ROAD PAVEMENT

CONSTRUCTION
CE158 Mapua Institute of Technology
What is Road Pavement?
Road surface or pavement is the durable surface material laid down on an
area intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic, such as a road or
walkway.
Roads are defined as routes or paths that begin at one destination and lead
to another.
Roads that lead into cities and towns can also be referred to as streets,
avenues, boulevards, and more. Any route that has a navigable destination
can be referred to as a road, including those that are unpaved or dirt.
Road Construction
Road construction is perhaps one of man's earliest forms
of construction. The modern day road is defined as a paved or easily
accessible path, made so by the use of modern day road
construction equipment such as hydraulic excavators, motor graders,
asphalt pavers, wheel loaders and vibratory compactors.
Hydraulic Excavator
Motor Grader
Asphalt Paver/Paving Machine
Wheel Loader
Vibratory Compactor
History
Roadways a Necessity for Growing Cities
While paths leading to water and food sources have been traced back as far as 4,000
B.C. in the form of paved stones and later as logs and bricks in some communities,
roadways began to take off when civilization formed into a network of cities and
towns. Foot was the most common form of transportation, and later, the horse and
buggy. Roadways had to be easily navigable and accessible. The oldest such road to
date is in the English kingdom of Wessex; it has been traced back as early as 2700
B.C. The road, which begins at the River Avon and ends at Heel Stone near
Stonehenge is 1.9 miles (3 km) long and is said to be the origin of the word "avenue."
Building roadways quickly became the responsibility of cities as more and more
people flocked to city centers for jobs and food. Soon, roadbuilding was recognized
as a crucial way to map the world; thus began a series of road construction projects
in Rome. The project became so expansive that the distance of the roads constructed
in Rome could run around the equator twice
History
Early Road-building Methods
Some of the first roads in England were built by men such as John Metcalfe, a
Scotsman who built roads with a distance of 180 miles (290 km) in Yorkshire,
England. Despite being blind, Metcalfe drained roads and built them with three
layers consisting of gravel, excavated road material, and large stones.
Modern tarred roads in England were also the work of two Scots, engineers Thomas
Telford and John Loudon MacAdam. Telford came up with the system of raising the
roads foundation in order to prevent flooding. He also devised methods of analyzing
the thickness of stones, road traffic, road alignment, and gradient slopes. This
allowed him to employ methods that would improve the way roads were built, using
better, more sustainable materials that could withstand weather and traffic
conditions. His design eventually became the standard for roadbuilding projects.
History
Establishing Trading and Transportation Routes in the 19th Century
Road construction became increasingly popular in Europe as international
trading for commodities became an ever-expanding market.
At the end of the 19th century, early roadbuilding machines such as
the motor grader, scraper, and excavator appeared. Even the plow in its
primitive form was used for roadbuilding. The excavator or shovel, a steam-
driven tool with a bucket used for digging, was invented by William S.
Otis when his contracting company Carmichael and Fairbanks took on a
railway project.
History
First Asphalt Roads
The first asphalt roads appeared in 1824 on the Champs-Elysees in Paris. Asphalt
soon became widely used throughout Europe and North America and is now used on
96 percent of all paved roads and streets in America; that is about two million miles
(3.2 million km) of road covered with asphalt. The first use of asphalt on modern-day
roads comes from the work of Belgian immigrant Edward de Smedt at Columbia
University in New York City. De Smedt created an asphalt material with maximum
density in 1872, and used this material while constructing roadways in Battery Park
and on Fifth Avenue in New York in 1872. It was also used on Pennsylvania Avenue in
Washington D.C., five years later.
Some of the first roads in North America were constructed in order to carry more
than 300,000 people from the old world into the new. The first roads, the Santa Fe
Trail linking to a Mexican highway to Santa Fe, New Mexico, and the Oregon Trail
were made navigable by wagons in the 1800s.
History
Today
Today there are 20 million miles (32.3 million km) of roadway in the world (as
of 2002). The U.S. holds the record for the highest number of roadways,
measuring 3.9 million miles (6.4 million km) combined, as of 2005. The
European Union and India follow with 3.3 million miles (5.3 million km) and
2.1 million miles (3.3 million km) of roadway respectively.
Roads continue to play a vital factor in modern civilization, with the majority
of roads being constructed according to city and national standards.
Classification of Roads
National Highways
Important roads & connect state capitals, ports, and foreign highways. They are
financed by the central government
State Highways
Connect importance cities and district head quarters in the state, national highways
& state highways of neighboring states. Financed by state government and building
department
District Roads
These are the roads within a district
Major District Roads
Minor District Roads
Village Roads
They connect villages with each other and to the nearest district road
Old Road Surfaces
Gravel Road
Cobblestone
Granite setts
New Road Surfaces
Asphalt
Concrete

Note: This surfaces laid on a compacted base coarse

Gravel Road
Gravel is known to have been used extensively in the construction of
roads by soldiers of the Roman Empire but in 1998 a limestone-
surfaced road, thought to date back to the Bronze Age, was found
at Yarnton in Oxfordshire, Britain.
Applying gravel, or "metalling," has had two distinct usages in road
surfacing.
The term road metal refers to the broken stone or cinders used in
the construction or repair of roads or railways, and is derived from
the Latin metallum, which means both "mine" and "quarry".
The term originally referred to the process of creating a gravel
roadway.
 The route of the roadway would first be dug down several feet and,
depending on local conditions, French drains may or may not have
been added. Next, large stones were placed and compacted, followed
by successive layers of smaller stones, until the road surface was
composed of small stones compacted into a hard, durable surface.
"Road metal" later became the name of stone chippings mixed
with tar to form the road surfacing material tarmac.
A road of such material is called a "metalled road" in Britain, a
"paved road" in Canada and the US, or a "sealed road" in parts of
Canada, Australia and New Zealand.
Cobblestone
Cobblestone is a natural building material based on cobble-sized stones,
and is used for pavement roads, streets, and buildings.
In England, it was commonplace since ancient times for flat stones with a
flat narrow edge to be set on edge to provide an even paved surface.
This was known as a 'pitched' surface and was common all over Britain, as
it did not require rounded pebbles. Pitched surfaces predate the use of
regularly-sized granite setts by more than a thousand years. Such pitched
paving is quite distinct from that formed from rounded stones, although
both forms are commonly referred to as 'cobbled' surfaces. Most surviving
genuinely old 'cobbled' areas are in reality pitched surfaces.
 Cobblestones are typically either set in sand or similar material, or are
bound together with mortar. Paving with cobblestones allows a road to be
heavily used all year long. It prevents the build-up of ruts often found
in dirt roads. It has the additional advantage of not getting muddy in wet
weather or dusty in dry weather. Shod horses are also able to get better
traction on stone cobbles, pitches or setts than tarmac/asphalt.
The fact that carriage wheels, horse hooves and even modern automobiles
make a lot of noise when rolling over cobblestone paving might be thought
a disadvantage, but it has the advantage of warning pedestrians of their
approach. In England, the custom was to strew the cobbles outside the
house of a sick or dying person with straw to dampen the sound.
Cobblestones set in sand have the environmental advantage of
being permeable paving, and of moving rather than cracking with
movements in the ground.
Use of Today
Granite Setts
Granite paving and setts is a hard wearing stone with a sparkling glint
when the sun shines. Our range of brown and grey granite paving is
sawn on all six sides with a textured surface which gives grip
especially in wet weather.
Notable places paved with setts include many streets
in Rome and Italy (where blocks are called sampietrini or bolognini),
since the technique was first used by Romans, in Aberdeen
(Scotland), much of Edinburgh's Old Town and New Town, and Red
Square in Moscow.
Asphalt
Asphalt (specifically, asphalt concrete), sometimes called flexible
pavement due to the nature in which it distributes loads, has been
widely used since the 1920s. The viscous nature of
the bitumen binder allows asphalt concrete to sustain
significant plastic deformation, although fatigue from repeated
loading over time is the most common failure mechanism.
Most asphalt surfaces are laid on a gravel base, which is generally at
least as thick as the asphalt layer, although some 'full depth' asphalt
surfaces are laid directly on the native subgrade.
 Depending on the temperature at which it is applied, asphalt is
categorized as hot mix, warm mix, or cold mix. Hot mix asphalt is
applied at temperatures over 300 F (150 C) with a free floating
screed. Warm mix asphalt is applied at temperatures of 200250 F
(95120 C), resulting in reduced energy usage and emissions
of volatile organic compounds. Cold mix asphalt is often used on
lower volume rural roads, where hot mix asphalt would cool too
much on the long trip from the asphalt plant to the construction site.
Concrete
Concrete surfaces (specifically, Portland cement concrete) are created
using a concrete mix of Portland cement, coarse aggregate, sand and water.
In virtually all modern mixes there will also be various admixtures added to
increase workability, reduce the required amount of water, mitigate
harmful chemical reactions and for other beneficial purposes.
In many cases there will also be Portland cement substitutes added, such
as fly ash. This can reduce the cost of the concrete and improve its physical
properties. The material is applied in a freshly mixed slurry, and worked
mechanically to compact the interior and force some of the cement slurry
to the surface to produce a smoother, denser surface free from
honeycombing. The water allows the mix to combine molecularly in a
chemical reaction called hydration.
Three common types of concrete surfaces
Jointed Plain (JPCP)
Jointed Reinforced (JRCP)
Continuously Reinforced (CRCP)
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavements
Jointed plain concrete pavements contain enough joints to control the
location of all the expected shrinkage cracks. The concrete cracks at
the joints and not elsewhere in the slabs. Jointed plain pavements do
not contain any steel reinforcement. However, there may be smooth
steel bars at transverse joints and deformed steel bars at longitudinal
joints. The spacing between transverse joints is typically about 15 feet
(4.6 m) for slabs 7 to 12 inches (180 to 300 mm) thick.
Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavements
Jointed reinforced concrete pavements contain steel mesh
reinforcement (sometimes called distributed steel). In jointed
reinforced concrete pavements, designers increase the joint spacing
purposely, and include reinforcing steel to hold together intermediate
cracks in each slab. The spacing between transverse joints is typically
30 feet (9.1 m) or more. In the past, some agencies used a spacing as
great as 100 feet (30 m). During construction of the interstate system,
most agencies in the Eastern and Midwestern United States laid
jointed-reinforced pavement. Today only a handful of agencies
employ this design, and its use is generally not recommended as both
of the other types offer better performance and are easier to repair.
Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavements
Continuously reinforced concrete pavements do not require any transverse
contraction joints. Transverse cracks are expected in the slab, usually at
intervals of 3 to 5 ft (0.91 to 1.52 m). These pavements are designed with
enough steel, 0.60.7% by cross-sectional area, so that cracks are held
together tightly. Determining an appropriate spacing between the cracks is
part of the design process for this type of pavement.
Continuously reinforced designs may cost slightly more than jointed
reinforced or jointed plain designs due to increased quantities of steel.
Often the cost of the steel is offset by the reduced cost of concrete because
a continuously reinforced design is nearly always significantly thinner than
a jointed design for the same traffic loads. Properly designed, the two
methods should demonstrate similar long-term performance and cost-
effectiveness. A number of agencies have made policy decisions to use
continuously reinforced designs in their heavy urban traffic corridors.
How a road is made?
Roads are made by engineer's designing and then putting the plan
together. Construction equipment is brought in to level the area or to
add material to the area that the road is to be built. Material may
consist of dirt, sand concrete or tar for black tops (highways).
Basic Structural Elements
A typical flexible pavement structure (see Figure) consists of the surface course
and the underlying base and subbase courses. Each of these layers contributes to
structural support and drainage. The surface course (typically an HMA layer) is
the stiffest (as measured by resilient modulus) and contributes the most to
pavement strength. The underlying layers are less stiff but are still important to
pavement strength as well as drainage and frost protection. A typical structural
design results in a series of layers that gradually decrease in material quality with
depth.
Surface Course
The surface course is the layer in contact with traffic loads and normally
contains the highest quality materials. It provides characteristics such as
friction, smoothness, noise control, rut and shoving resistance and
drainage. In addition, it serves to prevent the entrance of excessive
quantities of surface water into the underlying base, subbase and
subgrade.
This top structural layer of material is sometimes subdivided into two layer:
Wearing Course. This is the layer in direct contact with traffic loads. It is meant to
take the brunt of traffic wear and can be removed and replaced as it becomes
worn. A properly designed (and funded) preservation program should be able to
identify pavement surface distress while it is still confined to the wearing
course. This way, the wearing course can be rehabilitated before distress propagates
into the underlying intermediate/binder course.
Intermediate/Binder Course. This layer provides the bulk of the HMA structure. It's
chief purpose is to distribute load.
Base Course
The base course is immediately beneath the surface course. It
provides additional load distribution and contributes to drainage and
frost resistance. Base courses are usually constructed out of:
Aggregate. Base courses are most typically constructed from durable
aggregates that will not be damaged by moisture or frost action. Aggregates
can be either stabilized or un-stabilized.
Hot Mix Asphalt. In certain situations where high base stiffness is desired,
base courses can be constructed using a variety of HMA mixes. In relation to
surface course HMA mixes, base course mixes usually contain larger
maximum aggregate sizes, are more open graded and are subject to more
lenient specifications.
Sub-Base Course
The subbase course is between the base course and the subgrade. It
functions primarily as structural support but it can also:
Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the pavement
structure.
Improve drainage.
Minimize frost action damage.
Provide a working platform for construction. The subbase generally consists
of lower quality materials than the base course but better than the subgrade
soils. A subbase course is not always needed or used.
Factors which affect the selection of these
pavements
Initial cost
Availability of good materials
Cost of maintenance
Environmental conditions
Availability of industrial wastes
Traffic intensity
Design Parameters for Road Construction
Possible heaviest vehicle will travel to the area
For design traffic we consider the existing traffic and rate of growth
Design Life
The no. of years to be taken until the major reconstruction. Design life depend upon
the environmental conditions, materials used ,maintenance etc. For rural roads
design life of 10 years is considered. In low volume roads for the thin bituminous
surfacing design life of 5 years is considered.
Pavement Components
Subgrade
Sub-Base
Base Coarse
Surface Coarse - Thickness of surface course depend upon the traffic volume and
type of material used for it.
Road Construction Process
Planning
Before earthmoving machinery can be put to work, the land undergoes a series of surveys to
determine the route, distance, direction, and elevation. Other important factors in considering the
construction of a road is what materials would be used and what method would be employed.
Clearing
The first task in the roadbuilding process is to clear the road of any obstructions that may disturb
the pathway. This may include removing things such as trees, bushes, stumps, and rock. In the
early days of construction, these obstructions were removed by hand or with the help of horse-
drawn plows. Today, they can easily be removed by a hydraulic excavator, which digs the items out
of the soil with its long, extended arm and bucket, removing the tree or rock.
Leveling
The next step involves leveling the land. Before the advent of modern machinery, this task was
undertaken with hand-held rakes and hoes, or even primitive scrapers that were hauled by horses
and oxen. Today, this is completed by wheel loaders that remove larger chunks of dirt and rock and
leveled out by motor scrapers. Motor scrapers usually consist of a scraper blade that cuts into the
dirt, removes it, and hauls it into the machines bowl.
Road Construction Process
Materials
Gravel and Asphalt
Other materials can be used for road construction, although asphalt is one of the most
common.
Sand and Clay
When preparing the sub-grade with materials such as sand and clay, the job is best
completed on a dry roadbed that has been plowed and harrowed
Stones
Some road surfaces are made up on stones. The process for this is somewhat similar to
pavement and asphalt surfaces. In employing stones, each unit is spread over the surface
in a symmetrical fashion and settled with a sledgehammer.
Maintenance
Pavement Construction and Inspection Go
Together
On any road construction project, there will be one or more
inspectors assigned to check that work is being done to specifications,
collect material samples if needed, and monitor progress.
Inspection Roles and Functions
A variety of people may be involved in project inspection activity,
either through the contractor building the road or with the agency
that owns the road.
Inspecting the quality of the work is naturally an important issue for
the agency, but contractors can also have pay incentives tied to
quality and be involved with inspections, depending on the type of
project and specifications involved. For example, a QC/QA
specification involves a combination of quality control (QC), for which
inspections and testing are performed by the contractor, and quality
assurance (QA) by the agency to validate the contractors results.
Observation and Sampling
When construction activity is ongoing, project inspectors commonly spend
virtually all of their working hours in the field, observing the work and
collecting material samples as needed. A single construction project often
creates a full workload for an inspector, and large or complex projects may
require more than one. Responsibilities are also sometimes divided
between an inspector from the field office, who observes and reports on
construction activity, and a technician from the laboratory, who oversees
collection and testing of samples. In addition, chief inspectors or project
managers may oversee an inspection team or coordinate inspection work
across multiple projects.
Inspection observations generally have a common purpose, which is to
review compliance with project plans, materials, and specifications. This
includes use of proper work procedures, approved materials and locations,
and following work zone safety requirements.
Inspection Documentation
If you ask an inspector which of their observations need to be
documented, they would probably tell you, All of them.
Essentially, inspection documentation should include anything that might
impact the construction or performance of the road being built. This
extends beyond construction activity to factors ranging from site
characteristics to weather conditions to traffic control. Inspectors are often
also responsible for documenting essential information about project
operations, such as the composition of work crews and equipment, or
quantities of construction materials as they are placed or removed.
This documentation may be needed to allocate contractor payments, track
progress, or serve as evidence if questions about the work arise later on.
Creating Confidence in Construction Quality
Inspections arent supposed to be about mysterious or secret criteria,
everything inspectors look for is in the plans and specifications. And
in a sense, having inspectors there to observe is designed to keep
good work from staying a secret. Inspections play a critical part in
making sure the agency, and in turn the general public that uses the
road, can have confidence in the quality of its construction. When a
construction project produces a quality pavement, thats something
to be proud of, and you want everyone to know about it.
Types of Pavements
Flexible Pavement
Rigid Pavement