1.

0 Introduction

2.0 Question

Task 1: You are required to select any TWO of the family of models of teaching
and learning. Based your selection, compare and contrast the models in terms
of its features, characteristics, principles and concepts. Provide examples to
justify your statements.

Generally, learning model serve few purposes. First of all, it is formed to

identify the purpose are area of concentration. For example, Six Traits Writing Model
is designed for writing, while Synectics was formulated to stimulate creative thought
and solutions. Other than that, learning model underlying explicit and implicit
assumptions about the characteristics of learners and about teaching-learning
process. These are directly tied to guiding tenets of the different divisions of
educational psychology and theories of learning. For instance, in Behavioural
Models, students are seen as being generally passive but able to respond and to be
motivated though different forms of directed simulation.

More onwards, learning models were used widely as guidelines for developing
specific educational experiences. More than that, it is a definite patterns and
requirements for each instructional event. That is why a body of research
surrounding their development and implementation, and/ or an evaluation of their
effectiveness.

Joyce, Weil and Calhouns (2008) state that there are 6 criteria should be
qualified in learning and teaching model. First of all, focus. It is the central intent of
the model. It also focus the learning event to encourage learning by manipulating
thought or types of thinking; growth in learning through external stimuli or rewards;
social learning, or social and emotional growth through interaction; or increased level
of self-achievement and personal growth through personally directed choices?
Models are usually developed with a focus, an end-game, or specific intention in
mind. For instance, Madeline Hunters very popular Mastery Teaching concept
focuses on presenting materials in a tightly controlled, very repetitive way so that
learners have optimal opportunities to get content, concepts, or processes right the
first time. Another example in cooperative learning models the focus is on the
importance of social interchange and peer support in learning new things. Therefore
models differ one from the other in terms of their primary objective or focal point of
their intended outcomes.

Second criteria which is Syntax which describes the models structure and
includes the sequence of steps involved in the organization of the model. It includes
the major components and the phases of unfolding, or the sequencing of steps, and
describes how the model progresses. Obviously the syntax can be quite different for
each model.

Thirdly, the principles of reaction. It tell the teacher how to regard the learner
and how to respond to what the learner does during the use of the model. Often
responses in using a designated model should be appropriate and selectively
specific. This element is concerned with the teachers reactions to the students
responses. This portion of the model alerts the teacher on how to react to the
responses of the students. It is here that the teacher learns whether the learners
have been actively involved in the models processes and steps.

Forth traits, the social system. Which describes the interactions between
students and teacher as each model is viewed as if it were a mini society. Since
every teaching model is different, each model will have its own social system and
rules of engagement. This portion concerns the interactive roles and relationships
between the teacher and the student, expected norms, and which student behaviors
should be rewarded. These may be overtly described or simply inferred. Depending
on the philosophical orientation of the model, in some models the role of the
teachers is dominant, while in others his or her role is passive. In some models the
roles center on the teacher, and in others the concentration is on the students. There
are still other models that require shared roles whereby teachers and students share
roles equally. In this segment both motivational strategies and tactics for engaging
students could be discussed too.

Fifth traits, support system. It defines the supporting conditions required to

implement the model successfully. Support refers to any additional requirements,
beyond the usual general human skills and capabilities, that are needed to
implement the model. This component relates to any additional requirements beyond
those generally possessed by teachers or found in schools. What requirements are
needed to make this model work? Are special skills or knowledge needed; or is there
special equipment, media, or learning environment requirements that need to be
accessed in using this model? This support would also include special books, films,
laboratory kits, reference materials, permissions, facilities, etc.

Finally, application and effects which are rather apparent. It is required to

state that how can the students use what the model teaches? Application is the utility
of the model as it can be transferred to other situations. Each model attempts to
implement some change in learners and influence their thinking, feelings, social
interactions, or physical movements in some way so that those changes can be
transferred to other situations and experiences.

First model chosen is Social Learning Models. Social learning theory (also
known as Social Cognitive Theory) is the idea that people learn by watching what
others do and that human thought processes are central to understanding
personality. Social learning theory stemmed out of work by N.E. Miller and J. Dollard
in 1941. Their proposition posits that if humans were motivated to learn a particular
behaviour that particular behaviour would be learned through clear observations. By
imitating these observed actions the individual observer would solidify that learned
action and would be rewarded with positive reinforcement (Miller & Dollard, 1941).
The proposition of social learning was expanded upon and theorized by Albert
Bandura from 1962 to the present.

J. E. Irmrid (2003) in the book "Educational Psychology: Developing Learners"

lists the main principles of social learning theory. First of all, he state that people
learn by observing others. Learning is an internal process that may or may not
change behaviour. In social learning theory, people behave in certain ways to reach
goals. Behaviour is self-directed (as opposed to the behaviourist thought that
behaviour is determined by environment.) In social learning, reinforcement and
punishment have unpredictable and indirect effects on both behaviour and learning.
 There are several sub topics on Social Learning Models which has widely
been used in modern teaching and learning, such as cooperative or collaborative
learning model, Graffiti Model, Jigsaw Model, Jurisprudential Model, Role Playing
Model, Laboratory Method model, and many more.

Cooperative or collaborative learning model is a method of teaching and

learning in which students team together to explore a significant question or create a
meaningful project. A group of students discussing a lecture or students from
different schools working together over the Internet on a shared assignment are both
examples of collaborative learning.

Cooperative learning, which will be the primary focus of this workshop, is a

specific kind of collaborative learning. In cooperative learning, students work
together in small groups on a structured activity. They are individually accountable
for their work, and the work of the group as a whole is also assessed. Cooperative
groups work face-to-face and learn to work as a team.

In small groups, students can share strengths and also develop their weaker
skills. They develop their interpersonal skills. They learn to deal with conflict. When
cooperative groups are guided by clear objectives, students engage in numerous
activities that improve their understanding of subjects explored.

In order to create an environment in which cooperative learning can take

place, three things are necessary. First, students need to feel safe, but also
challenged. Second, groups need to be small enough that everyone can contribute.
Third, the task students work together on must be clearly defined. The cooperative
and collaborative learning techniques presented here should help make this possible
for teachers.

Cooperative or collaborative learning enable learners actively participate.

Teachers become learners at times, and learners sometimes teach. In the end of
teaching and learning, respect is given to every member. Projects and questions
interest and challenge students. Students learn skills for resolving conflicts when
they arise. Each members draw upon their past experience and knowledge. Learning
goals are clearly identified and used as a guide. Research tools such as Internet
access are made available. Students are invested in their own learning.

Graffiti Model is a cooperative learning structure where students are given

written responses to questions posed by a teacher. It is to check for understanding,
to evaluate instruction, or to do an informal pre-assessment.

Jigsaw Model developed in the 1960s to facilitate racial integration. This

model is highly structured. Interdependence is required. It is the element of
"required" interdependence among students which makes this a unique learning
method, and it is this interdependence that encourages the students to take an
active part in their learning. In becoming a teacher of sorts, each student becomes a
valuable resource for the others.

Learning from each other gradually diminishes the need to try to out-perform
each other because one student's learning enhances the performance of the other
students instead of inhibiting it, as is usually the case in most competitive, teacher-
oriented classrooms.

Within this cooperative paradigm the teacher learns to be a facilitating

resource person, and shares in the learning and teacher process with the students
instead of being the sole resource. Rather than lecturing to the students, the teacher
facilitates their mutual learning, in that each student is required to be an active
participant and to be responsible for what he learns.

First and foremost, it is a remarkably efficient way to learn the material. But
even more important, the jigsaw process encourages listening, engagement, and
empathy by giving each member of the group an essential part to play in the
academic activity. Group members must work together as a team to accomplish a
common goal; each person depends on all the others. No student can succeed
completely unless everyone works well together as a team. This cooperation by
design facilitates interaction among all students in the class, leading them to value
each other as contributors to their common task.
 Jurisprudential Inquiry Model by Donald Oliver and Jame Shaver (1971) The
Social Family. Social values legitimately conflict with one another. Negotiations of
Difference can help to resolve complex and controversial issues. A skilful citizen is
like a competent judge. He/she listens to the evidence, analyses the legal positions
taken by both sides, weighs these positions and the evidence assess the meaning
provisions of the law and finally make the best possible decision. To play the role;
three types of competencies are required: (1) Familiarity with values (2) Skills for
clarifying and resolving issues (3) Knowledge of contemporary political and public
issues.

Role Playing model is a simulation exercise where persons take on assumed

roles in order to act out a scenario in a contrived setting. The learners or participants
can act out the assigned roles in order to explore the scenario, apply skills (maybe
communication, negotiation, debate etc.), experience the scenario from another
viewpoint, evoke and understand emotions that maybe alien to them. It helps to
make sense of theory and gathers together the concepts into a practical experience.

This deeply rooted in the principles of constructivist teaching. Role-play is also

used as a term for gaming, simulation and in couples interaction. In this article we
are only going to talk about role-play as a teaching/training tool. Constructing
meaning in a learner is a far better way to make learning memorable than simple
transmission. In children the excitement of the role play, the interaction and
stimulation to visual, auditory and kinaesthetic styles of learning helps a broad range
of learners.

In adults the tool respects their prior knowledge, experience and the reality
they bring to a concept. It helps to make the concept being taught to be constructed
and then reflected on. It helps to move beyond any comfort zones and helps bring on
attitudinal change through different viewpoints too. It helps to develop all domains of
learning, cognitive (knowledge), psychomotor (skills) and affective (emotional) Its
also a lot of fun (trust me) and helps shake off those lecture room cobwebs. There is
plenty of evidence that confirms the retention from participation is far higher than any
other modes of learning.
 Laboratory Method stressed on group or interpersonal skills, personal
awareness and flexibility skills. Students investigate, analyse and reflect. They test
and apply theories to make abstract concepts concrete. To ensure processes of
investigation run smoothly, students need guidance to make sense of their result.

Strategies for designing and supervising effective lab sections are as follow.
First of all, we must plan a laboratory class in an effective way. It depends on what
projects/ experiment, how to integrate, how to balance and organise cooperative and
independent study and finally what equipment needed.

Secondly, the choices of projects that related to the goals stated. It is to help
students understand theory by observing and verifying concepts. It also helps them
go through research and design processes. Other than that, it helps them to improve
their powers of reasoning by manipulating cause-and-effect relationships. Finally, it is
to acquaint them with essential equipment.

Thirdly, when planning course schedule, it is to coordinate the teaching of

concepts with laboratory applications. It is to make integration with theory smoother.
Forth, laboratory projects conducive to group learning. It takes place both inside the
lab and outside the class, during post-lab discussion or small-group study sessions.
Early in the course, you may want to divide your students into lab and/or study
groups of two to four partners. Because different experiments require different
numbers of apparatus, some weeks you may have to consolidate two of these
small groups or otherwise reorganize things, but keep in mind that four is a good
upper limit if you want each student to actively participate. It is especially useful to
ask the students to divide complex projects into parts and to coordinate individual
tasks. If needed, a lab assistant can help with the coordination. With this approach,
students can take responsibility for one part of the project while maintaining an
appreciation for the design and concepts of the whole project.

Fifth, appropriate equipment also take an important role in each experiment. It

is to make sure that it is in working order, clear instructions for its use available to
students. After that, planning on experiment is to ensure lab exercises run smoothly.
Students dont run into ambiguous directions or computational difficulties. Finally,
after each experiment, is it a must for a scheduling tat instructor will be able to
review the results of the exercise with the class. It is to help the students check their
individual conclusions and understand the results in relation to the theories of the
course.

Second model I choose is Information Processing Models. Information

processing theory discusses about the mechanisms through which learning occurs.
Specifically, it focuses on aspects of memory encoding and retrieval. Information
processing theory is an influential theory of cognitive psychology which discusses
how learning occurs, as understood through attention and memory processes.
Information processing theories equate these mechanisms to that of a computer, in
that it receives input, processes, and delivers output. Information gathered from the
senses (input), is stored and processed by the brain, and finally brings about a
behavioural response (output).

In sensory memory, information is gathered via the senses through a process

called transduction. Through receptor cell activity, it is altered into a form of
information that the brain could process. These memories, usually unconscious, last
for a very short amount of time, ranging up to three seconds. Baddeley (2001) issued
a model of working memory as consisting of three components. The executive
controls system oversees all working memory activity, including selection of
information, method of processing, meaning, and finally deciding whether to transfer
it to long term memory or forget it. Two counterparts of this system are the auditory
loop, where auditory information is processed, and the visual-spatial check pad,
where visual information is processed. Sensory memories transferred into working
memory will last for 15-20 seconds, with a capacity for 5-9 pieces or chunks of
information. Long term memory includes various types of information: declarative
(semantic and episodic), procedural (how to do something), and imagery (mental
images). As opposed to the previous memory constructs, long term memory has
unlimited space. The crucial factor of long term memory is how well organized the
information is. This is affected by proper encoding (elaboration processes in
transferring to long term memory) and retrieval processes (scanning memory for the
information and transferring into working memory so that it could reuse).
 There are sub models under the information processing models are cognitive
growth development model, critical thinking model, learning styles model,
memorization model, multiple intelligences model, Tabas Inductive Reasoning model
and many more.

In Cognitive Growth Development model, it stressed on few stages of

development in which I summarised it into three main stages. First stage the
sensorimotor stage; with six sub-stages (birth to two years). Second stage, the
stage of concrete operations, with two sub-stages- pre-operational thought (two to
seven years) and concrete operations (seven to eleven years). Third stage, the
stage of formal operations (eleven years through to adulthood).

Critical thinking model or known as Paul-Elder Model of Critical Thinking

Development of strong intellectual traits (such as fair-mindedness, intellectual
integrity) requires habitual use of the elements of thought or reasoning (such as
assumptions, concepts, points of view) held to specified intellectual standards (such
as clarity, accuracy, depth).

The purpose of critical thinking is to determine the intellectual traits that fair-
minded critical thinkers seek to develop. Other than that, it analyse the elements of
ones' thinking. Last but not least, it applies intellectual standards to the elements of
thought. The proposed model is a mode of thinking that can be applied to all
disciplines of study, problems, or issues

The model consists of three components: intellectual traits that are developed
by the habitual use of intellectual standards applied to the elements of thought or
reasoning. One needs to identify the parts or elements of thinking (take it apart by
looking at its purpose, the question or problem it seeks to address, the assumptions
involved, along with the points of view, the concepts involved, the conclusions or
interpretations reached, and future implications or consequences. The quality of
each part of one's thinking needs to be assessed by comparing it to intellectual
standards. These include: (a) clarity through elaborations, example, illustration), (b)
accuracy through verification or cross-check), (c) precision though providing more
specifics or details), (d) relevance through tangible linkages with the issue), (e)
significance through determination of relative importance), (f) breath through
consideration of different perspectives), (g) depth through consideration of
complexities involved), (h) logic through making sense of it as a whole, conclusion
following from evidence), and (i) fairness through consideration of context, free from
distortions). Disciplined application of the intellectual standards to the elements of
thought will help us develop as fair-minded critical thinkers.

Learning styles model, These plans are devised and written reflecting concepts
developed by one of the learning style theorists or followers (such as Kathleen Butler
or Bernice McCarthy, Dunn and Dunn, etc.) The Dunn and Dunn Learning Style
Model indicates a range of variables proven to influence the achievements of
individual learners from kindergarten age to adulthood. Each learner has his or her
own unique combination of preferences. Some preferences may be strong, in which
case the learner will benefit significantly if the need is addressed when he or she is
learning challenging content. Others preferences may be moderate worth
addressing if learning isnt progressing smoothly. For some variables, no preference
may be indicated. The learners ability to engage with the work and to achieve
success may depend on extraneous factors or his/her level of interest in the subject -
or it may be that that particular variable has no real bearing on the learners ability to
concentrate and study.

Memorization model, Improves memory capabilities through a variety of

methods and tricks. There are a number of inventive and helpful sites
like Wiliamettes on ideal conditions for memorizing, or commercial sites
likeMemorize.com with all kinds of cool functions to help students create memory
devices. Study guides and strategies also has a great page about create mnemonic
devices to aid recall. All students need information to be available to them readily so
they can learn effectively and efficiently. This improves learning power, saves
time, and leads to a better storehouse of information (Joyce, Weil and Calhoun,
2004, p. 138). While memorization may be considered trivial it is very important.
Pressly and Levin developed a model of teaching for memorizing that includes 4
phases: attending to the material, developing connections, expanding sensory
images, and practicing recall.
 Multiple intelligences model, MI plans utilize, or are based on, those 8
intelligences described in the work of Howard Gardner. The multiple intelligences
theory (MI theory) claims that all humans have eight intelligences, to a lesser or
greater extent, and that we each have a different intelligence profile. This profile is
based on our genetics and our experiences, and it makes us unique from others.
The intelligences are as, Linguistic intelligence This is the ability to use spoken and
written language effectively to express yourself. Lawyers, writers, and speakers tend
to have high linguistic intelligence. Logical-mathematical intelligence This is the
ability to analyse problems logically, work effectively with mathematical operations,
and investigate issues using the scientific method. Finding patterns and deductive
reasoning are other capabilities associated with this intelligence. People working in
the scientific and mathematical communities tend to be high in this type of
intelligence. Musical intelligence This is the ability to perform, compose, and
appreciate musical patterns, including changes in pitch, tone, and rhythm.
Successful musicians, composers, and people involved in music production have
high levels of musical intelligence. Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence This is the ability
to use the body for expression. People high in this intelligence use their physical
coordination to master problems. Professional dancers and athletes are good
examples of this. Spatial intelligence This is the ability to recognize, use, and
interpret images and patterns and to reproduce objects in three dimensions.
Successful architects, sculptors and designers are likely to have high spatial
intelligence. Interpersonal intelligence This is the ability to understand people's
intentions, motivations, and desires. This intelligence allows individuals to work well
with others. Professions like therapy, teaching, and sales attract individuals with high
interpersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal intelligence This is the ability to
understand yourself, and to interpret and appreciate your own feelings and
motivations. Therapists, actors, caregivers, and writers are all people who can bring
high levels of personal awareness to their work. Naturalist intelligence This is the
ability to recognize and appreciate our relationship with the natural world.
Astronomers, biologists, and zoologists are examples of professions with a high level
of naturalist intelligence.

Tabas Inductive Reasoning model, Advanced thinking can be taught through

a series of steps designed to be an active transition between an individual and data.
Inductive reasoning is a branch of logic. In a valid inductive argument, the
conclusion (consequent) is believed to be true on the basis of its antecedents. For
example, when all swans are observed to be white, a student may easily reach the
conclusion that all swans are indeed white. A generalization is made based on the
evidence gathered. However, when a black swan is observed, the generalization
must be thrown out based upon the new data (antecedents). According to Joyce
and Weil , Hilda Taba utilized three main assumptions in developing her teaching
model (Joyce & Weil, 2000, p. 131). Thinking can be taught. Thinking is an active
transaction between the individual and data. Processes of thought evolve by a
sequence that is "lawful." Taba developed three effective strategies in the inductive
model that enable students to form concepts, interpret data and apply principles.

From what I have chosen, Social Learning Model and Information Processing
Model, there were many differences in features, characteristics, principles and
concepts. It would be helpful to compare it in table form.

Social Learning Model Issue to Information Processing Model

compare with
1. Features

The observer will copy Characteristics

characteristics displayed by the
model that the observer finds
desirable
- The observer can either
"acquire" the behavior or
"perform" the behavior, or both.
- When learning by observation,
the observer will use four
different processes; Attention
(Being aware and recognizing of
the actions of the model),
Retention (remembering the
actions), Production (the observer
must be able to reproduce the
actions of the model), and
Motivation (the observers reason
for mimicking the action)
1. Access must be easy and
fast
2. Cultural, technological
 barriers must be removed
3. Leaders and influencers
must model the use of social
technologies for learning
4. Users must be engaged in
designing engaging learning
opportunities
5. Social experience and
capabilities must be included in
competency models
6. Social experience and
capabilities must be included in
job descriptions
7. Learners must be motivated
to use social media
8. Employees must be regularly
instructed on effective social
media use for learning
9. Social experience and
capabilities should be a part of
applicant screening
10. Social media technology use
for learning must be tracked &
reported
11. Learners who share with
others on social media must be
rewarded
12. Participation in social learning
must be made a formal job
expectation

Principles
1. The highest level of
observational learning is achieved by
first organizing and rehearsing the
modeled behavior symbolically and
then enacting it overtly. Coding
modeled behavior into words, labels or
images results in better retention than
simply observing.

2. Individuals are more likely to

adopt a modeled behavior if it results
in outcomes they value.

3. Individuals are more likely to

adopt a modeled behavior if the model
is similar to the observer and has
admired status and the behavior has
functional value.

Concepts
The most Examples
common (and pervasive) examples of
social learning situations are television
commercials. Commercials suggest
that drinking a certain beverage or
using a particular hair shampoo will
make us popular and win the
admiration of attractive people.
Depending upon the component
processes involved (such as attention
or motivation), we may model the
behavior shown in the commercial and
buy the product being advertised.

Same issue, few solutions can use table form

References

Bandura, A. (1988). Organizational Application of Social Cognitive Theory. Australian Journal of

Management, 13(2), 275-302.

Bandura, A. (1989). Human Agency in Social Cognitive Theory. American Psychologist, 44, 1175-
1184.

Miller, N. E., & Dollard, J. (1941). Social Learning and Imitation. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Miller, Katherine (2005). Communication Theories: Perspectives, Processes, and Contexts (2nd ed.).
New York, New York: McGraw-Hill.

Information obtained by a lecture given by Thomas McClean in 2005.