Objectives
This unit introduces the concepts and principles of highway geometrics. The goal is
to equip students with skills and knowledge on design of the various geometric
elements of the road and on how to incorporate them into real-life highway projects.
Besides the geometrics, other factors that influence design such as highway
capacities, levels of service and road accidents shall be given attention.
Unit Content
The unit covers: Principles of highway design (geometric design-horizontal and vertical
curves, factors and elements of geometric designs); Intersection design (at-grade
junctions; roundabouts, conflicts points); kerbed and ghost islands; lane separation;
acceleration and deceleration lanes; intersection sight triangle; speed; sight distance
and capacity.
1. Surveying for Engineers, 5th Ed, John Urn and Bill Price, 2010
2. Fundamentals of Surveying, 2nd Ed, S.K Roy, 2010
3. Elementary Surveying, An Introduction to Geomatics, 13th Ed, Charles D. Ghilani
and Paul R. Wolf, 2012
4. Road Design Manual Part 1 : Geometric Design of Rural Roads, Ministry of
Works, Roads Department, 1979
5. Road Note 6 A guide to Geometric Design-1988
Unit Examination
CAT 1 15%
CAT 2 15%
FINAL EXAMINATION 70%
Teaching Schedule
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN.....................................6
1.1 Overview........................................................................................................ 6
1.2 Design Controls and Guidelines.....................................................................9
1.2.1 Design Speed......................................................................................... 10
1.2.2 Curve Radius......................................................................................... 11
1.2.3 Depths and Heights of Cut and Fill........................................................11
1.2.4 Topography............................................................................................ 11
1.2.5 Other factors......................................................................................... 11
1.3 Road Classification....................................................................................... 13
1.3.1 Road Classification Criteria....................................................................14
1.4 Highway Capacity and Levels of Service......................................................15
CHAPTER 2 CROSS-SECTIONAL ELEMENTS............................................................17
2.1 Overview...................................................................................................... 17
2.2 Pavement Surface Characteristics...............................................................17
2.2.1 Friction................................................................................................... 17
2.2.2 Unevenness........................................................................................... 17
2.2.3 Light Reflection...................................................................................... 18
2.2.4 Drainage................................................................................................ 18
2.2.5 Camber.................................................................................................. 18
2.3 Carriageway Width....................................................................................... 18
2.4 Kerbs............................................................................................................ 18
2.5 Road Margins............................................................................................... 19
2.5.1 Shoulders............................................................................................... 19
2.5.2 Parking Lanes........................................................................................ 20
2.5.3 Bus Bays................................................................................................ 20
2.5.4 Service Roads........................................................................................ 20
2.5.5 Cycle Tracks........................................................................................... 20
2.5.6 Footpaths............................................................................................... 20
2.5.7 Guardrails.............................................................................................. 20
2.5.8 Width of Formation................................................................................ 21
2.5.9 Side Slopes and Drainage Channels......................................................21
2.5.10 Right of Way.......................................................................................... 21
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Stability of the slopes: for hilly areas, the road should be aligned through the
stable side of the hill. Landslides are a common problem with hilly areas.
Excessive cutting and filling for road constructions give way to steepening of
slopes which in turn affects the stability.
Hill side drainage: Attempts should be made to align the roads in such a way
that the number of cross drainage structures required is a minimum.
Special geometric standards: The geometric standards followed in hilly areas
are different from those for flat terrains. The alignment chosen should enable
the ruling gradient to be attained in minimum of the length, minimizing steep
gradient, hairpin bends and needless rises and falls.
Ineffective rise and fall: Efforts should be made to keep the ineffective rise
and excessive fall to a minimum.
The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible
features of the highway. Geometric design addresses with emphasis the
requirement of the driver and the vehicle. Such requirements include safety,
comfort, efficiency, etc. The features normally considered are the cross section
elements, horizontal curvature, gradients, sight distance consideration and
intersections. The design of these features is to a great extent influenced by driver
behavior and psychology, vehicle characteristics and traffic characteristics i.e.
speed and volume. Proper geometric design will help in the reduction of accidents
and their severity. The key objective of geometric design is to provide optimum
efficiency in traffic operation and maximum safety, both at reasonable cost. The
planning cannot be done stage wise like that of a pavement, but has to be done well
in advance. The main components that will be discussed are:
1. Factors affecting the geometric design,
2. Highway alignment and road classification,
3. Pavement surface characteristics,
4. Cross-sectional elements, which includes cross slope, various widths of
roads and features in the road margins.
5. Sight distance elements, which includes cross slope, various widths and
features in the road margins.
6. Horizontal alignment, which includes features like super elevation,
transition curve, extra widening and set back distance.
7. Vertical alignment and its components like gradient, sight distance and
design length of curves.
8. Intersection features like layout, capacity, etc.
When conditions are so favourable that the design features of the highway govern,
the design speed should ideally be measured as the 85th percentile speed of the
traffic approaching the geometric element and is used to define the minimum
standards for the highway. [Road Note 6 A guide to geometric design-1988]. The
design speed for a given road is influenced by the following factors:
1. Classification and function of the road
2. Nature of the terrain
3. The density and character of the adjoining land use
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Probably, the greatest amount of highway construction in rural areas occurs on fill.
As with the cut section, it is usually desirable to keep the height of the fill section to
10m or less, with 7m being a preferred maximum. Above this height, depending
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Transportation Engineering Group of Units
upon the topography, the classification of the highway and the affected land uses, it
may be more economical to construct a bridge. This may be particularly true where
the highway passes through rocky terrain or where the fill section is on a marsh, a
swamp or any other location where unstable ground conditions occur.
1.2.4 Topography
The next most important factor that affects the geometric design of a highway is
the topography. It is easier to construct roads with required standards within a plain
terrain, however, for a given design speed, the construction cost increases
multiform with the gradient and the terrain. It is therefore important to vary
geometric design standards for different terrains to keep the cost and construction
time under control. You would expect sharper curves and steeper gradients in a
mountainous terrain.
[1] Vehicular factors: The axle weight, width, height, front and rear overhangs,
minimum turning paths at intersections, the path of the inner rear tyre, the
tread width and wheel base are key dimensions to be noted and
accommodated. The vehicle that should be used in design for normal
operation is the largest one that represents a significant percentage of the
traffic for the design year. For design of most highways accommodating truck
traffic, one of the design semi-trailer combinations is typically used. When
geometric configuration is constricted, such as in urban areas and at certain
intersections, a design check should be made for the largest vehicle expected
to ensure that it can negotiate the designated turns, particularly if pavements
are kerbed. The geometric elements that are affected by vehicle
characteristics are the cross-section of the road, road widening at horizontal
curves as well as junction layouts.
[2] Human factors: The important human factors that influence geometric
design are the physical, mental and psychological characteristics of the driver
and pedestrians. Reaction time is a typical consideration.
[3] Traffic: It will be uneconomical to design the road for peak traffic flow;
therefore a reasonable value of traffic volume is selected as the design hourly
volume. This volume is determined from the various traffic data collected.
The traffic data should include the current and future average daily traffic
(ADT), the future design hourly volume (DHV), directional distribution and
truck percentage. On most highways, the DHV is used for design. The ADT
may be used for of minor, low-volume roads. On highways with unusual or
highly seasonal fluctuations in traffic flow, the DHV should be based upon
detailed analysis of anticipated demand. For important intersections, data
should be obtained to show traffic movement during morning and evening
peaks hours and at other times of heavy traffic.
The capacity of each highway and the levels of service associated with the
demand must be determined from a capacity analysis. Estimation of actual
service flow rates, levels of service and related performance measures should
be done in accordance with procedures described in the latest edition of the
Highway Capacity Manual. The design year for highway geometrics in Kenya
is taken as 10 years.
[4] Maximum grade: The higher the maximum grade, the lower will be the
design speed, reflecting the lower running speeds of vehicles using the
highway, and commercial vehicles in particular.
[5] Lane and shoulder widths: Higher values of lane increases design
capacity. Designated lane widths range between 3m and 3.6m for highways
with any significant traffic volumes. Adequate shoulders are usually
necessary for safety and capacity reasons.
[6] Environmental: Factors such as air pollution, noise pollution etc. should be
given due consideration in the geometric design of roads
[7] Economy: The design adopted should be economical as far as possible. It
should match with the funds allocated for capital and maintenance costs.
[8] Others: Geometric design should be such that the aesthetics of the region is
not affected.
Roads can be classified in many ways. The classification based on speed and
accessibility is the most generic one. Note that, as the accessibility of road
increases, the speed reduces. Accordingly, the roads can be classified as follows in
the order of increased accessibility and reduced speeds.
Freeways: Freeways are access controlled divided highways. Most freeways
are four lanes, two lanes each direction, but many freeways widen to
incorporate more lanes as they enter urban areas. Access is controlled
through the use of interchanges, and the type of interchange depends upon
the kind of intersecting road way (rural roads, another freeway etc.)
Expressways: They are superior type of highways and are designed for high
speeds (120 km/hr is common), high traffic volume and safety. They are
generally provided with grade separations at intersections. Parking, loading
and unloading of goods and pedestrian traffic is not allowed on expressways.
Highways: They represent the superior type of roads in the country.
Highways are of two types rural highways and urban highways. Rural
highways are those passing through rural areas (villages) and urban
highways are those passing through large cities and towns, i.e. urban areas.
Arterials: It is a general term denoting a street primarily meant for through
traffic usually on a continuous route. They are generally divided highways
with fully or partially controlled access. Parking, loading and unloading
activities are usually restricted and regulated. Pedestrians are allowed to
cross only at intersections/designated pedestrian crossings.
Local streets: A local street is the one which is primarily intended for access
to residence, business or abutting property. It does not normally carry large
volume of traffic and also it allows unrestricted parking and pedestrian
movements.
Collector streets: These are streets intended for collecting and distributing
traffic to and from local streets and also for providing access to arterial
streets. Normally, full access is provided on these streets. There are few
parking restrictions except during peak hours.
Collector Street
Local Street
Arterials
Accessibility
Highways
Expressways
Speed
Fig 1.3: Speed Vs Accessibility
Transportation Engineering Group of Units
Apart from the classification given by the different plans, roads were also classified
based on some other criteria. They are given in detail below.
Based on usage
This classification is based on whether the roads can be used during different
seasons of the year.
All-weather roads: Those roads which are negotiable during all weathers,
except at major river crossings where interruption of traffic is permissible up
to a certain extent.
Fair-weather roads: Roads which are negotiable only during fair weather.
Based on carriage way
This classification is based on the type of the carriage way or the road pavement.
Paved roads with hard surface: If they are provided with a hard pavement
course such as stones, Water bound macadam (WBM), bituminous macadam
(BM), concrete roads.
Unpaved roads: Roads which are not provided with a hard course. Earth and
gravel roads come under this category.
Based on pavement surface
Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, they are classified as surfaced
and un-surfaced roads.
Surfaced roads (BM, concrete): Roads which are provided with a bituminous
or cement concreting surface.
Un-surfaced roads (soil/gravel): Roads which are not provided with a
bituminous or cement concreting surface.
Other criteria
Roads may also be classified based on the traffic volume in that road, load
transported through that road or location and function of that road.
Traffic volume: Based on the traffic volume, they are classified as heavy,
medium and light traffic roads. These terms are relative and so the limits
under each class may be expressed as vehicles per day.
Load transported: Based on the load carried by these roads, they can be
classified as class I, class II, etc. or class A, class B etc. and the limits may be
expressed as tones per day.
Road transport in Kenya consists of 63,265 Km of interurban roads, 8,933 Km of
which are paved and 54,332 Km unpaved. There are over 100,000 Km of rural roads
and 14,500 Km of urban roads, creating a total road infrastructure of 177,765 Km
(2004). Kenya has one of the best paved highway networks and some of the busiest
roads south of the Sahara, but maintenance has always been a challenge. The road
system is constituted by three classified road types, as well as unclassified roads
and tracks.
Kenyan A roads are typically trans-national, often linking Kenya to at least one other
East-African country.
The capacity of a road is the extent to which it is able to provide for traffic
movement under given circumstances. Economic capacity is the smallest of
all traffic volumes which needs to be attained so that a road project is
justified by cost-benefit analysis. Environmental capacity is the capacity of a
road to accommodate moving and stationary vehicles having regard to the
need to maintain the chosen environmental standards i.e., it is the upper limit
of traffic volume that is permitted on the road in question without exceeding
desired minimum standards relating to noise, air pollution, pedestrian and
cyclist safety, amenity and visual intrusion. The Basic capacity of a road is
the maximum number of vehicles that can pass over a given section of a lane
or carriageway, in one direction, or, (in both directions for a two-lane
highway), during a given period (one hour, unless otherwise specified), under
prevailing roadway and traffic conditions. The traffic flow at this level is
unstable and minor disturbances in the traffic streams may cause stop-go
operations. Consequently, the Design capacity of a road is taken as less than
the basic capacity, and is usually related to a level of service which
expresses the effectiveness of the road in terms of operating conditions
[Refer to Table 3.6.1 of KRDM Pt 1 pg 3.8 for basic and design capacities
applicable in Kenya] . On major roads carrying relatively heavy traffic
volumes throughout the year (Current AADT 1,000), hourly traffic has to
be used for determination of the design volume. When the design volume
exceeds 8,000 P.C.Us, a dual carriageway may be considered, especially in a
rural setting. Close to urban areas, a single carriageway road may carry a
design volume of up to 15,000 P.C.Us.
(i) The traffic volumes which the road will have to accommodate
(ii) The selected design speed
(iii)The road function, i.e., the predominant type of traffic that the road serves,
for example, long distance, versus access or heavy goods versus
passenger cars. [Refer to Table 4.22 of KRDM Pt 1, pg 4.5] for
recommended cross-section types.
For safe and comfortable driving, four aspects of the pavement surface are
important; the friction between the wheels and the pavement surface,
smoothness of the road surface, the light reflection characteristics of the top
of pavement surface and drainage.
2.2.1 Friction
Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the
design of horizontal curves and thus the safe operating speed. Further, it also
affects the acceleration and deceleration ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate
friction can cause skidding or slipping of vehicles. Skidding happens when the
path traveled along the road surface is more than the circumferential
movement of the wheels due to friction. Slip occurs when the wheel revolves
more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along the road. The
various factors that affect friction are:
i. Type of the pavement (like bituminous, concrete, or gravel),
ii. Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc),
iii. Condition of the tyre (new or old), and
iv. Speed and load of the vehicle
The frictional force that develops between the wheel and the pavement is the
load acting multiplied by a factor called the coefficient of friction, denoted as
f r . The choice of the value of fr is a very complicated issue since it
depends on many variables. Recommended coefficient of longitudinal friction
is between 0.35 and 0.4 depending on the vehicle speed while the
recommended coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15. The former is useful in
sight distance calculation and the latter in horizontal curve design.
2.2.2 Unevenness
White roads have good visibility at night, but cause glare during the day time.
Black roads have no glare during the day, but have poor visibility at night.
Concrete roads have better visibility and less glare. It is necessary that the
road surface be visible at night.
2.2.4 Drainage
2.2.5 Camber
Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise the middle of the road
surface in the transverse direction to drain off rain water from road surface.
The objectives of providing camber are:
(i) Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads
(ii) Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
(iii)Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety
Too steep a slope is undesirable for it will erode the pavement surface.
Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width
of the traffic lane and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the
width of the vehicle and the clearance. Side clearance improves operating
speed and safety. The maximum permissible width of a vehicle is 2.44 and
the desirable side clearance for single lane traffic is 0.68 m . This require
minimum of lane width of 3.75 m for a single-lane road. However, for a two-
lane road, the side clearance required is about 0.53 m , on both sides and
1.06 m in the center. Therefore, a two lane road require minimum of 3.5
meter for each lane.
2.4 Kerbs
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or
islands or footpaths. Different types of kerbs are:
1) Low or mountable kerb: This type of kerbs is provided to encourage the traffic
to remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the
shoulder area with little difficulty. The height of this kerb is about 10 cm
above the pavement edge with a slope which allows the vehicle to drive over
easily. This is usually provided at medians and channelization schemes and
also helps in longitudinal drainage.
10cm
Carriageway
2) Semi-barrier type kerbs: When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are
provided. Their height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb
prevents encroachment of parking vehicles, but at acute emergency it is
1 1 possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty
15 cm
Carriageway
3) Barrier type kerbs: They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the
pavement. They are provided when there is considerable amount of
pedestrian traffic. They are placed at a height of 20 cm above the pavement
edge with a steep batter.
1
4
20 cm
Carriageway
4) Submerged kerbs: They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at
pavement edges between the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide
lateral confinement and stability to the pavement.
Shoulder Carriageway
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be
generally called road margin. Various elements that form the road margins
are given below.
1 Shoulders
Shoulders are provided along the road edge and are intended for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles
and provide lateral support for base and surface courses. The shoulder should
be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded truck even in wet
conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for giving working space
around a stopped vehicle. Recommended slopes for shoulders are 2%-6% for
bituminous and concrete surfaces, 4%-6% for gravel and 8% for turf surfaces.
2 Parking Lanes
Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is
preferred because it is safe for the vehicles moving in the road. The parking
lane should have a minimum of 3.0 m width in the case of parallel parking.
3 Bus Bays
Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are
provided so that they do not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the
carriage way. They should be at least 75 m away from the intersection so
that the traffic near the intersections is not affected by the bus-bay.
4 Service Roads
5 Cycle Tracks
Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is
high. Minimum width of 2m is required, which may be increased by 1m
7 Guardrails
They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an
embankment. They serve to prevent the vehicles from running off the
embankment, especially when the height of the fill exceeds 2.4 m or slopes
steeper than 1 in 4. Various designs of guard rails are there. Guard stones
painted in alternate black and white are usually used. They also give better
visibility of curves at night under headlights of vehicles. Guardrails should be
set at least 0.6 m outside the shoulders edge.
8 Width of Formation
10 Right of Way
Right of way (ROW) or Land Width is the width of land acquired for the road,
along its alignment. It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-
sectional elements of the highway and may reasonably provide for future
development. To prevent ribbon development along highways, control lines
and building lines may be provided. A control line is a line which represents
the nearest limits of future uncontrolled building activity in relation to a road.
Building line represents a line on either side of the road; between which and
the road no building activity is permitted at all. The right of way width is
governed by:
(i) Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of
roadway and road margins.
(ii) Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography
and the vertical alignment.
(iii)Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope,
soil type etc.
(iv) Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography
etc.
(v) Sight distance considerations: On curves etc. there is restriction to the
visibility on the inner side of the curve due to the presence of some
obstructions like building, structures etc.
(vi) Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in
advance anticipating future developments like widening of the road.
[Refer to RDM Pt1 section 2.4 pg 2.5 for recommended road reserves]
b) Straights between circular curves following the same direction should have
Km/h.
The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends very much
on the visibility of the road ahead of the driver. Thus the geometric design of
the road should be done such that any obstruction on the road length should
be visible to the driver from some distance ahead. This distance is called the
sight distance. Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance
along the road surface, over which a driver from a specified height above the
carriageway has visibility of stationary or moving objects. Three sight
distance situations are considered for design: Stopping sight distance (SSD)
or the absolute minimum sight distance, Intermediate sight distance (ISD)
defined as twice SSD, Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking
operation, Head light sight distance (HSD) defined as the distance visible to a
driver during night driving under the illumination of head light, Intersection
Sight Distance (ISD) defined as the safe distance to enter an intersection. The
most important consideration in all these is that at all times the driver
traveling at the design speed of the highway must have sufficient
carriageway distance within his line of vision to allow him to stop his vehicle
before colliding with a slowly moving or stationary object appearing suddenly
in his own traffic lane. The computation of sight distance depends on the
following factors:
a) Reaction time of the driver
Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant the object is
visible to the driver to the instant when the brakes are applied. The total
reaction time may be split up into four components. In practice, all these
times are usually combined into a total perception- reaction time suitable for
design purposes as well as for easy measurement. Many of the studies show
that drivers require about 1.5 to 2 secs under normal conditions. However
taking into consideration the variability of driver characteristics, a higher
value is normally used in design.
b) Speed of the vehicle
The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. The higher the
speed, the more the time required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident
that, as the speed increases, sight distance also increases.
c) Efficiency of brakes
The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle
characteristics etc. If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the
moment the brakes are applied. But practically, it is not possible to achieve
100% brake efficiency. Therefore it could be understood that sight distance
required will be more when the efficiency of brakes is less. Also for safe
geometric design, we assume that the vehicles have only 50% brake
efficiency.
d) Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road.
The frictional resistance between the tyre and road plays an important role in
bringing the vehicle to a stop. When the frictional resistance is more, the
vehicles stop immediately thus sight distance required will be less. No
separate provision for brake efficiency is provided while computing the sight
distance. This is taken into account along with the factor of longitudinal
friction.
e) Gradient of the road.
Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a
gradient, the vehicle can stop immediately; therefore, the sight distance
required is less. While descending a gradient, gravity also comes into action
and more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Sight distance required
will be more in that case.
SSD is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot having
sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design
speed, safely without collision with any other obstruction. Safe stopping
distance is one of the important measures in traffic engineering. It is the
distance a vehicle travels from the point at which a situation is first perceived
to the time the deceleration is complete. Drivers must have adequate time if
they are to suddenly respond to a situation. Thus in a highway design, a sight
distance at least equal to the safe stopping distance should be provided. The
stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance and the braking distance.
Lag distance is the distance the vehicle traveled during the reaction time t
1 W v2
Wl=
2 g
v2 V2
l= =
2 g 254
v2
l=
n
2 g(+ )
100
The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of
the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely
against the traffic in the opposite direction of a 2-lane highway. The
overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is measured along the
center line of the road over which a driver with his eye level 1.2m above the
road surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface. The
factors that affect the OSD are:
(i) Velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and of the vehicle
coming in the opposite direction.
(ii) Spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends on the speed
(iii)Skill and reaction time of the driver
(iv) Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
(v) Gradient of the road
The OSD has four components as depicted in the figure below.
d1
d
the distance travelled by the opposing vehicle during time ( 1+d 2) .
d3
is the safety time or distance between the overtaking vehicle and the
opposing vehicle at the instance the overtaking vehicle returns to its lane.
the passing vehicle checks the downstream clearance distance and begins
accelerating to overtake the vehicle to be passed. The second distance
component is that which is while the passing vehicle occupies the lane of the
oncoming traffic.
d 2=1.47 v t 2
Where;
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies the right hand side lane (sec)
The third component accounts for the distance covered heading towards the
2
passing vehicle in the opposing lane. This is assumed to be 3
d 2 . The fourth
ISD=1.47 v major t g
Where;
v major = Design speed (km/hr) posted speed limit + 10 mph (16 Km/h);
tg
= time gap for the major road. This is = 7.5 for passenger car, 9.5 for single
unit truck, 11.5 for combination truck.
If the surface is raised in steps, the block will, at some angle slide down the
incline. If the block slows to a stop, then friction would have overcome
gravity. You will need to repeat the same till you get an angle at which the
block moves down the incline at a constant speed. The tangent of that angle
N x
cos = N=Mg cos . Similarly, sin =
Mg , therefore, Mg therefore,
the above discussion is measured along the longitudinal direction. For design
of road curves, well need to know the value of friction in the lateral direction
since this is the direction that directly impacts skidding and overturning. The
value of co-efficient of lateral friction is a function of speed of the vehicle, the
type and condition of the road surface, the condition of the tyres, the weather
conditions at the time of contact between tyre and the road, the temperature
of the road, etc. Tests indicate that the co-efficient of lateral friction is as low
as 0.2 when the pavement is covered with mud. Allowing a factor of safety of
1
1
3 , the safe value of friction for design of curves is taken as 0.15 (
3/ 4 0.2 . The friction co-efficient has been called lateral ratio, cornering
ratio, unbalanced centrifugal ratio, friction factor, and side friction factor.
The design of horizontal curves must allow a driver to maintain control of a
vehicle within a lane of travel, at a desired rate of speed, while permitting
him/her to see an adequate distance ahead such that he/she would be able to
take evasive action (stop, change lanes, e.t.c.) if a hazard is present in his
path. To accomplish these objectives, two criteria have been developed:
Minimum radius curve design and lateral sight distance within a curve. A
horizontal curve is not required for radii of deflection angle of 0.25 or less.
The minimum length of horizontal curve on primary roads should be 3 times
the design speed in Km/h. On high speed controlled access would be 6 times
the desired speed in Km/h.
Comfort of occupants: When the vehicle moves round the curve, the
occupants feel the sideways force because their bodies wish to continue
moving in a straight line. If this force is too great (curve radius too tight) or it
is applied too rapidly (moving from a straight to a sharp circular curve) then
the occupants will feel discomfort.
Safety of vehicle: The sideways force is transmitted to the vehicle via the
tyres at road surface level. If the force is too great for the grip of the tyres,
skidding may occur. If the centre of gravity of the vehicle is high, then
overturning may occur.
acts horizontally at the centre of gravity of the vehicle and its load. This
formula is generated from the more familiar force equation, F=m. a , in this
v2
case, a is represented by R , which is the centrifugal acceleration of
Circular curve
Vehicle
W
the vehicle. The forces acting on the vehicle are the centrifugal force acting
radially outwards, the weight of the vehicle acting vertically downwards, and
the upward reaction of the road on the vehicle. For equilibrium, the
Radius R
centrifugal force must be counteracted either by lateral friction developed
between the tyre and the road surface alone, by the inward tilt of the road
surface known as superelevation alone or partially by friction and partially
by superelevation while the weight of the vehicle is balanced by the reaction
of the road on the vehicle. For proper design of the curve, an understanding
of the forces acting on a vehicle taking a horizontal curve is necessary.
Various forces acting on the vehicle are illustrated in Figure 3.3.2 below.
Centrifugal force P
P
They are the centrifugal force ) acting outward, weight of the vehicle (
and Rb ). The centrifugal force and the weight are assumed to be from the
centre of gravity which is at h units above the ground. Let the lateral width
between the wheels be assumed as b units and the height of the centre of
W v2
P=
gR
the radius of the curve in m . The centrifugal ratio or the impact factor
P
W is given by:
P v2
=
W gR
Velocity V
The centrifugal force has two effects: A tendency to overturn the vehicle
about the outer wheels and a tendency for transverse skidding. The
overturning moment is about the points of contact between the outer wheels
of the vehicles and the carriageway surface. Taking moments of the forces
with respect to the other when the vehicle is just about to override, we get:
b P b
Ph=W =
2 W 2h
resistance due to friction between the pavement surface and tyre. The
transverse skid resistance ( F ) is given by:
F=F A + F B W/2
R
F=r ( A+ R B )
W/2
F=r W
Where
FA and
FB are the frictional forces at tyre A and B,
R A and
P=r W =r
W
2
Mv
and r is the developed lateral coefficient of friction. P= =Mg r ,
R
2
P P v
hence, Mg = W = gR =r . This equation illustrates, for instance, that if
r=0.5 , then the height to the centre of mass must be greater than the
lateral distance between the wheels for overturning to takes place. Equations
3.3.2 (a) and 3.3.2 (b) give the stable condition for design. If equation 3.3.2
(a) is violated, the vehicle will overturn at the horizontal curve and if equation
3.3.2 (b) is violated, the vehicle will skid at the horizontal curve.
NB
v2 V2
r= =
gR 127 R FA
W Cos
1 Effects of superelevation
FB
In actual practice, the lanes at tangent sections of road are designed with a
crowned cross-slope. If W Sin
Wthe road is laterally level, friction alone would have to
counteract the centrifugal force and if friction developed is not sufficient, the
vehicle will skid outwards. To prevent skidding, the surface of the road is
given an inward tilt which is known as superelevation, camber, cant
(railways) or banking (motor racing). When a road is superelevated, the
component of the weight of the vehicle along the surface aids friction in
counteracting the centrifugal force.
1
e
Fig
Where;
V ; Speed (Km/h)
e ; Super elevation
surface inwards.
g ; Acceleration due to gravity(m/s2)
v ; Speed (m/sec)
P cos =W sin + F A + F B
W sin +r (R A + R B )
P P
=tan +r + r tan
W W
P tan +r
=
W (1r tan )
2
P v
But =
W gR , therefore
v
2
tan +r
= Eqn 3.3.3 (a)
gR ( 1r tan )
r
This is an exact expression for superelevation. But normally, = 0.15
E e
tan sin = =tan =e , then equation 3.3.3 (a) becomes:
B 1
v2
=e+r Eqn 3.3.3 (b)
gR
specific cases that can arise from equation 3.3.3 (b) are as follows:
1. If there is no friction due to some practical reasons, then
r=0 and
v2
equation 3.3.3 (b) becomes =e .This results in the situation where the
gR
pressure on the outer and inner wheels are same; requiring very high super-
elevation e.
2. If there is no super-elevation provided due to some practical reasons, then
v2
e=0 and equation 3.3.3 (b) becomes =r . This results in a very high
gR
coefficient of friction.
3. If e=0 and r=0.15 then, safe traveling speed from equation 3.3.3 (b) is
given by v b = f r gR where
vb is the restricted speed.
the sliding resistance required to carry out the manoeuvres. A value of 0.15 is
a safe basis for curve design as it will eliminate most feelings of unease. This
lateral ratio is equivalent to the lateral coefficient of friction of 0.15. The
average speed tacitly accepted for normal usage is 67% of the road design
speed; in practice, this means that the self-steering equation becomes:
(0.67 V )2 V2 r=0
=e=
127 R 283 R , if
Generally, the superelevation should never exceed 7%, with 5% being the
maximum in urban areas.
A circular curve joining two road tangents can be described by either its
radius or by its degree of curvature. The degree of a curve is taken as the
central angle which subtends a 100 m arc of curve.
Where;
Back tangent
= External angle
Forward tangent
PI = Point of Intersection
T
PC = Point of Curvature
PT = Point of Tangency
E = External distance
R
M = Middle ordinate
O
T = Tangent length
( / 2 )1
sec
b) External distance (E).
R
cos ( /2 )= , E=R [ 1/cos ( /2 )1 ]=R
R+ E
c) Middle ordinate. This is the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the
RM
mid-point of the chord.
cos ( /2 )= , M =RR cos ( /2 )=R (1cos ( /2 ) )
R
Lcord /2
d) Length of the chord. sin ( /2 )= , Lcord =2 R sin ( /2 )
R
R 100
e) Length of curve.
2 R = degrees . rads since 360 =400 rads
360 180 2R
5727.3 50
R=
f) Degree of curvature R and sin ( /2 ) , since
A B
1 Sight distances at horizontal curves
R-M C
R R
M
O
Fig: 3.4.1(a): Sight distance at horizontal curve
In the figure above, the drivers eye and the dangerous objects are assumed
to be at the centre of the near-side lane. The figure illustrates a situation
where the required sight distance is wholly within the length of the curved
section and ACB is equal to the required sight distance S. The minimum offset
distance M from the centre line to the obstruction can be estimated most
simply by considering the track of the vehicle to be along the chords AC and
CB rather than along the arc. By geometry:
E
S2
M= M
8R
R R
R-M
Figure Fig 3.4.1 (b), illustrates a situation where the required sight distance is
greater than the available length of curve. Thus the sight distance overlaps
the highway curve onto the tangents for a distance l on either side. If the
length of the curve is equal to L and the stopping sight distance is equal to
S , then:
(SL)
S=L+2 l , therefore; l= . By geometry;
2
(S / 2)2=x 2+ M 2 ;
x 2=d 2( RM )2
d 2=((SL)/2)2+ R 2
L
M= ( 2 SL )
8R
S2
M=
8R
The difference between the arcs of the front and hind wheels on the same
side of the vehicle is defined as the cut-in. The clearance cut-out is
determined by the amount of overhang forward of the front wheels or, in the
case of trailers, the hinge-point. It is the difference between the radii of turn
of the outer front wheel and the foremost outer corner of the vehicle. Vehicle
width plus cut-in plus cut-out gives the total theoretical minimum turning
width required by a vehicle for a given curve/corner radius and angle of turn.
In determining actual widths required in addition to cut-out, however,
allowance has to be made for body side overhang and driver tolerance, as
well as for the additional tyre slip which is likely to occur at high speeds and
on wet surfaces.
front wheel l is the distance between the front and rear wheel, n is the
R2
R1
Wm
Figure 3.5.1: Extra
Widening at a horizontal curve
R22=R12 +l 2
2 2 2
R2 =(R 2W m ) +l
2 2 2 2
R2 =R2 2 R2 W m +W m +l
2 R 2 W m W m2 =l 2
2 R 2 W m W m2 =l 2
l2
W m=
2 R2W m
If the road has n lanes, the extra widening should be provided on each
lane. Therefore, the extra widening of a road with n lanes is given by:
n l2
W m=
2 R2W m
n l2
W m=
2R
v
W ps =
2.64 R
W e =W m+W ps
2
nl v
W e= +
2 R 2.64 R
3.3 Transition curves
Transition curves, as their name suggests, are designed to allow for a smooth
transition from a straight section to a (circular) curve or vice versa in a
horizontal highway or railway alignment. They further allow for gradual
introduction of super-elevation (also known as banking on a racing circuit
and cant on a rail track) at a horizontal circular curve. Setting out of
transition curves is done using the same techniques as for circular curves
(theodolite and tape or EDM/co-ordinates) and the purpose of these notes is
to introduce the calculations required to produce the necessary setting out
data.
A transition curve differs from a circular curve in that its radius is always
changing. The radius of the curve changes gradually from infinity to a
particular value R . The effect of this is to gradually increase the radial
centrifugal for P from zero to its maximum value, thereby reducing its
The three major factors governing transition curve design are the radius of
the circular curve, R the external angle and the length of the
transition
LT . Of these, the radius of curvature and the external angle are
v2
C=
v2
Rc
0
=
Rc
=
( )v3
t R c LT
LT
v ( )
3 3 3
v V V
LT = = 3 =
1
CR c 3.6 CR c 46.7 CR c
R bgR S. E
S . E=b . mg. = 2 ; S. E = 100
mv 2
v b
LT =S . E Slope(n)
2
LT LT
The greater of 1 and 2 is used for design.
1
For a transition curve, P and P l . Combining these two
r
1
requirements:
l rl=K , where K
r , thus, is a constant. The equation
rl=K must apply for a transition curve i.e. the radius must reduce in
proportion to the length. This is the property of a spiral and one curve which
has this property is the clothoid. Another common curve derived from the
clothoid is the cubic parabola which is not a spiral i.e. rl is not always
constant however; it can be used over a certain range and is less complex
than the clothoid.
X Entry tangent
Y T
Fig 3.6.3: The Clothoid
The equation of the clothoid can be derived from the above diagram, which
shows two points close together (X and Y) on a transition curve of length
LT
l is the length from point T to any point PI on the curve (not shown)
Derivation:
l=r (Chord length), rl=K is required and substituting 1/ r=(l/ K)
Therefore:
l2 l=LT , giving K =
r=R
2 K (In radians). At the end of a transition and
rl =
R LT . This gives:
l2
2 R LT (In radians). This is the basic equation of the clothoid or Euler
spiral. It is regarded as the ideal shape for the transition curve. If its
conditions are satisfied and the speed is constant, radial force will be
introduced uniformly.
1
The angle consumed by the transition curve, is:
LT
1 = (Radians) That is for
l=LT
2R
LT 180
(Degrees)
2R
The cubic parabola is not a true spiral and cannot always be used. It
approximates very closely to a spiral; however, and can be used within a
certain range of deviations angle. In practice, it is much easier to set out a
cubic parabola than a clothoid and hence it is more commonly used where
appropriate. Transition curves are not themselves symmetrical one end has
a greater radius of curvature than the other, so they are not reversible! In
order to derive suitable equations relating chord length and deflection angle,
we must examine the shape of the transition curve. First, look at it in terms
of orthogonal co-ordinates, using the tangent as a reference axis:
Imagine a point some distance, l along the curve from the tangent point. It
will have co-ordinates X and Y as shown in figure above and the angle
between the tangent and the line joining T and X is . Direct calculation of
for specific values of l (i.e. chainages) requires the use of tables of
l5 l9 l 13
X =l + +
40 ( R LT )2 3456 ( R LT ) 4 599040 ( R LT ) 6
3 7 11
l l l
Y= +
6 R LT 336 ( R LT )3 42240 ( R LT ) 5
3 5 7
tan = + +
3 105 5997 198700
3
l =
Cubic Spiral: Y=
6 R LT 3
l2
y= . l
2 R LT
l3
y=
6 R LT
This equation of a cubic spiral gives the offset distance (y) off the tangent line
for any distance ( l ) along the transition.
3
x =
Cubic Parabola: y=
6 R LT 3
LT 2
shift, S, is S=
24 R
l2 LT 2 LT
We already know that T
and at 1 , 1 = =
2 RLT 2 RLT 2 R . Also, BM =
BM PM
NT 1( POMO )
l3 LT 3
We know that y= , so that at NT1, the offset is , so that:
6 R LT 6 R LT
LT 3
S= ( RR cos 1 )
6 R LT
LT 3 12 14
6 R LT
{ RR 1 (
+
2! 4 !
+ } )
We know from power series that:
2 4
1 1 (1)n1 x 2 n1
cos1=1 + +=
2! 4 ! n=0 (2 n ) !
And
13 15
(1)n1 x 2 n1
sin1=1 + =
3! 5! n=1 (2 n1 ) !
LT 3 R 12
S=
6 R LT 2
2
LT
We also know from our previous derivations that 1= 2 RL
T
LT 3 2 2
R LT
S= ( )
6 R LT 2 2 RLT
LT 2 L T 2
S=
6 R 8R
LT 2
S=
24 R
We now want to show that the line OQ, from the centre of the circle to the
tangent point of the equivalent circle, bisects the transition curve T 1 T1
Q1 T 1 PT 1
LT 2 LT
R1=R . =
2 RL T 2
Q1 is the mid-point of the transition curve.
R
Since the deviation of Q1 from the tangent is small,
LT
TQ 1=TB=
2
From theory of simple circular curves and the dimensions of the equivalent
circular curve, we can obtain its tangent length, distance IB as:
TI =(R+S)tan
I 2
TI =TB+BI
And, since length TB is half the length of the transition curve, we can write
LT
TI = +(R+ S) tan
2 2
This allows us to establish the chainage of the first tangent point T and hence
the distance from the tangent point to the chainage pegs along the transition
curve as well as the chainage of the tangent point to the circular curve, T 1.
Now you can set-out the cubic spiral with a Theodolite (), Chain ( l ) and
T1
Fig 3.6.6 (a): Geometry of the circular portion of a composite curve.
T 2 and T2, to
This allows the chainages of the two remaining tangent points, T1
be calculated. After calculating the positions along the circular arc of the
chainage pegs, (cumulative) deflection angles for the entry and exit sub-
chords and the standard chord are calculated in the usual way:
28.648 Lchord
=
R
180
Lchord =R 2 =2 R
28.648 Lchord
And =
R
The curve can now be set out by setting up the theodolite at T 1 and taping
between pegs. In order to do this, we must establish the orientation of the
tangent, since we can no longer sight onto the Intersection Point, I. This can
be done by looking at the geometry of the transition curve.
T1
From the properties of the cubic spiral, we know that 3 and the back
2
angle can therefore be calculated as
Back angle=
3 . The theodolite can
The entire circular curve has now been set out, assuming that there have
been no obstructions, from one tangent point, usually the entry tangent point
T1. However, because the transition curve is not symmetrical, the formulae
used above to calculate deviation angle are only valid for angles from the
start of the transition, i.e. T 1 or T2. We must therefore move directly to T 2 to
set out the second transition curve. The position of T 2 can be found by linear
measurement along the exit straight from the intersection point, and checked
from T1 by measuring the angle between either straight and the line T 1-T2,
which should be equal to /2.
T1 /2 /2 T2
Fig 3.6.7: Checking the position of the two tangent points.
The two traditional methods of establishing the centre lines of composite and
wholly transitional curves have been described. Although these methods are
still in use, they have been virtually superseded for all major curves by
coordinate methods that use control networks. In such methods, which are
equally applicable to transition curves and circular curves, the coordinates of
points at regular intervals along the centre line are calculated with reference
to a site control network. The points are then pegged out on site either using
a total station set at points in the ground control network surrounding the
scheme, or, they can also be set out by using a GPS receiver.
In both cases the coordinates of points to be fixed on the centre line and the
coordinates of the control network being used must be based on the same
site coordinate system. Nowadays, the coordinate calculations involved are
usually done within computer software highway design packages and results
of such computations are normally presented in the form of computer
printouts ready for immediate setting out use on site. The calculations
required to produce this table are as follows:
The coordinates of the control points are found from the control survey data.
The horizontal alignment is designed and the coordinates of the intersection
and tangent points are calculated.
Assuming that the centre line is to be pegged at exact multiples of through
chainage, chord lengths and tangential angles are calculated for the entry
and exit transition curves and the central circular arc.
The coordinates of the points to be established on the centre line are
calculated using the chord lengths, tangential angles and the coordinates of
the intersection and tangent points.
Control points which are visible and which will give a good intersection to the
proposed centre line are found and the bearings/distances are calculated
from the control points to the centre line points.
3.3.9 Coordinate Methods Compared With Traditional Methods.
When compared with the traditional methods of setting out from the tangent
points, coordinate methods have a number of important advantages.
However, they are not always appropriate and some of the relative merits of
the two categories of technique are listed below.
Coordinate methods can be carried out by anyone who is capable of using
a total station or a GPS receiver. Since the data is in the form of either
bearings distances or coordinates, no knowledge of curve design is
necessary. This is not the case with traditional methods.
The increased use of highway design computer software packages in
which the setting out data is presented ready for use in coordinate form
has produced a corresponding increase in the adoption of such methods.
The widespread use of computers has also greatly sped up the calculation
procedures associated with coordinate methods, which were always
perceived to be more difficult to perform by hand when compared with
those associated with the traditional methods.
Coordinate methods enable key sections of the centre line, such as a
bridge centre line, to be set out in isolation in order that work can
progress in more than one area of the site.
Obstacles on the proposed centre line, which may be the subject of
disputes, can easily be by-passed using coordinate methods to allow work
to proceed while arbitration takes place. Once the obstacle is removed, it
is an easy process to establish the missing section of the centre line. This
is not usually possible with traditional methods.
Coordinate methods have the disadvantage that there is very little checks
on the final setting out. Large errors will be noticed when the centre line
does not take the designed shape, but small errors could pass unnoticed.
In the tangential angles method, checks are provided by locating common
tangent points from two different positions.
Although the widespread use of total stations and the increasing use of
GPS receivers on sites encourage the use of coordinate techniques, such
equipment may not always be available and it may be simpler to use
traditional methods that work along the centre line. This will particularly
be the case where minor curves are being set out, such as those used for
roads on housing estates, kerbs at roof intersections, short curves and
boundaries.
When travelling around bends, the higher forces put on the road surface by
the side thrust of the tyre frequently cause the surface aggregates on bends
to polish more quickly than the rest of the road, thus aggravating the problem
of safety. There can also be underlying problems in the geometric design of
the curve because the basic assumptions are not applicable to the design
(e.g. a high proportion of drivers exceed the design speed). On gravel roads
in particular the loss of superelevation in the cross-sectional profile through
lack of maintenance may result in the effects of a horizontal curve being
more severe than as designated. What salutations should engineers put in
place to counter these?
(i) For all bends below the desirable minimum standards, warning signs
should be provided to give the driver an idea of how severe the bend is
(ii) The road alignment should be designed to provide a uniform road layout
traversable with clear forward visibility.
(iii)If head-on accidents are a problem, double yellow lines should be
enhanced with physical device appropriate to the road conditions, ranging
from line markings that induce vibrations to heavy duty road studs or
rubber posts.
(iv) Use high skid resistance materials on critical bends particularly in wet
environments
(v) Bends should be linked into the road network as simple curves without a
transition or spiral curves.
(vi) Curve widening should be applied to the inside of the curve.
4.2 Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to
the horizontal. While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided while
designing the vertical curve. Before finalizing the gradients, the construction
cost, vehicular operation cost and the practical problems in the site have to
be considered. Steep gradients are usually avoided as far as possible because
of climbing difficulties and increase in the construction cost. The effect of
long steep gradient on the vehicular speed is considerable. This is particularly
important in roads where the proportion of heavy vehicles is significant. Due
to restrictive sight distance at uphill gradients, the speed of traffic is often
controlled by these heavy vehicles. As a result, not only are the operating
costs of the vehicles increased, but the capacities of the roads are reduced.
Due to high differential speeds between heavy and light vehicles in the uphill
and downhill gradients, accidents abound in gradients.
N
100
Ruling gradient
The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the maximum gradient with
which the designer attempts to design the vertical profile of the road. This
depends on the terrain, length of the grade, speed, pulling power of the
vehicle and the presence of the horizontal curve. In flatter terrain, it may be
possible to provide flat gradients, but in hilly terrain it is not economical and
sometimes not possible. The ruling gradient is adopted by the designer by
considering a particular speed as the design speed and for a design vehicle
with standard dimensions.
Limiting gradient
This gradient is adopted when the ruling gradient results in enormous
increase in cost of construction. On rolling and hilly terrains, it may be
frequently necessary to adopt limiting gradient. But the length of the limiting
gradient stretches should be limited and must be sandwiched by either
straight roads or easier grades.
Exceptional gradient
Exceptional gradients are very steep gradients given at unavoidable
situations. They should be limited to short stretches not exceeding about 100
metres. In mountainous and steep terrains, successive exceptional gradients
must be separated by a minimum of 100 metre length of more gentle
gradients.
Minimum gradient
This is important only at locations where surface drainage is important.
Camber will take care of the lateral drainage. But the longitudinal drainage
along the side drains requires some slope for smooth flow of water. Minimum
gradient is provided for drainage purpose and it depends on the rain fall, type
of soil and other site conditions. A minimum of 1 in 500 may be sufficient for
concrete drains and 1 in 200 for open soil drains.
Summit curves are vertical curves with gradients upwards, i.e., vertical
curves where the total change in gradient is negative. They are formed when
two gradients meet as illustrated in any of the following four ways:
(i) When a positive gradient meets another positive gradient.
(ii) When a positive gradient meets a flat gradient.
(iii)When an ascending gradient meets a descending gradient.
(iv) When a descending gradient meets another descending
gradient.
Many curve forms can be used with satisfactory results. The common practice
has been to use parabolic curves in summit curves. This is primarily because
of the ease with which it can be laid out as well as the comfort it affords in
transiting from one gradient to another. Although a circular curve offers equal
sight distance at every point on the curve, for very small deviation angles, a
circular curve and parabolic curves are almost congruent. Parabolic curves
have been found to give excellent riding comfort.
The length of the vertical curve is the projection of the curve onto the
horizontal plane and, as such, corresponds to the plan distance. In
determining the type and length of the vertical curve, the design
considerations are comfort, safety of the driver, and the appearance of the
profile alignment. Among these, sight distance requirements for safety are
the most important in summit curves. The stopping sight distance or absolute
minimum sight distance should be provided on these curves and where
overtaking is not prohibited, overtaking sight distance or intermediate sight
distance should be provided as far as possible. When a fast moving vehicle
travels along a summit curve, there is less discomfort to the passengers. This
is because the centrifugal force will be acting upwards while the vehicle
negotiates a summit curve which is against the gravity and hence a part of
the tyre pressure is relieved. If the curve is provided with adequate sight
distance, the length would be sufficient to ease the shock due to change in
gradient. The deviation angles provided on summit curves for highways are
very large, so a simple parabola is almost congruent to a circular arc,
between the same tangent points. Parabolic curves are easy to compute and
they provide good riding comfort to the drivers. They are also easy to
implement in the field. Due to all these reasons, a simple parabolic curve is
preferred as summit curve.
The important design aspect of the summit curve is the determination of the
length of the parabolic curve. As noted earlier, the length of the curve is
guided by the sight distance consideration. That is, a driver should be able to
stop his vehicle safely if there is an obstruction on the other side of the road.
The general form of the parabolic equation that applies to a vertical curve is
given by
2
Y =ax +bx +c .....Eqn 4.3.1(i)
Where;
y -intercept
4.3.1(ii)
At PVC , x=0, and equation (ii) yields:
dY
b= =p ....Eqn
dx
4.3.1(iii)
At PVT , x=L , and equation (ii) yields:
dY
=q
dx
4.3.1(iv)
For a parabola, a is half the rate of change of gradient, b is the initial gradient
and c is the of reduced level of the first tangent point
q p
r= ... Eqn 4.3.1(v)
L
q p
=2a , therefore
L
q p
a=
2 L ... Eqn 4.3.1(vi)
With all the terms as determined previously, please note that the selection of
the units for coefficients a and b in Eqn 4.3.1(iii) and Eqn 4.3.1(vi) must
respectively. The preceding equations define all the terms in the parabolic
curve (vertical) in Eqn 4.3.1(i).
Y= ( qp
2L )
2
x + px+ c
qp x 2
Y= ( L 2 ) + px
y +Y p q p x 2
From geometry; x
=
1 , Therefore,
y=( )
L 2 , expressing
p ,
Ax 2
y=
200
y Is measured downwards from the tangent and gives the vertical off-set
at any point along this curve. It is often necessary to calculate the highest (or
lowest) point on the curve to ensure that minimum sight distance (or
dy
drainage) requirements are met. The location of this point is given by dx
=0
, which yields:
pL
x=
( pq )
2
Lp
y=
2( pq)
L
The offset of the intersection point is found by replacing x with 2
L ( q p )
y=e=
8
Another useful curve property is one that gives the length of curve required
to effect a 1% change in slope. Because the parabolic equation used for
roadway elevation gives a constant rate of change of slope, is can be shown
that the horizontal distance required to change the slope by 1% is:
K=
A
Where;
K= Horizontal distance in (m) required to effect a 1% change in slope of
the vertical curve. This is a reciprocal of the rate of change of grade.
h1= Height of the drivers eye;
In all vertical curve design cases, the assumption is that the drivers eye is
1.05 m above the road surface for stopping sight distance, and the object
height is assumed to be 0.6 m above the road surface. The drivers eye
height represents the approximate height of a driver in a small sports car. The
object height is assumed to be that of a rear taillight. Since the curve is a
parabola, the offsets from the line of sight are proportional to the square of
the distance from the point where the curve is tangential to the line of sight.
h1=k d 12 h2=k d 22
1
L
2 k =e .
However; e=k
2() ; therefore
()L
2
2
and,
1 2 1 2
h1=e . d
2 1
h2=e . d
2 2
L L
() 2 ()
2
2
L
d 12=h1
()
2
e
2 0.5
[ ]
L
d=h
() 2
L
, but e=( qp ) 8 ; let ( pq )= A , so that e=
LA
8
;
1 1
e
therefore;
[ ][
2 0.5
L
( 2)
0.5
d=h
1 1
LA
=
2 h1 L
A ]
8
And equally,
0.5
[ ][
L 2
() 0.5
d 2 = h2
2
LA
=
2 h2 L
A ]
8
Therefore,
0.5
[ ]
2h 2 L 0.5
0.5 L
d + = { 2 h1+ 2 h2 }
1+ d2= [ ]
2 h1 L
A
A A0.5
1+ d 2
d
1+ d 2
d
2 . A
L=
1+ d 2=S
However, d , the sight distance
2
S .A
L=
2
{ 2 h1+ 2 h2 }
If the dangerous object is assumed to be carriageway level, then
A S2
h2=0 , L=
2 h1
A S2
If h1=h2=
8 h1
(ii) Condition where the required sight distance overlaps onto the tangent
sections on either side of the parabolic curve, i.e. where S>L
h1 h p h h
100=p ; 1 = = pdecimal form , 1 =p , 1 =x
x x 100 x p
between the slope of the sight line and the slope p of the rising gradient.
Then Ag is the difference between the slope of the sight line and the
S
gradient with slope q
pn=g , A= pq , nq=pgq=Ag ,
Therefore,
L h h2
S= + 1 +
2 g ( Ag)
dS
For the sight distance S to be a minimum, dg =0 (the line of sight touches
dS h1 h2
= 2 + =0
dg g ( Ag)2
Solving for g ,
A ( h1 h2 ) A h 1
g=
( h 2h1 )
L h1 h2
Substituting in S= 2 + g + ( Ag) ,
L h1 h2
S= + +
2
(
A ( h1 h2 ) A h1
( h2h1 ) )( A
A ( h1 h2 ) A h1
( h 2h1 ) )
Simplifying,
{( }
h1 h2
L=2 S2 +
A ( h1 h2 ) A h1 A ( h1 h2 ) A h 1
( h2h 1) )( A
( h 2h1 ) )
L=2 S2
{ h1 (h2h1)
+
h2 (h 2h1 )
A ( h1 h2 ) A h1 Ah2 A ( h 1 h2 ) }
L=2 S
{
2 h1 ( h2h1 ) h2 (h 2h1 )
+
A ( h1 h 2 )h1 h2 ( h1 h2 ) }
[ h1 ( h2h1 ) ] . [ h2 ( h1 h2 ) ] +[ h2 (h2h1)] [ ( h1 h2 )h1 ]
{ h1 (h2h1)
+
h2 (h2h 1)
( h1 h2 )h1 h2 ( h1 h 2) }=
[ ( h h )h ] . [ h ( h h ) ]
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2
h1 ( h h )2 h h ( h h ) +h ( h h )
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2
[ ( h h ) h ] . [ h ( h h ) ]
1 2 1 2 1 2
1/ 2 1/ 2 2
[ h ( ( h h ) )
1 1 2 h2 ( ( h 1 h2 ) ) ]
[ ( h h ) h ] . [ h ( h h ) ]
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 /2 1 /2 2
[ h ( ( h h ) )
1 1 2 h2 ( ( h1 h2 ) ) ]
h1 ( h1 h2 ) 2h 1 h2 h +h2 ( h1 h2 )
1/2 1/ 2 2
[ h ( (h h ))
1 1 2 h2 ( ( h1 h2 ) ) ]
1 /2 2
[ h1
1 /2
( ( h1 h2 ) ) h2
1/2 1/ 2
( ( h1 h2 ) ) ]
2
[ h 1h2 ]
2
[ h11/ 2h21 /2 ]
[ (h11 /2h 21 /2 )( h11/ 2+ h21/ 2)
( h11/ 2h21 /2 ) ]
2
[( h 1
1/ 2
+ h21/ 2) ]
Therefore,
2
2 [ h1 + h 2 ]
L=2 S
A
If
h2=0 , then,
2 h1
L=2 S
A
If
h1=h2 , then
8 h1
L=2 S
A
The decision as to which condition should be used at a particular site can be
made by solving either of the equations:
L S
e=( q p ) e=( q p )
8 8
than
h1 , then the equation where L is less than S should be used.
m
0.3
A value of s
2 of radial acceleration is considered for comfort design. If
2
the vertical radial acceleration is assumed to be equal to a m/s , then;
v 2 3.62 V 2 V2
a= = ,R=
R R 13 a
angle of the equivalent circular curve is very small, and the circle
practically coincides with the parabola,
2
V A
L=RA=
13 a
Where L= length of the sag curve (m), and A =algebraic difference in
(i) Consideration (1) - When the required sight distance is less than the length of
the sag curve, then;
S2 A
L=
[
( h +h )
8 C 1 2
2 ]
Where L = length of the sag curve ( m ), S =sight distance ( m
(ii) Consideration (2) - When the required sight distance is greater than the
length of the sag curve, then;
L=2 S
[
8 C
( h1 +h2 )
2 ]
A
The lengths of both sag and crest curves should generally be not less than
2 V D , metres, where, VD is the adopted design speed in Km/h .
C
y
L
x= + z ,
2
Therefore
2
A L
y '=
2L 2 ( )
+z
Solving the above equation results in two roots. The smaller of these
represents a vertical curve that is tangent between the P.I. and the critical
y'
point. Discarding this solution and letting
w= , to simplify the notation,
A
CONCLUSION
COMBINED HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Vertical curvature superimposed upon the horizontal or vice versa generally
results in a pleasing facility. Important exceptions to this alignment
combination include the following:
1. A series of vertical humps not in combination with horizontal curvature may
result in drivers sight distance problems.
2. Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the top of a
pronounced crest vertical curve
3. Only flat horizontal curvature should be introduced at or near the low points
of a pronounced sag vertical curve
4. On two-lane highways, the need for safe passing sections at frequent
intervals and for an appreciable percentage of the highway length may affect
the extent of coordination between the horizontal and vertical alignments.
5. Horizontal curvature and profile should be made as flat as feasible at highway
intersections.
UNITS
1ft=0.3048m
Maximum SE conditions
The maximum rates of superelevation used on highways are controlled by
four factors: Climate conditions, terrain conditions, type of area and
frequency of very slow-moving vehicles.
It has been observed that transverse slope of more than 70 percent is
inconvenient to the slow-moving vehicle. So that maximum allowable
superelevation on curves is taken as 7 percent. In hilly areas, since such carts
are not prevalent and the number of curves is more, a higher superelevation
is required.
The superelevation should be attained gradually over the full length of the
transition curve so that the design superelevation is available at the starting
point of the circular portion. In cases where transition curve cant for some
reason be provided, two-third superelevation may be attained on the straight
section before start of the circular curve and the balance one-third on the
curve.
ACHIEVING SUPERELEVATION
STAGES IN SUPERELEVATION
Tangent Run-out (Z) (Source: AASHTO)
The length of highway needed to accomplish the change in cross slope from a
normal crown section to a flat section (or adverse crown removed) or vice
versa
Z = NC (RL)/E
Where:
Z = Runoff length from normal crown to flat section
NC = Normal crown rate %
e = Superelevation rate %
RL = Runoff Length (or Transition length)
The length of highway needed to accomplish the change in cross slope from
an adverse crown removed to a fully superelevated section or vice versa
SUPERELEVATION PROGRAMME
2 Geometric Design
Whenever two gradients intersect on a road or railway, it is necessary to
connect them with a vertical curve to improve visibility (summit curves),
prevent shock impacts or passenger discomfort (both summit and sag
curves) and to improve visual appearance. Vertical curves allow vehicles to
pass smoothly from one gradient to another.
In practice, road and railway gradients are comparatively flat and it is often
unimportant what type of vertical curve is used; the usual curves are circular
or parabolic. However, it is best to use a vertical curve having a constant rate
of change of gradient, i.e., a
In Figure 4.1, T1ET2 is a vertical parabolic curve between two grades p and q
which intersect at C., T1, T2 are tangent points and the x-y coordinate origin is
vertically below with the x-axis being the datum for reduced levels y. H is the
reduced level of T1. The horizontal length of the vertical curve is L and the
highest point of the curve is a distance D from .
1. The equation of the curve is
y= ( q2 Lp ) x + px+ H
2
y= ( q+2 p ) L+ H
From Figure 4.1, the horizontal distance from T 1 to C is Lc and we can use this
distance to calculate the reduced level T2 of as
H + p Lc +q (LLc )
Lc =
2
This very important relationship: the horizontal distances from the tangent
points to the intersection point are equal is of considerable use in solving vertical
curve problems.
2. In Figure 4.1, F is the mid-point of the line T 1, T2 and the reduced level (RL)
of F is the mean of the reduced levels of T1 and T2.
( q+ p ) L
R LF = +H
4
3. The reduced level of E, a point on the curve at a horizontal distance L/2
from T1 is
q p L 2 L (q +3 p) L
R LE = ( 2L )( )
2
+ p + H=
2 8
+H
This is also the gradient of the line joining the tangent points, hence in
Figure 4.1, AB is parallel to T1T2 and is tangential to the curve at E, a point
midway between the tangent points.
7. In Figure 4.1, D is the horizontal distance to the highest point of the curve
(or the lowest point if the curve was a true sag curve). The gradient will be
zero at the highest point (or lowest) and since the gradient is also the
derivative, then we can set equation (3.4) equal to zero and solve x
dy qp
dx
=( L )
x+ p=0
giving the horizontal distance to the high (or low) point of a parabolic vertical
curve as
D= ( p
q p)L
of sign between q and p. Note that the (q p) term in equation (4.3) is the
numerical sum of the two gradients and that D will always be a positive
quantity.
Primary functions of a transition curves (or easement curves) are:
To accomplish gradual transition from the straight to circular curve, so that
curvature changes from zero to a finite value.
To provide a medium for gradual introduction or change of required
superelevation.
To changing curvature in compound and reverse curve cases, so that gradual
change of curvature introduced from curve to curve.
To call a spiral between a straight and curve as valid transition curve, it has to
satisfy the following conditions.
One end of the spiral should be tangential to the straight.
The other end should be tangential to the curve.
Spirals curvature at the intersection point with the circular arc should
be equal to arc curvature.
Also at the tangent its curvature should be zero.
The rate of change of curvature along the transition should be same as
that of the increase of cant.
Its length should be such that full cant is attained at the beginning of
circular arc.