited for a cutting tool. Tempering above 400C produces a structure
called SORBITE, which is similar to TROOSITE except that it is softer and weaker, but more
ductile.
Tempering can be carried out in a number of ways, but, in every one, the temperature needs
to be accurately controlled. Because of this, best results are obtained with the use of
tempering furnaces, or salt baths. Furnaces for tempering are usually of the "Air Circulating"
type, i.e. air is circulated in a chamber, after passing over an electric element, the
temperature of which is thermostatically controlled. Salt baths are tanks, ranging in various
sizes, containing mixtures of sodium nitrite, and potassium nitrate, which liquify when heated.
Thermostatically controlled, they are used for tempering up to 500C but above that
temperature the salt baths will contain mixtures of chlorides. Lead baths are also used,
especially when the tempering temperature required is high. Special indicating paints or
crayons are of particular use when tempering, because they indicate the actual temperature
of the component, and are not affected by the surrounding atmosphere of the furnace. The
paints and crayons change colour or appearance at a stated, fixed temperature. A mark is
made on the component with the appropriate paint or crayon, it is then heated until the
change in colour or appearance occurs.
In workshops where special equipment is not available, tempering can be achieved by
observing the colour of the oxide film on polished surfaces, but this colour - temperature
relationship is only applicable to plain carbon steels. The colours obtain by polishing a
hardened component with emery stone, or emery paper, then, with the application of heat,
the oxide film on the surface assumes a light straw colour, which gradually thickens, or
darkens with increases in temperature, until it is a full blue. The oxide-film colours, indicating
temperatures between 230C and 300C are only a reliable guide when the component has
been progressively raised in temperature, and accuracy depends on the skill and experience
of the operator. Reference to the following Table will give temperatures (and indicating
colours) at which various tools or components are tempered).
Tools that have a curved or irregularly shaped cutting edge are first hardened by quenching,
then after polishing, are placed on a suitably sized hot block of metal. Heat will transfer from
the block to the tool, temperatures being indicated by the colour of the oxide film. When the
37 | P a g e
 appropriate colour obtains, the tool is removed, and can be allowed to cool in still air, or can
be quenched. This process is known at "Tempering by the hot block" method. Screwdrivers
including the "Phillips" type are also tempered by this method, care being taken to heat the
thick part of the blade first by allowing the end, or thin part, to overhang the hot block. The
blade is then gradually drawn over the block so that the whole part of it reaches a bright blue
at the same time.
Tools, such as cold chisels, having a straight cutting edge, are hardened and tempered in one
heat, the process being known as the "Single Heat" method. The blade of the tool is heated
(for about % of its length) to its correct hardening temperature, and the cutting edge
immersed in the quenching medium, usually water, until cold, and therefore becoming fully
Martensitic. When cold, the blade is withdrawn and polished with emery stone to form the film
of oxide, in which the tempering colours can be seen.
Heat will travel, by conduction, from the body of the tool to the cutting edge, at the same time;
the tempering colours will travel with it. When the appropriate colour obtains on the cutting
edge, but not before, the whole tool is quenched. This is done to take away the heat source,
thus preventing the cutting edge getting hotter than the temperature required.
Tempering Colours for Plain - Carbon -Tool Steels

Temperature Colour Type of Component

230C Light Straw Scrapers; Hacksaws; Light Turning and Parting Tools;
Screwing Dies for Brass; Hammer Faces; Planing and
Slotting Tools

240C Medium Straw Shear Blades; Milling; Cutters, Paper Cutters; Drills;
Boring Cutters and Reamers; Rock Drills

250C Dark Straw Penknife Blades; Taps, Metal Shears; Punches; Dies;
Woodworking Tools for Hard Wood

260C Light Purple Plane Blades; Stone Cutting Tools; Punches; Centre
Punches; Reamers; Twist Drills for Wood

270C Medium Purple Axes; Gimlets; Augers; Surgical Tools; Press Tools

280C Dark Purple Cold Chisels; Cross-Cut Chisels; Wood Chisels; Plane
Blades for Softwoods

290C Bright Blue Screw-Drivers

300C Dark Blue Woods Saws; Springs

38 | P a g e
10.5 Heat Treatment of Steel Hardening and Tempering of Springs

Coil springs; both tension and compression are hardened and tempered by using a pipe of
suitable size. The pipe, with one end closed to prevent the intrusion of coke, is placed on the
Smith's fire and heated uniformly to a full red heat (about 820C). A rod, big enough to
support the weight of the spring when it (the rod) is hot, and having one end bent into a shape
resembling a letter "U" is now heated, in the pipe to the same temperature. The spring is
placed on the "U" part of the rod and held in the centre of the pipe. When it reaches a full red
heat, (about 800- 820C) the spring is withdrawn and quenched in oil, which hardens it. The
pipe is now removed from the fire and allowed to cool to black heat, - the rod being kept at the
same temperature by leaving inside the pipe. The spring is removed from the oil bath, and
surplus oil allowed to drain off. It is then held on the rod inside the pipe for tempering. When
the oil, adhering to the spring, reaches its flash point, and then ignites, it is removed instantly,
and the oil allowed to burn out. The coils of tension springs must be wired tightly together
before hardening and tempering takes place, to prevent their opening out, due to the heat.

The leaves of vehicle road springs are hardened by passing them to and fro in the Smith's fire
until they attain a full red heat (about 820C) along their full length. They are then quenched,
edgeways on, in an oil bath. For tempering the springs are passed over the top of the fire in
such a way, that they heat up to the tempering temperature of 450C as evenly as possible.
This temperature is judged by the behaviour of a hammer shaft, made from seasoned ash,
when rubbed on the hot leaf spring.

The shaft is drawn along the length of the spring periodically, as it is being heated for
tempering. As the temperature rises, the shaft will give off more and more smoke until,
eventually, sparks will also appear. When a small quantity of sparks are seen mingling with
the smoke emitting from the shaft, this condition indicates a temperature of 450C, the spring
is then removed from the fire, and can be either re-quenched, or be allowed to cool in still air.
It must be emphasised that leaves of short length can only be done this way, because of the
difficulty of heating as long one, evenly, along its full length.

The success of hardening and tempering springs, both flat and coil, by the methods
described, depends a great deal on the skill of the operator, so that, wherever possible, to
obtain maximum efficiency, a pyrometer-controlled furnace is used.

39 | P a g e
 BEHAVIOUR OF DRY ASH STICK (HAMMER SHAFT) WHEN RUBBED ON STEEL AT
CERTAIN TEMPERATURES

Temperature Behaviour of Stick

350C Becomes a little sticky

360C More greasy

370C Starts to slide

380C Slides easily, gives off a little smoke

390C Slips very easily, gives off smoke and a few sparks

400C Gives off more sparks

410C Gives off a lot of sparks

420 - 440C Starts a flame

10.6 Health & Safety & Case Hardening

General Note:

Hazards are associated with most chemicals though they obviously vary greatly. It is good
practice to handle all chemicals as if they were of a hazardous nature.

1. Materials should not be allowed to get into the eyes, nose or mouth: protective
equipment should be used when this is possible. Gloves should always be worn when
handling any bulk chemicals. Barriers creams are helpful.

2. No smoking should be allowed in plant areas. Apart from the obvious risk of fire from
inflammable materials, some chemicals are powerful oxidising agents and whilst they do
not readily ignite themselves, can increase the intensity of fires.

3. A high standard of personal and industrial hygiene should be observed. Eating, drinking
and smoking should be confined to areas designated for this purpose. All working areas
should be well ventilated and kept clean. Spillage should be cleaned up immediately. Hands
should be washed frequently and regular changes of dirty overalls should be encouraged.
40 | P a g e
The above is applicable to all plant circumstances and should be observed when handling
any Kasenit Compounds. However, specific details and recommendations for the use of
individual Kasenit Compounds are given below:-

KASENIT COMPOUNDS No.1 &2

Major Constituents:
Yellow Prussiate of Soda
Carbon
Other Constituents:
Sodium Salts
Trace elements
Physical Data (Compound No.1)
Solubility in water 27.8% at 12%
90% at 100%
Specific Gravity (H2O = 1) 1.85% at 17%
Fire and Explosion Hazard Nature:
None.
Health Hazard:
Whilst the constituents are not normally regarded as toxic they may cause mild irritation to the
skin, eyes and respiratory and digestive systems. Precautions and procedures should be
observed as detailed below.
Reactivity:
Stable as a solid when cold.
Unstable in solution in strong sunlight.
Spill or Leakage Procedures:
If material is spilled avoid breathing dust. Brush up and return to tin. Wash surplus to drain
with cold water.
Special Protection:
Good mechanical ventilation is required in the area of use to ensure dilution of fumes on
Pyrolysis. It is advisable not to inhale fumes close to the heated components in contact with
the powder.
Special Precautions:
Store in original containers in cool and dry conditions.
Avoid contact with acids, strong alkalis and all oxidising agents.
First Aid:
Oral - Wash out with water. If severe seek medical attention.
Eyes - Irrigate with cold water. If severe seek medical attention.
Skin - Wash after use.

41 | P a g e
4. Case Hardening
The service conditions of many steel components such as cams and gears make it necessary
for them to possess both hard, wear-resistant surfaces, and, at the same time, tough
shock-resistant cores. These two different sets of properties can best be met by employing a
process known as Case-Hardening, whereby more carbon is diffused into the surface of a
suitable steel, converting the outer layer into a high carbon steel containing approximately
0.9%. This outer layer of "Case" will possess adequate hardness when suitably heat-treated,
to make the steel extremely wear-resistant, whilst the inner layers or "Core" will be made
tough, and shock resistant at the same time.

5. Steels for Case-Hardening

Both plain carbon and alloy steels are used for case-hardening, but the carbon content of
either type should be kept low, the actual amount being governed by the work the case hard-
ened part is required to do. For example, where maximum toughness of the core on
machined parts, requiring shock resisting properties, are required, then the carbon content
must not exceed 0.10%, but where maximum surface hardness is required and toughness of
core is less essential, then the carbon content can be a little higher, about 0.3%. Alloy steels
used for case-hardening contain up to 5.0% nickel, and sometimes up to 1.0% chromium.
Small amounts of vanadium and molybdenum are occasionally included.

6. Compounds for Case-Hardening by the Open Hearth Method

Use of the correct compound for the job is also an essential. Compounds vary in composition,
but consist necessarily of material rich in carbon, such as wood, or bone charcoal, or charred
leather, together with an "energiser", which may account for up to 40% of the total composi-
tion. The energiser is usually a mixture of sodium carbonate, and barium carbonate. Com-
pounds are numbered from one to six, and the right choice of compound is most important.
The various compounds hot only produce different rates of penetration but must also be
suitable for the particular work in hand. For instance, when only a light surface hardening is
desired, special compounds are used which give a rapid action and produce a thin case.
These special compounds are numbered "One" and "Two", and are made for use where no
grinding is necessary after hardening, and in a method called "Open Hearth"
Case-Hardening. Compounds Number One and Number Two have similar properties and are
intended for similar work, but Number Two can be used at the lowest possible heat where
metal will absorb carbon, (i.e. around 800 Cent) and can in very special cases, be used as a
Pack Hardening Compound.

7. Compounds used for Case-Hardening by the Pack Hardening Method

The essential qualities of a Pack-Hardening compound are that they must be non-shrinking,
have a good rate of penetration, give uniform carburisation, and for economy to be a good
repeater, (that is, it can be used over and over again). Compounds for Pack Hardening are
numbered "Three", "Four, Five and "Six", and again, the right choice of compound is
essential. Number Three is non-graded, which means that it is not comprised of units of a
similar size, nor free from dust, which makes it very useful for small work where close packing
is desirable. The fineness of the grains ensures support being given to the parts being
hardened, and reduces to a minimum the possibilities of warping.
Number Four is non-graded, and non-repeating, but it gives out gases much below the point
where steel begins to absorb additional carbon, and therefore may be used at low carburising
temperatures with good results. Number Five is a graded and super-repeating compound,
used when articles to be case-hardened are of large dimensions.
Number Six is a compound which satisfies the most exacting demands. It is a super-repeater,
and has a penetration rate of 1mm in 4 hours at 900C.
42 | P a g e
8. Open Hearth Case Hardening
To obtain a thin case, a process known as "Open Hearth" hardening is used. To obtain best
results, clean the work from rust and grease, heat to a temperature of approximately 900C,
and sprinkle or dip into the compound. Repeat if necessary. Reheat to the same temperature,
and quench the work in clean, cold water.
If any oxide scale forms on the work during heating, this should be removed with a wire brush
before applying the compound.

9. The Pack-Hardening Method (Packing of Boxes)

When a depth of case approximately 1mm or more is required a method of case-hardening
called Pack Hardening, or Pack Carburising is employed. Articles are packed into boxes con-
taining the correct compound. The dimensions of the boxes are important they must be of
ample proportions to allow, at least, a 25mm space between the articles, and the sides, top,
and bottom of the boxes. The boxes must also have a close fitting lid, and means of securing
it usually by welding lugs on opposite sides, the lugs having slots cut so that a tapered key
may be driven through.
A layer of compound, 25mm deep is first placed in the box, the articles to be case-hardened is
then placed on top of it, and the box is then filled to the rim with more compound, care being
taken to pack it tightly round the article to give it maximum support. In many cases, it is neces-
sary for articles to be hardened in one place and left soft in another. This applies especially to
threads, camshafts, gears, ball-races, valve tappets etc and also any intricate machined
parts, that are required to be kept in a soft condition. Parts not to be hardened are therefore
covered to prevent the penetration of the carburising gases. This is done by the use of fireclay
or, by copper-plating, or by the application of an "anti-carburising" paste. Fireclay is very
unreliable, it is apt to shrink, and crack in the heat. Copper-plating is a long and expensive
process, and is not reliable on account of its porosity. The "anti-carburiser" is 100% efficient,
it is easily applied, and is acquired as a Powder, allowing the right amount to be mixed (with
hot water) or as a Paste ready for use. Parts are painted, or coated, with the material, and
then allowed to dry overnight in a suitably warm place, but if quick drying is necessary, then
the Paste form can be dried in an hour or two, by placing the job on top of a heated furnace.
The lid of the box must be tightly and securely sealed to prevent the carburising gases from
escaping. This should be carefully done with a paste of fireclay and water, but a more perfect
seal is formed if about 100% of asbestos fibre is mixed in with the fireclay, as this strengthens
the clay and prevents it cracking. This sealing of the lid is referred to as "Luting" and the
fireclay paste must be allowed to dry out naturally, before the box is placed in the furnace for
carburising.

10. Carburising in the Furnace

The packed and sealed box must now be placed inside a thermostatically controlled furnace
for carburising, the temperature of which is set to obtain the desired properties in the case,
and core - usually about 900C. This will give the case a carbon content of approximately
0.9%, with a soft but tough core. By raising the temperature, the rate of penetration, and the
carbon content of the case will be increased. A very high carbon content (say 1.2%) in the
case would give a high degree of hardness and resistance to abrasion, but a very low resis-
tance to shock. It is, therefore, necessary to control the rate of penetration by using a
carburising compound which is not too energetic, or, by lowering the temperature of working.
The depth of case is determined by the length of time that the article is kept at 900C (called
"soaking") but sufficient time must be allowed for it to reach this temperature before the soak
commences. For most jobs a five or six hour soak is sufficient.

43 | P a g e
11. Quenching after Carburising
After carburising, the box should be drawn from the furnace and, if possible, allowed to cool
on the floor. The article is then taken out of the box and placed again inside the furnace for
further heat treatment, because the prolonged heating in the austenitic range during carburis-
ing will have introduced coarse grain, which leaves the steel weak. To obtain a tough core, it
is necessary to "refine" this coarse gain structure, and this is done by heating the article to
just above the upper critical point (about 880C for the core) and quenching in water, but
where there is danger of warping, or cracking, or where parts are of intricate shape, then oil
quenching is more suitable. The core-refining temperature of 880C is, however, still high
above the upper critical temperature of the case, so that on quenching, the case will consist of
a coarse, brittle martensite. Further heat treatment of the case is therefore necessary. This is
done by heating to 760C, so that the coarse martensite of the case changes to fine grained
austenite. Quenching in water then gives a fine grained martensite in the case, and at the
same time, the martensite produced in the core will be tempered to establish Troosite,
providing that no "soaking" took place at 760C.

12. Tempering

Finally, the article is tempered at about 200C to relieve any stress which may have been
present in the case.

13. Case-Hardening of Alloy Steels

In the case hardening of alloy steels, such as nickel and nickel-chrome, the rate of
penetration is not usually so rapid as in the plain carbon steels. A longer time of carburising is,
therefore, necessary to get the same depth of case. These alloy steels have the advantage
that by quenching them in oil instead of water, a good degree of hardness is obtained and the
risk of distortion is considerably less than with water quenching. An additional advantage is
that the strength of the core is appreciably greater than that obtained with the plain carbon
steel.

14. Nitriding

Steels can be case-hardened with Nitrogen in a similar manner to that of carburising. This
process, called "Nitriding" produces an extremely hard case which is superior in hardness
and wear resistance than any other form of treatment, but the case depths obtained in
nitriding are shallower than carburised cases.

It must be remembered that Nitriding would fail on ordinary mild steel, so a special steel,
called a "Nitralloy" is produced for the purpose. A Nitralloy steel is composed of Carbon, Man-
ganese, Chromium and Molybdenum, of varying percentages, and sometimes, small
amounts of Vanadium and Aluminium are added.

Since it is conducted at a low temperature, nitriding is made the final operation in the
manufacture of a component, all machining and core treatment processes having been
carried out previously. To obtain the correct core properties, the metal is first hardened by
quenching in oil from a temperature of about 900 Cent, followed by tempering at about
600C. The normal sequence of operations then are:
a. Rough machining (i.e. brought within 0.5mm -1mm of actual size)
b. Stabilising anneal to remove internal stresses ("soak" at 500C for 5 hours).
c. Finish machining (i.e. machines to exact size).
d. Nitriding
44 | P a g e
Nitriding is a heat treatment where components are maintained at a temperature of 500C
in a special gas-tight furnace (through which ammonia is allowed to circulate) for a time which
will give the required depth of case - usually from 40 to 100 hours. After which, they are re-
moved from the furnace and allowed to cool. On removal, the components will be covered
with a grey, matt film, which is easily removed by buffing; they are then ready for use. Any
parts of the component which are required soft are protected by coating with tin or solder, or
by nickel plating.

The advantages of Nitriding over conventional casehardened products are

a. Since no quenching is required after nitriding, cracking or distortion is unlikely.

b. A very much harder surface is obtained.
c. Resistance to fatigue is good.
d. The hardness is retained at temperatures up to 500C whereas in a carburised
component, the hardness begins to fall at about 250C.

The disadvantages of Nitriding are:

a. The initial outlay of the plant.

b. The time it takes to obtain the required depth of case (80 hours soak for
0.75mm.
c. If the nitrided component is accidently heated above 500 C, the surface
hardness is lost completely, and must be nitrided again.

15. Carburising in a Liquid Bath

Liquid carbonising is carried out in baths containing from 20% - 50% sodium cyanide,
together with up to 40% sodium carbonate, and varying amounts of sodium or barium
chloride. This cyanide rich mixture is heated up to a temperature of approximately 900C, and
the work, contained in baskets, made from wire, is immersed for periods varying from 5
minutes to about one hour, according to the depths of case required. Afterwards, the basket
of work is taken from the bath and quenched in water. This process is particularly useful in
obtaining shallow cases of 0.1mm to 0.25mm. Extreme care must be taken not to inhale the
fumes from the bath, and all open wounds must be covered. Protective clothing, particularly
gloves and goggles, must be worn, and eating in the vicinity of the bath is absolutely
forbidden.

16. Flame Hardening

Only steels with a carbon content above 0.4% can be hardened effectively by this method,
and before hardening takes place, the work is generally normalised. Components, such as
gears, spindles and pins, or anything similar, whose shape is symmetrical, are ideally treated
by this process.

The work is spun between two centres, and the surface heated to above the upper critical
point by a travelling oxy-acetylene torch, and immediately quenched by a water jet, which is
attached to the torch.

This will leave the work with a hard Martensitic structure, in the case, with a tough, pearlite
core, because only the surface of the work is heated to above the upper critical point.

45 | P a g e
10.7 Heat Treatment of High Speed Steel

The main features of a High-Speed Steel are its great hardness in the heat treated condition,
and its ability to resist softening at relatively high working temperatures. Thus, high-speed
steel tools can be used at cutting speeds far in excess of those possible with ordinary steels,
since high-speed steel resists the tempering effect of the heat generated.
In the cast condition (or, as obtainable from stores in bar form) the structure of a high-speed
steel is very like that of a cast iron. This cast structure is broken up by forging at temperatures
between 900C and 1200C, followed by reheating (or normalising) at about 750C to relieve
stresses.
If required in the soft condition, high-speed steel is usually annealed by "soaking", in a
thermostatically controlled furnace, for four hours at 850C - 900C, followed by a very slow
rate of cooling, (10C - 20C per hour) down to 600C, when the steel is removed from the
furnace, and allowed to cool in still air.
Austenite forms in the steel at about 840C but owing to the influence of tungsten, and other
added elements, the martensite ultimately produced would temper easily, and show little
advantage over that in ordinary types of tool steel. Therefore, in order to obtain the highest
cutting efficiency in high speed steel, it must be hardened from a temperature little short at
which fusion commences, or, just below the temperature at which steel begins to melt. This
temperature will vary with steels of different composition, but is usually about 1,300C. Heat
treatment at such a high temperature, must be carefully done, to minimise grain growth and
prevent oxidation, therefore a two-chamber furnace is used to heat the steel, one chamber of
which must be already heated to the hardening temperature.
The steel is first pre-heated in the lower temperature chamber to about 850C, and then
transferred to the higher temperature chamber, in which it is heated rapidly to the hardening
temperature. As soon as it reaches the hardening temperature, it is quenched in oil, or cooled
in an air blast, according to the composition of the steel. Preheating reduces the time during
which the surface of the tool would otherwise be in contact with the high temperature
atmosphere thereby reducing grain growth to a minimum.
Owing to the presence of alloying elements, the austenite/martensite transformation of the
quenched steel is incomplete, and will still contain considerable amounts of retained
austenite. It is necessary to transform this to martensite, and this can be accomplished by
tempering. Low-temperature tempering between 300C - 400C reduces the hardness
slightly but increases the toughness. On tempering between 400C - 600G the hardness
increases again, often harder than the steel was when initially quenched. This is known as
"Secondary Hardening", and is carried out by heating the steel for one-half to three hours, at
550C - 600C, according to the composition of the steel. Some austenite may still be
present, following secondary hardening, and for this reason the heat treatment is repeated.
The retained austenite is "conditioned" during the first process, and some of it changes to
martensite on cooling. During the second process, the transformation goes still further
towards completion, as more retained austenite changes to martensite, at the same time this
second process relieves internal stresses which have been set up during the first process.
When a two-chamber furnace is not available, high-speed steel can be hardened with the use
of an oxy-acetylene torch, but the cutting efficiency of the tool will not be very high. The
nozzle size is comparable with the size of the tool, and a "neutral" flame must be used. The
tool is held at the extreme end of the outer envelope and heated slowly to a full red heat, then
moved to the hottest part of the flame adjacent to the inner cone and heated rapidly from a full
red to a white heat, after which, the tool is quenched in oil. Secondary hardening with an
oxy-acetylene torch is an impossibility.

46 | P a g e
 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Abrasion
Wearing away.

Acicular
Having an elongated needle-like crystalline structure.

Age Hardening
A change in the physical properties of a material, apparently occasioned only by the passage
of time.

Allotropy
The property possessed by certain elements (e.g. carbon, sulphur, phosphorous, iron) which
exist in two or more distinct forms which are chemically identical, but have different physical
properties. Under certain conditions one form may change to another, (e.g. with changes of
temperature or pressure).

Alloy
A mixture of several metals.

Alpha Iron
The body centred cubic form of iron which, in pure iron, exists up to approximately 900C.

Annealing
Heating to, and holding at, a suitable temperature, followed by cooling at a suitable rate for such
purposes as:
1. inducing softness
2. improving machinability
3. improving cold working properties
4. obtaining a desired structure
5. removing stresses
When applicable, the more specific terms, full annealing, isothermal annealing or sub-critical
annealing should be used.

Austenitic
1. A steel in which a solid solution of carbon or iron carbide exists.
2. A steel containing sufficient nickel, nickel and chromium, or manganese, to enable the
retention of austenite at atmospheric temperature. Steel with cold-hardening properties.

Basic Steel
A steel made by the basic process and low in hydrogen. Acid steels are high in hydrogen ions
and unsuitable for certain applications.

Body Centred Cubic Lattice

A unit cell of a crystal space lattice in which one atom is located at each of the corners of the
cube and one at the centre.

Carburising
The process of carbon absorption by steel under heat, from contact with carbonaceous
materials either solid (leather or charcoal), liquid (molten cyanide salts or mineral oils), or gas
(ammonia), to enable hardening to take place.

47 | P a g e
Case Hardening
Surface hardening of steel by carburising, cyaniding, or nitriding. Such hardening is only a
few thousandths of an inch deep.

Casting
A mass of metal shaped by pouring it in a molten state into a mould.

Cast Iron
Alloys of iron and carbon containing more than 1.7%C usually between 2.4 and 4.0%C. The
carbon may be present predominantly as iron carbide (white cast iron) or as graphite (grey
cast iron) or as a mixture of both (mottled cast iron).

Cementite
Iron carbide. Constituent of iron and steel.

Change Point
A temperature at which a constitutional change occurs on heating or cooling. Also referred to
as an arrest point, transformation point or a critical point.

Chill Cast
A process of casting molten metal into a cold metal mould which accelerates cooling and so
gives great hardness and density to the whole or part of the casting.

Chill Crystals
A thin skin of small crystals formed by rapid freezing of molten metal in contact with a cold
surface.

Cobalt
Co. Magnetic metal. It improves the cutting ability of high-speed tools and alters the magnetic
properties. Also used to make blue stained glass.

Co-Efficient of Expansion
The expansion of a material per unit of its length for each degree of rise in temperature. For
steel this is roughly 0.0000012 per degree of Celsius.

Chromium
Cr.Metallic element.

Cold Hardening
(Work hardening - age hardening). The hardening of metals by virtue of the change in their
structure brought about by beating, drawing, hammering, bending, vibration, etc, and often
occurring as a result of the work the metal does, sometimes resulting in fatigue and failure.

Cold Short
An undesirable property in steel or wrought iron as a result of the inclusion of too much
phosphorous, causing a tendency to fracture when cold.

Cold Work
As applied to steel means plastic deformation below the re-crystallisation temperature.
Hardness and tensile strength are progressively increased with the degree of cold work,
whilst the ductility and impact strength are reduced. Where increased hardness is
undesirable, the material is annealed between and after cold working reductions.

48 | P a g e
Columnar Crystals
Crystals which during solidification, have grown preferentially along one main axis due to the
presence of a temperature gradient along that axis.

Critical Cooling Rate

The slowest rate of cooling from the hardening temperature which will produce the hard
Martensitic condition.

Critical Temperature
That temperature at which in plain carbon steel, on heating or cooling, a change takes place
in its molecular structure and at which point the steel continues to absorb or shed heat without
increase or decrease in temperature. These critical points have a direct relation to the
hardening of steel and unless temperatures reached are high enough to change the pearlite
into austenite no hardening can take place on quenching. Similarly, in normalising, unless the
critical temperature is reached after which cooling slowly in air takes place, the austenite will
not revert to pearlite and softening will not take place. Steel loses its magnetic properties at
these heats, hence magnetic indicators can be used to show when they have been reached.

Cyanide Hardening
A process of introducing carbon and nitrogen into the surface skin of mild steel by holding it
submersed in molten cyanide salts.

DP Hardness
Diamond Pyramid Hardness. A method of testing the hardness of metal surfaces by pressing
a diamond pyramid point into it for a predetermined time at a predetermined load and
measuring the indentation. There is a close relationship between DPH and Brinell Hardness
results.

Ductility
Ability to undergo cold plastic deformation without fracture, usually as a result of tension.
Ductile metals show considerable elongation in tensile tests.

Elastic Limit
That stress beyond which a metal will not recover to its original length or shape.

Electrolytic Refining
Method of producing pure metals by making the contaminating elements the anode in an
electrolytic cell and so depositing a pure cathode.

Elongation
The percentage a metal stretches from its original length at its ultimate tensile strength, i.e.
the point of failure.

Equilibrium Diagram
A diagram showing the limits of composition and temperature within which the various
constituents or phases of an alloy are stable.
Equiaxed Crystals
Crystals, each of which has axes approximately equal in length.
Etching
Treatment of a prepared metal surface with acid or other reagents which, by differential
attack, reveal the structure.
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Eutectic
That mixture of two or more constituents which forms on cooling from a solid solution and
transforms on heating at a constant minimum temperature. A eutectoid steel contains
approximately 0.83%C.

Extrusion
The production of a section by forcing a steel billet to flow through a die. The section may be
regular such as round, square, or hexagonal, or it may be complicated. Tubes are made by
extrusion over a mandrel positioned centrally in the die.

Face-Centred Cubic Lattice

A unit cell of a crystal space lattice in which one atom is located at each of the corners of the
cube and one at the centre of each face.

Fatigue
That point at which a metal component, subjected to repeated reversals of stress, will fail.
(Can be corrected before failure, by normalising).

Ferrite
The solid solution alpha iron, a constituent of carbon steels.

Fire Cracking
Fine hair cracks appearing in metals (an ovenware) as a result of heating and cooling.

Fusion
The joining of parts of the same material by melting the edges together.

Grain
The structure of a metal as seen under a microscope.

Gamma Iron
The face centred cubic form of iron which is non-magnetic and which, in pure iron, exists
between 900 and 1,400C approximately.

Grain Boundary
Crystal boundary.

Hardness
Resistance to indentation, deformation, abrasion, cutting etc.

Heat Treatment
Generally any controlled heating operation done on solid metal with the object of changing its
immediate characteristics.

Hot Work
As applied to steel means plastic deformation carried out above the re-crystallisation
temperature.

Hyper-Eutectoid
Steel containing more carbon that a eutectoid steel.

Impact Extrusion
The forming of bars, tubes, or sections of intricate shape by forcing the metal, hot or cold, by
impact, through dies corresponding to the required shape.
50 | P a g e
Inert Gas Metallic Arc Welding
Any welding process using an inert gas such as argon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, etc, for
shielding the arc formed by the metal electrode.

Lamellar
A term applied to a substance or material which is arranged in thin plates, layers or scales,
e.g. pearlite.

Lattice
A regular arrangement of points in space used to describe the* orderliness in the
arrangement of atoms within a crystal.

Macro structure
The general crystalline structure and the distribution of impurities and segregation as
revealed on an etched surface examined by the naked eye or at a low magnification.

Malleable Cast Iron

Cast iron that is cast white and made malleable by annealing in an oxidising or neutral
medium.

Martensite
The hard constituent produced when a steel is cooled from the hardening temperature at a
speed greater that its critical cooling rate. Martensite is an acicular phase when seen in the
microstructure of steel.

Matrix
The ground mass or principal phase in which another constituent of an alloy is embedded.

Microstructure
The structure of metals and alloys as revealed, after polishing and etching, by examination
under the microscope.

Nitriding Process
A process for producing hard surfaces on special steels by heating in gaseous ammonia.

Normalising
Heating to and, if necessary, holding at a suitable temperature above the transformation
range, followed by cooling freely in air, in order to modify the grain size, render the structure
more uniform, and usually to improve the mechanical properties.

Phase
A homogenous, physically distinct and mechanically separate portion of a mixture.

Plastic Range
The temperature range between which solids become plastic and easily worked. Some solids
have a wide range, enabling much work to be done before cooling so solidifies the metal that
it cannot be further deformed, whilst others have such a narrow range that the only possible
way of moulding them to shape is by casting.

Precipitation Hardening
The phenomenon which results in an increase of hardness with time either at atmospheric or
elevated temperatures. This increase is due to a change in the structure of the solid
occasioned by the reaction of its composition.
51 | P a g e
Quenching
Rapid cooling. Water and oil are the most common quenchants. Iced brine is sometimes used
when the quenching action must be severe.

Re-Crystallisation
The rearrangement crystals in cold worked metal brought about by heating so that the
deformed Crystals are absorbed by newly formed crystals and work hardening effects are
removed. Also occurs when steel is heated through the transformation range and when steel
is hot worked.

Rockwell Hardness
A method of testing the hardness of metals by measuring the depth of penetration of a conical
diamond point (for hard metals) or by using a steel ball (for soft metals) under a specified
weight for a specified time.

Roller Peening
A method of cold working the surface of a component by rollers or by other means. See shot
peening

Scale
Black iron oxide enveloping iron or steel which has been hot worked.

Season Cracking
Cracking at stressed points due to age hardening.

Shot Peening
A process similar to shot blasting in which spherical shot are used in place of angular shot.
The special feature of this process is the cold working effect of the impact of the steel balls.
Residual compressive stress is set up as a result of this treatment, which accounts for the
improvement of the fatigue limit or endurance of the material.

Slip
The mechanism of deformation wherein one part of a crystal glides over another along certain
planes known as slip planes.

Solid Solution
The homogeneous distribution of two or more constituents in the solid state so as to form a
single phase.

Slag
Waste glass-like material derived from the impurities released during the blast-furnace stage
of steel making, and being lighter than the molten steel, floats to the surface from where it can
be skimmed off.

Stress
A force on a member divided by the area which carries the force, and usually expressed in
pounds or tons per sq in. There are three types of stress compressive, tensile and shear.

Stress Corrosion
Corrosion occurring at stressed points in metals resulting in disintegration of the metal at
those
points.
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Stress Relieved
Metal heated to a temperature below the critical point followed by slow cooling to relieve the
internal stresses set up by machining, pressing, or other manipulation. Uneven cooling will
set up indifferent combination of internal stresses.

Tempering
Heating hardened, normalised or mechanically worked steel to some temperature below the
transformation range and holding for a suitable time at that temperature, followed by cooling
at a suitable rate. This process is usually applied with the purpose of producing a desired
combination of mechanical properties.

Tensile Strength
Also termed the maximum stress and expressed in hectobars (hbar) or Kgf/mm 2 and is the
value of the maximum load reached in a tensile test, divided by the original cross-sectional
area of the specimen.

Thermal Shock
Shock caused by the sudden application of heat to a metal sensitive to heat by virtue of its
great coefficient of thermal expansion. May cause splitting or cracking.

Time Temperature Transformation Diagram (TTT Curve)

A diagram showing the relationship between temperature and the time taken for the
decomposition of austenite when the transformation occurs at constant temperature.

Torsion
Strain created by a twisting action.

Upper Critical Point

The temperature at which austenite begins to transform to ferrite or cementite on cooling.) or
vice versa, the temperature at which the structure becomes wholly austenite on heating.

Warp
Permanent distortion of a part from its original form, usually due to the effect of heat

Work Hardening
The increase in hardness produced by cold working, Also known as strain hardening.

Wrought iron
A very low carbon iron obtained as a pasty sponge by refining pig iron in a puddling furnace.
It contains varying amounts of included slag. Wrought iron is invariably processed by
reheating and hot working to reduce the slag content and ensure its even distribution and to
develop the mechanical properties of the material.

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