5/20/2017 ZIAECO:NormalityinData(ChemistsandPharmacists)

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Normality in Data ( Chemists and Pharmacists)
HetroscedasticityChapter
PDF WHATISMEANTBY"NORMAL"?

TheNormaldistributionmodel."Normal"dataaredatathataredrawnfromapopulationthathasanormaldistribution.This
Books distributionisinarguablythemostimportantandthemostfrequentlyuseddistributioninboththetheoryandapplication
ofstatistics.
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Theshapeofthenormaldistributionissymmetricandunimodal.Itiscalledthebellshaped.
HetroscedasticityChapter
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HetroscedasticityChapter

WHYNORMALITY??

Thenormalityassumptionisoneofthemostmisunderstoodinallofthestatistics.Inmultipleregression,the
assumptionrequiringanormaldistributionappliesonlytothedisturbanceterm,nottotheindependentvariablesasis
oftenbelieved.Perhapstheconfusionaboutthisassumptionderivesfromdifficultyunderstandingwhatthisdisturbance
termreferstosimplyput,itistherandomerrorintherelationshipbetweentheindependentvariablesandthe
dependentvariableinaregressionmodel.Eachcaseinthesampleactuallyhasadifferentrandomvariablewhich
encompassesallthenoisethataccountsfordifferencesintheobservedandpredictedvaluesproducedbya
regressionequation,anditisthedistributionofthisdisturbancetermornoiseforallcasesinthesamplethatshouldbe
normallydistributed.

Therearefewconsequencesassociatedwithaviolationofthenormalityassumption,asitdoesnotcontributetobiasor
inefficiencyinregressionmodels.Itisonlyimportantforthecalculationofpvaluesforsignificancetesting,butthisis
onlyaconsiderationwhenthesamplesizeisverysmall.Whenthesamplesizeissufficientlylarge(>200),the
normalityassumptionisnotneededatallastheCentralLimitTheoremensuresthatthedistributionofdisturbanceterm
willapproximatenormality.
Whendealingwithverysmallsamples,itisimportanttocheckforapossibleviolationofthenormalityassumption.This
canbeaccomplishedthroughaninspectionoftheresidualsfromtheregressionmodel(someprogramswillperformthis
automaticallywhileothersrequirethatyousavetheresidualsasanewvariableandexaminethemusingsummary
statisticsandhistograms).Thereareseveralstatisticsavailabletoexaminethenormalityofvariables.including
skewnessandkurtosis,aswellasnumerousgraphicaldepictions,suchasthenormalprobabilityplot.Unfortunatelythe
statisticstoassessitareunstableinsmallsamples,sotheirresultsshouldbeinterpretedwithcaution.Whenthe

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5/20/2017 ZIAECO:NormalityinData(ChemistsandPharmacists)
distributionofthedisturbancetermisfoundtodeviatefromnormality,thebestsolutionistouseamoreconservativep
value(.01ratherthan.05)forconductingsignificancetestsandconstructingconfidenceintervals.

WHYNORMALITYFORMEDICALRELATEDDATA?

Perhapsthebestwaytoexplainmypositionistodrawananalogywithmedicalpractice.Apatientpresentswithanear
acheandalowgradefever.Itsanobviousinnerearinfectionandsurelyantibioticsisthecure.Nomatterhowobvious
thecure,nodoctorintheirrightmindwouldprescribedrugswithoutanexaminationincludingamedicalhistory.Why?
Thesameistrueofprocessimprovement.99timeoutof100,youmayfixthespecialcauseasabyproductofyour
othereffortsbyaccident,sotospeak.Findingandremovingthatspecialcauseistoguardagainstthat1timeoutof
100thatyoureffortsandthecompanysresourceswillhavebeenwasted.Yourcareermaydependontakingthat
simplestep.Toskipitseemsirresponsiblyrecklesstome.

NoteForChemistsandPharmacists:
Normalityisameasureofconcentrationequaltothegramequivalentweightperliterofsolution.Gramequivalent
weightisthemeasureofthereactivecapacityofamolecule.Thesolute'sroleinthereactiondeterminesthesolution's
normality.Normalityisalsoknownastheequivalentconcentrationofasolution.

NORMALITYEQUATION:

Normality(N)isthemolarconcentrationcidividedbyanequivalencefactorfeq:
N=ci/feq
Anothercommonequationisnormality(N)equaltothegramequivalentweightdividedbylitersofsolution:
N=gramequivalentweight/litersofsolution(oftenexpresseding/L)
oritmaybethemolaritymultipliedbythenumberofequivalents:
N=molarityxequivalents

UNITSOFNORMALITY
ThecapitalletterNisusedtoindicateconcentrationintermsofnormality.Itmayalsobeexpressedaseq/L(equivalent
perliter)ormeq/L(milliequivalentperliterof0.001N,typicallyreservedformedicalreporting).

EXAMPLESOFNORMALITY
Foracidreactions,a1MH2SO4solutionwillhaveanormality(N)of2Nbecause2molesofH+ionsarepresentper
literofsolution.

Forsulfideprecipitationreactions,wheretheSO4ionistheimportantpart,thesame1MH2SO4solutionwillhave
anormalityof1N.

EXAMPLEPROBLEM:
Findthenormalityof0.1MH2SO4(sulfuricacid)forthereaction:
H2SO4+2NaOHNa2SO4+2H2O
Accordingtotheequation,2molesofH+ions(2equivalents)ofsulfuricacidreactwithsodiumhydroxide(NaOH)to
formsodiumsulfate(Na2SO4)andwater.Usingtheequation:
N=molarityxequivalents
N=0.1x2
N=0.2N
Don'tbeconfusedbythenumberofmolesofsodiumhydroxideandwaterintheequation.
Sinceyou'vebeengiventhemolarityoftheacid,youdon'tneedtheadditionalinformation.Allyouneedtofigureoutare
howmanymolesofhydrogenionsareparticipatinginthereaction.Sincesulfuricacidisastrongacid,youknowit
completelydissociatesintoitsions.

POTENTIALISSUESUSINGNFORCONCENTRATION
Althoughnormalityisausefulunitofconcentration,itcan'tbeusedforallsituationsbecauseitsvaluedependsonan
equivalencefactorthatcanchangebasedonthetypeofchemicalreactionofinterest.Asanexample,asolutionof
magnesiumchloride(MgCl2)maybe1NfortheMg2+ion,yet2NfortheClion.WhileNisagoodunittoknow,it'snot
usedasmuchasmolarityormoralityinactuallabwork.Ithasvalueforacidbasetitrations,precipitationreactions,and
redoxreactions.Inacidbasereactionsandprecipitationreactions,1/feqisanintegervalue.inredoxreactions,
1/feqmaybeafraction.

"HOWDOITESTMYDATAFORNORMALITY?"

Manystatisticaltestsandproceduresassumethatdatafollowsanormaldistribution(figure1).
Figure1:Histogramdepictinganormal(bellshaped)distributioninWinSPC

Forexample,allofthefollowingstatisticaltests,statistics,ormethodsassumethatdataisnormallydistributed:

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5/20/2017 ZIAECO:NormalityinData(ChemistsandPharmacists)
Hypothesistestssuchasttests,ChiSquaretests,Ftests
AnalysisofVariance(ANOVA)
LeastSquaresRegression
ControlChartsofIndividualswith3sigmalimits
CommonformulasforprocesscapabilityindicessuchasCpandCpk

Beforeapplyingstatisticalmethodsthatassumenormality,itisnecessarytoperformanormalitytestonthedata(with
someoftheabovemethodswecheckresidualsfornormality).Wehypothesizethatourdatafollowsanormal
distribution,andonlyrejectthishypothesisifwehavestrongevidencetothecontrary.

Whileitmaybetemptingtojudgethenormalityofthedatabysimplycreatingahistogramofthedata,thisisnotan
objectivemethodtotestfornormalityespeciallywithsamplesizesthatarenotverylarge.Withsmallsamplesizes,
discerningtheshapeofthehistogramisdifficult.Furthermore,theshapeofthehistogramcanchangesignificantlyby
simplychangingtheintervalwidthofthehistogrambars.

Normalprobabilityplottingmaybeusedtoobjectivelyassesswhetherdatacomesfromanormaldistribution,evenwith
smallsamplesizes.Onanormalprobabilityplot,datathatfollowsanormaldistributionwillappearlinear(astraight
line).Forexample,arandomsampleof30datapointsfromnormaldistributionresultsinthefirstnormalprobabilityplot
(Figure2).Here,thedatapointsfallclosetothestraightline.Thesecondnormalprobabilityplot(Figure3)illustrates
datathatdoesnotcomefromanormaldistribution.

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