ECE 2403 Highway Engineering I

Transportation Engineering Group of Units
DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
Department of Civil Engineering

ECE 2404: HIGHWAY ENGINEERING I
First Semester, 2015/2016 Academic Year
Page 1 of 101 Chelelgo 2015

Objectives
This unit introduces the concepts and principles of highway geometrics. The goal is
to equip students with skills and knowledge on design of the various geometric
elements of the road and on how to incorporate them into real-life highway projects.
Besides the geometrics, other factors that influence design such as highway
capacities, levels of service and road accidents shall be given attention.
Unit Content
The unit covers: Principles of highway design (geometric design-horizontal and vertical
curves, factors and elements of geometric designs); Intersection design (at-grade
junctions; roundabouts, conflicts points); kerbed and ghost islands; lane separation;
acceleration and deceleration lanes; intersection sight triangle; speed; sight distance
and capacity.
Unit reference Materials
1. Surveying for Engineers, 5th Ed, John Urn and Bill Price, 2010
2. Fundamentals of Surveying, 2nd Ed, S.K Roy, 2010
3. Elementary Surveying, An Introduction to Geomatics, 13th Ed, Charles D. Ghilani
and Paul R. Wolf, 2012
4. Road Design Manual Part 1 : Geometric Design of Rural Roads, Ministry of
Works, Roads Department, 1979
5. Road Note 6 A guide to Geometric Design-1988
Unit Examination
CAT 1 15%
CAT 2 15%
FINAL EXAMINATION 70%
Teaching Schedule
Mondays 4:00 pm to 7:00 pm R13 - Lecture

Tuesdays 8:00 am to 11:00 am R13 - Lab

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN.....................................6
1.1 Overview........................................................................................................ 6
1.2 Design Controls and Guidelines.....................................................................9
1.2.1 Design Speed......................................................................................... 10
1.2.2 Curve Radius......................................................................................... 11
1.2.3 Depths and Heights of Cut and Fill........................................................11
1.2.4 Topography............................................................................................ 11
1.2.5 Other factors......................................................................................... 11
1.3 Road Classification....................................................................................... 13
1.3.1 Road Classification Criteria....................................................................14
1.4 Highway Capacity and Levels of Service......................................................15
CHAPTER 2 CROSS-SECTIONAL ELEMENTS............................................................17
2.1 Overview...................................................................................................... 17
2.2 Pavement Surface Characteristics...............................................................17
2.2.1 Friction................................................................................................... 17
2.2.2 Unevenness........................................................................................... 17
2.2.3 Light Reflection...................................................................................... 18
2.2.4 Drainage................................................................................................ 18
2.2.5 Camber.................................................................................................. 18
2.3 Carriageway Width....................................................................................... 18
2.4 Kerbs............................................................................................................ 18
2.5 Road Margins............................................................................................... 19
2.5.1 Shoulders............................................................................................... 19
2.5.2 Parking Lanes........................................................................................ 20
2.5.3 Bus Bays................................................................................................ 20
2.5.4 Service Roads........................................................................................ 20
2.5.5 Cycle Tracks........................................................................................... 20
2.5.6 Footpaths............................................................................................... 20
2.5.7 Guardrails.............................................................................................. 20
2.5.8 Width of Formation................................................................................ 21
2.5.9 Side Slopes and Drainage Channels......................................................21
2.5.10 Right of Way.......................................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT...................................................................22

3.1 Overview...................................................................................................... 22
3.2 Friction concepts.......................................................................................... 26
3.3 Sight Distances............................................................................................ 22
3.3.1 Decision Sight Distance.........................................................................23
3.3.2 Stopping Sight Distance........................................................................23
3.3.3 Overtaking Sight Distance.....................................................................25
3.3.4 Intersection Sight Distance....................................................................26
3.4 Centrifugal forces on curves........................................................................26
3.4.1 Effects of superelevation.......................................................................31
3.5 Simple curve design..................................................................................... 33
3.5.1 Sight distances at horizontal curves......................................................35
3.6 Extra Curve Widening..................................................................................36
3.6.1 Mechanical widening............................................................................. 36
3.6.2 Psychological widening..........................................................................38
3.7 Transition curves.......................................................................................... 38
3.7.1 Rate of Change of centrifugal acceleration............................................39
3.7.2 Rate of introduction of super-elevation..................................................40
3.7.3 The Clothoid.......................................................................................... 42
3.7.4 The Cubic Parabola................................................................................43
3.7.5 Setting-Out Data for a Cubic Spiral........................................................44
3.7.6 The circular portion of the curve............................................................47
3.7.7 The Exit Transition................................................................................. 49
3.7.8 Setting Out Using the Coordinate methods...........................................50
3.7.9 Coordinate Methods Compared With Traditional Methods.....................50
3.7.10 Hazard on Horizontal Curves.................................................................51
CHAPTER 4 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT........................................................................53
4.1 Overview...................................................................................................... 53
4.2 Gradient....................................................................................................... 53
4.2.1 Types of gradient...................................................................................54
Ruling gradient................................................................................................... 54
Limiting gradient................................................................................................ 54
Exceptional gradient.......................................................................................... 54
Critical length of the grade................................................................................55

Minimum gradient.............................................................................................. 55
4.2.2 Creeper/Climbing lane...........................................................................55
4.3 Summit curve.............................................................................................. 55
4.3.1 Length of the summit curve...................................................................56
4.3.2 Sight distance requirement...................................................................58
4.4 Sag curve..................................................................................................... 63
4.5 Clearance over/under objects......................................................................63
4.6 Superelevation design................................................................................. 66
4.7 Guidelines on superelevation.......................................................................74
4.7.1 Design of super-elevation......................................................................74
4.7.2 Maximum and minimum super-elevation...............................................74
4.7.3 Attainment of super-elevation...............................................................75
CHAPTER 5 INTERSECTIONS.................................................................................. 76
5.1 Overview...................................................................................................... 76
5.2 Types of Intersection.................................................................................... 76
5.3 Geometric Design........................................................................................ 76

CHAPTER 1 PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

1.1 Overview
Although the construction of highways takes place in three-dimensional (3-D) space,

the procedures that govern their design have been developed within three separate
sets of two-dimensional (2-D) relationships that represent the plan, the profile,
and cross-sectional views. The plan view encompasses the horizontal
alignment of the road in the x-y plane. In it, the straight and curved sections of
the road are described on a flat two-dimensional surface. The directions and lengths
of the straights or tangent segments of the road are stated in terms of bearings and
distances from one point to another and are reference in a co-ordinate system of
northings and eastings, which are analogous to y and x rectangular co-ordinates.
The profile view or the vertical alignment represents the roadway in terms of
uphill and downhill slopes, or grades, that connect points of vertical elevation. The
cross-sectional element is a slice of the roadway through the y-z plane. The key
components of the cross-section include the widths and cross-slopes of the lanes,
shoulders and embankment slopes as well as the depths or thicknesses of the
pavement and embankment material layers.
Horizontal alignments can be thought of as a series of straight lines, known as

tangents that meet one another end-to-beginning, at Points of Intersections (PoI).
The goal of horizontal curves is to facilitate high-speed changes of travel direction
between various tangents. The sharpness of these curves dictates how abruptly a
change in direction can be made at a given speed. The horizontal alignment must
also be designed to provide adequate sight distances on these straight and curved
sections of the highway such that drivers will be able to operate their vehicles at the
desired rate of speed without encountering any safety or efficiency obstacles.
Fig1.1 (a): Highway Alignment in Three-Dimensions

Fig: 1.1 (b) Highway Alignment in two-Dimensions
Alignment decision is important because a bad alignment will enhance the

construction, maintenance and vehicle operating costs. Once an alignment is fixed
and constructed, it is not easy to change it due to increase in cost of adjoining land
and construction of costly structures by the roadside. The requirements of an ideal
alignment are:
1. The alignment between two terminal stations should be short and as far as
possible be straight, but due to some practical considerations deviations may
be needed.
2. The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain. It should be easy for
the operation of vehicles. So to the maximum extent, easy gradients and
curves should be provided.
3. It should be safe both from the construction and operating point of view
especially at slopes, embankments, and cutting. It should have safe
geometric features.
4. The alignment should be economical and it can be considered so only when
the initial cost, maintenance cost, and operating cost is minimum
It is not always possible to satisfy all these requirements hence we have to make a
judicial choice considering all the factors. The various factors that control the
alignment are as follows:
a) Obligatory points: These are the control points governing the highway
alignment. These points are classified into two categories: Points through
which it should pass and points through which it should not pass. Some of the
examples are:
Bridge sites: The Bridge can be located only where the river has straight
and permanent path and also where the abutments and piers can be
strongly founded. The road approach to the bridge should not be curved
and skew crossing should be avoided as much as possible. Thus to locate
a bridge, the highway alignment may be changed.
Mountains: While the alignment passes through a mountain, the various
alternatives are to either construct a tunnel or to go round the hills. The
suitability of the alternative depends on factors like topography, site

conditions and construction and operation cost.
Intermediate towns: The alignment may be slightly deviated to connect
an intermediate town or a nearby village.
b) Religious places: These have been protected by the law from being
acquired for any purpose and therefore, they should be avoided while
aligning the route.
c) Very costly structures: Acquiring such structures means heavy
compensation of the owners, which would in turn explode the initial
construction cost. In such cases, it would be prudent to deviate the route to
pass elsewhere.
d) Lakes/ponds e.t.c: The presence of a lake or a pond on the alignment path
would also necessitate deviation of the alignment.
e) Traffic: The alignment should suit the traffic requirements. Based on the
origin-destination data of the area, the desire lines should be drawn. The new
alignment should be drawn keeping in view the desire lines and traffic flow
pattern.
f) Geometric design: Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of
curve, sight distance etc. also governs the alignment of the highway. To keep
the radius of curve to a minimum, it may be required to change the
alignment of the highway. The alignments should be finalized such that the
obstructions to visibility do not restrict the minimum requirements of sight
distance. The design standards vary with the class of road and the terrain
and, accordingly, the highway should be aligned.
g) Economy: The finalized alignment should be economical. All the three costs
i.e. construction, maintenance and operating costs should be minimum. The
construction cost can be decreased much if it is possible to maintain a
balance between cutting and filling. Try to avoid very high embankments and
very deep cuttings as these will adversely affect the construction costs.
h) Other considerations: various other factors that govern the alignment are
drainage considerations, political factors and monotony.
Drainage
Political: If a foreign territory comes across a straight alignment, we
will have to navigate the alignment away from the foreign land.
Monotony: For a flat terrain, it is possible to provide a straight
alignment but it will be monotonous for driving. It would therefore, be
wise for the engineer to provide curves after a few kilometers of
straight road to break the monotony and keep the driver alert
Hydrological (rainfall/water table):
Alignment through hilly areas is slightly different from aligning through a flat terrain.
For the purpose of efficient and safe operation of vehicles, special care should be
taken while aligning the highway through a hilly terrain. Some of the special
considerations for highway alignment through a hilly terrain are discussed below.

Stability of the slopes: for hilly areas, the road should be aligned through the
stable side of the hill. Landslides are a common problem with hilly areas.
Excessive cutting and filling for road constructions give way to steepening of
slopes which in turn affects the stability.
Hill side drainage: Attempts should be made to align the roads in such a way
that the number of cross drainage structures required is a minimum.
Special geometric standards: The geometric standards followed in hilly areas
are different from those for flat terrains. The alignment chosen should enable
the ruling gradient to be attained in minimum of the length, minimizing steep
gradient, hairpin bends and needless rises and falls.
Ineffective rise and fall: Efforts should be made to keep the ineffective rise
and excessive fall to a minimum.
The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of visible
features of the highway. Geometric design addresses with emphasis the
requirement of the driver and the vehicle. Such requirements include safety,
comfort, efficiency, etc. The features normally considered are the cross section
elements, horizontal curvature, gradients, sight distance consideration and
intersections. The design of these features is to a great extent influenced by driver
behavior and psychology, vehicle characteristics and traffic characteristics i.e.
speed and volume. Proper geometric design will help in the reduction of accidents
and their severity. The key objective of geometric design is to provide optimum
efficiency in traffic operation and maximum safety, both at reasonable cost. The
planning cannot be done stage wise like that of a pavement, but has to be done well
in advance. The main components that will be discussed are:
1. Factors affecting the geometric design,
2. Highway alignment and road classification,
3. Pavement surface characteristics,
4. Cross-sectional elements, which includes cross slope, various widths of
roads and features in the road margins.
5. Sight distance elements, which includes cross slope, various widths and
features in the road margins.
6. Horizontal alignment, which includes features like super elevation,
transition curve, extra widening and set back distance.
7. Vertical alignment and its components like gradient, sight distance and
design length of curves.
8. Intersection features like layout, capacity, etc.
1.2 Design Controls and Guidelines

A highway design that provides the desired service requires that the specification of
controlling variables be responsive to the intended use of the highway and to its
expected economic and environmental features. At a minimum, the following
design controls must be specified.

(i) The design speed v ( m/s )

(ii) The minimum radius of the horizontal curve R(m)
(iii) The minimum length of vertical curves based upon design speed and
K
difference between intersecting grades min

(iv) Maximum grades at any point on the highway, determined from
G
consideration of road classification, truck traffic and terrain Max

(v) Maximum grade in proximity to existing intersection (Max 2%)
(vi) Minimum grade at any one point in the highway to ensure adequate
drainage. A minimum 0.5% is suggested for preliminary design purposes.
(vii) Maximum horizontal approach angles at intersections (with say
90 15 )
(viii)Maximum depth of excavation and height of fill.
A few of the above design controls will be discussed in detail in the following
sections.
1.2.1 Design Speed

The design speed is a primary determinant of the geometric design. It directly
affects the sight distance, horizontal curve design and the length of vertical curves.
Since the speed of vehicles vary with driver, terrain etc, a design speed is adopted
for purposes of geometric design. Design speed is defined as the highest continuous
speed at which individual vehicles can safely operate on the highway when weather
conditions are conducive. Design speed is different from the Legal Speed Limit
which is the speed limit imposed to curb a common tendency of drivers to travel
beyond an accepted safe speed. Design speed is also different from the Desired
Speed which is the maximum speed at which a driver would travel when
unconstrained by either traffic or local geometry. Since there are wide variations in
the speed adopted by different drivers, and by different types of vehicles, design
speed should be selected such that it satisfies nearly all drivers within a stretch of a
highway.
When conditions are so favourable that the design features of the highway govern,
the design speed should ideally be measured as the 85th percentile speed of the
traffic approaching the geometric element and is used to define the minimum
standards for the highway. [Road Note 6 A guide to geometric design-1988]. The
design speed for a given road is influenced by the following factors:
1. Classification and function of the road
2. Nature of the terrain
3. The density and character of the adjoining land use
4. The traffic volumes expected to use the road

The following general guidelines should be considered while selecting design speeds
for given stretches of a road
1. Drivers on long distance journeys are apt to travel at higher speeds than local
traffic. This should be taken into account when selecting design speeds for
major trunk roads
2. On local roads whose major function is to provide access, high speeds are
undesirable and the design speed should be selected accordingly.
3. Drivers do not usually adjust their speeds to the importance of a road, but to
the physical limitations and prevailing traffic conditions. Where a difficult
location is obvious to the driver, he is more apt to accept a lower speed of
operation than where there is no apparent reason for it. A low design speed
should not be assumed for a road where the topography is such that drivers
are apt to travel at high speeds.
4. Economic considerations (road user savings versus construction costs) may
justify a higher design speed for a road carrying large volumes of traffic than
for a less heavily trafficked road in similar topography.
5. Changes in design speed, if required, should not be effected abruptly but
over sufficient distances to enable drivers to change speed gradually. The
change in design speed should not be greater than 25% and the section with
the lower geometric standards should be long enough to be clearly
recognizable by drivers (not, for example, just one single curve). [Refer to
Table 3.7.1, pg 3.12. KRDM Pt for recommended design speeds]
1.2.2 Curve Radius

Wherever possible, the curve radius should be designed at or above the desirable
minimum standards. If the curve radius is less than 400 m for two lane roads, it
may be necessary to widen the outside edge of the curve to provide an adequate
travel path for two-axle heavy goods vehicles. [Refer to Table 5.3.1 of the KRDM Pt1,
pg 5.9 for recommended design radii)
1.2.3 Depths and Heights of Cut and Fill

In general, highways are constructed in cuts at locations near the high points in the
highway profile. The design details of cuts will depend on the type of the material
excavated and upon the depth from the original grade level. In general, a maximum
of 10m should be about the greatest depth of cut for most highways, with 7m being
a more desirable maximum. Beyond this depth, problems of slope stability and
excessive costs usually tend to outweigh the benefits derived from decreases in
grades and horizontal alignments, unless the highway accommodates high traffic
volumes.
Probably, the greatest amount of highway construction in rural areas occurs on fill.
As with the cut section, it is usually desirable to keep the height of the fill section to
10m or less, with 7m being a preferred maximum. Above this height, depending
upon the topography, the classification of the highway and the affected land uses, it
may be more economical to construct a bridge. This may be particularly true where
the highway passes through rocky terrain or where the fill section is on a marsh, a
swamp or any other location where unstable ground conditions occur.
1.2.4 Topography
The next most important factor that affects the geometric design of a highway is
the topography. It is easier to construct roads with required standards within a plain
terrain, however, for a given design speed, the construction cost increases
multiform with the gradient and the terrain. It is therefore important to vary
geometric design standards for different terrains to keep the cost and construction
time under control. You would expect sharper curves and steeper gradients in a
mountainous terrain.
A level terrain is that condition whereby highway sight distances, as governed by

both horizontal and vertical restrictions, are generally long or could be made to be
so without construction difficulty or much expense. A rolling terrain is that
condition where natural slopes consistently rise above and fall below the road or
street grade and where occasional steep slopes offer some restrictions to normal
horizontal and vertical roadway alignment. A mountainous terrain is that condition
where longitudinal and transverse changes in the elevation of the ground with
respect to the road or street are abrupt and where benching and side hill
excavations are frequently required to obtain acceptable horizontal and vertical
alignment.
1.2.5 Other factors

In addition to the above factors, there are various others that affect the geometric
design and they are briefly discussed below:
[1] Vehicular factors: The axle weight, width, height, front and rear overhangs,
minimum turning paths at intersections, the path of the inner rear tyre, the
tread width and wheel base are key dimensions to be noted and
accommodated. The vehicle that should be used in design for normal
operation is the largest one that represents a significant percentage of the
traffic for the design year. For design of most highways accommodating truck
traffic, one of the design semi-trailer combinations is typically used. When
geometric configuration is constricted, such as in urban areas and at certain
intersections, a design check should be made for the largest vehicle expected
to ensure that it can negotiate the designated turns, particularly if pavements
are kerbed. The geometric elements that are affected by vehicle
characteristics are the cross-section of the road, road widening at horizontal
curves as well as junction layouts.

[2] Human factors: The important human factors that influence geometric
design are the physical, mental and psychological characteristics of the driver
and pedestrians. Reaction time is a typical consideration.
[3] Traffic: It will be uneconomical to design the road for peak traffic flow;
therefore a reasonable value of traffic volume is selected as the design hourly
volume. This volume is determined from the various traffic data collected.
The traffic data should include the current and future average daily traffic
(ADT), the future design hourly volume (DHV), directional distribution and
truck percentage. On most highways, the DHV is used for design. The ADT
may be used for of minor, low-volume roads. On highways with unusual or
highly seasonal fluctuations in traffic flow, the DHV should be based upon
detailed analysis of anticipated demand. For important intersections, data
should be obtained to show traffic movement during morning and evening
peaks hours and at other times of heavy traffic.
The capacity of each highway and the levels of service associated with the
demand must be determined from a capacity analysis. Estimation of actual
service flow rates, levels of service and related performance measures should
be done in accordance with procedures described in the latest edition of the
Highway Capacity Manual. The design year for highway geometrics in Kenya
is taken as 10 years.
[4] Maximum grade: The higher the maximum grade, the lower will be the
design speed, reflecting the lower running speeds of vehicles using the
highway, and commercial vehicles in particular.
[5] Lane and shoulder widths: Higher values of lane increases design
capacity. Designated lane widths range between 3m and 3.6m for highways
with any significant traffic volumes. Adequate shoulders are usually
necessary for safety and capacity reasons.
[6] Environmental: Factors such as air pollution, noise pollution etc. should be
given due consideration in the geometric design of roads
[7] Economy: The design adopted should be economical as far as possible. It
should match with the funds allocated for capital and maintenance costs.
[8] Others: Geometric design should be such that the aesthetics of the region is
not affected.
1.3 Road Classification
Roads can be classified in many ways. The classification based on speed and
accessibility is the most generic one. Note that, as the accessibility of road
increases, the speed reduces. Accordingly, the roads can be classified as follows in
the order of increased accessibility and reduced speeds.
Freeways: Freeways are access controlled divided highways. Most freeways
are four lanes, two lanes each direction, but many freeways widen to
incorporate more lanes as they enter urban areas. Access is controlled

through the use of interchanges, and the type of interchange depends upon
the kind of intersecting road way (rural roads, another freeway etc.)
Expressways: They are superior type of highways and are designed for high
speeds (120 km/hr is common), high traffic volume and safety. They are
generally provided with grade separations at intersections. Parking, loading
and unloading of goods and pedestrian traffic is not allowed on expressways.
Highways: They represent the superior type of roads in the country.
Highways are of two types rural highways and urban highways. Rural
highways are those passing through rural areas (villages) and urban
highways are those passing through large cities and towns, i.e. urban areas.
Arterials: It is a general term denoting a street primarily meant for through
traffic usually on a continuous route. They are generally divided highways
with fully or partially controlled access. Parking, loading and unloading
activities are usually restricted and regulated. Pedestrians are allowed to
cross only at intersections/designated pedestrian crossings.
Local streets: A local street is the one which is primarily intended for access
to residence, business or abutting property. It does not normally carry large
volume of traffic and also it allows unrestricted parking and pedestrian
movements.
Collector streets: These are streets intended for collecting and distributing
traffic to and from local streets and also for providing access to arterial
streets. Normally, full access is provided on these streets. There are few
parking restrictions except during peak hours.
Collector Street
Local Street
Arterials
Accessibility
Highways
Expressways
Page 14 of 101 Chelelgo 2015 Freeways
Speed
Fig 1.3: Speed Vs Accessibility
1.3.1 Road Classification Criteria
Apart from the classification given by the different plans, roads were also classified
based on some other criteria. They are given in detail below.
Based on usage
This classification is based on whether the roads can be used during different
seasons of the year.
All-weather roads: Those roads which are negotiable during all weathers,
except at major river crossings where interruption of traffic is permissible up
to a certain extent.
Fair-weather roads: Roads which are negotiable only during fair weather.
Based on carriage way
This classification is based on the type of the carriage way or the road pavement.
Paved roads with hard surface: If they are provided with a hard pavement
course such as stones, Water bound macadam (WBM), bituminous macadam
(BM), concrete roads.
Unpaved roads: Roads which are not provided with a hard course. Earth and
gravel roads come under this category.
Based on pavement surface
Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided, they are classified as surfaced
and un-surfaced roads.
Surfaced roads (BM, concrete): Roads which are provided with a bituminous
or cement concreting surface.
Un-surfaced roads (soil/gravel): Roads which are not provided with a
bituminous or cement concreting surface.
Other criteria

Roads may also be classified based on the traffic volume in that road, load
transported through that road or location and function of that road.
Traffic volume: Based on the traffic volume, they are classified as heavy,
medium and light traffic roads. These terms are relative and so the limits
under each class may be expressed as vehicles per day.
Load transported: Based on the load carried by these roads, they can be
classified as class I, class II, etc. or class A, class B etc. and the limits may be
expressed as tones per day.
Road transport in Kenya consists of 63,265 Km of interurban roads, 8,933 Km of
which are paved and 54,332 Km unpaved. There are over 100,000 Km of rural roads
and 14,500 Km of urban roads, creating a total road infrastructure of 177,765 Km
(2004). Kenya has one of the best paved highway networks and some of the busiest
roads south of the Sahara, but maintenance has always been a challenge. The road
system is constituted by three classified road types, as well as unclassified roads
and tracks.
Kenyan A roads are typically trans-national, often linking Kenya to at least one other
East-African country.
A1, Tanzanian border - A14, Mombasa - Tanzanian

Sudanese border border
A2, Nairobi - Moyale (Ethiopian A23, Voi - Taveta (Tanzanian

border) border)
A3, - Liboi (Somalian border) A104, Athi River - Namanga

(Tanzanian border)
A109, Nairobi - Mombasa
Kenyan B roads primarily connect major cities and districts.
B1, Nakuru - Ugandan border B3, west from A104 at Kijabe

via Narok to Migori
B8, Mombasa - Garissa
C roads in Kenya typically connect towns and settlements within a single

district.
C107, Kaloleni - B8 C115, Chidutani - Dida
C111, Mazeras - Kaloleni

1.4 Highway Capacity and Levels of Service
The capacity of a road is the extent to which it is able to provide for traffic
movement under given circumstances. Economic capacity is the smallest of
all traffic volumes which needs to be attained so that a road project is
justified by cost-benefit analysis. Environmental capacity is the capacity of a
road to accommodate moving and stationary vehicles having regard to the
need to maintain the chosen environmental standards i.e., it is the upper limit
of traffic volume that is permitted on the road in question without exceeding
desired minimum standards relating to noise, air pollution, pedestrian and
cyclist safety, amenity and visual intrusion. The Basic capacity of a road is
the maximum number of vehicles that can pass over a given section of a lane
or carriageway, in one direction, or, (in both directions for a two-lane
highway), during a given period (one hour, unless otherwise specified), under
prevailing roadway and traffic conditions. The traffic flow at this level is
unstable and minor disturbances in the traffic streams may cause stop-go
operations. Consequently, the Design capacity of a road is taken as less than
the basic capacity, and is usually related to a level of service which
expresses the effectiveness of the road in terms of operating conditions
[Refer to Table 3.6.1 of KRDM Pt 1 pg 3.8 for basic and design capacities
applicable in Kenya] . On major roads carrying relatively heavy traffic
volumes throughout the year (Current AADT 1,000), hourly traffic has to
be used for determination of the design volume. When the design volume
exceeds 8,000 P.C.Us, a dual carriageway may be considered, especially in a
rural setting. Close to urban areas, a single carriageway road may carry a
design volume of up to 15,000 P.C.Us.
Level of service is a qualitative measure that describes traffic conditions in

terms of speed, travel time, freedom to manoeuvre, comfort, convenience,
traffic interruptions and safety. It seeks to measure highway performance and
is needed for highway construction and congestion relief. Highway conditions
such as road type, number and widths of lanes, vehicle mix, shoulder widths,
lateral clearance, access frequency, terrain, driver characteristics and traffic
variations over the day and over the peak hour. Highway capacity manual
defines the level of service categories for freeways and multilane highways
as follows
Level of service A (free-flow conditions). Individual users are virtually

unaffected by the presence of other in the traffic stream. Traffic operates at
free-flow speeds and drivers have the liberty to select desired speeds. The
levels of and convenience are excellent.
Level of service B (near free-flow conditions). Freedom to select desired
speeds is relatively unaffected but there is a slight decline in the freedom to
manoeuvre within the traffic stream.
Level of service C (near free-flow speeds). The freedom to manoeuvre is
noticeably restricted. The level of comfort and convenience declines
significantly and any disruptions in the traffic stream can result in queue
formation and vehicular delays
Level of service D. Speeds begin to decline significantly with increasing flow.
Freedom to manoeuvre gets more restricted and drivers experience both
physical and psychological discomfort. Minor incidences can generate lengthy
queues.
Level of service E. This represents operating conditions approaching the
roads capacity. In general, monoeuvrability is extremely limited and drivers
experience considerable physical and psychological discomfort.
Level of service F. This describes a break-down in vehicular flow. Vehicles
typically operate at low speeds and are often required to come to a complete
stop, usually in a cyclic fashion.
CHAPTER 2 CROSS-SECTIONAL ELEMENTS

2.1 Overview
The features of the cross-section of the pavement influence the life of the
pavement as well as the riding comfort and safety. Camber, kerbs, and
geometry of various cross-sectional elements are important aspects to be
considered in this regard. The choice of the cross-sectional elements depends
on a number of factors, key among them being:
(i) The traffic volumes which the road will have to accommodate
(ii) The selected design speed
(iii)The road function, i.e., the predominant type of traffic that the road serves,
for example, long distance, versus access or heavy goods versus
passenger cars. [Refer to Table 4.22 of KRDM Pt 1, pg 4.5] for
recommended cross-section types.
2.2 Pavement Surface Characteristics
For safe and comfortable driving, four aspects of the pavement surface are
important; the friction between the wheels and the pavement surface,
smoothness of the road surface, the light reflection characteristics of the top
of pavement surface and drainage.
2.2.1 Friction
Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the
design of horizontal curves and thus the safe operating speed. Further, it also
affects the acceleration and deceleration ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate
friction can cause skidding or slipping of vehicles. Skidding happens when the
path traveled along the road surface is more than the circumferential
movement of the wheels due to friction. Slip occurs when the wheel revolves
more than the corresponding longitudinal movement along the road. The
various factors that affect friction are:
i. Type of the pavement (like bituminous, concrete, or gravel),
ii. Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc),
iii. Condition of the tyre (new or old), and
iv. Speed and load of the vehicle
The frictional force that develops between the wheel and the pavement is the
load acting multiplied by a factor called the coefficient of friction, denoted as
f r . The choice of the value of fr is a very complicated issue since it
depends on many variables. Recommended coefficient of longitudinal friction
is between 0.35 and 0.4 depending on the vehicle speed while the
recommended coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15. The former is useful in
sight distance calculation and the latter in horizontal curve design.
2.2.2 Unevenness
It is always desirable to have an even surface, but it is seldom possible to

have such one. Even if a road is constructed with high quality pavers, it is
possible to develop unevenness due to pavement failures. Unevenness
affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel
consumption and wear and tear of tyres. Unevenness Index is a measure of
unevenness which is the cumulative measure of vertical undulation of the
pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal length of the road. An
unevenness index value less than 1500 mm/km is considered as good, a
value less than 2500 mm/km is satisfactory up to speed of 100 km/hr and
values greater than 3200 mm/km is considered as uncomfortable even for 55
km/hr.
2.2.3 Light Reflection
White roads have good visibility at night, but cause glare during the day time.
Black roads have no glare during the day, but have poor visibility at night.
Concrete roads have better visibility and less glare. It is necessary that the
road surface be visible at night.
2.2.4 Drainage
The pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage

of water into the pavement layers. Further, both the geometry and texture of
pavement surface should help in draining out the water from the surface in a
short time.
2.2.5 Camber
Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise the middle of the road
surface in the transverse direction to drain off rain water from road surface.
The objectives of providing camber are:
(i) Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads
(ii) Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
(iii)Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety
Too steep a slope is undesirable for it will erode the pavement surface.
Camber is measured in 1 in n or n% (e.g. 1 in 50 or 2%) and the value

depend on the type of pavement surface.
2.3 Carriageway Width
Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width
of the traffic lane and number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the
width of the vehicle and the clearance. Side clearance improves operating
speed and safety. The maximum permissible width of a vehicle is 2.44 and
the desirable side clearance for single lane traffic is 0.68 m . This require
minimum of lane width of 3.75 m for a single-lane road. However, for a two-
lane road, the side clearance required is about 0.53 m , on both sides and
1.06 m in the center. Therefore, a two lane road require minimum of 3.5
meter for each lane.
2.4 Kerbs
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or
islands or footpaths. Different types of kerbs are:
1) Low or mountable kerb: This type of kerbs is provided to encourage the traffic
to remain in the through traffic lanes and also allow the driver to enter the
shoulder area with little difficulty. The height of this kerb is about 10 cm
above the pavement edge with a slope which allows the vehicle to drive over
easily. This is usually provided at medians and channelization schemes and
also helps in longitudinal drainage.

10cm

Carriageway

2) Semi-barrier type kerbs: When the pedestrian traffic is high, these kerbs are
provided. Their height is 15 cm above the pavement edge. This type of kerb
prevents encroachment of parking vehicles, but at acute emergency it is
1 1 possible to drive over this kerb with some difficulty

15 cm
Carriageway

3) Barrier type kerbs: They are designed to discourage vehicles from leaving the
pavement. They are provided when there is considerable amount of
pedestrian traffic. They are placed at a height of 20 cm above the pavement
edge with a steep batter.

1

4
20 cm
Carriageway

4) Submerged kerbs: They are used in rural roads. The kerbs are provided at
pavement edges between the pavement edge and shoulders. They provide
lateral confinement and stability to the pavement.

Shoulder Carriageway

2.5 Road Margins
The portion of the road beyond the carriageway and on the roadway can be
generally called road margin. Various elements that form the road margins
are given below.
1 Shoulders
Shoulders are provided along the road edge and are intended for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, serve as an emergency lane for vehicles
and provide lateral support for base and surface courses. The shoulder should
be strong enough to bear the weight of a fully loaded truck even in wet
conditions. The shoulder width should be adequate for giving working space
around a stopped vehicle. Recommended slopes for shoulders are 2%-6% for
bituminous and concrete surfaces, 4%-6% for gravel and 8% for turf surfaces.
2 Parking Lanes
Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is
preferred because it is safe for the vehicles moving in the road. The parking
lane should have a minimum of 3.0 m width in the case of parallel parking.
3 Bus Bays
Bus bays are provided by recessing the kerbs for bus stops. They are
provided so that they do not obstruct the movement of vehicles in the
carriage way. They should be at least 75 m away from the intersection so
that the traffic near the intersections is not affected by the bus-bay.
4 Service Roads
Service roads or frontage roads give access to access controlled highways

like freeways and expressways. They run parallel to the highway and will be
usually isolated by a separator and access to the highway will be provided
only at selected points. These roads are provided to avoid congestion in the
expressways and also the speed of the traffic in those lanes is not reduced.
5 Cycle Tracks
Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is
high. Minimum width of 2m is required, which may be increased by 1m
for every additional track.

6 Footpaths
Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas.

They are provided for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian
traffic and vehicular traffic is high. Minimum width is 1.5 m and may be
increased based on the traffic. The footpath should be either as smooth as
the pavement or even smoother to induce the pedestrian to use the footpath.
7 Guardrails
They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an
embankment. They serve to prevent the vehicles from running off the
embankment, especially when the height of the fill exceeds 2.4 m or slopes
steeper than 1 in 4. Various designs of guard rails are there. Guard stones
painted in alternate black and white are usually used. They also give better
visibility of curves at night under headlights of vehicles. Guardrails should be
set at least 0.6 m outside the shoulders edge.
8 Width of Formation
Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements

or carriage way including separators and shoulders. This does not include the
extra land in formation/cutting.
9 Side Slopes and Drainage Channels
To promote safety, appearance and economy in maintenance, the use of

reasonably flat side slopes, broad drainage channels and extensive rounding
of the cross-section slope lines is recommended.
10 Right of Way
Right of way (ROW) or Land Width is the width of land acquired for the road,
along its alignment. It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-
sectional elements of the highway and may reasonably provide for future
development. To prevent ribbon development along highways, control lines
and building lines may be provided. A control line is a line which represents
the nearest limits of future uncontrolled building activity in relation to a road.
Building line represents a line on either side of the road; between which and
the road no building activity is permitted at all. The right of way width is
governed by:
(i) Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of
roadway and road margins.
(ii) Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography
and the vertical alignment.
(iii)Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope,
soil type etc.
(iv) Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography
etc.
(v) Sight distance considerations: On curves etc. there is restriction to the
visibility on the inner side of the curve due to the presence of some
obstructions like building, structures etc.
(vi) Reserve land for future widening: Some land has to be acquired in
advance anticipating future developments like widening of the road.
[Refer to RDM Pt1 section 2.4 pg 2.5 for recommended road reserves]
CHAPTER 3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

3.1 Overview
Horizontal alignment is one of the most important features influencing the

efficiency and safety of a highway. A poor design will result in lower speeds
and resultant reduction in highway performance in terms of safety and
comfort. In addition, it may increase the cost of vehicle operations and lower
the highway capacity. Horizontal alignment design involves the
understanding of design aspects such as design speed and the effect of
horizontal curve on the vehicles. The horizontal curve design elements
include design of super elevation, extra widening at horizontal curves, design
of transition curve, and set back distance. Based upon the selected design
speed and the allowable superelevation rate, the minimum radius of
curvature or corresponding maximum degree of curvature, may be specified.
Typically, establishment of minimum radius (or degree of curve) is a basic
step required before a realistic route selection can be made. In addition to
minimum radius, other features of the horizontal alignment that must be
considered include:
[1] Transition curves for superelevation. These should be included in accordance
with the selected pavement rotation methods, the length of run-off,
pavement edge slopes and adherence to accepted practice of the appropriate
jurisdiction concerning smoothening of edge profiles
[2] Pavement widening on curves. Pavement widening may not be necessary if
the lower design speeds are combined with low degrees of curvature
[3] Sight distances on horizontal curves. Sight distances must be adequate for
the design speed and location obstructions. In fitting the alignment to the
terrain, a variety of curves and different lengths of tangent will be
appropriate.
The following guidelines apply for the length of straights.
a) Straights should not have lengths greater than (

20 V d metres , where
V d is the design speed in Km/h.
b) Straights between circular curves following the same direction should have
lengths greater than (

6 V d metres , where V d is the design speed in
Km/h.
3.2 Sight Distances
The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends very much
on the visibility of the road ahead of the driver. Thus the geometric design of
the road should be done such that any obstruction on the road length should
be visible to the driver from some distance ahead. This distance is called the
sight distance. Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance
along the road surface, over which a driver from a specified height above the
carriageway has visibility of stationary or moving objects. Three sight
distance situations are considered for design: Stopping sight distance (SSD)
or the absolute minimum sight distance, Intermediate sight distance (ISD)
defined as twice SSD, Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking
operation, Head light sight distance (HSD) defined as the distance visible to a
driver during night driving under the illumination of head light, Intersection
Sight Distance (ISD) defined as the safe distance to enter an intersection. The
most important consideration in all these is that at all times the driver
traveling at the design speed of the highway must have sufficient
carriageway distance within his line of vision to allow him to stop his vehicle
before colliding with a slowly moving or stationary object appearing suddenly
in his own traffic lane. The computation of sight distance depends on the
following factors:
a) Reaction time of the driver
Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant the object is
visible to the driver to the instant when the brakes are applied. The total
reaction time may be split up into four components. In practice, all these
times are usually combined into a total perception- reaction time suitable for
design purposes as well as for easy measurement. Many of the studies show
that drivers require about 1.5 to 2 secs under normal conditions. However
taking into consideration the variability of driver characteristics, a higher
value is normally used in design.
b) Speed of the vehicle
The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. The higher the
speed, the more the time required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident
that, as the speed increases, sight distance also increases.
c) Efficiency of brakes
The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle
characteristics etc. If the brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the
moment the brakes are applied. But practically, it is not possible to achieve
100% brake efficiency. Therefore it could be understood that sight distance
required will be more when the efficiency of brakes is less. Also for safe
geometric design, we assume that the vehicles have only 50% brake
efficiency.
d) Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road.
The frictional resistance between the tyre and road plays an important role in
bringing the vehicle to a stop. When the frictional resistance is more, the
vehicles stop immediately thus sight distance required will be less. No
separate provision for brake efficiency is provided while computing the sight
distance. This is taken into account along with the factor of longitudinal
friction.
e) Gradient of the road.
Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a
gradient, the vehicle can stop immediately; therefore, the sight distance
required is less. While descending a gradient, gravity also comes into action
and more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Sight distance required
will be more in that case.
1 Decision Sight Distance

This refers to the sight distance needed for a driver to (1) detect an
unexpected or difficult to perceive condition in a roadway environment (2)
recognize the threat condition, (3) select an appropriate speed and path, and
(4) initiate and complete the manoeuvre safely and efficiently.
2 Stopping Sight Distance
SSD is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot having
sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design
speed, safely without collision with any other obstruction. Safe stopping
distance is one of the important measures in traffic engineering. It is the
distance a vehicle travels from the point at which a situation is first perceived
to the time the deceleration is complete. Drivers must have adequate time if
they are to suddenly respond to a situation. Thus in a highway design, a sight
distance at least equal to the safe stopping distance should be provided. The
stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance and the braking distance.
Lag distance is the distance the vehicle traveled during the reaction time t
and is given by vt , where v is the velocity in m/s . Tests indicate that
the average driver brake-reaction time is about 0.5 seconds. In order to

provide a safety factor for drivers whose reaction times are above average, a
time of 0.75 seconds is often suggested as appropriate for design purposes. A
perception-reaction time of 2.5 seconds has been proposed as being
desirable for rural roads design while a value of 1.5 seconds is proposed for
use in urban areas. The perception-reaction distance (m) is therefore equal to
= vt = 0.278 V t , where; v is the initial speed (m/s) and V is the
initial speed (km/h) and t is the perception-reaction time.
Braking distance is the distance traveled by the vehicle during braking

operation. For a level road, this is obtained by equating the work done in
stopping the vehicle and the kinetic energy of the vehicle. If
fr is the
maximum frictional force developed and the braking distance is l , then
work done against friction in stopping the vehicle is

f r l=mgl . The kinetic
energy at the design speed is

2
1 2

mv = 1 W v
2 2 g
1 W v2
Wl=
2 g
v2 V2
l= =
2 g 254
The SSD = lag distance + braking distance and is given by:

2
v
SSD=vt +
2 g
Where; v is the design speed in m/s, V is the initial speed in Km/h, t is

2
the reaction time in sec, g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s )
and is the coefficient of friction. When there is an ascending gradient of

say +n%, the component of gravity adds to braking action and hence braking
distance is decreased. The component of gravity acting parallel to the surface
Wn
which adds to the braking force is equal. W sin = tan =
100 . Equating
kinetic energy and work done:

2
Wn 1Wv
( W +
100
l= )
2 g
v2
l=
n
2 g(+ )
100
Similarly the braking distance can be derived for a descending gradient.

Therefore the general equation is given by:
v2
SSD=vt +
2 g( 0.01 n)
It is always assumed that the drivers eye is at 1.05m above the ground while
the object is 0.6m above the ground. Considering the later modification of the
equations, we can rewrite the stopping sight distance on a level ground as:
V2
SSD =0.278 Vt +
254
3 Overtaking Sight Distance
The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of
the driver of a vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely
against the traffic in the opposite direction of a 2-lane highway. The
overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is measured along the
center line of the road over which a driver with his eye level 1.2m above the
road surface can see the top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface. The
factors that affect the OSD are:
(i) Velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and of the vehicle
coming in the opposite direction.
(ii) Spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends on the speed
(iii)Skill and reaction time of the driver
(iv) Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
(v) Gradient of the road
The OSD has four components as depicted in the figure below.
d1
represents the perception-reaction time taken or the distance travelled by a
vehicle while its driver decides whether or not it is safe to overtake.

d2 is
the overtaking time or the distance travelled by the overtaking vehicle in
carrying out the actual passing manoeuvre.

d4 is the closing time taken or
d
the distance travelled by the opposing vehicle during time ( 1+d 2) .
d3

is the safety time or distance between the overtaking vehicle and the
opposing vehicle at the instance the overtaking vehicle returns to its lane.
The following assumptions apply:

The overtaking driver commences the manoeuvre two design speed steps
below the design speed of the road section while the opposing vehicle is
travelling at the design speed.
85% of the manoeuvres take less than 10 seconds
The safety distance d 3=0.2 d 4
There is an envelope of clear visibility in both the horizontal and vertical

planes between points 1.05m and 2.05m above the carriageway over the full
overtaking sight distance.
The passing sight distance is the distance required to make a decision, react,
pass and rejoin the traffic stream.
ati
(
d 1=1.47 t i+ vm
2 )
Where;
ti = time of initial manoeuvre (sec)

m
a = Average acceleration ( s 2 )
v = average speed of the passing vehicle (m/s)
m = difference in speed of passed and passing vehicle (m/s)
The assumption is that m = 10 mph. (16 km/h)
d i= is the initial manoeuvre (includes the distance covered as the driver of
the passing vehicle checks the downstream clearance distance and begins
accelerating to overtake the vehicle to be passed. The second distance
component is that which is while the passing vehicle occupies the lane of the
oncoming traffic.
d 2=1.47 v t 2
Where;
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies the right hand side lane (sec)
v = Average speed of the passing vehicle.
The third component accounts for the distance covered heading towards the
2
passing vehicle in the opposing lane. This is assumed to be 3
d 2 . The fourth
distance component is safety separation distance between the passing and

the opposing vehicles. Overtaking zones are provided when OSD cannot be
provided throughout the length of the highway. These are zones dedicated for
overtaking operation, marked with wide roads. The desirable length of
overtaking zones is 5 times OSD and the minimum is three times OSD.
4 Intersection Sight Distance
At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be provided

for the drivers approaching the intersection from either side. They should be
able to perceive a hazard and stop the vehicle if required. Stopping sight
distance for each road can be computed from the design speed. The sight
distance should be provided such that the drivers on either side should be
able to see each other. Design of sight distance at intersections may be used
on three possible conditions:
(i) Enabling approaching vehicle to change the speed
(ii) Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
(iii)Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road
This value is critical in determining where driveways or other access points
should be located, or what traffic control devices are necessary to ensure that
adequate ISD is provided.
ISD=1.47 v major t g
Where;
v major = Design speed (km/hr) posted speed limit + 10 mph (16 Km/h);
tg
= time gap for the major road. This is = 7.5 for passenger car, 9.5 for single
unit truck, 11.5 for combination truck.
2 Centrifugal forces on curves
3.2.1 Friction concepts
To help us better understand pavement tyre interaction on a highway, we will

revisit friction concepts covered in one of the foundation modules The Basics
of Mechanics. Lets consider a block lying on a level surface. Static friction is
the force that keeps this block from sliding towards any direction. The
maximum static friction coefficient between the tyre and the roads surface is
usually taken as 0.8
If the surface is raised in steps, the block will, at some angle slide down the
incline. If the block slows to a stop, then friction would have overcome
gravity. You will need to repeat the same till you get an angle at which the
block moves down the incline at a constant speed. The tangent of that angle
is a measure of the coefficient of kinetic friction.

f k =k N . Where; f k is
the kinetic frictional force,

k , is the coefficient of kinetic friction and N ,
is the normal force equivalent to the weight of the block, m is he mass of

the block in Kg
N x
cos = N=Mg cos . Similarly, sin =
Mg , therefore, Mg therefore,
x=Mg sin . In this case, x is the horizontal component of N . Friction in
the above discussion is measured along the longitudinal direction. For design
of road curves, well need to know the value of friction in the lateral direction
since this is the direction that directly impacts skidding and overturning. The
value of co-efficient of lateral friction is a function of speed of the vehicle, the
type and condition of the road surface, the condition of the tyres, the weather
conditions at the time of contact between tyre and the road, the temperature
of the road, etc. Tests indicate that the co-efficient of lateral friction is as low
as 0.2 when the pavement is covered with mud. Allowing a factor of safety of
1
1
3 , the safe value of friction for design of curves is taken as 0.15 (
3/ 4 0.2 . The friction co-efficient has been called lateral ratio, cornering
ratio, unbalanced centrifugal ratio, friction factor, and side friction factor.
The design of horizontal curves must allow a driver to maintain control of a
vehicle within a lane of travel, at a desired rate of speed, while permitting
him/her to see an adequate distance ahead such that he/she would be able to
take evasive action (stop, change lanes, e.t.c.) if a hazard is present in his
path. To accomplish these objectives, two criteria have been developed:
Minimum radius curve design and lateral sight distance within a curve. A
horizontal curve is not required for radii of deflection angle of 0.25 or less.
The minimum length of horizontal curve on primary roads should be 3 times
the design speed in Km/h. On high speed controlled access would be 6 times
the desired speed in Km/h.
3.2.2 Forces on a vehicle taking a horizontal curve
A moving object will continue moving in a straight line at constant velocity

unless acted upon by a force. If the force acts in the same direction as the
motion, then the object will accelerate or decelerate; if the force acts
perpendicular to the line of motion, then the object will change direction. In
order to turn a vehicle round a curve, it is therefore necessary to apply a
sideways force this is done by turning the front wheels. There are two
important considerations when designing roads (and railways):
Comfort of occupants: When the vehicle moves round the curve, the
occupants feel the sideways force because their bodies wish to continue
moving in a straight line. If this force is too great (curve radius too tight) or it
is applied too rapidly (moving from a straight to a sharp circular curve) then
the occupants will feel discomfort.
Safety of vehicle: The sideways force is transmitted to the vehicle via the
tyres at road surface level. If the force is too great for the grip of the tyres,
skidding may occur. If the centre of gravity of the vehicle is high, then
overturning may occur.
When a vehicle travels around a curve of constant radius at constant speed,

it exerts radially an outward force known as Centrifugal force. This
Centrifugal force ( P ) is dependent on the speed of the vehicle as well as
2
Wv
the radius of curvature of the road and can be represented by , P= gR It
acts horizontally at the centre of gravity of the vehicle and its load. This
formula is generated from the more familiar force equation, F=m. a , in this
v2
case, a is represented by R , which is the centrifugal acceleration of
Circular curve
Vehicle
W
the vehicle. The forces acting on the vehicle are the centrifugal force acting
radially outwards, the weight of the vehicle acting vertically downwards, and
the upward reaction of the road on the vehicle. For equilibrium, the
Radius R
centrifugal force must be counteracted either by lateral friction developed
between the tyre and the road surface alone, by the inward tilt of the road
surface known as superelevation alone or partially by friction and partially
by superelevation while the weight of the vehicle is balanced by the reaction
of the road on the vehicle. For proper design of the curve, an understanding
of the forces acting on a vehicle taking a horizontal curve is necessary.
Various forces acting on the vehicle are illustrated in Figure 3.3.2 below.
Centrifugal force P
P
They are the centrifugal force ) acting outward, weight of the vehicle (
W ) acting downward, and the reaction of the ground on the wheels ( Ra
and Rb ). The centrifugal force and the weight are assumed to be from the
centre of gravity which is at h units above the ground. Let the lateral width
between the wheels be assumed as b units and the height of the centre of
mass above the carriageway be h . The centrifugal force P in

2
Kg/m ( N ) is given by
W v2
P=
gR
Where W is the weight of the vehicle in kg , v is the speed of the
vehicle in m/ s , g is the acceleration due to gravity in m/s 2 and R is
the radius of the curve in m . The centrifugal ratio or the impact factor
P
W is given by:
P v2
=
W gR
Velocity V
The centrifugal force has two effects: A tendency to overturn the vehicle
about the outer wheels and a tendency for transverse skidding. The
overturning moment is about the points of contact between the outer wheels
of the vehicles and the carriageway surface. Taking moments of the forces
with respect to the other when the vehicle is just about to override, we get:
b P b
Ph=W =
2 W 2h
At the equilibrium overturning is possible when

2
b v
A
B
=
b/2 2 h gR
P
For safety, the following condition must be satisfied:
Ra Rb
b v2
Fig 3.3.2:
Effects
> of Horizontal Curve Eqn 3.3.2 (a)
2 h gR
The second tendency

CoG
of the vehicle is for transverse skidding, i.e. when the
centrifugal force P is greater than the maximum possible transverse skid
W
resistance due to friction between the pavement surface and tyre. The
transverse skid resistance ( F ) is given by:
F=F A + F B W/2
R
F=r ( A+ R B )
W/2
F=r W
Where
FA and
FB are the frictional forces at tyre A and B,
R A and
RB are the reactions at tyre A and B,

r
is the lateral coefficient of
friction and W is the weight of the vehicle. This is counteracted by the
centrifugal force ( P ), and equating:

P
P=r W =r
W
At equilibrium, when skidding takes place

P v2
= =r
W gR
And for safety, the following condition must be satisfied:

v2
r > Eqn 3.3.2 (b)
gR
v2 P=r N =Mgr , Where

But, gR =r i.e., N is reaction is in Newtons
2
Mv
and r is the developed lateral coefficient of friction. P= =Mg r ,
R
2
P P v
hence, Mg = W = gR =r . This equation illustrates, for instance, that if
r=0.5 , then the height to the centre of mass must be greater than the
lateral distance between the wheels for overturning to takes place. Equations
3.3.2 (a) and 3.3.2 (b) give the stable condition for design. If equation 3.3.2
(a) is violated, the vehicle will overturn at the horizontal curve and if equation
3.3.2 (b) is violated, the vehicle will skid at the horizontal curve.
NB
When the velocity v (m/s) is expressed as V (Km/h) and g is taken as

9.81 (m/s2), then P Cos P Sin
P
v2 V2
r= =
gR 127 R FA
W Cos
1 Effects of superelevation
FB
In actual practice, the lanes at tangent sections of road are designed with a
crowned cross-slope. If W Sin
Wthe road is laterally level, friction alone would have to
counteract the centrifugal force and if friction developed is not sufficient, the
vehicle will skid outwards. To prevent skidding, the surface of the road is
given an inward tilt which is known as superelevation, camber, cant
(railways) or banking (motor racing). When a road is superelevated, the
component of the weight of the vehicle along the surface aids friction in
counteracting the centrifugal force.
1
e
Fig
Where;
V ; Speed (Km/h)
e ; Super elevation
m , mass of the vehicle (kg)
R , radius of the curve (m)
P , the centrifugal force acting horizontally out-wards through the center

of gravity,
W , the weight of the vehicle acting down-wards through the center of
gravity, and
F , the friction force between the wheels and the pavement, along the
surface inwards.
g ; Acceleration due to gravity(m/s2)
v ; Speed (m/sec)
At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of the pavement

we get,
P cos =W sin + F A + F B
W sin +r (R A + R B )
W sin +r (W cos + P sin )
W the weight of the vehicle, P r

Where is the centrifugal force, is
the coefficient of friction, is the transverse slope due to superelevation.
Dividing by W cos , we get:
P cos /W cos =W sin /W cos +r (W cos + P sin )/W cos
P P
=tan +r + r tan
W W
(1r tan )=tan +r

W
P tan +r
=
W (1r tan )
2
P v
But =
W gR , therefore
v
2
tan +r

= Eqn 3.3.3 (a)
gR ( 1r tan )
r
This is an exact expression for superelevation. But normally, = 0.15
(120 Km/h) to 0.33 (30 Km/h) and < 4 ,

1r tan 1 and for small ,
E e
tan sin = =tan =e , then equation 3.3.3 (a) becomes:
B 1
v2
=e+r Eqn 3.3.3 (b)
gR
This indicates that the centrifugal force is partly resisted by the

superelevation and partly by the lateral friction. From our previous
v2 V2 V2
derivations, we know =
that, gR 127 R therefore, 127 R =e+r .Three
specific cases that can arise from equation 3.3.3 (b) are as follows:
1. If there is no friction due to some practical reasons, then
r=0 and
v2
equation 3.3.3 (b) becomes =e .This results in the situation where the
gR
pressure on the outer and inner wheels are same; requiring very high super-
elevation e.
2. If there is no super-elevation provided due to some practical reasons, then
v2
e=0 and equation 3.3.3 (b) becomes =r . This results in a very high
gR
coefficient of friction.
3. If e=0 and r=0.15 then, safe traveling speed from equation 3.3.3 (b) is
given by v b = f r gR where
vb is the restricted speed.
In order to minimize danger of sliding, the superelevation must never be

greater than the minimum lateral coefficient of friction that can be developed
between the tyre and the carriageway surface under the design weather
conditions. Investigations have revealed that the main factor controlling
vehicle speed on a curve is the feeling of discomfort felt by the motorists
while the vehicle is negotiating the curve at a given speed. This sensation of
v2
the driver is related to the centrifugal ratio, gR which, in turn, is related to
the sliding resistance required to carry out the manoeuvres. A value of 0.15 is
a safe basis for curve design as it will eliminate most feelings of unease. This
lateral ratio is equivalent to the lateral coefficient of friction of 0.15. The
average speed tacitly accepted for normal usage is 67% of the road design
speed; in practice, this means that the self-steering equation becomes:
(0.67 V )2 V2 r=0
=e=
127 R 283 R , if
When e is expressed as a percentage, as is usually the case, the formula

becomes the familiar:
0.353 V 2
e ()= ,
R
Generally, the superelevation should never exceed 7%, with 5% being the
maximum in urban areas.
3 Simple curve design
A circular curve joining two road tangents can be described by either its
radius or by its degree of curvature. The degree of a curve is taken as the
central angle which subtends a 100 m arc of curve.
Where;
Back tangent
= External angle
Forward tangent
PI = Point of Intersection
T
PC = Point of Curvature
PT = Point of Tangency
Lcurve = Length of curve
Lcord = Length of cord
E = External distance
R
M = Middle ordinate
O
T = Tangent length
a) Length of tangent (T). tan ( / 2 )=T / R , therefore, T =R tan ( /2 )
( / 2 )1
sec
b) External distance (E).
R
cos ( /2 )= , E=R [ 1/cos ( /2 )1 ]=R
R+ E
c) Middle ordinate. This is the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the
RM
mid-point of the chord.
cos ( /2 )= , M =RR cos ( /2 )=R (1cos ( /2 ) )
R
Lcord /2
d) Length of the chord. sin ( /2 )= , Lcord =2 R sin ( /2 )
R
R 100
e) Length of curve.
2 R = degrees . rads since 360 =400 rads
360 180 2R
5727.3 50
R=
f) Degree of curvature R and sin ( /2 ) , since
Lcord =100=2 R sin ( /2 )

A B
1 Sight distances at horizontal curves

R-M C

R R
M

O
Fig: 3.4.1(a): Sight distance at horizontal curve

In the figure above, the drivers eye and the dangerous objects are assumed
to be at the centre of the near-side lane. The figure illustrates a situation
where the required sight distance is wholly within the length of the curved
section and ACB is equal to the required sight distance S. The minimum offset
distance M from the centre line to the obstruction can be estimated most
simply by considering the track of the vehicle to be along the chords AC and
CB rather than along the arc. By geometry:
R2=x 2 +( RM )2 , And, x 2=( S /2)2M 2 , therefore,

A B
R2=(S /2)2 M 2 + R2 2 RM + M 2 , thus:
E
S2
M= M
8R
R R
R-M

Figure Fig 3.4.1 (b), illustrates a situation where the required sight distance is
greater than the available length of curve. Thus the sight distance overlaps
the highway curve onto the tangents for a distance l on either side. If the
length of the curve is equal to L and the stopping sight distance is equal to
S , then:
(SL)
S=L+2 l , therefore; l= . By geometry;
2
(S / 2)2=x 2+ M 2 ;
x 2=d 2( RM )2
d 2=((SL)/2)2+ R 2
Simplifying these yield
L

M= ( 2 SL )
8R
It should be noted that, when S=L , the above equation reduces to
S2
M=
8R
2 Extra Curve Widening
Extra widening refers to the additional width of carriageway that is required

on a curved section of a road over and above that required on a straight
alignment. This widening is done due to two reasons: First and foremost is
due to the additional width required for a vehicle taking a horizontal curve
and the second is due to the tendency of the drivers to ply away from the
edge of the carriageway as they drive on a curve. The first is referred as the
mechanical widening and the second is called the psychological widening.
Most heavy goods vehicles are steered by their front wheels, or, in the case
of an articulated trailer, by the hinge point, while the rear wheels are fixed in
the straight-ahead position. Generally, the front wheels describe an arc of a
bigger radius than the hind wheels.
The difference between the arcs of the front and hind wheels on the same
side of the vehicle is defined as the cut-in. The clearance cut-out is
determined by the amount of overhang forward of the front wheels or, in the
case of trailers, the hinge-point. It is the difference between the radii of turn
of the outer front wheel and the foremost outer corner of the vehicle. Vehicle
width plus cut-in plus cut-out gives the total theoretical minimum turning
width required by a vehicle for a given curve/corner radius and angle of turn.
In determining actual widths required in addition to cut-out, however,
allowance has to be made for body side overhang and driver tolerance, as
well as for the additional tyre slip which is likely to occur at high speeds and
on wet surfaces.
3.2.3 Mechanical widening

The reasons for the mechanical widening are:
(i) When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve, the rear wheels follow a path of
shorter radius than the front wheels. This phenomenon is called off-tracking,
and has the effect of increasing the effective width of a road space required
by the vehicle. Therefore, to provide the same clearance between vehicles
traveling in opposite direction on curved roads as is provided on straight
sections, there must be extra width of carriageway available. This is an
important factor when high proportions of vehicles are using the road. Trailer
trucks also need extra carriageway, depending on the type of joint. In
addition, speeds higher than the design speed cause transverse skidding
which requires additional width for safety purpose. The expression for extra
width can be derived from the simple geometry of a vehicle at a horizontal
curve as shown in figure 3.5.1 below. Let

R1 be the radius of the outer
track line of the rear wheel,

R2 be the radius of the outer track line of the
front wheel l is the distance between the front and rear wheel, n is the
number of lanes, then the mechanical widening

W m is derived below:

R2

R1

Wm

Figure 3.5.1: Extra
Widening at a horizontal curve

R22=R12 +l 2
2 2 2
R2 =(R 2W m ) +l
2 2 2 2
R2 =R2 2 R2 W m +W m +l
2 R 2 W m W m2 =l 2
2 R 2 W m W m2 =l 2
l2
W m=
2 R2W m
If the road has n lanes, the extra widening should be provided on each
lane. Therefore, the extra widening of a road with n lanes is given by:
n l2
W m=
2 R2W m
For large radius of curvature,

R2 R , which is the mean radius of curve, and
2 R 2W m 2 R 2 Therefore Wm is given by:
n l2
W m=
2R
3.2.4 Psychological widening

Widening of pavements has to be done for some psychological reasons also.
There is a tendency for the drivers to drive close to the edges of the
pavement on curves. Some extra space is to be provided for more clearance
for the crossing and overtaking operations on curves. An empirical relation for
the psychological widening at horizontal curves is given below:
v
W ps =
2.64 R
Therefore, the total widening needed at a horizontal curve

W e is:
W e =W m+W ps
2
nl v
W e= +
2 R 2.64 R
3.3 Transition curves
Transition curves, as their name suggests, are designed to allow for a smooth
transition from a straight section to a (circular) curve or vice versa in a
horizontal highway or railway alignment. They further allow for gradual
introduction of super-elevation (also known as banking on a racing circuit
and cant on a rail track) at a horizontal circular curve. Setting out of
transition curves is done using the same techniques as for circular curves
(theodolite and tape or EDM/co-ordinates) and the purpose of these notes is
to introduce the calculations required to produce the necessary setting out
data.
A transition curve differs from a circular curve in that its radius is always
changing. The radius of the curve changes gradually from infinity to a
particular value R . The effect of this is to gradually increase the radial
centrifugal for P from zero to its maximum value, thereby reducing its
effect. To introduce P uniformly along the length of the transition curve,

P must also be proportional to the length of the transition curve l. As
one would expect, such curves involve more complex formulae than the
curves with constant radii and their design is more complex. Because circular
curves are easier to design compared to transition curves and they are easily
set out on site, the question that naturally arises is why transitions are
necessary and why is it not possible to use circular curves to join all
intersecting straights?. The reasons are enumerated hereunder.
1. To make it possible to pass from one curve to another, from a curve to a
straight or a straight to a curve with constantly decreasing centrifugal
acceleration. Such an alignment will also follow the natural path of a vehicle
when changing its direction of travel.
2. To provide a smooth aesthetic alignment that blends well with the terrain. An
alignment which blends with the terrain will usually involve minimum
earthworks and, hence, represents an economical option.
3. To accommodate superelevation run-off. Except in flat or open country,
transition curves are not required for horizontal curves with radii greater than
200m.
4. To minimize the intrusion of vehicles onto the wrong lanes and to encourage
uniformity in speeds.
5. To enable the driver turn the steering wheel gradually for his own comfort
and safety. Sudden entry from a straight into a circular curve may result in
acceleration shock to the passengers.
6. To facilitate widening at horizontal curves
There are various types of transition curves that are used to form the
transitional section of a composite or wholly transitional curve. Among these
are: the Clothoid (spiral), the Lemniscate and the Cubic Parabola. Of these,
the clothoid (spiral or ideal transitions), is the most commonly used, although
all yield almost similar results. The spiral is preferred due to its ease of
setting it out in the field.
Fig: 3.6.0: A Basic Composite Curve
The three major factors governing transition curve design are the radius of
the circular curve, R the external angle and the length of the
transition
LT . Of these, the radius of curvature and the external angle are
usually selected on the basis of factors affecting safety and comfort of

motorists. The length of the transition curve should be determined as the
maximum of the following two criteria:
(i) Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration,
(ii) Rate of change of superelevation,
3.3.1 Rate of Change of centrifugal acceleration

As a vehicle passes along the transition, its centrifugal acceleration changes
2
v
from zero at tangent-spiral intersection, T to at the junction of the
R
spiral and circular curve,

T1 .

Fig 3.6.1: Rate of Change of Radial Acceleration
The transition length

LT over which this takes change takes place is equal
to the vehicle velocity multiplied by the travel time, thus the time taken to
LT (m)
traverse the stretch is given by, t( s)
v (m/s ) . If the rate of gain of radial
acceleration is denoted by C , then;
v2
C=
v2
Rc
0
=
Rc
=
( )v3
t R c LT
LT
v ( )
3 3 3
v V V

LT = = 3 =
1
CR c 3.6 CR c 46.7 CR c
Where C = the rate of change of radial acceleration ( m/s 3 ) , v = design
speed (m/s) , V = design speed ( K m/h) , Rc = radius of circular curve
(m) , and LT = transition length (m) . A value of 0.3 for C is

recommended for curve design for comfort of the vehicle occupants. For
R
aesthetic reasons, a minimum transition length of
L =
T (min)
9 , is used in
transition curve design.

Fig 3.6.2: Rate of Introduction of Superelevation
3.3.2 Rate of introduction of super-elevation
S.E = Superelevation (usually slopes between 2.5% to 7%)

mg
tan =
mv 2
R
R bgR S. E
S . E=b . mg. = 2 ; S. E = 100
mv 2
v b

LT =S . E Slope(n)
2
1: n = 1: 200 (usual for free-ways)
LT LT
The greater of 1 and 2 is used for design.
1
For a transition curve, P and P l . Combining these two
r
1
requirements:
l rl=K , where K
r , thus, is a constant. The equation
rl=K must apply for a transition curve i.e. the radius must reduce in
proportion to the length. This is the property of a spiral and one curve which
has this property is the clothoid. Another common curve derived from the
clothoid is the cubic parabola which is not a spiral i.e. rl is not always
constant however; it can be used over a certain range and is less complex
than the clothoid.

X Entry tangent
Y T
3.3.3 The Clothoid

Tangent to circular curve

Fig 3.6.3: The Clothoid

The equation of the clothoid can be derived from the above diagram, which
shows two points close together (X and Y) on a transition curve of length
LT
Is the deviation angle between the tangent at X and the straight TI
is the tangential angle to X from T with reference to TI

y is the offset to M from the straight TI at a distance x from T
l is the length from point T to any point PI on the curve (not shown)
l is the length along the curve from X to Y
is the angle subtended by the arc XY of radius r
Derivation:
l=r (Chord length), rl=K is required and substituting 1/ r=(l/ K)
= ( Kl ) l . Integration gives + constant. But when l=0 , so constant = 0.
Therefore:
l2 l=LT , giving K =
r=R
2 K (In radians). At the end of a transition and
rl =
R LT . This gives:
l2

2 R LT (In radians). This is the basic equation of the clothoid or Euler
spiral. It is regarded as the ideal shape for the transition curve. If its
conditions are satisfied and the speed is constant, radial force will be
introduced uniformly.
1
The angle consumed by the transition curve, is:
LT
1 = (Radians) That is for
l=LT
2R
LT 180
(Degrees)
2R
The clothoid is regarded as the ideal shape for a transition curve, as it

satisfies our criteria for all values of . However, although it appears simple
to write down, it is not easy to translate into a form that can be used readily
for setting out in the field.
3.3.4 The Cubic Parabola
Fig 3.6.4: The Cubic Parabola
The cubic parabola is not a true spiral and cannot always be used. It
approximates very closely to a spiral; however, and can be used within a
certain range of deviations angle. In practice, it is much easier to set out a
cubic parabola than a clothoid and hence it is more commonly used where
appropriate. Transition curves are not themselves symmetrical one end has
a greater radius of curvature than the other, so they are not reversible! In
order to derive suitable equations relating chord length and deflection angle,
we must examine the shape of the transition curve. First, look at it in terms
of orthogonal co-ordinates, using the tangent as a reference axis:
Imagine a point some distance, l along the curve from the tangent point. It
will have co-ordinates X and Y as shown in figure above and the angle
between the tangent and the line joining T and X is . Direct calculation of
for specific values of l (i.e. chainages) requires the use of tables of
standard data, though such calculations would be made now by computer.

For hand calculation, a series expansion of the clothoid is available:
l5 l9 l 13
X =l + +
40 ( R LT )2 3456 ( R LT ) 4 599040 ( R LT ) 6
3 7 11
l l l
Y= +
6 R LT 336 ( R LT )3 42240 ( R LT ) 5
3 5 7
tan = + +
3 105 5997 198700
These are clearly impractical. However, for values of up to about 3, the

higher order terms can be neglected, resulting in simpler formulae from
which setting-out data can be readily calculated:
3
l =
Cubic Spiral: Y=
6 R LT 3
Alternatively, if we assume to be small (Note: in ordinary transition is

very small)
y y l2
= =
l x 2 R LT
l2
y= . l
2 R LT
l3
y=
6 R LT
This equation of a cubic spiral gives the offset distance (y) off the tangent line
for any distance ( l ) along the transition.
3
x =
Cubic Parabola: y=
6 R LT 3
If we assume is small and also xl

3 3
l x
y=
6 R LT 6 R LT
x3
Thus, y= . This is the equation for a Cubic Parabola. Now it is
6 R LT
possible to compute offset distances ( y ) off the tangent for distances ( x)

along the tangent. These are sufficiently accurate for most applications where
hand calculation is likely to be employed, and the following procedure is
based upon the cubic spiral, which is a better approximation to the clothoid.
3.3.5 Setting-Out Data for a Cubic Spiral

The equations in the above section allow us to calculate the deviation angle
(i.e. the angle set on the theodolite when it is set up at the tangent point)
directly. Note that, unlike the circular curve calculations, this is not
cumulative.

l2
Deviation angle = = = (radians)
3 6 R LT
2
180 l
i.e. = degrees
6 R LT
The tangent length of the composite curve (i.e. transition + circular +

transition) will be needed for setting out of the first tangent point, T 1 in the
figure below and for calculation of the chainages of setting the out points. It
is obtained by first considering the properties of an equivalent circular curve,
which has the same centre as the circular portion of the curve to be set out,
I larger radius. The relationship between the two curves is
but has a slightly
shown in the following diagram:
R
Q
T1
T1

T2
T2 S

O

Fig 3.6.5: Equivalent circle and shift for a composite curve.
It can be shown that the line OQ, from the centre of the circle to the tangent
point of the equivalent circle, bisects the transition curve T 1 T1 and that the
LT 2
shift, S, is S=
24 R
l2 LT 2 LT
We already know that T
and at 1 , 1 = =
2 RLT 2 RLT 2 R . Also, BM =
NT1 (maximum offset)

The shift S is thus computed as:
S=BP
BM PM
NT 1( POMO )
l3 LT 3
We know that y= , so that at NT1, the offset is , so that:
6 R LT 6 R LT
LT 3
S= ( RR cos 1 )
6 R LT
LT 3 12 14

6 R LT
{ RR 1 (
+
2! 4 !
+ } )
We know from power series that:
2 4
1 1 (1)n1 x 2 n1
cos1=1 + +=
2! 4 ! n=0 (2 n ) !
And
13 15
(1)n1 x 2 n1
sin1=1 + =
3! 5! n=1 (2 n1 ) !
We continue with our derivations.

LT 3 2 4
S=
6 R LT 2! 4! (
{RR 1 1 + 1 + } )
2
Ignoring powers higher than 1 , we get:
LT 3 R 12
S=
6 R LT 2
2
LT
We also know from our previous derivations that 1= 2 RL
T
LT 3 2 2
R LT
S= ( )
6 R LT 2 2 RLT
LT 2 L T 2
S=
6 R 8R
LT 2
S=
24 R
We now want to show that the line OQ, from the centre of the circle to the
tangent point of the equivalent circle, bisects the transition curve T 1 T1
Q1 T 1 PT 1
LT 2 LT
R1=R . =
2 RL T 2

Q1 is the mid-point of the transition curve.
R
Since the deviation of Q1 from the tangent is small,
LT
TQ 1=TB=
2
From theory of simple circular curves and the dimensions of the equivalent
circular curve, we can obtain its tangent length, distance IB as:

TI =(R+S)tan
I 2
TI =TB+BI
And, since length TB is half the length of the transition curve, we can write
LT
TI = +(R+ S) tan
2 2
This allows us to establish the chainage of the first tangent point T and hence
the distance from the tangent point to the chainage pegs along the transition
curve as well as the chainage of the tangent point to the circular curve, T 1.
Now you can set-out the cubic spiral with a Theodolite (), Chain ( l ) and
T1
tape ( y ); cubic parabola with a chain ( x ) and a tape ( y )
3.3.6 The circular portion of the T2

curve
The central circular arc can be set out in exactly the same way as a purely
circular curve, i.e. from the tangent point using theodolite and tape. The
difference in the case of a composite curve is that the tangents to the circular
arc are not the same as the entry and exit tangents for the composite curve
the intersection angle willT2be lessened and the point at which they intersect
will be closer to the curve than the point I, as shown in the diagram below.

-2

Fig 3.6.6 (a): Geometry of the circular portion of a composite curve.
It can be seen that the angle of the circular arc is

c =2
Hence the length of the circular arc is

R c
Lc =
180
T 2 and T2, to
This allows the chainages of the two remaining tangent points, T1
be calculated. After calculating the positions along the circular arc of the
chainage pegs, (cumulative) deflection angles for the entry and exit sub-
chords and the standard chord are calculated in the usual way:
28.648 Lchord
=
R
Note: Chord length in radians

Lchord =2 R , converting this to degrees yields:
180
Lchord =R 2 =2 R

28.648 Lchord
And =
R
The curve can now be set out by setting up the theodolite at T 1 and taping
between pegs. In order to do this, we must establish the orientation of the
tangent, since we can no longer sight onto the Intersection Point, I. This can
be done by looking at the geometry of the transition curve.
T1
Fig 3.6.6 (b): Transition Curve and Back Angle.

From the properties of the cubic spiral, we know that 3 and the back
2
angle can therefore be calculated as
Back angle=
3 . The theodolite can
therefore be oriented at T 1 by sighting back to T 1 and turning the alidade

through 180 + 2/3 (clockwise). The telescope will then be facing along the
tangent to the circular arc, ready to continue setting out. Note that, for a left-
hand curve, the alidade must be rotated through 180 - 2/3 (clockwise).
This is because all of the curve angles will have been reversed, but the
theodolite is still graduated in a clockwise direction.
3.3.7 The Exit Transition
The entire circular curve has now been set out, assuming that there have
been no obstructions, from one tangent point, usually the entry tangent point
T1. However, because the transition curve is not symmetrical, the formulae
used above to calculate deviation angle are only valid for angles from the
start of the transition, i.e. T 1 or T2. We must therefore move directly to T 2 to
set out the second transition curve. The position of T 2 can be found by linear
measurement along the exit straight from the intersection point, and checked
from T1 by measuring the angle between either straight and the line T 1-T2,
which should be equal to /2.
T1 /2 /2 T2

Fig 3.6.7: Checking the position of the two tangent points.
It is important to remember that chainage is still running from T 2 to T2, even

though we are calculating deviation angles from T 2 to T2 and, in all
probability, setting out from T2. Also worth checking in the field with the
theodolite set up at T2, before the transition is set out, is the position of T 2.
The formula used to calculate deviation angles in the second transition is
exactly the same as before, except that it will be of the opposite hand.
3.3.8 Setting Out Using the Coordinate methods
The two traditional methods of establishing the centre lines of composite and
wholly transitional curves have been described. Although these methods are
still in use, they have been virtually superseded for all major curves by
coordinate methods that use control networks. In such methods, which are
equally applicable to transition curves and circular curves, the coordinates of
points at regular intervals along the centre line are calculated with reference
to a site control network. The points are then pegged out on site either using
a total station set at points in the ground control network surrounding the
scheme, or, they can also be set out by using a GPS receiver.
In both cases the coordinates of points to be fixed on the centre line and the
coordinates of the control network being used must be based on the same
site coordinate system. Nowadays, the coordinate calculations involved are
usually done within computer software highway design packages and results
of such computations are normally presented in the form of computer
printouts ready for immediate setting out use on site. The calculations
required to produce this table are as follows:
The coordinates of the control points are found from the control survey data.
The horizontal alignment is designed and the coordinates of the intersection
and tangent points are calculated.
Assuming that the centre line is to be pegged at exact multiples of through
chainage, chord lengths and tangential angles are calculated for the entry
and exit transition curves and the central circular arc.
The coordinates of the points to be established on the centre line are
calculated using the chord lengths, tangential angles and the coordinates of
the intersection and tangent points.
Control points which are visible and which will give a good intersection to the
proposed centre line are found and the bearings/distances are calculated
from the control points to the centre line points.
3.3.9 Coordinate Methods Compared With Traditional Methods.
When compared with the traditional methods of setting out from the tangent
points, coordinate methods have a number of important advantages.
However, they are not always appropriate and some of the relative merits of
the two categories of technique are listed below.
Coordinate methods can be carried out by anyone who is capable of using
a total station or a GPS receiver. Since the data is in the form of either
bearings distances or coordinates, no knowledge of curve design is
necessary. This is not the case with traditional methods.
The increased use of highway design computer software packages in
which the setting out data is presented ready for use in coordinate form
has produced a corresponding increase in the adoption of such methods.
The widespread use of computers has also greatly sped up the calculation
procedures associated with coordinate methods, which were always
perceived to be more difficult to perform by hand when compared with
those associated with the traditional methods.
Coordinate methods enable key sections of the centre line, such as a
bridge centre line, to be set out in isolation in order that work can
progress in more than one area of the site.
Obstacles on the proposed centre line, which may be the subject of
disputes, can easily be by-passed using coordinate methods to allow work
to proceed while arbitration takes place. Once the obstacle is removed, it
is an easy process to establish the missing section of the centre line. This
is not usually possible with traditional methods.
Coordinate methods have the disadvantage that there is very little checks
on the final setting out. Large errors will be noticed when the centre line
does not take the designed shape, but small errors could pass unnoticed.
In the tangential angles method, checks are provided by locating common
tangent points from two different positions.
Although the widespread use of total stations and the increasing use of
GPS receivers on sites encourage the use of coordinate techniques, such
equipment may not always be available and it may be simpler to use
traditional methods that work along the centre line. This will particularly
be the case where minor curves are being set out, such as those used for
roads on housing estates, kerbs at roof intersections, short curves and
boundaries.
3.3.10Hazard on Horizontal Curves
Accidents on horizontal curves are a cause of concern in all countries,

whatever the level of development of their road system. Accidents on
horizontal curves tend to be of two main types: Running off and hitting on
object and lost control and rolled over. There can also be a significant number
of head-on and sideswipe at higher traffic volumes. The apparent cause of
these accidents is usually the driver entering the bend at too high speed; and
the reason for this can be because the driver was willfully travelling at a high
speed, was paying insufficient attention or because he misjudged the severity
of the bend. Such misjudgments can be caused by the bends visual
configuration, poor delineation or because it was unexpectedly sharp after a
series of gentle curves or after a long straight (tangent) section. Another
major problem can occur when drivers sometimes ignore the no-overtaking
enforcement.
When travelling around bends, the higher forces put on the road surface by
the side thrust of the tyre frequently cause the surface aggregates on bends
to polish more quickly than the rest of the road, thus aggravating the problem
of safety. There can also be underlying problems in the geometric design of
the curve because the basic assumptions are not applicable to the design
(e.g. a high proportion of drivers exceed the design speed). On gravel roads
in particular the loss of superelevation in the cross-sectional profile through
lack of maintenance may result in the effects of a horizontal curve being
more severe than as designated. What salutations should engineers put in
place to counter these?
(i) For all bends below the desirable minimum standards, warning signs
should be provided to give the driver an idea of how severe the bend is
(ii) The road alignment should be designed to provide a uniform road layout
traversable with clear forward visibility.
(iii)If head-on accidents are a problem, double yellow lines should be
enhanced with physical device appropriate to the road conditions, ranging
from line markings that induce vibrations to heavy duty road studs or
rubber posts.
(iv) Use high skid resistance materials on critical bends particularly in wet
environments
(v) Bends should be linked into the road network as simple curves without a
transition or spiral curves.
(vi) Curve widening should be applied to the inside of the curve.
CHAPTER 4 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

4.1 Overview
The vertical alignment of a road consists of gradients (straight lines in a

vertical plane) and vertical curves. The vertical alignment is usually drawn as
a profile, which is a graph with elevation as vertical axis and the horizontal
distance along the centre line of the road as the horizontal axis. Just as a
circular curve is used to connect horizontal straight stretches of road, vertical
curves connect two gradients. When these two curves meet, they form either
a convex or a concave. The former is called a summit curve, while the latter
is called a valley curve. Vertical curves are not required when the algebraic
difference in grades is less than 0.5 . Typically, grades of 5% are considered
the maximum for design speeds in the range of 100 Km/hr. For lower speeds
in the range of 35 to 50 Km /hr., maximum grades in the range of 7% to 12%
may be appropriate if the local terrain conditions are substantially rolling. In
general, the design speed increases as the maximum grades decrease. The
critical grade length is based on observed data on truck performance. Where
critical lengths of upgrade are substantially exceeded, consideration should
be given to providing climbing lanes, particularly where truck volumes are
high. This normally happens on hills with gradients greater than 2% over
lengths longer than 500m.The length of the vertical curve is based upon the
minimum stopping sight distances for specified design speeds and algebraic
differences between connecting grades. This section covers a discussion on
gradient and summit curves.

Fig: Types of Vertical curves (Courtesy AASHTO)
4.2 Gradient
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to
the horizontal. While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided while
designing the vertical curve. Before finalizing the gradients, the construction
cost, vehicular operation cost and the practical problems in the site have to
be considered. Steep gradients are usually avoided as far as possible because
of climbing difficulties and increase in the construction cost. The effect of
long steep gradient on the vehicular speed is considerable. This is particularly
important in roads where the proportion of heavy vehicles is significant. Due
to restrictive sight distance at uphill gradients, the speed of traffic is often
controlled by these heavy vehicles. As a result, not only are the operating
costs of the vehicles increased, but the capacities of the roads are reduced.
Due to high differential speeds between heavy and light vehicles in the uphill
and downhill gradients, accidents abound in gradients.
Positive gradient or the ascending gradient is denoted as +n and the
negative gradient is denoted as n . When two grades meet, the angle

which measures the change of direction is given by the algebraic difference
between the two grades (n1(n2 )) n1 +n2 = 1+ 2 . N in the figure
below in the deviation angle.
N
100
Fig 4.2: Representation of gradient

4.2.1 Types of gradient
Many studies have shown that gradient up to seven percent can have
considerable effect on the speeds of the passenger cars. On the contrary, the
speeds of the heavy vehicles are considerably reduced when long gradients
as low as two percent is adopted. Although, flatter gradients are desirable, it
is evident that the cost of construction will also be very high. Different types
of grades are discussed below.
Ruling gradient
The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the maximum gradient with
which the designer attempts to design the vertical profile of the road. This
depends on the terrain, length of the grade, speed, pulling power of the
vehicle and the presence of the horizontal curve. In flatter terrain, it may be
possible to provide flat gradients, but in hilly terrain it is not economical and
sometimes not possible. The ruling gradient is adopted by the designer by
considering a particular speed as the design speed and for a design vehicle
with standard dimensions.
Limiting gradient
This gradient is adopted when the ruling gradient results in enormous
increase in cost of construction. On rolling and hilly terrains, it may be
frequently necessary to adopt limiting gradient. But the length of the limiting
gradient stretches should be limited and must be sandwiched by either
straight roads or easier grades.
Exceptional gradient
Exceptional gradients are very steep gradients given at unavoidable
situations. They should be limited to short stretches not exceeding about 100
metres. In mountainous and steep terrains, successive exceptional gradients
must be separated by a minimum of 100 metre length of more gentle
gradients.
Critical length of the grade

The maximum length of the ascending gradient which a loaded truck can
operate without undue reduction in speed is called critical length of the
grade. A speed of 25 km/h is a reasonable value. This value depends on the
size, power, load, grade-ability of the truck, initial speed, final desirable
minimum speed etc.
Minimum gradient
This is important only at locations where surface drainage is important.
Camber will take care of the lateral drainage. But the longitudinal drainage
along the side drains requires some slope for smooth flow of water. Minimum
gradient is provided for drainage purpose and it depends on the rain fall, type
of soil and other site conditions. A minimum of 1 in 500 may be sufficient for
concrete drains and 1 in 200 for open soil drains.
4.2.2 Creeper/Climbing lane

When the uphill climb is extremely long, it may be desirable to introduce an
additional lane so as to allow slow ascending vehicles to be removed from the
main stream so that the fast moving vehicles are not affected. Such a newly
introduced lane is called creeper lane or climbing lane. There are no hard and
fast rules as to when to introduce a creeper lane. But generally, it can be said
that it is desirable to provide a creeper lane when the speed of the vehicle
gets reduced to half the design speed. When there is no restrictive sight
distance to reduce the speed of the approaching vehicle, the additional lane
may be initiated at some distance uphill from the beginning of the slope. But
when the restrictions are responsible for the lowering of speeds, obviously
the lane should be initiated at a point closer to the bottom of the hill. The
creeper lane should end at a point well beyond the hill crest, so that the slow
moving vehicles can return back to the normal lane without any danger. In
addition, the creeper lane should not end suddenly, but only in a tapered
manner for efficient as well as safer transition of vehicles to the normal lane.
4.3 Summit curve
Summit curves are vertical curves with gradients upwards, i.e., vertical
curves where the total change in gradient is negative. They are formed when
two gradients meet as illustrated in any of the following four ways:
(i) When a positive gradient meets another positive gradient.
(ii) When a positive gradient meets a flat gradient.
(iii)When an ascending gradient meets a descending gradient.
(iv) When a descending gradient meets another descending
gradient.
Many curve forms can be used with satisfactory results. The common practice
has been to use parabolic curves in summit curves. This is primarily because
of the ease with which it can be laid out as well as the comfort it affords in
transiting from one gradient to another. Although a circular curve offers equal
sight distance at every point on the curve, for very small deviation angles, a
circular curve and parabolic curves are almost congruent. Parabolic curves
have been found to give excellent riding comfort.
4.3.1 Length of the summit curve
The length of the vertical curve is the projection of the curve onto the
horizontal plane and, as such, corresponds to the plan distance. In
determining the type and length of the vertical curve, the design
considerations are comfort, safety of the driver, and the appearance of the
profile alignment. Among these, sight distance requirements for safety are
the most important in summit curves. The stopping sight distance or absolute
minimum sight distance should be provided on these curves and where
overtaking is not prohibited, overtaking sight distance or intermediate sight
distance should be provided as far as possible. When a fast moving vehicle
travels along a summit curve, there is less discomfort to the passengers. This
is because the centrifugal force will be acting upwards while the vehicle
negotiates a summit curve which is against the gravity and hence a part of
the tyre pressure is relieved. If the curve is provided with adequate sight
distance, the length would be sufficient to ease the shock due to change in
gradient. The deviation angles provided on summit curves for highways are
very large, so a simple parabola is almost congruent to a circular arc,
between the same tangent points. Parabolic curves are easy to compute and
they provide good riding comfort to the drivers. They are also easy to
implement in the field. Due to all these reasons, a simple parabolic curve is
preferred as summit curve.
The important design aspect of the summit curve is the determination of the
length of the parabolic curve. As noted earlier, the length of the curve is
guided by the sight distance consideration. That is, a driver should be able to
stop his vehicle safely if there is an obstruction on the other side of the road.
The general form of the parabolic equation that applies to a vertical curve is
given by
2
Y =ax +bx +c .....Eqn 4.3.1(i)
Where;
Y is the roadway elevation at distance x from the beginning of the
vertical curve (PVC)

x is the distance from the beginning of the vertical curve
c elevation of the PVC (Point of Curvature) at x=0 , corresponding to the
y -intercept
a,b are coefficients defined below

In defining a and b, note that the first derivative equation 4.3.1
gives the slope equivalent to:
dy

=2ax +b ..Eqn
dx
4.3.1(ii)
At PVC , x=0, and equation (ii) yields:
dY

b= =p ....Eqn
dx
4.3.1(iii)
At PVT , x=L , and equation (ii) yields:
dY

=q
dx
Where p is the initial slope in m/m . Also, note that
the second derivative of equation (i) gives us the rate of slope.

For a parabolic curve, the rate of change of slope is a constant.
d2Y
=2 a ..Eqn
d x2
4.3.1(iv)
For a parabola, a is half the rate of change of gradient, b is the initial gradient
and c is the of reduced level of the first tangent point
However, since the rate of change of gradient is a constant, then it is also

equal to the total change in gradient A divided by the length L.
q p

r= ... Eqn 4.3.1(v)
L
Equating (iv) and (v) gives:
q p

=2a , therefore
L
q p
a=
2 L ... Eqn 4.3.1(vi)
With all the terms as determined previously, please note that the selection of
the units for coefficients a and b in Eqn 4.3.1(iii) and Eqn 4.3.1(vi) must
be such that they provide (m) when multiplied by x 2 and x
respectively. The preceding equations define all the terms in the parabolic
curve (vertical) in Eqn 4.3.1(i).

Y= ( qp
2L )
2
x + px+ c
Fig 4.3.1: Simple Symmetrical Parabolic Curve
When x=0 , and Y =0 , c=0
qp x 2
Y= ( L 2 ) + px
y +Y p q p x 2
From geometry; x
=
1 , Therefore,
y=( )
L 2 , expressing
p ,
and q in percentages and denoting ( pq) as A yields :
Ax 2
y=
200
y Is measured downwards from the tangent and gives the vertical off-set
at any point along this curve. It is often necessary to calculate the highest (or
lowest) point on the curve to ensure that minimum sight distance (or
dy
drainage) requirements are met. The location of this point is given by dx
=0
, which yields:
pL
x=
( pq )
2
Lp
y=
2( pq)
L
The offset of the intersection point is found by replacing x with 2
L ( q p )
y=e=
8
Another useful curve property is one that gives the length of curve required
to effect a 1% change in slope. Because the parabolic equation used for
roadway elevation gives a constant rate of change of slope, is can be shown
that the horizontal distance required to change the slope by 1% is:
K=
A
Where;
K= Horizontal distance in (m) required to effect a 1% change in slope of
the vertical curve. This is a reciprocal of the rate of change of grade.
L= Length of the vertical curve in (m)
A= Is the absolute difference in grade ( pq) expressed as a

percentage
4.3.2 Sight distance requirement

When deriving formulae for the minimum lengths of summit curves, there are
two design conditions that have to be considered
(i) Condition where the sight distance is contained entirely within the length of
the vertical curve, i.e. where S<L

h1= Height of the drivers eye;
h2= Height of the dangerous object on the roadway;
In all vertical curve design cases, the assumption is that the drivers eye is
1.05 m above the road surface for stopping sight distance, and the object
height is assumed to be 0.6 m above the road surface. The drivers eye
height represents the approximate height of a driver in a small sports car. The
object height is assumed to be that of a rear taillight. Since the curve is a
parabola, the offsets from the line of sight are proportional to the square of
the distance from the point where the curve is tangential to the line of sight.
h1=k d 12 h2=k d 22
1
L
2 k =e .
However; e=k
2() ; therefore
()L
2
2
and,
1 2 1 2
h1=e . d
2 1
h2=e . d
2 2
L L

() 2 ()
2
2
L
d 12=h1
()
2
e
2 0.5
[ ]
L
d=h
() 2
L
, but e=( qp ) 8 ; let ( pq )= A , so that e=
LA
8
;
1 1
e
therefore;

[ ][
2 0.5
L
( 2)
0.5
d=h
1 1
LA
=
2 h1 L
A ]
8
And equally,
0.5
[ ][
L 2
() 0.5
d 2 = h2
2
LA
=
2 h2 L
A ]
8
Therefore,
0.5
[ ]
2h 2 L 0.5
0.5 L
d + = { 2 h1+ 2 h2 }
1+ d2= [ ]
2 h1 L
A
A A0.5

1+ d 2
d

1+ d 2
d

2 . A

L=
1+ d 2=S
However, d , the sight distance
2
S .A
L=
2
{ 2 h1+ 2 h2 }
If the dangerous object is assumed to be carriageway level, then
A S2

h2=0 , L=
2 h1
A S2
If h1=h2=
8 h1
Note that the algebraic difference in slopes is expressed in absolute values; it

is always given in decimal form.
(ii) Condition where the required sight distance overlaps onto the tangent
sections on either side of the parabolic curve, i.e. where S>L

h1 h p h h
100=p ; 1 = = pdecimal form , 1 =p , 1 =x
x x 100 x p
Let n be the gradient of the sight line, g represent the difference
between the slope of the sight line and the slope p of the rising gradient.
Then Ag is the difference between the slope of the sight line and the
S
gradient with slope q
pn=g , A= pq , nq=pgq=Ag ,
Therefore,
L h h2
S= + 1 +
2 g ( Ag)
dS
For the sight distance S to be a minimum, dg =0 (the line of sight touches
the summit and the gradient there is zero) therefore;
dS h1 h2

= 2 + =0
dg g ( Ag)2
Solving for g ,
A ( h1 h2 ) A h 1
g=
( h 2h1 )
L h1 h2
Substituting in S= 2 + g + ( Ag) ,
L h1 h2
S= + +
2

(
A ( h1 h2 ) A h1
( h2h1 ) )( A
A ( h1 h2 ) A h1
( h 2h1 ) )
Simplifying,
{( }
h1 h2
L=2 S2 +
A ( h1 h2 ) A h1 A ( h1 h2 ) A h 1

( h2h 1) )( A
( h 2h1 ) )

L=2 S2
{ h1 (h2h1)
+
h2 (h 2h1 )
A ( h1 h2 ) A h1 Ah2 A ( h 1 h2 ) }

L=2 S
{
2 h1 ( h2h1 ) h2 (h 2h1 )
+
A ( h1 h 2 )h1 h2 ( h1 h2 ) }
[ h1 ( h2h1 ) ] . [ h2 ( h1 h2 ) ] +[ h2 (h2h1)] [ ( h1 h2 )h1 ]
{ h1 (h2h1)
+
h2 (h2h 1)
( h1 h2 )h1 h2 ( h1 h 2) }=
[ ( h h )h ] . [ h ( h h ) ]
1 2 1 2 1 2
2 2

h1 ( h h )2 h h ( h h ) +h ( h h )
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2

[ ( h h ) h ] . [ h ( h h ) ]
1 2 1 2 1 2
1/ 2 1/ 2 2

[ h ( ( h h ) )
1 1 2 h2 ( ( h 1 h2 ) ) ]

[ ( h h ) h ] . [ h ( h h ) ]
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 /2 1 /2 2

[ h ( ( h h ) )
1 1 2 h2 ( ( h1 h2 ) ) ]
h1 ( h1 h2 ) 2h 1 h2 h +h2 ( h1 h2 )
1/2 1/ 2 2

[ h ( (h h ))
1 1 2 h2 ( ( h1 h2 ) ) ]
1 /2 2
[ h1
1 /2
( ( h1 h2 ) ) h2
1/2 1/ 2
( ( h1 h2 ) ) ]
2
[ h 1h2 ]

2
[ h11/ 2h21 /2 ]

[ (h11 /2h 21 /2 )( h11/ 2+ h21/ 2)
( h11/ 2h21 /2 ) ]
2
[( h 1
1/ 2
+ h21/ 2) ]
Therefore,
2
2 [ h1 + h 2 ]
L=2 S
A
If
h2=0 , then,
2 h1
L=2 S
A
If
h1=h2 , then
8 h1
L=2 S
A
The decision as to which condition should be used at a particular site can be
made by solving either of the equations:
L S
e=( q p ) e=( q p )
8 8
Depending upon whether L or S is the known value. In either case, if
e is found to be greater than

h1 , then the equation for the first condition,
i.e. L is greater than S , should be used. If it is found that e is less
than
h1 , then the equation where L is less than S should be used.
4.4 Sag curve

These are vertical curves where the total change in gradient is positive. There
are four widely accepted criteria for determining the minimum length of sag
the minimum length of sag curves
1) Vehicle headlight sight distance

2) Minimum motorist/passenger comfort
3) Drainage control
4) General aesthetics
m
0.3
A value of s
2 of radial acceleration is considered for comfort design. If
2
the vertical radial acceleration is assumed to be equal to a m/s , then;
v 2 3.62 V 2 V2
a= = ,R=
R R 13 a
Where R is radius of curve, equivalent to the parabolic curve, v is
vehicle speed ( m/s ) , V is vehicle speed in Km/h , Since the centrifugal
angle of the equivalent circular curve is very small, and the circle
practically coincides with the parabola,
2
V A
L=RA=
13 a
Where L= length of the sag curve (m), and A =algebraic difference in
slopes, expressed as a decimal. =external angle , ( pq ) ,absolute terms .
(i) Consideration (1) - When the required sight distance is less than the length of
the sag curve, then;
S2 A
L=

[
( h +h )
8 C 1 2
2 ]
Where L = length of the sag curve ( m ), S =sight distance ( m
), A =algebraic difference in tangent slopes expressed in decimal form,
C=vertical clearance to the critical edge of the structure ( m ),

h2
=vertical height of the hazardous object on the carriageway ( m )
(ii) Consideration (2) - When the required sight distance is greater than the
length of the sag curve, then;
L=2 S
[
8 C
( h1 +h2 )
2 ]
A
The lengths of both sag and crest curves should generally be not less than
2 V D , metres, where, VD is the adopted design speed in Km/h .
4.5 Clearance over/under objects

Vertical curve lengths may be limited by the need to provide clearances over
or under objects such as overpasses or drainage structures. In the case of sag
vertical curves passing over objects or crest vertical curves passing under
them, the required clearances establish minimum lengths; in the case of crest
vertical curves passing over objects or sags passing under them, the
clearances establish maximum lengths. Where clearances limit vertical curve
lengths, adequate sight distance should still be provided. In either case, the
maximum or minimum length of the vertical curve may be determined by
assuming that the clearance is barely met and calculating the length of the
vertical curve passing through the critical point thus established. It is easiest
to do this as illustrated by Figure 4.5. In the figure, C represents the critical
clearance, z the horizontal distance from the P.I. to the critical point and y
the offset between the critical point and the tangent passing through
the PC.
C
y
Fig 4.5: Vertical Curve Constrained By Clearances
The equation for the offset is

2
qp x
y '= ( L 2 )

r= ( qp
L )=
A
L
L

x= + z ,
2
Therefore
2
A L
y '=
2L 2 ( )
+z
Expansion and rearrangement of the above equation

A L2+ ( 4 Az8 y ' ) L+ 4 A Z 2=0
Solving the above equation results in two roots. The smaller of these
represents a vertical curve that is tangent between the P.I. and the critical
y'
point. Discarding this solution and letting
w= , to simplify the notation,
A
the solution for the in the larger root leads to

L=4 w2 z+ 4 w2 wz
as an expression for the maximum or minimum vertical curve length.
CONCLUSION
COMBINED HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
Vertical curvature superimposed upon the horizontal or vice versa generally
results in a pleasing facility. Important exceptions to this alignment
combination include the following:
1. A series of vertical humps not in combination with horizontal curvature may
result in drivers sight distance problems.
2. Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the top of a
pronounced crest vertical curve
3. Only flat horizontal curvature should be introduced at or near the low points
of a pronounced sag vertical curve
4. On two-lane highways, the need for safe passing sections at frequent
intervals and for an appreciable percentage of the highway length may affect
the extent of coordination between the horizontal and vertical alignments.
5. Horizontal curvature and profile should be made as flat as feasible at highway
intersections.
UNITS
1ft=0.3048m
4.6 Superelevation design

We discussed in a previous chapter that the centrifugal force acting on a
vehicle on a horizontal curve can be countered by either the side friction or a
superelevation. The side friction has been found to vary linearly with the
velocity of travel with the design values ranging from 0.16 at 50 Km/Hr to
0.11 at 130 Km/hr.
Maximum SE conditions
The maximum rates of superelevation used on highways are controlled by
four factors: Climate conditions, terrain conditions, type of area and
frequency of very slow-moving vehicles.
It has been observed that transverse slope of more than 70 percent is
inconvenient to the slow-moving vehicle. So that maximum allowable
superelevation on curves is taken as 7 percent. In hilly areas, since such carts
are not prevalent and the number of curves is more, a higher superelevation
is required.
Providing superelevation to fully counteract the centrifugal force would

necessitate giving a superelevation more than 7 percent for sharp curves
causing inconvenience to slow moving vehicles. When a vehicle negotiates a
sharp curve, friction would be developed to the maximum and none when
traveling on flat curves. This is not a balanced design. It is desirable that the
superelevation should be such that a moderate amount of friction is
developed while rounding flat curves and friction not exceeding the
maximum allowable be developed at sharp curves. Therefore, so designing
superelevation to fully counteract the centrifugal force developed at a
fraction of the design speed of the highway will provide the necessary
balance.
Method of building superelevation

There are three different methods for attaining the superelevation
Pavement revolved about centerline

Pavement revolved about outer edge
Pavement revolved about inner edge
The superelevation should be attained gradually over the full length of the
transition curve so that the design superelevation is available at the starting
point of the circular portion. In cases where transition curve cant for some
reason be provided, two-third superelevation may be attained on the straight
section before start of the circular curve and the balance one-third on the
curve.
In developing the required superelevation, it should be ensured that the

longitudinal slope of the pavement edge compared to the centre-line
(i.e., the rate of change of superelevation) is not steeper than 1 in 150
for roads in plain and rolling terrain, and 1 in 60 in mountainous and
steep terrain.
ACHIEVING SUPERELEVATION
Curves with Transition

The superelevation should be attained gradually over the full length of the
transition curve so that the design superelevation is available at the starting
point of the circular portion.
Curves without Transition

In cases, where transition curve cannot be provided, two-third superelevation
may be attained on the straight section before start of the circular curve and
balance one-third on the curve. Generally it is termed as 2/3 rd 1/3rd rule
(67% in straight and 33% in curve portion).
The proportion of runoff length placed on the tangent varies from 60 to 80

percent with a large majority of agencies using 67 percent. Theoretical
considerations indicate that values for the proportion of runoff length on the
tangent in the range of 70 to 90 percent offer the best operating conditions;
the specific value in this range should be dependent on designs speed and
rotated width. (Source: AASHTO)
What is Tangent Runout?

The length of roadway necessary to change the slope of the outside of
the roadway from normal crown to zero crown (flat) or vice versa.
What is Superelevation Runoff?
The length of roadway necessary to change the slope of the outside
lane from zero (flat) to full superelevation or vice versa.

STAGES IN SUPERELEVATION
Tangent Run-out (Z) (Source: AASHTO)
The length of highway needed to accomplish the change in cross slope from a
normal crown section to a flat section (or adverse crown removed) or vice
versa
Z = NC (RL)/E
Where:
Z = Runoff length from normal crown to flat section
NC = Normal crown rate %
e = Superelevation rate %
RL = Runoff Length (or Transition length)
Superelevation runoff (Or) Transition Length
The length of highway needed to accomplish the change in cross slope from
an adverse crown removed to a fully superelevated section or vice versa
Superelevation Development Length (Le)
Superelevation Development Length (Le) is the distance over which

superelevation is developed from the normal cross-fall to full
superelevation (Source: USO, Australia). Two adjacent horizontal curves
should be separated by sufficient tangent distances to eliminate any overlap
of superelevation runoff length between the two curves.
PROBLEMS IN DESIGNING SUPERELEVATION

Insufficiency of tangent between two consecutive curves. When the tangent
length between two curves in insufficient the superelevation will overlap in
that portion. It can be solved by increasing the rate of superelevation to max
allowable rate.
Another method of increasing the rate of SE is, combining the SE of
consecutive curves. Means, there will be no regular stages between Full SE of
one curve to Full SE to the following curve. This modified rate of SE is to be
checked with the limits. If the rate is not allowable, one needs to modify the
horizontal alignment. In General, the rate will become flatter than the earlier
rate.
Insufficiency of curve length in achieving the SE by 2/3 rd-1/3rd rule. In curves
without transition, the curve length should be sufficient to achieve the 1/3 rd of
superelevation from both sides. But in practice, it is not possible in some
cases. It can be solved by changing the distribution percentage to the higher
value say 80%-20%, 85%-15% or 90%-10%. If still the problem comes, one
needs to modify the horizontal alignment.
SUPERELEVATION PROGRAMME
Step-I Data Sheet

Fill the Table Details in the Data Sheet
Table-1 (Terrain Details)
Divide the road stretch according to the terrain, and then enter the
details in the Table-1. If total road stretch has the same terrain, enter the first
and last chainage in the first row.
Table-2 (Normal Camber Details)
Divide the road stretch according to the normal camber, and then
enter the details in the Table-2. If total road stretch has one single value,
enter the first and last chainage with normal camber value in the first row of
table-2
Table-3 (Carriageway Width Details)
Divide the road stretch according to the carriageway width, and then
enter the details in the Table-3. If total road stretch has same carriageway
width, enter the first and last chainage in the first row of table-3
Fill the Input Details in the Data Sheet
Code to be used
This programme is developed by following, Design Manual for Roads
and Bridges (DMRB).
Friction Factor
Use friction factor of 0.15 for design of curves.
Design Carriageway
The superelevation is designed for left and right carriageways
separately. So, select the carriageway which you want to design.
String Details
If input file is required for design in MX, just input the name of Master
string, Profile string (or) Median edge string and carriageway string
Step II Curve Report
Enter the Starting chainage of road stretch in E 5
Enter the all curves information by starting with Curve No: 1. Ensure
no other information is present after the given details
Step III Running the Programme
The four stages of SE programme are,
1. Input the Data
Inputs the curve details to the SE programme.

2. Check for Speed and Superelevation
It checks the limits of maximum superelevation. If any curve has
superelevation greater than the max superelevation, it limits the SE to max
and calculates the posted speed.
3. Superelevation chainages calculation
Before running this stage, just confirm the Design carriageway and
String details if they correlate. First it checks for the sufficiency of curve
lengths in 2/3rd-1/3rd rule if it applies. If not it, asks for alternate solutions to
overcome the problem. Later, it checks for the tangent sufficiency between
the curves. If any problem becomes apparent, it will give you the alternate
solutions.
After that, it calculates the chainages of the stages of superelevation.
4. Input to MX
It creates an input file for corresponding direction in C drive.
Important note:
1. For the second direction, ignore the first two stages. Directly
run the 3rd and 4th stages.
2. Windows vista users may face some problem in creating input
file directly to c drive. In that case, copy the MX-input direct from
excel sheet.
SUPERELEVATION
This section discusses the design of superelevation and how it is attained. A
brief discussion about pavement widening at curves is also given.
4.7 Guidelines on superelevation

While designing the various elements of the road like superelevation, we
design it for a particular vehicle called design vehicle which has some
standard weight and dimensions. But in the actual case, the road has to cater
for mixed traffic. Different vehicles with different dimensions and varying
speeds ply the road. For example, in the case of a heavily loaded truck with
high centre of gravity and low speed, superelevation should be less;
otherwise chances of toppling are more.
4.7.1 Design of super-elevation
For fast moving vehicles, providing higher superelevation without considering
coefficient of friction is safe, i.e. centrifugal force is fully counteracted by the
weight of the vehicle or superelevation. For slow moving vehicles, providing
lower superelevation considering coefficient of friction is safe, i.e. centrifugal
force is counteracted by superelevation and coefficient of friction.
4.7.2 Maximum and minimum super-elevation

Depends on, (a) slow moving vehicle and (b) heavy loaded trucks with high
CG. Maximum super-elevation of 7% for plain and rolling terrain, 10 % for hilly
terrain and 4% for urban roads are recommended. The minimum super
elevation is between 2 and 4% percent for drainage purpose, especially for
large radius of the horizontal curve.
4.7.3 Attainment of super-elevation

a) Elimination of the crown of the cambered section by:
1. Rotating the outer edge about the crown: The outer half of the cross-slope is
rotated about the crown at a desired rate such that this surface falls on the
same plane as the inner half.
2. Shifting the position of the crown: This method is also known as diagonal
crown method. Here the position of the crown is progressively shifted
outwards, thus increasing the width of the inner half of cross-section
progressively.
b) Rotation of the pavement cross section to attain full super elevation by:
i. Rotation about the center line: The pavement is rotated such that the inner
edge is depressed and the outer edge is raised both by half the total amount
of superelevation, i.e., by e /2 with respect to the centre.
ii. Rotation about the inner edge: Here the pavement is rotated raising the outer
edge as well as the centre such that the outer edge is raised by the full
amount of superelevation with respect to the inner edge.
It should be noted that a summit curve will only have a "true" high point and
a sag curve will only have true low point when there is a change of sign
between the grades.
CHAPTER 5 INTERSECTIONS
5.1 Overview
5.2 Types of Intersection
2 Geometric Design

Whenever two gradients intersect on a road or railway, it is necessary to
connect them with a vertical curve to improve visibility (summit curves),
prevent shock impacts or passenger discomfort (both summit and sag
curves) and to improve visual appearance. Vertical curves allow vehicles to
pass smoothly from one gradient to another.
In practice, road and railway gradients are comparatively flat and it is often
unimportant what type of vertical curve is used; the usual curves are circular
or parabolic. However, it is best to use a vertical curve having a constant rate
of change of gradient, i.e., a
For some freeways (high-speed roads) a vertical curve whose rate of

change of gradient increases or decreases with the length of the curve is
sometimes used, e.g., a cubic parabola. However, since freeways are
generally made up of relatively flat gradients, curves of this type are
sometimes regarded as an unnecessary refinement. The cubic parabola is
sometimes used as a sag vertical curve, where its properties allow a
uniform rate of increase of centrifugal force (greater passenger comfort)
and less filling in the valley is required. Unless indicated otherwise, in
these notes, a vertical curve is assumed to be a simple parabola.
PROPERTIES OF THE PARABOLIC VERTICAL CURVE

In Figure 4.1, T1ET2 is a vertical parabolic curve between two grades p and q
which intersect at C., T1, T2 are tangent points and the x-y coordinate origin is
vertically below with the x-axis being the datum for reduced levels y. H is the
reduced level of T1. The horizontal length of the vertical curve is L and the
highest point of the curve is a distance D from .
1. The equation of the curve is

y= ( q2 Lp ) x + px+ H
2
Substituting L for x, the reduced level of T2 becomes
y= ( q+2 p ) L+ H
From Figure 4.1, the horizontal distance from T 1 to C is Lc and we can use this
distance to calculate the reduced level T2 of as
H + p Lc +q (LLc )
Equating these two expressions for the reduced level of T 2 gives:
Lc =
2
This very important relationship: the horizontal distances from the tangent
points to the intersection point are equal is of considerable use in solving vertical
curve problems.
2. In Figure 4.1, F is the mid-point of the line T 1, T2 and the reduced level (RL)
of F is the mean of the reduced levels of T1 and T2.
( q+ p ) L
R LF = +H
4
3. The reduced level of E, a point on the curve at a horizontal distance L/2
from T1 is
q p L 2 L (q +3 p) L
R LE = ( 2L )( )
2
+ p + H=
2 8
+H
4. The reduced level of C is:

pL

R LC = +H
2
5. The vertical distances CE and CF are the differences between the RL's of C
and E, and C and F
pqL pqL
CF
, , CE=
2
CE= CF=

Hence, the parabola bisects the vertical from the intersection point C
to the mid-point of the line joining the tangent points.
6. The gradient of the curve at E is given by equation (3.4) as

dy qp
dx
=( L
x+ p )
( dydx ) =( qL p ) L2 + p= ( p +q)
E 2
This is also the gradient of the line joining the tangent points, hence in
Figure 4.1, AB is parallel to T1T2 and is tangential to the curve at E, a point
midway between the tangent points.
7. In Figure 4.1, D is the horizontal distance to the highest point of the curve
(or the lowest point if the curve was a true sag curve). The gradient will be
zero at the highest point (or lowest) and since the gradient is also the
derivative, then we can set equation (3.4) equal to zero and solve x
dy qp
dx
=( L )
x+ p=0
giving the horizontal distance to the high (or low) point of a parabolic vertical
curve as

D= ( p
q p)L
As mentioned previously, a true summit curve (having a highest point) and a

true sag curve (having a lowest point) will only occur when there is a change
of sign between q and p. Note that the (q p) term in equation (4.3) is the
numerical sum of the two gradients and that D will always be a positive
quantity.

g1: percent grade of back tangent

g2: percent grade of forward tangent
r: rate of change of grade
r = (g2 g1)/L

Sag Curves:
Low Point defines location of catch basin for drainage.
Crest Curves:
High Point defines limits of drainage area for roadways.
Also used to determine or set elevations based on minimum clearance
requirements.
The purpose of this document is to provide details of various spirals, their

characteristics and in what kind of situations they are typically used. Typical
spirals (or transition curves) used in horizontal alignments are clothoids (also
called as ideal transitions), cubic spirals, cubic parabola, sinusoidal and
cosinusoidal.

Primary functions of a transition curves (or easement curves) are:

To accomplish gradual transition from the straight to circular curve, so that
curvature changes from zero to a finite value.
To provide a medium for gradual introduction or change of required
superelevation.
To changing curvature in compound and reverse curve cases, so that gradual
change of curvature introduced from curve to curve.

To call a spiral between a straight and curve as valid transition curve, it has to
satisfy the following conditions.

One end of the spiral should be tangential to the straight.
The other end should be tangential to the curve.
Spirals curvature at the intersection point with the circular arc should
be equal to arc curvature.
Also at the tangent its curvature should be zero.
The rate of change of curvature along the transition should be same as
that of the increase of cant.
Its length should be such that full cant is attained at the beginning of
circular arc.

ECE 2403 Highway Engineering I

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ECE 2403 Highway Engineering I

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Transportation Engineering Group of Units

DEDAN KIMATHI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Civil Engineering

First Semester, 2015/2016 Academic Year

Page 1 of 101 Chelelgo 2015

Unit reference Materials

Mondays 4:00 pm to 7:00 pm R13 - Lecture

Page 2 of 101 Chelelgo 2015

CHAPTER 3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT...................................................................22

Critical length of the grade................................................................................55

Page 5 of 101 Chelelgo 2015

CHAPTER 1 PRINCIPLES OF HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Although the construction of highways takes place in three-dimensional (3-D) space,

Horizontal alignments can be thought of as a series of straight lines, known as

Fig1.1 (a): Highway Alignment in Three-Dimensions

Page 6 of 101 Chelelgo 2015

Fig: 1.1 (b) Highway Alignment in two-Dimensions

Alignment decision is important because a bad alignment will enhance the

suitability of the alternative depends on factors like topography, site

Page 8 of 101 Chelelgo 2015

1.2 Design Controls and Guidelines

Page 9 of 101 Chelelgo 2015

(i) The design speed v ( m/s )

1.2.1 Design Speed

4. The traffic volumes expected to use the road

1.2.2 Curve Radius

1.2.3 Depths and Heights of Cut and Fill

A level terrain is that condition whereby highway sight distances, as governed by

1.2.5 Other factors

Page 12 of 101 Chelelgo 2015

1.3 Road Classification

Page 13 of 101 Chelelgo 2015

Page 14 of 101 Chelelgo 2015 Freeways

1.3.1 Road Classification Criteria

Page 15 of 101 Chelelgo 2015

A1, Tanzanian border - A14, Mombasa - Tanzanian

A2, Nairobi - Moyale (Ethiopian A23, Voi - Taveta (Tanzanian

A3, - Liboi (Somalian border) A104, Athi River - Namanga

A109, Nairobi - Mombasa

Kenyan B roads primarily connect major cities and districts.

B1, Nakuru - Ugandan border B3, west from A104 at Kijabe

B8, Mombasa - Garissa

C roads in Kenya typically connect towns and settlements within a single

C107, Kaloleni - B8 C115, Chidutani - Dida

C111, Mazeras - Kaloleni

Page 16 of 101 Chelelgo 2015

Level of service is a qualitative measure that describes traffic conditions in

Level of service A (free-flow conditions). Individual users are virtually

CHAPTER 2 CROSS-SECTIONAL ELEMENTS

2.2 Pavement Surface Characteristics

It is always desirable to have an even surface, but it is seldom possible to

2.2.3 Light Reflection

The pavement surface should be absolutely impermeable to prevent seepage

Camber is measured in 1 in n or n% (e.g. 1 in 50 or 2%) and the value

2.3 Carriageway Width

2.5 Road Margins

Service roads or frontage roads give access to access controlled highways

for every additional track.

Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas.

Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements

9 Side Slopes and Drainage Channels

To promote safety, appearance and economy in maintenance, the use of

CHAPTER 3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT

Horizontal alignment is one of the most important features influencing the