2012/11/13

Sinusoids and Phasors

Introduction
Sinusoids
Phasors
Phasor Relationships for Circuit Elements
Impedance and Admittance
Ki rchhoffsLawsi nt heFr eque nc yDoma in
Impedance Combinations
Applications

Introduction
AC is more efficient and economical to transmit
power over long distance. (Transformer is the key.)
A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine
or cosine function.
Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage
sources are called ac circuits.
Why sinusoid is important in circuit analysis?
Nature itself is characteristically sinusoidal.
A sinusoidal signal is easy to generate and transmit.
Easy to handle mathematically.

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Sinusoids

Consider the sinusoidal voltage v(t nT ) v(t )

v (t ) Vm sin t
where Proof :
Vm the amplitude of the sinusoid v(t nT ) Vm sin (t nT )

the angular frequency (radians/s) 2

Vm sin (t n )
t the argument of the sinusoid
The sinusoid repeats itself every T seconds. Vm sin(t 2n)
2 v(t )
T2 T (T:period )

Sinusoids (Cont
d)
A periodic function is one that satisfies
f(t) = f(t+nT), for all t and for all integers n.
The period T is the number of seconds per cycle.
The cyclic frequency f = 1/T is the number of cycles per
second.

1 A more general expression is given as

f
T v(t ) Vm sin(t )
2f where
where (t ) : Argument

: radians per second (rad/s)
: Phase
f : hertz (Hz)

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Sinusoids (Cont
d)

We say that We say that

v2 leads v1 by v1 and v2 are in phase, if 0

v1 lags v2 by v1 and v2 are out of phase, if 0

Sinusoids (Cont
d)
To compare sinusoids.
Use the trigonometric identities.
Use the graphical approach.
Trigonometric identities :
sin( A B) sin A cos B cos A sin B
cos( A B) cos A cos B sin A
sin B

sin(t 180) sin t

cos(t 180 ) cos t


sin(t 90) cos t

cos(t 90) sin t

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The Graphical Approach

A cos t B sin t C cos(t )
A C cos
,B C sin

C A2 B 2

where B 3 cos t 4 sin t
tan 1

A 5 cos(t 53.1
)

Phasors
Sinusoids are easily expressed by using phasors
A phasor is a complex number that represents the
amplitude and the phase of a sinusoid.
Phasors provide a simple means of analyzing linear
circuits excited by sinusoidal sources.

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Phasors (Cont
d)
Three ways to represent a complex number z :
x jy : Rectangular form

r : magnitude of z
z r : Polar form , where
re j : Exponential form : phase of z


Given x and y, we can get r and as y
y
r x 2 y 2 , tan 1 r
z
x
If we know r and , we can obtain x and y as x

x r cos , y r sin

z x jy rr (cos j sin ) re j

Important Mathematical Properties

z x jy rre j
j
z1 x1 jy1 r1
1 r1e
1

z 2 x2 jy2 r2 2 r2 e j2

Addition : z1 z2 ( x1 x2 ) j ( y1 y2 )
Substraction : z1 z 2 ( x1 x2 ) j ( y1 y2 )

Multiplica tion : z1 z2 ( x1 jy1 )( x2 jy 2 )

( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) j ( x1 y2 x2 y1 )
r1e j1 r2 e j2 r1r2 e j (1 2 )
r1r2 (
12 )

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Important Mathematical Properties

z1 x1 jy1 ( x1 jy1 )( x2 jy2 )
Division :
z2 x2 jy2 ( x2 jy 2 )( x2 jy2 )
x x y y x y x y
1 22 12 2 j 2 21 12 2
x2 y2 x2 y2
r e j1 r r
1 j2 1 e j (1 2 ) 1 (
12 )
r2 e r2 r2

1 1
Reciprocal :
z r
Square Root : z r 2
Complex Conjugate : z x jy r

Phasor Representation
e j cos j sin
cos Re(e j)
j
sin Im(e )

v(t ) Vm cos(t )
Re(Vm e j (t ) ) Re(Vm e je jt )
v(t ) Re( Ve jt )
V Vm e j Vm
V is the phasor representation
of the sinusoid v(t ).

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Phasor Representation (Cont

d)

Phasor Diagram

V Vm

I I m

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Sinusoid-Phasor Transformation
v(t ) Vm cos(t ) Re(Ve jt ) where V Vm e j Vm

dv(t )
Vm sin(t ) Vm cos(t 90 )
dt

Re(Vm e jt e je j 90) Re e j 90(Vm e j)e jt
Re( jVe jt
) Re(V
e )jt

Finally we have
Sinusoids Phasors
v(t ) Vm cos(t ) V Vm
dv
Vm cos(t 90) jV Vm (90 )
dt
V V Vm
vdt m cos(t 90

) (90
j
)

Phasor Relationship for Resistor

If the current through the resistor is
i I m cos(t ) I I m
By Ohm' s law,
v iR RI m cos(t ) V RI m RI

Time domain Phasor domain Phasor diagram

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Phasor Relationship for Inductor

If the current through the inductor is
i I m cos(t ) I I m
The voltage across the inductor is
di
v L LI m cos(t 90 ) V jLI
dt

Time domain Phasor domain Phasor diagram

Phasor Relationship for Capacitor

If the voltage across the capacitor is
v Vm cos(t ) V Vm
The current through the capacitor is
dv
i C CVm cos(t 90
) I jCV
dt

Time domain Phasor domain Phasor diagram

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Impedance and Admittance

V 1
Impedance : Z () , Admittance : Y (S)
I Z
V is the phasor voltage
where
I is the phasor current

Element Impedance Admittance

1
R Z R Y
R
1
L Z jL Y
jL
1
C Z Y jC
jC

Impedance and Admittance (Cont

d)

Z jL 0

1 0
Z
jC

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Impedance and Admittance (Cont

d)
Z R jX Z R jX Z
R : resistance Z R 2 X 2
where
X : reactance where 1 X
tan
The impedance is said to be R

inductive when X is positive R Z cos

and
capacitive when X is negative
X Z sin
If X is positive, then
Z R jX : inductive or lagging

since current lags voltage

Z R jX : capacitive or leading

since current leads voltage

Impedance and Admittance (Cont

d)
1
Y G jB
Z
G : conductance
where
B : susceptance

1 1 R jX R jX
G jB 2
R jX R jX R jX R X 2
R
G 2
R X
2

X
B 2
R X 2

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KVL and KCL in the Phasor Domain

For KVL, let v1 , v2 ,..., vn , be the voltages around a closed loop.
v1 v2
vn 0

In the sinusoidal steady state, each voltage may be written in

cosine form.
Vm1 cos(t 1 ) Vm 2 cos(t 2 ) Vmn cos(t n ) 0

This can be rewritten as

Re(Vm1e j1 e jt ) Re(Vm 2 e j2 e jt )
Re(Vmn e jn e jt ) 0

Vm1e j1 Vm 2 e j2 jt

Re
e 0 for any t

V e jn


mn

KVL and KCL (Cont

d)
Let Vk Vmk e jk , then

Re
V1 V2
Vn
e jt Re VT e jt
Re
Ve T
j (t T )
V
T cos(t
T ) 0

where VT VT e jT V1 V2
Vn

1
Possible (1) cos(t
T ) 0 t ( 2 kT ) ()

solutions
(2) VT 0 ()

V1 V2
Vn VT e jT 0 (KVL holds for phasor.)
In a similar manner, KCL holds for phasor.
I1 I 2
I n 0

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Series-Connected Impedance

Applying KVL gives V

Z eq Z1 Z 2
Z n
V V1 V2
Vn I
V Z
I (Z1 Z 2
Z n ) I , Vk k V
Z eq Z eq

Parallel-Connected Impedance

Applying KCL gives I

Yeq Y1 Y2
Yn
I I1 I 2
I n V
1 1 1 I Y
V (
) V , Ik k I
Z1 Z 2 Zn Yeq Yeq

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Y-Transformations

Y Co
nve
rsion: Y Conversion:
Z Z Z 2 Z 3 Z 3 Z1 Zb Zc
Za 1 2 Z1
Z1 Z a Z b Z c
Z Z Z 2 Z 3 Z 3Z1 ZcZa
Zb 1 2 Z2
Z2 Z a Z b Z c
Z Z Z 2 Z 3 Z 3Z1 Z a Zb
Zc 1 2 Z3
Z3 Z a Z b Z c

Example 1

Find Z in for
50 rad/s.

Z in Z 2 mF Z 310 mF || Z 80.2 H
1 1

j

3
2m

j 10 m ||
0.2
8 j


j10
3 j 2
|| 8 j10

j10

3 j 2
8 j10
3.22 j11.07
11 j8

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Example 2
Find vo (t).

Sol:
vs 20 cos(4t 15
)
Vs 2015, 4
j 20 || j 25
Vo Vs
60 j 20 || j 25
j100
2015
60 j100
0.857530.96
2015
17.1515.96
vo (t ) 17.15 cos(4t 15.96
)

Example 3
Sol:
j 4(2 j 4)
Find I.
Z an
j 4 2 j 4 8
1.6 j 0.8
j 4(8)
Z bn j 3.2
10
8(2 j 4)
Z cn 1.6 j 3.2 -Y transformation
10
Z 12 Z an

Z bn j 3
|| Z cn j 6 8
13.6 j1 13.644.204
V 500
I
Z 13.644.204
3.6664.204

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Applications: Phase Shifters

R jRC
Vo Vi Vi
R
1 1 jRC
jC
jRC (1 jRC ) RC (RC j1)
Vi Vi
1 R C
2 2 2
1 2 R 2C 2
RC 1
tan 1 Vi

1 R C
2 2 2
RC

Output leads input.

Phase Shifters (Cont

d)
1
jC 1 1 jRC
Vo Vi Vi Vi
R
1 1 jRC 1 2 R 2C 2
jC
1
tan 1
RC
Vi
1 R C
2 2 2

Output lags input.

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Example
Design an RC circuit
to provide a phase of
90leading.

Sol:
20(20 j 20)
Z 20 || (20 j 20) 12 j 4
40 j 20
Z 12 j 4 2
V1 Vi Vi


45
Vi
Z j 20 12 j 24 3
20 2 2 2 1
Vo V1


45
V1


45

45


Vi 90
20 j 20 2 2 3 3

Applications: AC Bridges

Balanced condition : V1 V2
Z2 Zx
V1 Vs V2 Vs
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Z x
Z2 Zx Z
Z 2 Z 3 Z1Z x Z x 3 Z 2
Z1 Z 2 Z 3 Z x Z1

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AC Bridges (Cont
d)
Bridge for measuring L Bridge for measuring C

R1 jLx R2 jLs R1 jC x R2 jCs

R R
Lx 2 Ls C x 1 Cs
R1 R2

Summary
Transformation between sinusoid and phasor is
given as
v(t ) Vm cos(t ) V Vm

Impedance Z for R, L, and C are given as

1
Z R R, Z L jL, Z C
jC
Basic circuit laws apply to ac circuits in the same
manner as they do for dc circuits.

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