School of Civil Engineering

Effects of Diurnal Temperature Dynamics on Curing

of Cold-Emulsion Reclaimed Asphalt Pavements

By

Kiplagat Chelelgo

Supervisor: Dr. Tony Parry

Project Report Submitted to the University of Nottingham in Partial Fulfilment of the

Requirement for the Award of the Degree of Master of Science in Civil Engineering

August, 2009
 AUTHORS DECLARATION

The research detailed in this report was conducted in the summer of 2009 at the

University of Nottingham, School of Civil Engineering-Nottingham Transportation

Engineering Centre. I hereby declare that it is my own work and has not been

presented in any form to any other institution other than the University of

Nottingham for an award of a degree or any similar qualification. I have done my

best to acknowledge information derived from works of other authors and

organisations.

Signed KIPLAGAT CHELELGO

24th AUGUST 2009

i
 ABSTRACT

Cold-Emulsion Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) develops strength gradually

depending on the rate at which curing proceeds. The challenge presented by its

poor early-life strength in the mechanistic pavement design process is tackled in

the laboratory by employing accelerated curing procedures. Adopted curing

regimes should reliably simulate on-site trends without excessively aging the

binder. Protocols encountered in literature subject the mix to steady state

temperatures to the attainment of Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC).

This project set out to investigate the likely effects of pavement temperature

dynamics on strength evolution and engineering properties of both asphalt and

the incorporated bituminous binder. To achieve this, a predictive model was used

to estimate high and low pavement temperature peaks in tropical and temperate

conditions. This resulted in two cyclic curing protocols that were used alongside

one existing steady temperature protocol for purposes of comparison.

Cold-Emulsion Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement was prepared in the laboratory by

artificially aging Hot Mixed Asphalt and mixing it with a Cationic Emulsion. Asphalt

cores were moulded from the mix and subjected to the three curing regimes. A

series of tests were conducted on the cores to track curing progression and the

associated changes in asphalt and binder properties.

The findings of the study pointed to the likelihood of severe treatment of

materials by the existing steady temperature curing regimes. Curing at steady

temperature led to a lower fatigue life, over-estimation of early life strength,

under-estimation of long term strength and severe aging of the binder as attested

by binder penetration, Softening Point and asphaltene content. To validate these

ii
results, a study incorporating more variables that interactively influence the

curing process need to be conducted.

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION Page

Authors Declaration..i

Abstract .ii

Table of Contents .iv

List of Tables .vii

List of Figures ..viii

Abbreviations ..ix

Symbols xi

Acknowledgements xii

CHAPTER1. INTRODUCTION.1

1.1 Theoretical Background1

1.1.1 Trends in Pavement Recycling .1

1.2 Problem Definition3

1.3 Research Goals and Objectives.3

CHAPTER2. LITERATURE REVIEW5

2.1 Cold Recycling of RAP5

2.1.1 Strength Evolution In Cold Emulsion RAP Mix.6

2.2 Temperature Dynamics in Asphalt Pavements.7

2.2.1 The Existing Curing Protocols9

2.2.2 The Investigated Cyclic Curing Temperatures.10

2.3 Fundamental Properties of Asphalt Mixtures..14

iv
2.3.1 Stiffness .14

2.3.2 Fatigue cracking.15

2.4 Characterisation of Bituminous Binders.15

2.4.1 Penetration.15

2.4.2 Softening Point....................16

2.4.3 Asphaltene Content.16

CHAPTER3. LABORATORY WORK17

3.1 Equipments.17

3.1.1 The Nottingham Asphalt Tester..17

3.1.2 The Superpave Gyratory Compactor..19

3.2 Materials20

3.2.1 Aggregates20

3.2.2 Bituminous binder22

3.3 Mix Design22

3.3.1 Blending of Aggregates23

3.3.2 Binder Demand25

3.3.3 Moisture-Density relations26

3.4 Preparation of gyratory specimens.30

3.5 Curing of Cold-Asphalt Specimens.31

3.6 Laboratory tests32

3.6.1 Indirect Tensile Stiffness Test33

3.6.2 Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test35

3.6.3 Bitumen Penetration Test..37

v
3.6.3 Softening Point of bitumen37

CHAPTER4. DATA ANALYSIS PROCEDURE..38

4.1 General Overview.38

4.2 Comparison of Moisture loss38

4.3 Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus Test41

4.4 Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test43

4.5 Properties of recovered binders.44

CHAPTER5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS....46

5.1 Conclusions46

5.2 Recommendations.47

LIST OF REFERENCES.48

BIBLIOGRAPHY.53

APPENDICES 54

A Schedule of tests55

B Results.56

C Journal paper.57

D Winter and Summer reports.58

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page

Table 2.2.2 (a): Average Conditions for Nairobi11

Table 2.2.2 (b): Average Conditions for London12

Table 2.2.2 (c): Minimum and Maximum Pavement Temperatures.13

Table 3.2.1: Gradation of Individual Aggregates.21

Table 3.3.1: Gradation of Combined Aggregates.24

Table 3.3.3 (a): Moisture-Density relations.27

Table 3.3.3 (b): Determination of Pre-wetting water (%)28

Table 4.2: Cold-Emulsion RAP Moisture Loss39

Table 4.3: Strength Evolution in Cold-Emulsion RAP41

Table 4.4: Linear Regression Values44

vii
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page

Figure 2.2.2 (a): Average Temperatures for Nairobi.11

Figure 2.2.2 (b): Average Temperatures for London12

Figure 3.1.1 (a): NAT in ITSM configuration18

Figure 3.1.1 (b): NAT in ITFT configuration.19

Figure 3.1.2: Gyratory Compactor20

Figure 3.2.1: Gradation of Individual Aggregates22

Figure 3.3.1: Gradation of Combined Aggregates25

Figure 3.3.3 (a): Moisture-Density relations27

Figure 3.3.3 (b): Determination of Pre-wetting water (%).29

Figure 3.4 (a): 20 Quarts Hobart Mixer31

Figure 3.4 (b): 20 Flat type Agitator..31

Figure 3.6.1 (a) Specimen diameter33

Figure 3.6.1 (b) Specimen height.33

Figure 3.6.1 (c) Form of Load Pulse34

Figure 4.2: Cold-Emulsion RAP Moisture Loss40

Figure 4.3: Strength Evolution in Cold-Emulsion RAP.42

Figure 4.4: Comparison of Fatigue Life.44

viii
 ABBREVIATIONS

NTEC Nottingham Transportation Engineering Centre

HMA Hot Mixed Asphalt

RAP Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement

HR Hot Recycling

CR Cold Recycling

HSE Health Safety and Environment

COLAS Cold Asphalt

CIPR Cold In-Place Recycling

CCPR Cold Central Plant Recycling

DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer

FWD Falling Weight Deflection

EMC Equilibrium Moisture Content

Superpave Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements

SHRP Strategic Highway Research Program

RWIS Road Weather Information System

ITSM Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus Test

NAT Nottingham Asphalt Tester

SGD Superpave Gyratory Compactor

ITFT Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test

ORN Overseas Road Note

LVDT Linear Variable Differential Transducer

RLAT Repeated Load Axial Test

DBM Dense Bitumen Macadam

OMC Optimum Moisture Content

MDD Maximum Dry Density

ITS Indirect Tensile Strength

ix
ITST Indirect Tensile Stiffness Test

x
 SYMBOLS

Bulk density ( )

Dry density ( )

xi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to extend my sincere gratitude and appreciation to the University of

Nottingham for the financial support offered through the Developing Solutions

for Africa scholarship scheme. It is through the fund that I enrolled in the Msc.

course under which this project was undertaken.

Many thanks also go to my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Tony Parry for his guidance

and invaluable technical advice throughout the research period. The able

leadership he provided ensured that the project always remained on course.

Mr. Oke Oluwaseyi deserves recognition for the role he played at the problem

definition and concept development stages. The many hours we spent together in

the laboratories are not taken for granted. Together with him are the members of

my research team Chibuzor, Cheng and Dunshun. They greatly challenged my

thinking in many aspects pertaining to the project.

I would also like to thank the members of NTEC laboratory led by Richard

Blakemore, Lawrence Pont, Nancy Hodge, Richard Meehan and Dave Edwards for

all the knowledge that they freely shared. Their trainings on the use of

equipments ensured a smooth flow in the laboratory work.

I am indebted to my friends and family members for the emotional and financial

support provided. My honourable friend Mr. Joshua Boiwo deserves a lot of credit

for his selflessness.

Last but not least is my dearest friend, Angela. Thanks for urging me on.

xii
 CHAPTER1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Theoretical Background

Flexible and rigid pavements are designed to function effectively under traffic and

environmental loads for the duration specified as the design life and are

expected to have undergone considerable structural deterioration at the expiry of

this period. Conventionally, the pavement would be overlaid with a Hot Mixed

Asphalt or ripped and replaced with a new layer of asphalt altogether, in a bid to

restore it to the desired level of service. The choice between rehabilitation

alternatives would be governed by the determined structural integrity of the

pavement as well as the prevailing economic and environmental constraints.

Pavements are predominantly found in roads, which are environmentally

destructive and capital intensive constructions, and any technology targeted at

lowering these costs are highly desired. The current trend is to increase re-use of

materials from existing pavements and to minimize use of materials from raw

sources. As compared to the conventional alternatives of pavement rehabilitation,

recycling performs much better from the economic point of view and savings of

up to 30% have been reported in some projects [1] . Materials from the two major

types of pavements can successfully be recycled, although recycling of flexible

asphalt pavements dominate due to their more popular use in paved areas.

1.1.2 Trends in Pavement Recycling

Use of pavement recycling as an alternative to the conventional pavement

rehabilitation methods started on a small scale in the early 1930s and gained

much of its popularity in the 1970s due the energy crisis that hit the globe in

1973[2]. The resulting fuel-associated rise in construction costs spark a research

interest into the viability of pavement recycling starting in Europe, Australia,

1
United States and South Africa. Laboratory models and field trial sections were

constructed and monitored over time to ascertain the engineering properties of

the recycled asphalts and to devise ways of improving their performance to

match those of conventional materials.

Production of conventional asphalt mix, popularly known as Hot Mixed Asphalt

(HMA), entails mixing of graded aggregates with penetration grade bitumen at

elevated temperatures. Raising the temperatures aid in reducing viscosity of the

binder and thus allow for uniform coating of both fine and coarse aggregates.

Hot-Recycling (HR) was the first form of asphalt pavement recycling and was

based on precisely the same technology as HMA, only that reclaimed aggregates

coated with aged bitumen were used in place of virgin aggregates. In that case,

savings were only made on re-use of aggregates but energy consumption

remained a challenge. Cold-Recycling (CR) techniques which allow for mixing of

constituents at ambient temperature provided a solution to this. Cold recycling

can be done with either softer grades of bitumen, bitumen emulsions, foamed

bitumen or bitumen cut-backs. The cut-backs have since been relegated to small

scale patching works due to their poor Health Safety and Environment (HSE)

record [3].

Cold emulsions were the first on the scene with the first anionic bitumen

emulsions being patented in 1922 by Hugh Mackay, an English chemist, under the

commercial name Cold Spray that was later changed to Cold Asphalt (COLAS)

[4]. Foamed bitumen later followed as a culmination of much research conducted

in the 1950s by Professor Ladis Csanyi of Iowa State College [4]. The two

materials differ in their mode of production in that, a bitumen emulsion is

manufactured by uniformly dispersing bitumen droplets in water with the aid of

emulsifying agents while foaming of bitumen involves injecting cold water into hot

bitumen to form vapour that is entrapped in bubbles of bitumen. They share the

2
need for curing or setting for the mix to attain the ultimate materials

properties.

1.2 Problem Definition

Strength development in Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) mixtures

incorporating cold emulsion bitumen takes place gradually and is dependent on

factors that interactively determine the curing rate. On-site curing may take

months or even years therefore; an accelerated laboratory curing protocol is

normally employed to simulate field conditions for estimation of fundamental

material properties for use in pavement structural design. The laboratory curing

regime so selected should closely correlate with the expected in-situ conditions

without much alteration to the binder properties. In other words, it should

correctly characterize the functional properties of the material to avoid

inappropriate design of pavement structural elements.

This project set out to investigate the likely effects of alternate heating and

cooling on predicted asphalt and binder properties of a wearing course cold mix.

The current protocols are based on steady state temperature curing regimes

which may not in essence capture the temperature dynamics taking place in the

pavement after the mix has been laid.

1.3 Research Goals and Objectives

This study was motivated by the need to reliably promote use of cold emulsion

asphalts and recyclable pavement materials as the cost effective and environment

friendly road construction options for both the developing and the developed

countries. The research project sought to closely investigate possible effects of

chosen laboratory curing regimes on strength development and other material

properties of Cold Emulsion Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Mixtures. There is not

3
yet a consensus on the laboratory curing modes for use, though one element runs

through all the protocols that have so far been used by researchers. They are all

steady state temperature curing regimes. The study experimented with cyclic

temperatures computed from projected diurnal pavement temperature cycles in

the tropics and the temperate regions. For purposes of comparison, one steady

state protocol in popular use was tested alongside those under study. To achieve

the goals of the study, the laboratory and research work focused on the following

points:

Effects of a laboratory curing procedure on stiffness and fatigue properties

of Cold Emulsion Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Mixtures.

Effects of the curing regimes on the rate of bitumen aging by analysis of

recovered bitumen from cured samples for residual Asphaltene Content,

Penetration and Softening Point temperatures.

Analysis of the experimental outcome and proposal of a procedure for

developing an accelerated laboratory curing protocol to be adopted in

design of cold mixes in the tropical Africa, based on the outcome.

4
 CHAPTER2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Cold Recycling of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement

Cold recycling is a pavement rehabilitation method that involves mixing of

constituent materials without input of heat. It can be carried out on site as Cold

In-Place Recycling (CIPR) or off-site as Cold Central Plant Recycling (CCPR) [5].

On site recycling eliminates the need for haulage, despite introducing the element

of variability in the mix. Cold In-Place Recycling requires use of specialized set of

equipments that ensure proportional and homogeneous mixing of the constituent

materials.

Cold recycling of a pavement section is preceded by a complete pavement

condition analysis to determine the extent of deterioration in terms of fatigue

cracks, corrugations, edge subsidence, flushing and adequacy of the foundation.

Visual inspection can be carried out in conjunction with more specialized

monitoring techniques such as Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) and Falling

Weight Deflection (FWD) tests for foundation analysis [6]. Once it has been

ascertained that the foundation is sufficient and drainage has been given due

consideration, each unique section of the pavement is given independent

assessment and, if need be, treated to a rehabilitation programme unique to

itself.

Once the analysis process has been completed and the pavement section

declared suitable for rehabilitation, samples of reclaimed asphalt are collected

from the section by either coring or by milling. The material thus collected is

taken to materials laboratory for characterization in terms of RAP gradation,

residual binder content, penetration of the recovered binder and the total

moisture content in the material. Material properties will inform the choice and

5
amount of the binder, pre-wetting water and the compaction effort required to

achieve the desired field density in the cold mix.

2.1.1 Strength Evolution in Cold Emulsion RAP Mix

As cited in section 1.1.2, bitumen emulsion has overriding environmental

advantages over other recycling agents which make it a binder of choice in a

pavement recycling exercise. This is attributed to the fact that reduction in its

viscosity is achieved by dispersing bitumen in water rather than dissolving it in a

hydrocarbon, as the case is with bitumen cut-backs. The proportion of water in

bitumen emulsion could be anywhere between 25% and 60% [3]. To achieve the

ultimate properties of the base bitumen, the emulsion has to break to release

the water and allow bitumen globules to coalesce. The rate of emulsion breaking

is dependent on aggregate reactivity, emulsion reactivity, mechanical treatment

of the mix, temperature, humidity and the prevailing wind speed.

Emulsion breaking and mix curing occur concurrently and act to get rid of the

effective moisture in the mix so as to allow for direct contact between the

aggregates and the binder. Curing happening within the first few days in the life

of the mix is more dependent on stabilizing agent than environmental factors and

is responsible for the initial cohesion of asphalt that gives it strength to support

light construction traffic. The final stages that carry on to the attainment of

Equilibrium Moisture Content (EMC) are dependent on both the stabilizing agent

and the prevailing environmental conditions. The variability in environmental

conditions is responsible for unique regional curing rates [7]. Humidity, wind

speed, drainage conditions and temperature dominate the curing process and the

latter is the focus of this study.

6
2.2 Temperature Dynamics in Asphalt Pavements

This project makes use of pavement temperature simulation models that have

hitherto found use in selection of appropriate performance grade bitumen fit for

particular locations as well as in determination of pavement stiffness moduli by

back-calculation [8]. There is reason to believe that temperature variations in the

pavement affects curing in a manner similar to which it affects layer stiffness

moduli and hence the adoption of these models.

Asphalt pavements are subjected to cyclic heating and cooling in response to

seasonal temperature variations and diurnal temperature cycles. A combination of

factors such as solar radiation, air temperature, pavement reflectance,

precipitation, freezing-thawing cycles alongside other physical and environmental

conditions act to influence the temperature dynamics in the pavement. Herb et al

[9] employed a one-dimensional finite difference model based on climatic factors

such as solar radiation, wind velocity and ambient air temperature to simulate

and characterize pavement temperatures over time and depth. From analysis of

actual pavement temperatures recorded at varying depths of pavements at the

Minnesota Road Weather Information System (RWIS) sites over a six-year period

between 1999 and 2005, the trio concluded that the maximum daytime pavement

temperature considerably exceeds the maximum air temperature.

This report concerns itself with Cold-Emulsion Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement whose

on-site temperature trends are expected to mirror those of Hot Mixed Asphalt as

reported by Diefendefer et al while working on the Virginia Smart Road Pavement

Research Project [10]. They managed to develop a more universal temperature

model that incorporated the latitude of the location concerned and the specific

time of the year. Latitude and the location are two parameters that were intended

at catering for the variation in solar radiation which is associated with the Earths

revolution round the sun. Solaimanian & Bolzan [11] and Yavuzturk et al [8]

7
confirmed that incident solar radiation and ambient temperatures are the two

factors that significantly influence asphalt pavement temperatures. With this

knowledge, they developed the relationships below to define the two temperature

extremes at any depth in the pavement layers.

(2.2, a)

(2.2, b)

Where, = Predicted maximum pavement temperature (C)

= Maximum daily ambient temperature (C)

= Day of the year (1 to 365)

= Latitude (Degrees)

= Depth from the surface (m)

= Predicted minimum pavement temperature

= Minimum daily ambient temperature (C)

Superpave (Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements) under the Strategic Highway

Research Program (SHRP) has been in the frontline in developing pavement

temperature algorithms. A simplified version from Superpave published by Mallick

and El-Korchi [12] at the time of this project was employed in computing

temperatures expected to prevail in pavements in the two regions of interest for

this project. The model allows for computation of temperature at the surface and

any other depth below the surface.

8
 (2.2, c)

Where, = Temperature at the surface (C)

= Ambient temperature (C)

= Latitude of the region concerned (Degrees)

For temperatures at different depths, the relationship below is used.

(2.2, d)

Where, = Temperature at depth

= Temperature at the surface

= Depth from the surface (inches)

2.2.1 The Existing Curing Protocols

Hot recycled asphalts develop strength almost instantaneously upon mixing,

laying and compaction. Heating reduces the viscosity of the aged binder and thus

enables it to homogeneously blend with the fresh added binder. The resulting

effective binder uniformly coats the aggregates to produce a stiff asphalt mix

capable of supporting traffic loads shortly after construction. Such a mix can be

reliably used to estimate the engineering properties of the asphalt.

Strength of a cold mix on the other hand evolves over time and is dependent on

the rate of emulsion breaking, mix curing and fluxing. The challenge presented by

the curing phenomenon and scepticism associated with lack of reliable data and a

definitive design procedure have confined the use of cold asphalt mixtures to

constructions where strength is not a key requirement such as in low volume

roads and minor rehabilitation works. Researches by individuals and agencies

have adopted a number of accelerated laboratory curing protocols in an attempt

9
to estimate service life of cold mixes. All protocols encountered in the course of

this study use steady state temperatures and a few are cited below.

1. 3 days curing at 60C; corresponding to the construction period and early

field life of the mix i.e. up to one year in the field [13]

2. 14 days at 35C and Relative Humidity 20% corresponding to between one

and three years in the field for the temperate regions under low to

medium traffic. [14,15,16]

3. 14 days at 18C and Relative Humidity 50% to simulate short term curing

(a few weeks after laying) in the temperate region [15].

4. Curing in the mould for 24 hours at ambient temperatures followed by 48

hours curing at 40C to simulates 6 months in the field [17].

2.2.2 Investigated Cyclic Curing Temperatures

The intention of a curing protocol is to mimic as closely as possible the expected

on site conditions under which the asphalt mix will serve. The idea of diurnal and

seasonal temperature variations in asphalts pavements raised the suspicion of the

likelihood of inadequate prediction of cold asphalt strength gain and bitumen

damage by the existing protocols. To answer these questions, the research

sought to investigate temperature cycles in one tropical city and one city in the

temperate region. The curing protocol proposed by the British Standards Institute

[14] of 14 days in the oven at 35C was used alongside as a control.

Nairobi in Kenya was chosen to represent the tropical conditions since its climatic

region covers bulk of the country and represents the most populated and

productive area of the country. Kenya has two rainy seasons, one between March

and May and the other between November and December. The remaining part of

the year is dry although there are no significant variations in the average monthly

temperatures. The driest months lie between June and October and the
10
 conditions will be quite favourable for laying of a cold asphalt mix. The average

number of sunshine hours as computed from the table below for the duration

between June and October is 5 hours.

Average
Discomfort Relative
Sunlight Temperature Average
from heat Humidity Wet Days
Month (hours) Precipitation
& (+0.25 mm)
Average Record (mm)
humidity am pm
Min Max Min Max

Jan 9 12 25 8 29 Moderate 74 44 38 5

Feb 9 13 26 9 31 Moderate 74 40 64 6

March 9 14 25 9 30 Moderate 81 45 125 11

April 7 14 24 11 28 Moderate 88 56 211 16

May 6 13 22 9 28 Moderate 88 62 158 17

June 6 12 21 7 27 - 89 60 46 9

July 4 11 21 6 26 - 86 58 15 6

Aug 4 11 21 7 27 - 86 56 23 7

Sept 6 11 24 5 28 - 82 45 31 6

Oct 7 13 24 7 30 - 82 43 53 8

Nov 7 13 23 6 28 - 86 53 109 15

Dec 8 13 23 8 28 - 81 53 86 11

Table 2.2.2 (a): Average Conditions for Nairobi [18]

Figure 2.2.2 (a): Average Temperatures for Nairobi

11
 London in the UK was chosen to represent the temperate conditions with the

driest months occurring in summer between mid-May and mid-August. The

average number of sunshine hours in a typical summer day as computed for the

average summer period is 6 hours.

Discomfort Relative
Average Temperature Average
from heat Humidity Wet Days
Month Sunlight Precipitation
Average Record & (+0.25 mm)
(hours) am pm (mm)
Min Max Min Max humidity

Jan 1 2 6 -10 14 - 86 77 54 15

Feb 2 2 7 -9 16 - 85 72 40 13

March 4 3 10 -8 21 - 81 64 37 11

April 5 6 13 -2 26 - 71 56 37 12

May 6 8 17 -1 30 - 70 57 46 12

June 7 12 20 5 33 - 70 58 45 11

July 6 14 22 7 34 - 71 59 57 12

Aug 6 13 21 6 38 - 76 62 59 11

Sept 5 11 19 3 30 - 80 65 49 13

Oct 3 8 14 -4 26 - 85 70 57 13

Nov 2 5 10 -5 19 - 85 78 64 15

Dec 1 4 7 -7 15 - 87 81 48 15

Table 2.2.2 (b): Average Conditions for London [19]

Figure 2.2.2 (b): Average Temperatures for London

12
Two temperature peaks for use in the laboratory to simulate cyclic curing were

computed using equations 2.2(c), 2.2 (d) and the average maximum and

minimum temperatures for the two cities under study, as obtained from BBC

weather records [18,19]. The upper peaks were assumed to occur during the day

when the maximum average air temperatures are recorded while lower peaks

were assumed to occur during the night when the average minimum

temperatures are recorded. Fatani et al [20] conducted a study on pavement

temperatures in Saudi Arabia and found out that maximum temperatures in

flexible pavements were recorded at depths of 20mm below the pavement

surface. That is approximately halfway through a typical pavement surfacing

which is 50mm thick and can reliably be assumed to represent the average

pavement conditions. The duration of sunshine hours were used in the laboratory

to cure samples at the upper peaks, i.e. 44 C and 37C in the table below. The

lower peaks were 34C and 29C for the tropical and temperate conditions

respectively

Tair (0C) TSurface T20mm

Latitude
Location (Degrees)
[32]
Min Max Min: oC/oF Max: oC/oF Min: oF/oC Max: oF/oC

Nairobi 1.27 11.6 22.2 36.3 97.3 46.9 116.4 92.9 33.8 111.1 43.9

London 51.50 11.8 20.0 31.6 88.8 39.8 103.6 84.8 29.3 98.9 37.2

Table 2.2.2 (c): Minimum and Maximum Pavement Temperatures

13
2.3 Fundamental Properties of Asphalt Mixtures

A measure of the mechanical parameters associated with an asphalt mix enables

an engineer to specify the thickness of a pavement layer and predict its service

life with some degree of certainty. Historically, this has been done empirically

using recipes specified by rule of thumb [21]. Recipes are calibrated to suit local

conditions and materials and may therefore not be quite useful in developing

guidelines fit for universal comparison of design methods. There has been

continued move towards the more measurable performance based mechanistic-

empirical pavement design method which relies on material responses to stresses

and strains induced by traffic and environmental conditions . The two pavement

distresses that are of importance in design of a flexible pavement are fatigue

cracking and rutting due to permanent deformation. Stiffness and fatigue can be

used in the laboratory to compare asphalt mixes on the basis of their

performance.

2.3.1 Stiffness

Stiffness refers to the relationship between the stress applied to a material and

the resultant strain deformation. This would normally be a unique constant

referred to as elastic modulus for a particular material but bitumen in asphalt is

a visco-elastic material whose elastic modulus varies with both temperature and

the rate of loading. To reliably define the load-deformation behaviour of an

asphalt mix, the term stiffness modulus has been adopted [22].

Stiffness of an asphalt mix is a reflection of its ability to effectively spread tyre

loads to the underlying pavement layers in a bid to reduce damage to the

foundations. Performance of stiffness tests in the laboratory can be done by

either uniaxial test, indirect tensile test or the beam tests [22]. Laboratory

determination of stiffness of the materials subjected to the three curing regimes

14
was done in accordance with BS DD 213: 1993 [28], which specifies the method

of performing the Indirect Tensile Stiffness test in the Nottingham Asphalt Tester.

2.3.2 Fatigue Cracking

Fatigue is the structural damage suffered by a material when subjected to a cyclic

or repeated stress that is generally of magnitude below the ultimate tensile

strength of the material. Traffic and thermal loads in an asphalt pavement induce

alternate stretching and relaxation in the binder matrix which eventually leads to

fracture being manifested as fatigue cracks on the road surface

Determination of fatigue life of an asphalt mix in the laboratory can be done using

simple flexure, uniaxial test or the indirect tensile test. The latter is preferred due

to ease of specimen fabrication and is the method adopted in the draft

specification- BS DD ABF: 2003 and used in this exercise. The aim of the test is

to load a specimen to failure by applying alternating stress or strain, and to

determine the number of load applications to cause the failure

2.4 Characterization of Bituminous Binders

To compare the effects of the curing regimes on the aging properties of the

emulsion binder, three characterization tests were performed on recovered

binders. Bitumen was recovered before and after curing of the cylinders and the

parameters below determined.

2.4.1 Penetration

Penetration Test measures consistency of a sample of bitumen by determining

the depth to which a standard needle attached to standard weight moves

vertically through a sample, at specified temperature in specified time. The

penetration test is mostly used for classifying bitumen into grades but it can give

good indication of the aging phenomenon since its value is largely dependent on

relative proportions of the chemical components in bitumen.

15
2.4.2 Softening Point

Softening Point is a laboratory test used to determine the transit point between

the semi-solid and semi-liquid states. Laboratory determination of Softening Point

is by Ring and Ball test in accordance with BS 2000, part 58 [31]. Aged bitumen

is expected to have higher softening point than fresh bitumen since it will have

hardened due to loss of volatile components.

2.4.3 Asphaltene Content

Bitumen is composed of four fractional components namely: Aromatics, Resins,

Saturates and Asphaltenes. Their relative presence depend on the source of crude

oil from which the bitumen was extracted and the age of the particular bitumen.

As bitumen ages, the components undergo complex reactions and experience

transformations from one fraction to another depending on their reactivity.

Asphaltenes are polar components with the highest molecular weight and function

as viscosity imparting agents in bitumen. As aging proceeds, maltenes

(Saturates, Aromatics and Resins) get progressively oxidised to Asphaltenes thus

increasing the viscosity of bitumen. The severity caused by curing as a result of

steric and exudative hardening can therefore be evaluated by comparing

asphaltene content of bitumen before and after curing of asphalt samples.

Asphaltenes are insoluble in n-heptane and can therefore be sieved out from the

maltenes which are soluble in n-heptane to determine the Asphaltene content of

bitumen sample.

16
 CHAPTER3. LABORATORY WORK

3.1 Equipment

The Nottingham Asphalt Tester (NAT) [22] is the main piece of equipment that

was used to carry out the core tests in this project. Other equipments that came

in handy in preparation and conditioning of samples include the Jaw Crusher,

Sieve Shaker, Hobart Mixer, Shear Gyratory Compactor (SGC) and Conditioning

Cabinets.

3.1.1 The Nottingham Asphalt Tester

To monitor performance parameters of three sets of specimens as curing

proceeded, use was made of a suite of tests available in the Nottingham Asphalt

Tester (NAT). This is a fairly sophisticated but reliable piece of equipment

developed at The University of Nottingham for measurement of stiffness, fatigue

and rutting properties of asphaltic materials. Its composed of a loading system,

deformation measurement system, recording system and a temperature control

unit [22].

Test specimen is centrally positioned and pneumatically loaded across the

diameter via the loading platens. The sinusoidal load pulses applied produce

deformations measured by two Linear Variable Differential Transducers (LVDTs)

mounted diametrically opposite each other, in the case of ITSM testing, or above

the loading platens, in the case of ITFT tests. All operations are controlled by

specialist computer software that keeps a data log of average transient loads and

the peak lateral or longitudinal deformations. The three tests i.e. ITFT, ITSM and

RLAT can all be done in the same NAT machine by simply changing the mounting

frame and selecting the appropriate program. ITSM is a non-destructive test

while ITFT is destructive. To prevent damage to the LVDTs during ITFT testing,

17
they are mounted above the upper loading platen where they measure vertical

deformation at failure.

Pneumatic
Load Actuator

Steel Load Frame

Load Cell

Upper Loading Platen

Test Specimen LVDT

Lower Loading Platen

Figure 3.1.1 (a): NAT in ITSM configuration

18
LVDTs

Upper Loading Platen

Lower Loading Platen

Figure 3.1.1: (b) NAT in ITFT configuration

3.1.2 The Superpave Gyratory Compactor

Gyratory compactor is used to manufacture test cores in the laboratory by

simulating kneading action of rollers used to compact asphalt on site. The

compactor applies a combination of shearing and static compressive forces to a

mix contained in a mould tilted at an angle of inclination of 1.25. A mould of

100mm or 150mm diameter is placed in the SGC assembly and loaded at a

standard 600 kPa while being given 30 gyrations per minute. The available

software allows for setting the number of gyrations or the desired density as the

target in the gyration process [21]. The software automatically plots density of

the sample against the number of gyrations as compaction proceeds. Once the

target density or number of gyrations is achieved, the system automatically stops

and readings can be taken

19
 Loading Ram

Upper Platen

Steel Mould

Rotating Base

Figure 3.1.2: Gyratory Compactor

3.2 Materials

This research utilized 60 asphalt cores of dimensions 100mm diameter and 50mm

height manufactured in the laboratory using a cationic bitumen emulsion, hot

mixed asphalt of granite origin, dust and a mineral filler. The focus was on cold

emulsion reclaimed asphalt mix fit for use in the surface course and thus,

aggregates of maximum size 20mm were used.

3.2.1 Aggregates

The aggregates used in this research were derived from artificially aged Dense

Bitumen Macadam (DBM) obtained from Cliffe Hill Quarry in Leicester. The

residual binder in the DBM after being kept at ambient temperatures for close to

one month was determined as 4.25% by mass of aggregates. Its penetration

ranged between 20dmm and 21dmm. This material came in lumps and had to be

20
reheated to 160C before being laid into slabs of 305mm by 305mm by 50mm

thick and allowed to cool in the laboratory for a day or two. The penetration of

binder recovered from the material after this treatment had dropped to 14dmm

and the asphalt was considered to have been sufficiently aged to qualify as

Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP).

To generate Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement aggregates, the slabs were broken into

small blocks with the aid of a pneumatic drill before being passed through a jaw

crusher with an opening of 18mm to produce a nominal 0/20mm size material.

Sieve analysis was performed on a number of RAP, Filler and Dust samples and

results averaged to get their overall gradations. It was noticed that RAP gradation

fell below the ORN 19 & 31[25,26] lower bound, an indication that it was deficient

in fines.

ORN
ORN
19&31
Maximum 19&31
Size RAP 5mm Dust Mineral Filler Lower
Density Upper
(mm) (% Passing) (% Passing) (% Passing) Bound
(% Passing) Bound
for
for DBM
DBM

28 100 100 100 100 100 100

20 94.5 100 100 85.95 95 100

14 59.1 100 100 73.2 65 85

10 40.8 100 100 62.92 52 72

6.3 25.6 99.5 100 51.11 39 55

3.35 9.1 76.78 100 38.46 32 46

0.3 0.5 16.63 100 12.99 7 21

0.075 0.1 5.39 97.45 6.96 2 9

Table 3.21: Gradation of Individual Aggregates

21
 Figure 3.2.1: Gradation of Individual Aggregates

Grading of aggregates was followed by sieving of individual aggregate sizes into

polythene sample bags in readiness for blending. There were five bags in total

containing aggregates of sizes 20mm, 14mm, 10mm, 6.35mm, 3.35mm and dust

respectively.

3.2.2 Bituminous binder

A cationic bitumen emulsion containing 60% bitumen and 40% water was used as

the binder in preparation of the cold mix. The bitumen emulsion of Venezuela

origin was supplied by Nynas Asphalts, UK. At the time of supply, the

manufacturer reported the penetration of the emulsion as being 48dmm and its

softening point as 51.4 . No further laboratory tests were conducted to ascertain

these values

3.3 Mix Design

Asphalt mix design is the process of determining the properties of the constituent

materials in an asphalt mix and defining the optimum combination of the

ingredients in a manner that ensures a balance between strength, durability and

22
cost. Cold mix design procedures have not yet been standardized; however, the

basic procedures aim at optimizing the gradation of aggregates, amount of

asphalt binder, amount of pre-wetting water and the compaction effort required

to achieved the required field density [23]. Since the mix being prepared was

intended for the wearing course, it was imperative that it be impermeable to

water. To achieve this, a well graded mix was designed.

3.3.1 Blending of Aggregates

Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement, Dust and Filler were graded separately and blended

in proportions of 65%, 30%, and 5% respectively to produce an overall gradation

falling within the envelope defined by the lower and upper bounds of the

Overseas Road Notes No. 19 and 31, as shown in the table below [25,26].

Several proportions were tried with the aim of approaching the maximum density

curve as defined by Cooper equation below [24].

(3.3.1, a)

Where, = Percent material passing sieve size (mm)

= Maximum aggregate size (mm)

= Percent filler (%)

= Exponent that defines the curvature of the gradation

curve, usually 0.45 for maximum packing of particles [27].

The maximum aggregate size is one sieve size larger than the first sieve to

retain more than 10% aggregates, which is 28mm according to this gradation.

Size ranges from 75 microns to 28mm. The ratios shown in the table are those

23
of RAP, Dust and Filler respectively, which were blended using the simple

mathematical relation below

(3.3.1, b)

Where, = percentage of combined aggregates passing a particular

sieve

= Percentages of material passing a particular sieve for

individual aggregates

= Proportions of individual aggregates used in the

combination

ORN 19&31 ORN 19&31

Sieve Cooper's
Ratio Ratio Ratio Upper Lower
size Equation
61:31:8 61:33.8:5.2 65:30:5 Bound for Bound for
(mm) (6.57% F)
DBM DBM

28 100 100 100 100 100 100

20 96.71 96.71 96.49 95 100 85.85

14 73.5 73.5 71.76 65 85 73.06

10 62.74 62.74 60.3 52 72 62.73

6.3 54.09 54.07 51.09 39 55 50.88

3.35 38.62 37.97 35.29 32 46 38.19

0.3 13.71 11.38 10.58 7 21 12.62

0.075 9.55 6.97 6.57 2 9 6.57

Table 3.3.1: Gradation of Combined Aggregates

24
 Figure 3.3.1: Gradation of Combined Aggregates

3.3.2 Binder Demand

The approximate total binder content requirement for the mix was estimated at

6.46%, using the empirical formula below developed by the Asphalt Institute

[21]. This was based on the combined aggregates gradation presented in table

3.3.1 above.

(3.3.2)

Where, = Total binder demand as a percentage by mass of the combined

aggregates

= Percentage of mineral aggregates greater than size 2.36mm

25
 = Percentage of mineral aggregates passing sieve size 2.36mm

and retained on a 75 micron sieve

= Percentage of mineral matter passing a 75 micron sieve

The binder content of the Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement which constitutes 65% of

the mix had previously been determined as 4.25%. Taking this into consideration,

the total binder requirement of the mix was calculated as 3.7%. Since a cationic

emulsion containing 60% base bitumen was to be used, 6.16% was needed to

give 3.7 % bitumen in the. For purposes of convenience, a value of 6% cationic

emulsion was adopted in the laboratory.

3.3.3 Moisture-Density relations

Laboratory determination of the Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) and the

Maximum Dry Density (MDD) of the blended aggregates was performed using

Superpave Gyratory Compactor. Five levels of moisture content were selected

ensuring that some were above and others below the estimated optimum

moisture content. Aggregates conditioned overnight in an oven set at 35 were

thoroughly mixed with the pre-determined percentages of water, weighed into

100mm diameter steel moulds and compacted in the gyratory compactor. The

gyratory compactor applied 50 revolutions at a confining static pressure of 600

and an angle of inclination of 1.25.

LVDTs installed in the gyratory compactor accurately measured the heights of the

completely compacted specimens, giving values that were used in conjunction

with the mass and diameter of the specimens to compute the bulk density. The

computed bulk density was input into the equation below to arrive at the dry

density of individual samples at the specified percentage of moisture content.

26
Where, = Bulk density ( )

= Dry density ( )

= Moisture content

Moisture
Dry Density (kg/m)
Content (%)

1st 2nd 3rd 4th Average

1 2173.1 2073.1 2117.2 2073.1 2109.125

3 2159.9 2144.9 2175.8 2144.9 2156.375

5 2162.7 2159.1 2148.8 2162.7 2158.325

7 2191.2 2176.2 2162.2 2176.2 2176.45

9 2160.6 2163.1 2224.2 2160.6 2161.433

Table 3.3.3 (a): Moisture-Density relations

The data series of dry densities were plotted against the moisture contents and a

smooth curve fitted through the points. The peak of the curve represents the

MDD (2,177 ) and the corresponding moisture content is the OMC (6.55%).

Figure 3.3.3 (a): Moisture-Density relations

27
Based on the emulsion content of 6% determined in section 3.3.2, an asphalt mix

was prepared with pre-wetting water varying from 1% to 4% as shown in the

table below. Cylinders prepared from the mix were cured for three days at 40 in

the oven before being transferred to a conditioning cabinet thermostatically

controlled at 20 .

The cylinders prepared by varying amounts of pre-wetting water were tested for

strength in the Indirect Tensile Strength test (ITS) and the results tabulated in

table 3.3.3 (b) as dry strengths (ITSD). To simulate moisture damage in the

worse case scenario, the cylinders were kept overnight in a water bath at

25 and re-tested for strength. The strength values were tabulated in the table

below as wet strengths (ITSW). The Indirect Tensile Strength ratio (ITSR),

computed as a ratio of the wet strength to the dry strength, was plotted

alongside the dry and wet strength values to yield the graphs in Figure 3.3.3 (b)

below.

Average

Fluid Dry Dry Dry

Content Density Density Density ITSD ITSR

W
(%) ITSW (%)

1 2138.77 2141.48 2140.12 489.78 350.92 71.65

2 2152.85 2168.18 2160.51 481.43 401.10 83.32

3 2202.27 2203.89 2203.08 462.45 357.57 77.32

4 2187.06 2166.15 2176.61 467.80 372.69 79.67

Table 3.3.3 (b): Determination of Pre-wetting water (%)

28
 Figure 3.3.3 (a): Determination of Pre-wetting water (%)

It is evident from the plots in figure 3.3.3 (a) that the dry strength drops as the

total fluid content increases. The wet strength, on the other hand, rises slightly to

peak in between 1% and 2% pre-wetting water. For convenience, a value of

1.5% was chosen as the appropriate pre-wetting water percentage by mass of

dry aggregates.

The pre-wetting water content of and the emulsion content of were used

to fabricate three cylinders for determination of the target bulk density. The

fabricated cylinders were compacted in the gyratory compactor set at an angle of

gyration of ; ram pressure of 600 and 200 gyrations. The average of the

three cylinders gave a reference bulk density of 2,458 . 95% of this value,

i.e. 2,333 was chosen as the target laboratory density.

29
3.4 Preparation of gyratory specimens

Cylindrical specimens for laboratory curing and testing were fabricated based on

the previously determined mixed aggregates gradation, emulsion requirement

and the optimum pre-wetting water content. The target dimensions of the

laboratory cylinders suitable for both ITSM and ITFT tests were 100mm diameter

and 45mm height. From the estimate of the target density, this translates to

per cylinder. A provision for wastages was made by batching of aggregates

into metallic tins that were conditioned overnight at 35 to drive out any

moisture in the aggregates. This material was sufficient to produce four asphalt

cylinders.

The dry aggregates were then transferred into the mixers bowl where 1.5%

(56g) of water by mass of dry aggregates was added. This was followed by 1

minute of mixing in the Hobart mixer to pre-wet the aggregates so as to enhance

dispersion of the emulsion. A visual inspection revealed uniform distribution of

the water in the mix. A mass of emulsion equivalent to 6% of the mass of

aggregates was added into the moist aggregates and mixing continued for

a further 1 minute. The resulting mix was slightly segregated but there was

reasonable coating of aggregates by the emulsion. Manual mixing with a steel

scoop was done to eliminate the segregation problem.

30
 Stainless
Steel Bowl

Flat beater

Figure 3.4 (a): 20 Quarts Hobart Mixer Figure 3.4 (b): Flat type Agitator

The resultant mix was weighed into a steel mould assembly that was placed in

the gyratory compactor and compacted to the target density. The number of

gyrations to achieve the target density varied from cylinder to cylinder and the

reason for this variation was not immediately understood. Attempts were made to

keep the mould in the oven for a few minutes before testing in a bid to control

the mix temperature but that did not change the trend. It was suspected that the

process of weighing the mixtures into the mould might have introduced some

initial densification on some cylinders rendering them much easy to compact. It

was not easy to control segregation in every cylinder since batching was done

manually and on a very small scale.

3.5 Curing of Cold-Asphalt Specimens

Compacted cores were kept at ambient temperatures in the laboratory for 24

hours to allow them gain sufficient shear strength before being transferred into

ovens regulated in temperature. The shortage in the number of moulds made it

necessary for some cylinders to be extruded after 18 hours and kept in sealed

polythene bags for a further 6 hours. The moisture content as back-calculated

from the weight loss in the cylinders revealed similarity in the rates of curing of
31
the cylinders extruded after 24 hours and those extruded after 18 hours and kept

in polythene bags. The latter method was therefore adopted for all the

subsequent cylinders to reduce the time spent in the laboratory.

Two thermostatically controlled conditioning cabinets had been set aside for the

two cyclic curing protocols. Temperature probes were used to maintain

temperatures in the cabinet to within of the set temperatures. The values in

table 2.2.2 (c) were rounded off to whole figures for ease of handling. For the

tropics, 34 and 44 were used as the two peaks, while 29 and 37 were

used for the temperate conditions. Temperature in the cabinet representing the

tropical conditions could be controlled to within but the one representing

the temperate conditions developed problems that varied the temperature by up

to at some instances. The third set of cylinders were cured at constant

temperature of 35 for the 14 day curing duration selected for all the cabinets

3.6 Laboratory Tests

The tests described hereunder were specifically chosen for their ability to

characterise the effects of curing on both the fundamental engineering properties

of the mix and that of the binder. The rate of moisture loss was tracked to give

supplementary information on the curing phenomenon. The water content at

convenient intervals was reckoned by mass difference based on the moisture

content at the time of moulding. Indirect Tensile Stiffness tests were conducted

on three specimens from each conditioning cabinet at six intervals arbitrarily

selected t provide a wide spread of data.

Despite the ITSM test being non-destructive, it was decided to use cylinders not

previously tested for stiffness at each interval to eliminate the possibility of any

damages. The pulse shapes for specimens tested after one day of curing indicated

some failures in the specimens and thus justifying the decision. Samples cured
32
for 10 and 12 days were taken back to the conditioning cabinets after stiffness

determination to provide sufficient number of samples for use in the ITFT test

which was scheduled to be done on cores cured for 14 days. The standard code

followed for the test required a minimum of 10 cylinders per curing regime which

would have meant having more cylinders cured for 14 days.

To study the effects of the curing regimes on the bitumen properties, bitumen

was extracted from cylinders after 24 hours of cure at ambient temperature and

characterised. The recorded properties were compared with those of bitumen

extracted after 14 days of cure under the three curing protocols.

3.6.1 The Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus Test (ITSM)

The Indirect Tensile Stiffness modulus test was performed in the laboratory in

accordance with BS DD 213:1993 [28]. This is a non-destructive test that

measures the visco-elastic response of asphalt to load application. Specimens to

be tested were conditioned overnight at 20 in accordance with the requirements

of the code. The diameter of each specimen was averaged from values taken at

three equally spaced points using external callipers in the manner shown in figure

3.6.1 (a). A steel rule was used to compute the average height by taking two

readings from each of the perpendicular directions as shown in figure 3.6.1 (b).

Steel Rule

External
Callipers
Straightedge

Steel plate

Figure 3.6.1 (a): Specimen diameter Figure 3.6.1 (b): Specimen height

33
The Nottingham Asphalt Tester configured as shown in figure 3.3.1 (a) was used

in this test. The cylindrical specimen of average diameter 100 and 50 thick

was correctly positioned between the upper and the lower platens of the NAT. The

LVDTs were secured centrally about the axis of the specimen and opposite each

other with the help of the alignment jig. Much care was taken to ensure that the

LVDT probes did not get into voids in the specimen. The target parameters were

input into the controlling software and the specimen given five conditioning

pulses to bed it. A rise time of and target horizontal deformation of

was recommended for the 100 diameter specimens. After the five

conditioning pulses, the LVDTs were checked and readjusted as indicated on the

computer screen by the software. The load actuator of the Nottingham Asphalt

is capable of applying a load pulse of the form below

Figure 3.6.1 (c): Form of Load Pulse [28]

A further five load pulses were applied and the stiffness from the five pulses

averaged to give the stiffness of the cylinder. It was recommended that the test

be repeated each time by rotating the specimen through 90 10. The mean value

34
of the stiffness in the two directions was taken as the stiffness of the cylinder.

The Stiffness Modulus is calculated using the equation below.

(3.6.1)

Where,

= Peak applied load

D = Peak transient deflection

t = Specimen thickness

= Poissons ratio

= Stiffness modulus

The above equation has been programmed into the software controlling the test

and a print out containing all the required values is generated at the end of the

test. A Poissons ratio of 0.35 is recommended for asphalt when tests are

undertaken at 20

3.6.2 Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test

The Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test was performed in the laboratory in accordance

with BS DD ABF: 2003 [29]. According to the draft code, the specimen to be

tested is conditioned in a temperature controlled cabinet at 201C for at least

12 hours. For a mix with aggregate size 20mm or below, 10 specimens are

recommended for testing at each stress level to give a good spread of data. The

target stress level for the first specimen should either be 600 or 500 ,

depending on the strength of the specimens. A guide on the levels of the

subsequent stresses will depend on the number of cycles to failure of the first

sample.

35
A controlled strain failure criterion was chosen for the specimens in this research

because the criterion represents failure mechanism in thin layers such as the

wearing course. The specimen is considered to have failed once a deformation of

9mm has been attained or after the specimen cracks.

Before subjecting each sample to ITFT test, its stiffness is determined by

controlled stress version of the Indirect Tensile Stiffness Test (ITST) using the

stress level to be adopted in ITFT testing. The configuration of the NAT is then

switched to accommodate the ITFT frame and the specimen centrally positioned

between the upper and the lower loading strips. The flat faces of the specimen

should be perpendicular to the bottom loading strip. Once the LVDTs have been

correctly positioned above the upper loading strip, the specimen is loaded by

applying 40 pulses per minute along the diameter.

Fatigue analysis of the results is performed by plotting the maximum tensile

horizontal strain against the number of cycles to failure on logarithmic scales. The

maximum horizontal tensile stress and the maximum horizontal

tensile strain (microstrains) at the centre of the specimen are calculated as:

; (3.6.2)

Where

= The mean applied load

= The diameter of the specimen

t = Thickness of the specimen

= Poissons ratio (0.35 for asphalt mixes)

= Stiffness modulus of the cylinder

36
3.6.3 Bitumen Penetration Test

Bitumen Penetration test was performed in accordance with procedures detailed

in BS 2000-49 [30]. Bitumen extracted from cylinders before and after curing

was penetrated to compare the effects of curing on consistency of bitumen. The

specimen is prepared in a sample container and conditioned in a water bath at

25 for between 1hr and 1.5 hrs prior to the test. A needle with a 100g weight is

then brought to touch the surface of bitumen at right angles and allowed to fall

through it for 5 seconds. The procedure is repeated three times and the depths in

deci-millimetres are averaged to get the penetration value for the bitumen.

3.6.4 Softening Point of bitumen

Softening point of bitumen is determined in the laboratory using the Ring and Ball

apparatus in accordance with BS 2000-58 [31]. In this test, two steel balls are

placed on top of bitumen samples contained in brass rings suspended in a water

bath. The temperature of the water bath is raised in steps of 5 till the bitumen

samples deform to let the balls drop to the bottom of a steel plate placed 25mm

below the rings. The temperature at which this occurs is recorded as the

Softening Point of the bitumen which represents the Equi-Viscous Temperature

(EVT) of the bitumen, i.e. the temperature at which its penetration is 800

37
 CHAPTER4. DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 General Overview

The tests described in the previous chapter were specifically selected to reliably

track the performance of Cold-Emulsion Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement treated to

three curing regimes. The schedules presented in Appendix A were followed in

order to effectively collect all the relevant data and to conduct all the tests in the

correct order and timings. It was not always possible to do the tests at the

intended time due to tight schedules in the use of the laboratory equipments and

flexibility had to be built in to allow for postponement of some tests. ITSM tests

were mostly affected since some of the cylinders had to be kept in the cold room

for up three days awaiting availability of testing equipment. The help of the

laboratory technicians was enlisted in determination of asphaltene contents due

to time constrains and the complexity of the test.

4.2 Comparison of Moisture Loss

A measure of the moisture loss by samples under the three temperature regimes

was made to provide information regarding the curing progress. It was decided to

use the residual moisture content as a percentage of the total mix to ease

comparison of the three data sets. Pre-wetting water in the mix at the time of

moulding constituted 1.5% by mass of dry aggregates. The emulsion on the other

hand was made up of 40% water. This together with the pre-wetting water

brought the amount of water in the mix to 3.64% of the total mass. Curiously,

the three curing regimes displayed closely similar trends in water loss. A plot of

the percentage water in the mix against period in time indicated an approximate

loss of 10% after curing in the mould for 24 hours, 80% after curing in the

conditioning cabinets for 1 day and 90% lost after curing in the conditioning

38
cabinets for 2 days. This seems to suggest that temperature plays a minor role in

moisture loss which is against the expectation.

34C & 44C Cure 29C & 37C Cure 35C Cure

% moisture % moisture % moisture

Day content Day content Day content

0 3.64 0 3.64 0 3.64

1 3.25 1 3.26 1 3.22

1.08 1.84 1.17 1.89 1.08 1.18

1.17 1.54 1.75 0.69 1.17 1.04

1.75 0.78 2 0.78 1.75 0.69

2 0.62 3 0.37 2 0.58

3 0.3 4 0.24 3 0.23

4 0.27 5 0.13 4 0.18

5 0.22 6 0.19 5 0.32

6 0.1 13 -0.03 6 0.19

13 0.06 15 0.1 7 0.06

15 0.07 13 -0.11

15 0.13

Table 4.2: Cold-Emulsion RAP Moisture Loss

39
 Figure 4.2: Cold-Emulsion RAP Moisture Loss

In Table 4.2 and Figure 4.2 above, day 1 represents the 24 hour period within

which the cylinders were cured in the moulds before being transferred to the

conditioning cabinets. As can be seen from the graphs, moisture loss stabilized at

around the sixth day though there was a peculiar rise in moisture content at

around that period for the three regimes. This is the time during which the

samples had been kept in the cold room for three days prior to ITSM testing.

Some moisture was noticed to have collected within the storage bags and it is

suspected that some of it might have been absorbed by the specimens.

It can also be noticed that at some instances, more than 100% of moisture had

been lost by the samples. That obviously cannot happen in the normal

circumstances. There are two possible explanations to this occurrence and the

first is attributed to specimen preparation and handling. At the mixing stage,

theres a possibility that the aggregates used contained some moisture that was

not accounted for in moisture calculations. Most specimens also lost some
40
fragments during handling and curing due to their fragility giving the false notion

that they had lost more water than they actually contained. The other possibility,

which is most likely, is the loss of volatile components of the bitumen. The latter

could only be confirmed after the other laboratory tests had been done.

4.3 Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus Test

Stiffness modulus of cylinders from the three curing protocols was determined at

six time intervals. The cyclic temperatures started on the lower peaks and the

effect was reflected in the stiffness modulus determined after a day of curing in

the ovens. That would have been equivalent to on-site laying of cold-emulsion

asphalt in the evening when temperatures are low. Strength development in the

cylinders cured at 35 rose gradually in an almost linear manner while those

under cyclic temperatures rose gradually with a decreasing gradient towards a

peak.

Stiffness Modulus (Mpa)

Day
35C Cure 29C & 37C Cure 34C & 44C Cure

1 1223 680 940

3 1307 897 1556

6 1400 1423 1874

10 1540 1393 1607

12 1575 1670 2313

14 1425 1834 1926

Table 4.3: Strength Evolution in Cold- Emulsion RAP

41
 Figure 4.3: Strength Evolution in Cold-Emulsion RAP

The drop in stiffness of cores witnessed on the 10 th and 14th days was a break

from the general trend. Since stiffness determined at each interval was done on

fresh set of cylinders, the batching process was suspected to have introduced

variability in the mix. The other phenomenon that was not closely monitored is

the effect on stiffness of the temperature peak at the time of introduction of

cylinders into the ovens. Going by the results of stiffness determined on the first

day, this could as well be the reason we have lower values on the tenth day.

Wide variations in material properties are common in cold mixes but a general

trend can be drawn from the results plotted in Figure: 4.3 above. It can be

deduced that laboratory curing of cold-emulsion asphalt at 35 closely predicts

the intermediate strength, overestimates the early strength and underestimate

the long term strength. The tropical conditions show a faster rate of strength

development which may generally be underestimated if use is made of the

existing protocol of curing at 35 . A stiffness modulus of 2000 is sufficient

42
to support low to medium traffic [24], which in this can be achieved from as early

as 12days in the tropical conditions.

4.4 Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test

Fatigue characteristics of materials cured under the three different regimes were

compared by plotting the maximum horizontal tensile strains against the number

of cycles to failure and generating fatigue relationships by use of power trend

lines. Fatigue life of each mixture was obtained from its linear regression model

by assuming logarithmic linearity of fatigue life. Samples cured cyclically at 29

and 37 exhibited the highest level of fatigue resistance while those cured at

34 an 44 had the lowest life to failure.

Early failure in fatigue in the mix cured cyclically at 34 and 44 can be

explained by considering the likely effects of high temperatures on the bitumen

binder. At temperatures of 44 , bitumen could be losing the volatile components

and thus ending up being brittle. In terms of fatigue, the standard cure of asphalt

emulsion at 35 slightly underestimates the fatigue life of the mix laid in the

temperate environment.

43
 Figure 4.4: Comparison of Fatigue Life

Curing Protocol Equation based on Nf Nf at 100 R2

35C y=4960.5x-0.418 11,384 0.87

29C & 37C y=6091.6x-0.433 13,237 0.82

34C & 44C y=5464.9x-0.445 8,026 0.88

Table: 4.4 Linear Regression Values

4.5 Properties of recovered binders

Bitumen was recovered from the cores before and after being subjected to the

three curing conditions. Table 4.5 below presents the characterization of the

binders in terms of Penetration, Softening Point and Asphaltene Content

percentage. These three parameters were used to assess severity of aging of

44
bitumen caused by the curing regimes. The results indicate that curing at the

steady temperature of 35 results in the highest degree of aging as compared to

the other two regimes. The increase in asphaltene contents after curing is partly

due to aging and partly due to activation of aged bitumen in the RAP.

It is therefore logical to suggest that curing at the steady temperature of 35 to

simulate on site conditions may be too harsh a treatment for cold-emulsion

Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement used in both temperate and tropical conditions

Asphaltene
Penetration Softening
Contents
( ) Point ( )
(%)

Before Curing 26 61 14.8

35oC 21 64 16.3
After Curing

29oC &
32 59.2 16.2
37oC

34oC &
22 63 16.1
44oC

Table 4.5: Properties of Recovered binders

45
CHAPTER5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusion

Depletion of natural resources and continued environmental degradation has led

to a clamour for a move towards more sustainable construction technologies.

Road construction being the back-bone of most developed and developing

economies is the biggest consumer of extracted raw materials and generator of

solid wastes. Pavement reclamation attempts to re-use materials from existing

roads in an effort to reduce further destruction of the environment. To

successfully undertake a road recycling exercise, theres need for a clear

understanding of the fundamental engineering properties of the materials

destined for recycling.

The study of the fundamental properties of the materials cured under three curing

protocols, two cyclic and one steady state, revealed a potentially useful

correlation between laboratory curing temperatures and on-site curing. The

results from the study form a basis for a detailed study into the precise behaviour

of cold asphalts under different site conditions. Based on the results of the

laboratory tests, the study makes the following tentative conclusions.

Prevailing pavement temperature has a greater effect on the rate of

fluxing or activation of aged binder in a Cold-Emulsion Reclaimed asphalt

Pavement than it has on the rate of moisture loss.

Steady temperature laboratory curing regimes severely age the binder in

Cold-Emulsion Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement mixtures.

46
5.2 Recommendations

The study gives an indication of the behaviour of Cold-Emulsion RAP though

extensive monitoring of actual field performance still needs to be done to validate

the results. The study makes the following recommendations for future research:

Laboratory generated cores should be introduced in one go to the

conditioning cabinets to prevent absorption of moisture by already cured

samples

Effect of humidity and air draught be incorporated in laboratory curing to

give a better simulation of the on-site conditions

Cyclic temperatures in the laboratory should be applied stepwise to better

simulate the diurnal temperature cycles

Temperature trends in Cold-Emulsion Reclaimed Asphalt Pavements should

be monitored to ascertain that they are similar to those in Hot Mixed

asphalt pavements.

47
 REFERENCES

[1] Santucci, L.E. and Hayashida, M.T., Testing, Design and Evaluation of Cold

Recycled Asphalt Mixes. Proceedings of the Fourth Conference on Asphalt

Pavements for Southern Africa, Cape Town, South Africa. March, 1984.

[2] Van Wijk, A.J., Wood, L.E. and Kercher, K.J., Construction of Cold Recycled

Pavements Using Emulsion as a Binder. Proceedings of the Fourth Conference on

Asphalt Pavements for Southern Africa. Cape Town, South Africa. March, 1984.

[3] Transport Research Board., Asphalt Emulsion Technology. Circular No.E-

10,2006.

[4] Ebels, L.J., Characterisation of Material Properties and Behaviour of Cold

Bituminous Mixtures for Road Pavements. PhD thesis, University of

Stellenbosch,2008.

[5] Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association-ARRA., Basic Asphalt Recycling

Manual, Federal Highway Administration, USA,2001

[6] Emery, J.J. Asphalt Concrete Recycling in Canada Proceedings of Canadian

Technical asphalt Association Vol. 36, pp 229-252,1991.

[7] Jenkins, K.J., Mix Design Considerations for Cold and Half- Warm Bituminous

Mixes With Emphasis on Foam Bitumen. PhD. thesis, University of Stellenbosch,

SA,2000.

[8] Yavuzturk, C., Ksaibati, K., Chiasson, A.D., Assessment of Temperature

Fluctuations in Asphalt Pavements Due to Thermal Environmental Conditions

Using a Two-Dimensional, Transient Finite-Difference Approach. Journal of

Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 17. No4. pp 465-475, August 2005.

48
[9] Herb, W., Marasteanu, M., and Stefan, H.G., Simulation and Characterization

of Asphalt Pavement Temperatures, Minnesota Department of Transport

(MNDOT), Project Report No. 480,2006.

[10] Diefenderfer, B.K, Al-Qadi, L.I, Reubush, D.S, Freeman, T.E., Development

and Validation of a Model to Predict Pavement Temperature Profile, Transport

Research Board, 2003 Annual Meeting

[11] Solaimanian, M. and Bolzan, P., Analysis of the Integrated Model of Climatic

Effects on Pavements, National Research Council, Strategic Highway Research

Program (SHRP-A-637). Washington D.C,1993.

[12] Mallick, B and El-Korchi, T., Pavement Engineering: Principles and Practice.

Taylor & Francis Group, USA, 2009.

[13] Ruckel, P.J, Acott, S.M and Bowering, R.H Foamed-Asphalt Paving Mixtures:

Preparation of Design Mixes and Treatment of Test Specimens. Asphalt

Materials. TRL, 1982.

[14] BS 434-2:2006 Bitumen Road Emulsions - Part2: Code of Practice for the

Use of Cationic Bituminous Emulsions on Roads and Other Paved Areas. British

Standards Institute, 2006.

[15] Serfass, J.P., Poirier, J.E., Henrat, J.P and Carbonneau, X., Influence of

Curing on Cold Mix Mechanical Performance. Materials and Structures, Vol. 37,

June 2004, pp 365-368,2004.

[16] Brennan, M.J., Sheahan, J., Gilbin, P.M. and Kavanagh, A., Laboratory

Performance of an Emulsion-Bound Macadam Manufactured Using Different

Production Processes. Asphalt Professional, Issue No. 29. November, 2007.

49
[17] Kekwick, S.V Best Practice: Bitumen-Emulsion and Foamed Bitumen

Materials Laboratory Processing. South African Transport Convention SATC,

Pretoria,2005.

[18] BBC Weather Centre (2009), Average Conditions for Nairobi, Kenya

Available at:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/city_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT0003

00

[Accessed 10 April 2009]

[19] BBC Weather Centre (2009), Average Conditions for London, United

Kingdom

Available at:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/city_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT0037

90

[Accessed 10 April 2009]

[20] Fatani, M., Al-Abdul Wahhab, H.I, Balghunaim, F.A., Bubshait, A. and Al-

Dhubeed, I., Evaluation of Permanent Deformation of Asphalt Concrete

Pavements in Saudi Arabia". Final Report submitted to King Abulaziz City for

Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh, 1994.

[21] Needham, D., Developments in Bitumen Emulsion Mixtures for Roads. PhD

thesis, University of Nottingham, 2000.

[22] Sri Sunarjono, M.T., The Influence of Foamed Bitumen Characteristics on

Cold-Mix Asphalt Properties, PhD. Thesis, University of Nottingham, 2008.

50
[23] Jitareekul, P. (2009), An Investigation into Cold In-Place Recycling of

Asphalt Pavements. PhD thesis, University of Nottingham, 2009.

[24] Thanaya, N.A., Evaluating and Improving the Performance of Cold Asphalt

Emulsion Mixes. Civil Engineering Dimension Vol. 9, No.2, pp 64-69,2007.

[25] Department for International Development-DFID., A Guide to the Design of

Hot Mix Asphalt in Tropical and Sub-Tropical Countries. Overseas Road Note 19.

TRL, UK,2002.

[26] Overseas Development Agency., A Guide to the Structural Design of

Bitumen-Surfaced Roads in Tropical and Sub-Tropical Countries. Overseas Road

Note 31, 4th Ed. TRL,UK,1993.

[27] US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,

Superpave Mixture Design Guide. FHWA Publication No. FHWA-RD-01-052.

Washington, DC, February 2001.

[28] BS DD 213-1993: Method for Determination of the Indirect Tensile Stiffness

Modulus of Bituminous Mixtures, British Standards Institute, 1993.

[29] BS DD ABF-2003: Method for the Determination of the Fatigue

Characteristics of Bituminous Mixtures Using Indirect Tensile Fatigue .British

Standards Institute,2003

[30] BS 2000-49: Methods of Test for Petroleum and Its Products- Bitumen and

Bituminous Binders-Determination of Needle Penetration. British Standard

Institute, 2000.

51
[31] BS 2000-58:, Methods of Test for Petroleum and Its Products-: Bitumen

and Bituminous Binders-Determination of Softening Point, Ring and Ball Method.

British Standards Institute, 2000.

[32] Assignment: The World (2003), Finding Places with Longitude and Latitude

Available at: http://atwonline.org/latitude.swf

[Accessed 10 April 2009]

52
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

[1] Maccarone, S., Holleran, G. & Ky, A., Cold Asphalt Systems as an Alternative

to Hot Mix. In 9th AAPA International Asphalt Conference, 1995.

[2] Erlan, O.L., Stubstad, R. and Briggs, R., Temperature Predictions and

Adjustment Factors for Asphalt Pavement. U.S Department of Transportation,

Federal Highway Administration, Publication No. FHWA-RD-98-085, 2000.

[3] Engelbrecht, J.C., Roberts, F.L, and Kennedy, T.W Cold Recycled Mixtures,

with Emphasis on Curing of Foamed Specimens-A laboratory Study. In: Annual

Transportation Convention, Session: Maintenance of the Transportation

Infrastructure, held in Pretoria, Vol. S.350 TI, Paper 7, 1985.

[4] Michalica, P., Daucik, P. And Zanzotto, L., Monitoring of Compositional

Changes Occurring During the Oxidative Aging of Two Selected Asphalts from

Different Sources. Petroleum and Coal Vol. 50 (2), pp 1-10, 2008.

[5] Khalid, H.A. and Monney, K.O., Moisture Damage Potential of Cold Asphalt.

International Journal of Pavement Engineering. pp 1-8, 2008.

53
APPENDICES

54
APPENDIX A: SCHEDULE OF TESTS

55
APPENDIX B: RESULTS

56
APPENDIX C: JOURNAL PAPER

57
EFFECTS OF DIURNAL TEMPERATURE DYNAMICS ON
CURING OF COLD-EMULSION RECLAIMED
ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
Kiplagat CHELELGO, School of Civil Engineering,

University of Nottingham, UK.

ABSTRACT
Accelerated laboratory curing regimes come in handy in design and
specification of Cold-Emulsion Reclaimed Asphalt Pavements. The
emphasis is in the choice of a laboratory curing protocol that adequately
simulates expected curing trends in the field. Popular protocols employ
steady state curing temperatures to predict long term behaviour of Cold-
Emulsion Reclaimed Asphalt Pavements. Two cyclic temperatures were
studied alongside one popular steady state temperature in an attempt to
investigate the likely effects of dynamic pavement temperatures on curing
progression and properties of bituminous binders. Analysis of stiffness and
fatigue properties of asphalt cores cured under the three regimes revealed
that steady state curing overestimates the early-life strength of mixes
while underestimating the long term strength. Properties of bitumen
recovered after curing under the three regimes pointed to a severity in
aging of asphalt cores cured under constant temperatures over time.

Key words: Cold recycling, Accelerated curing, cyclic temperatures, Reclaimed

Asphalt Pavement, In-situ conditions.

INTRODUCTION

Pavement recycling as a means of rehabilitating distressed rigid and flexible

pavements has continued to grow in popularity due to the environmental and
economic benefits it brings. Materials from the two major types of pavements can
successfully be recycled, although recycling of flexible asphalt pavements
dominate due to their more popular use in paved areas. To reliably popularize
pavement recycling as an alternative to conventional rehabilitation techniques,
the performance capabilities of recycled materials should be easy to characterize
and specify.

Pavements recycling fall into the categories of Hot Recycling (HR) and Cold
Recycling (CR). Hot recycling uses the same technology as Hot Mixed Asphalt and
therefore has the disadvantage of huge energy consumption and is associated
with high gaseous emissions. Cold recycling utilizes softer grades of bitumen,
bitumen cut-backs or bitumen emulsions. The emulsions have gained favour
owing to their good environmental record.

Whereas has it has an excellent environmental record, Cold-Emulsion Reclaimed

Asphalt Pavement has a low early-life strength which has resigned its use to low
volume roads and works in remote areas where strength is not a key
requirement. This, however, has not lessened the popularity of emulsion-
reclaimed asphalt pavements. They stand out in addressing reflection cracking
which is a major form of distress in pavements with stiff bases.

58
Curing is the phenomenon that controls the rate of strength gain in Cold-Emulsion
Reclaimed Asphalts. The role of curing is twofold. One is to rid the mix of
moisture so as to allow for direct contact between the aggregates and the binder
and secondly is, to activate the aged binder in Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement by
the process of fluxing. This is whereby new binder penetrates aged binder to
render in active in contributing to the binding effect.

The project set out to study the effects of diurnal pavement temperature cycles
on the rate of curing, strength development and fatigue properties of Cold-
Emulsion Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement. The aim was to assess the suitability of
the existing protocols to mimic on site conditions without exaggerating the aging
process in bitumen.

EXPERIMENTATION

Curing Protocols

Two cyclic temperature curing protocols were developed by adopting pavement

temperature models that have hitherto found use in specification of performance
grade bitumen and in determination of pavement stiffness parameters for back-
calculation from Falling Weight Deflection tests [1]. Asphalt pavements are
subjected to cyclic heating and cooling in response to seasonal temperature
variations and diurnal temperature cycles. A combination of factors such as solar
radiation, air temperature, pavement reflectance, precipitation, freezing-thawing
cycles alongside other physical and environmental conditions act to influence the
temperature dynamics in the pavement.

Superpave (Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements) under the Strategic Highway

Research Program (SHRP) developed a simple algorithm for computation of
asphalt pavement temperatures at various depths below the surface [2].The
models uses ambient temperature and latitude data to compute pavement
temperatures at the surface and depths below the surface at any point on the
globe. For the purpose of this study, two temperature peaks for two cities, one in
the tropics and the other in the temperate environment, were computed using the
maximum and he minimum air temperatures using equations 1and 2 below.

(1)

Where, = Temperature at the surface (C)

= Ambient temperature (C)

= Latitude of the region concerned (Degrees)

For temperatures at different depths, the relationship below is used.

(2)

Where, = Temperature at depth

= Temperature at the surface

= Depth from the surface (inches)

Climatic data obtained from BBC weather were used to compute the average
minimum and maximum air temperatures [3,4]. The resulting values of the
59
upper and lower temperature peaks for the tropical and temperate regions were
44C & 34C and 37C & 29C respectively. The protocol proposed by asphalt
institute i.e., 14 days at 35C [5] was adopted as the steady state curing
temperature. Three thermostatically controlled conditioning cabinets were used to
simulate the curing protocols in the laboratory.

Specimen Preparation

Hot Mixed Asphalt artificially cured in the laboratory was graded and mixed with a
cationic emulsion to give a mix that was used to produce 18 cylindrical cores for
each curing protocol. The average dimensions of the cylinders used were 100mm
diameter and 50mm height. The cylinders were cured at room temperature for 24
hours before being transferred to the respective conditioning cabinets. Weight
loss was tracked as a means of evaluation curing progression.

Figure1: Aggregates Gradation

Laboratory Tests

To monitor performance parameters of the three sets of specimens as curing

proceeded, use was made of a suite of tests available in the Nottingham Asphalt
Tester (NAT) [6]. Stiffness modulus was determined by Indirect Tensile Stiffness
Modulus test on three cylinders from each regime at six intervals as curing
proceeded. The three data sets were plotted in a graph on normal scale.

Cylinders cured for 10 and 12 days were cured for further four and two days
respectively. This was aimed at providing additional samples for determination of
fatigue life which was targeted at samples cured for 14. 10 samples conditioned
overnight were subjected load pulses ranging from 600 to 100 . Fatigue
characteristics were determined by plotting maximum tensile horizontal strain
versus life to failure on logarithmic scales.

At the end of 14 days of curing, bitumen was extracted from the cores and
characterised to give Penetration, Softening Point temperature and percentage of
Asphaltenes in recovered bitumen.

60
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Comparison of Moisture Loss

Moisture loss with time was reckoned from the residual moisture as a percentage
of the total mix. Curiously, the three curing regimes displayed closely similar
trends in water loss. As can be seen in figure 2 below, the three protocols
followed more less the same trend in moisture loss. 10% of the total water
content was lost in the 24 hour period of curing in the mould and another 70%
was lost after curing for one day in the conditioning cabinets. 90% of the total
moisture content had been lost on the second day suggesting that temperature
may not be the key player in the evaporation mechanism. Equilibrium Moisture
Content seemed to have been arrived at after 6days of curing

Figure 2: Cold-Emulsion RAP Moisture Loss

Indirect Tensile Stiffness Modulus Test

Stiffness modulus of cylinders from the three curing protocols was determined at
six time intervals. The cyclic temperatures started on the lower peaks and the
effect was reflected in the stiffness modulus determined after a day of curing in
the ovens. That would have been equivalent to on-site laying of cold-emulsion
asphalt in the evening when temperatures are low. Strength development in the
cylinders cured at 35 rose gradually in an almost linear manner while those
under cyclic temperatures rose gradually with a decreasing gradient towards a
peak.

61
 Figure3: Strength Evolution in Cold-Emulsion RAP

The drop in stiffness of cores witnessed on the 10th and 14th days was a break
from the general trend. Since stiffness determined at each interval was done on
fresh set of cylinders, the batching process was suspected to have introduced
variability in the mix. The other phenomenon that was not closely monitored is
the effect on stiffness of the temperature peak at the time of introduction of
cylinders into the ovens. Going by the results of stiffness determined on the first
day, this could as well be the reason we have lower values on the tenth day.
Wide variations in material properties are common in cold mixes but a general
trend can be drawn from the results plotted in Figure: 4.3 above. It can be
deduced that laboratory curing of cold-emulsion asphalt at 35 closely predicts
the intermediate strength, overestimates the early strength and underestimate
the long term strength. The tropical conditions show a faster rate of strength
development which may generally be underestimated if use is made of the
existing protocol of curing at 35 . A stiffness modulus of 2000 is sufficient
to support low to medium traffic [24], which in this can be achieved from as early
as 12days in the tropical conditions.

4.4 Indirect Tensile Fatigue Test

Fatigue characteristics of materials cured under the three different regimes were
compared by plotting the maximum horizontal tensile strains against the number
of cycles to failure and generating fatigue relationships by use of power trend
lines. Fatigue life of each mixture was obtained from its linear regression model
by assuming logarithmic linearity of fatigue life. Samples cured cyclically at 29
and 37 exhibited the highest level of fatigue resistance while those cured at
34 an 44 had the lowest life to failure.

Early failure in fatigue in the mix cured cyclically at 34 and 44 can be

explained by considering the likely effects of high temperatures on the bitumen
binder. At temperatures of 44 , bitumen could be losing the volatile components
62
and thus ending up being brittle. In terms of fatigue, the standard cure of asphalt
emulsion at 35 slightly underestimates the fatigue life of the mix laid in the
temperate environment.

Figure 4: Comparison of Fatigue Life

Curing Protocol Equation based on Nf Nf at 100 R2

35C y=4960.5x-0.418 11,384 0.87

29C & 37C y=6091.6x-0.433 13,237 0.82

34C & 44C y=5464.9x-0.445 8,026 0.88

Table: 1 Linear Regression Values

Properties of recovered binders

Bitumen was recovered from the cores before and after being subjected to the
three curing conditions. Table 4.5 below presents the characterization of the
binders in terms of Penetration, Softening Point and Asphaltene Content
percentage. These three parameters were used to assess severity of aging of
bitumen caused by the curing regimes. The results indicate that curing at the
steady temperature of 35 results in the highest degree of aging as compared to
the other two regimes. The increase in asphaltene contents after curing is partly

63
due to aging and partly due to activation of aged bitumen in Reclaimed Asphalt
Pavement.

It is therefore logical to suggest that curing at the steady temperature of 35 to

simulate on site conditions may be too harsh a treatment for cold-emulsion
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement used in both temperate and tropical conditions

Asphaltene
Penetration Softening
Contents
( ) Point ( )
(%)

Before Curing 26 61 14.8

35oC 21 64 16.3
After Curing

29oC &
32 59.2 16.2
37oC

34oC &
22 63 16.1
44oC

Table 2: Properties of Recovered binders

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The study of the fundamental properties of the materials cured under three curing
protocols, two cyclic and one steady state, revealed a potentially useful
correlation between laboratory curing temperatures and on-site curing. The
results from the study form a basis for a detailed study into the precise behaviour
of cold asphalts under different site conditions. Based on the results of the
laboratory tests, the study makes the following tentative conclusions.

Prevailing pavement temperature has a greater effect on the rate of

fluxing or activation of aged binder in a Cold-Emulsion Reclaimed asphalt
Pavement than it has on the rate of moisture loss.
Steady temperature laboratory curing regimes severely age the binder in
Cold-Emulsion Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement mixtures.

5.2 Recommendations

The study gives an indication of the behaviour of Cold-Emulsion RAP though

extensive monitoring of actual field performance still needs to be done to validate
the results. The study makes the following recommendations for future research:

Laboratory generated cores should be introduced in one go to the

conditioning cabinets to prevent absorption of moisture by already cured
samples
Effect of humidity and air draught be incorporated in laboratory curing to
give a better simulation of the on-site conditions
Cyclic temperatures in the laboratory should be applied stepwise to better
simulate the diurnal temperature cycles

64
REFERENCES

[1] Yavuzturk, C., Ksaibati, K., Chiasson, A.D., Assessment of Temperature

Fluctuations in Asphalt Pavements Due to Thermal Environmental Conditions

Using a Two-Dimensional, Transient Finite-Difference Approach. Journal of

Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 17. No4. pp 465-475, 2005.

[2] Mallick, B and El-Korchi, T., Pavement Engineering: Principles and Practice,

Taylor & Francis Group, USA, 2009.

[3] BBC Weather Centre (2009), Average Conditions for Nairobi, Kenya

Available at:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/city_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT0003

00

[Accessed 10 April 2009]

[4] BBC Weather Centre (2009), Average Conditions for London, United Kingdom

Available at:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/city_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT0037

90

[Accessed 10 April 2009]

[5] BS 434-2:2006 Bitumen Road Emulsions - Part2: Code of Practice for the

Use of Cationic Bituminous Emulsions on Roads and Other Paved Areas. British

Standards Institute, 2006.

[6] Sri Sunarjono, M.T., The Influence of Foamed Bitumen Characteristics on

Cold-Mix Asphalt Properties, PhD. thesis, University of Nottingham,2008.

65