a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Ceramic matrix composites (CMC) are promising materials for friction applications. Typically, C/SiC rotors
Received 27 January 2016 are combined with organic pads (Low Met). Within this work, two types of CMC brake pads were studied,
Received in revised form 22 April 2016 C/SiC SF as well as C/SiC SF 11Coke with 11 vol.% coke as ller, accompanied with the Low Met reference
Accepted 24 April 2016
pads. Small brake pads (400 mm2 ) were applied on a lab-scale and larger pads (12,000 mm2 ) on a full-
Available online 2 May 2016
scale inertia dynamometer. In both cases, the corresponding rotor was a C/SiC disc with a SiC-rich friction
layer. Sliding speeds up to 42.6 m/s and braking pressures up to 8 MPa were applied. The smaller CMC
Keywords:
pads show lower wear and higher coefcient of frictions (COF), compared to the reference. This frictional
Friction
Tribology
behavior was conrmed on the full-scale dynamometer with mean COFs up to 0.45. However, the wear
C/SiC of the large C/SiC pads was somewhat higher on the full-scale dynamometer.
Ceramic brakes 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Dynamometer
CMC
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2016.04.040
0955-2219/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
3824 N. Langhof et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society 36 (2016) 38233832
Table 1
The constituents of the brake pads [42].
Low Met reference C-short bers LSI C-short bers with coke
Amorphous C-bers Metallic components (bers and particles from steel, brass, bronze, copper) Amorphous C-bers Amorphous C-bers
Amorphous C-matrix Amorphous C-matrix Amoprhous C-matrix
SiC SiC Coke
Silicon Fillers (Barite, rubber, etc.) Silicon SiC
Unknown Abrasives (alumina, silica) Porosity Silicon
Porosity Lubricants (graphite, suldes) Porosity
Binder (phenolic resin)
Unknown
Porosity
Table 2
Test matrix on the lab-scale test rig.
Rotating Speed in m/s Braking Time in s Cycles Friction energy in MJ Power intensity in W/mm2
Pressure in N/mm2 Braking Time in s Cycles Friction energy in MJ Power intensity in W/mm2
0.54 12 22 2 9.4
2.44 2.7 22 2 42.5
power intensities (W/mm2 ) can be realized, are rarely found in lit- coke was mixed with the phenolic powder and C-ber bundles
erature [28,31]. Very few works are dealing with high speeds above subsequently.
25 m/s [21,28,31,32]. Further investigations show the inuences of Three types of pad materials were studied:
silicon, silicon alloys and additives on the tribological properties.
The COFs decrease at higher speeds above 20 m/s and the wear rates
increases signicantly [17,18,21,3133,35,39,40]. SiO2 , derived by (1) C/SiC SF ceramics comprising C-short bers without ller, SiC,
the oxidation of Si and SiC, can be found on the frictional surfaces Si and amorphous carbon
above 400 C [20,21,28,32,41]. (2) C/SiC SF 11Coke ceramics of (1) with additional 11 vol.% coke
Within the current study, the tribological behavior of C-short within the CFRP green body
ber reinforced ceramics on a lab-scale and a full-scale test rig are (3) Low Met reference commercial available mixture of metallic
investigated. The chosen pad-on-disc setup consists of a harder, bers mainly consisting of particles (steel, bronze, brass, cop-
which means a SiC-rich friction layer bearing C/SiC brake rotor per), solid lubricants (graphite, coke), hard particles (alumina,
(diameter 380 mm), on softer less SiC- resp. coke containing C/SiC silica) and phenolic resin acting as binder
brake pads. In order to enhance the tribological behavior of the
C/SiC materials, coke as a solid lubricant was added. Lower stiff- The ceramic materials were manufactured by the liquid silicon
nesses, obtained in mechanical tests, show the softening effect inltration process. The three step process consists of:
of coke and the potential for a further improvement of the prop-
erties of the C-ber reinforced ceramic brake pads, compared to
conventional friction materials like Low Mets or Semi Mets. 1. Green body manufacturing (mixing bers, llers and resin; warm
The ceramic materials were studied at sliding speeds up to pressing up to 250 C) CFRP
42.6 m/s and braking pressures up to 8 MPa. Furthermore, the fric- 2. Pyrolysis (transformation of the phenolic matrix into amorphous
tion and wear mechanisms were discussed and summarized in a carbon at temperatures above 900 C under inert condi-
preliminary model. tions) porous C/C preform
3. Liquid silicon inltration (driven by capillary forces and the
good wetting behavior of Si on carbon at temperatures above
2. Materials and methods 1420 C) C/SiC ceramic
Fig. 1. Initial friction surfaces of C/SiC pads with 6 mm carbon short bers (400 mm2 ).
Table 3
Overview of the AK-Master test (SAE J2522); The sliding speed is calculated, regarding to the mean friction radius of the pads (r = 0.152 m).
Table 4
Bulk density, open porosity and the composition of the applied pads, ns = not specied.
Bulk Density [g/cm3 ] Open Porosity [%] Composition of the C/SiC bulk material in vol.%
Disc material
C/SiC 2.45 ns Friction layer: 70% SiC; 15% C; 15% Si
Pad materials
Low Met 4.50 25.0 see Ref. [42]
C/SiC SF 2.00 1.0 64% C-bers and C-matrix; 23% SiC; 13% Si
C/SiC SF 11Coke 1.94 2.1 73% C-bers; C-matrix and coke; 18.5% SiC; 8.5% Si
Fig. 3. (a) Geometry of the C/SiC ceramic brake pad (frictional surface = 12000 mm2 ); (b) experimental setup (brake disc and calliper) in the full-scale inertia dynamometer
(Audi AG).
Fig. 4. Microstructure of the ceramic pads (cross sections) before braking (optical microscope images); (a) C/SiC SF; (b) C/SiC SF 11Coke.
Fig. 5. Speed and pressure series on the lab-scale test rig; (a) Dependence of COF on the speed at constant pressure; (b) Dependence of COF on the pressure at constant
speed.
The AK-Master test contains high and low speed braking sec- temperature of the friction material can be measured constantly
tions as well as different braking pressures. The COFs and the during braking, similar to the lab-scale test rig. After the whole test,
N. Langhof et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society 36 (2016) 38233832 3827
Fig. 7. AK-Master test for Low Met reference on the ceramic disc; dotted lines: max.
and min. COF , straight line: mean value; highlighted: Section 8 and 11 (for detailed
test conditions, see Table 3).
Fig. 6. Wear rates after the pressure series (v = 17.4 m/s, p = 0.54 resp. 2.44 N/mm2 )
resp. the speed series (p = 2.44 N/mm2 ; v = 3.4; 17.4 and 42.6 m/s) for all brake pairs,
determined after each series, the speed resp. the pressure series.
Fig. 8. AK-Master test for C/SiC SF on the ceramic disc; dotted lines: max. and min.
3. Results and discussion
COF , straight line: mean value; highlighted: Section 8 and 11 (for detailed test
conditions, see Table 3).
A summary of the bulk densities and open porosities of the pad
materials are given in Table 4. The bulk density of C/SiC SF 11Coke
decreases from 2.00 g/cm3 to 1.94 g/cm3 and the porosity increases
slightly from 1 to 2.1% referred to C/SiC SF.
This is probably due to the fact, that these samples contains less
SiC and Si, but more carbon compared to C/SiC SF. Additionally,
the coke particles are akes and less compacted, compared to the
amorphous carbon matrix.
Besides of the coke ller, the lower Si-content of the C/SiC SF
11Coke material is very important to understand the tribological
behavior later on. Due to the addition of the coke ller, less phenolic Fig. 9. AK-Master test for C/SiC SF 11Coke materials on the ceramic disc; dotted
matrix was added in the CFRP body and less shrinkage occurred lines: max. and min. COF , straight line: mean value; highlighted: Section 8 and 11
during the pyrolysis. The C/C of C/C-SiC SF shows 20% open porosity, (for detailed test conditions, see Table 3).
the C/C-preform of C/C-SiC SF 11Coke only 9%. Due to the lower
porosity, fewer amounts of Si can be inltrated and transformed v = 3.4; 17.4 and 42.6 m/s). C/SiC SF shows the highest wear rates
into SiC during the nal liquid silicon inltration process (Fig. 4). with 13 105 mm3 /J and C/SiC SF 11Coke the lowest wear with
1.0 105 mm3 /J. Due to the addition of coke, the ceramic pads
3.1. COF and wear rates of the lab-scale dynamometer samples becomes softer. It show 25% less stiffness compared to C/SiC SF.
Furthermore, coke particles are less brittle and more exible than
The results of the full-ceramic brakes on the lab-scale the other phases within the ceramic pads. Therefore, the real con-
dynamometer are shown in Fig. 5a and b. Ceramic pads with the tact and the COF increases simultaneously with a decreasing wear
dimensions of 20 20 10 mm3 (length x width x thickness) were rate.
tested on the ventilated C/SiC rotors (diameter = 380 mm).
The COF of both C/SiC materials show similar values between 3.2. COFs and wear on a full-scale inertia
0.2 and 0.7 (Fig. 5). During the friction test at 3.4 m/s, COFs between dynamometerAK-Master test
0.63 and 0.64 were measured for both ceramic pads. The uctua-
tions of the COFs for these test conditions are between 0.44 and The tribological behaviors of the full-ceramic materials as well
0.84. Only slight deviations between 0.40 and 0.44 were observed as the Low Met reference were studied during the AK-Master tests.
for the reference material. COFs were measured continuously, as well as the temperatures of
With increasing friction speed from 3.4 m/s to 42.6 m/s, the COF the friction materials. The amount of wear was determined after
of the ceramic pads decrease from about 0.60.24 for C/SiC SF resp. the tests by measuring the thickness changes. The results, obtained
0.28 for C/SiC SF 11Coke (Fig. 5a). The reference material shows a in the AK-Master tests, show the consistent COF between 0.28 and
stable COF. The COF of the ceramic materials are almost constant 0.44 for the reference Low Met material on the ceramic rotor (Fig. 7).
between 0.4 and 0.44 at 17.4 m/s and different pressures (Fig. 5b). Immediately, within the rst AK-Master section the full-ceramic
Low COFs between 0.2 and 0.3 were determined for the Low Mets couples show one favorable property. The COF for this green effec-
under these loads. tiveness cycle is remarkably higher (0.45) compared to the Low
The wear rates were determined after the whole pressure Met pads (0.3). The mean COF of the C/SiC SF material (0.39) is on
resp. speed series. All wear rates after the pressure series the same level compared to the state of the art Low Met mate-
(v = 17.4 m/s, p = 0.54 resp. 2.44 N/mm2 ) are low and between rial (Figs. 7 and 8). For the C/SiC 11Coke material, the mean COF
1.5 and 2.0 105 mm3 /J (Fig. 6). The lowest wear rate of increases signicantly up to 0.45 (Fig. 9). The behavior is more bal-
1.5 105 mm3 /J was measured for C/SiC SF 11Coke. The differ- anced compared to C/SiC SF and on a higher COF level, independent
ences are more pronounced after the speed series (p = 2.44 N/mm2 ; of the conditions within the AK-Master test sections. Furthermore,
3828 N. Langhof et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society 36 (2016) 38233832
different, which are ve for the small pads and about 24 for the
larger pads. That mean, that the small pads exhibit more particles
close to the outer surface, which can be abraded or sheared off
more easily in comparison to the larger ceramic materials. Hence,
porous materials, like the Low Met reference degrade more and
show higher wear rates on the lab-scale test rig. The reliability of
the obtained results on a lab-scale test rig, rises with an increasing
of the thermomechanical stability of the selected friction materials.
Fig. 11. Model which sums up the observed friction and wear mechanisms for the full-ceramic brake systems, C/SiC SF and C/SiC SF 11Coke.
Fig. 12. Frictional surfaces (SEM images, topography contrast); (a) C/SiC SF with partially deep grooves due to abrasion; (b) C/SiC SF 11Coke; SD = sliding direction.
Fig. 13. Frictional surface of the C/SiC rotor after braking on the lab-scale rig (counterpart: C/SiC SF); SD = sliding direction (Fig. 5a); (a) top view; back scattered SEM image;
(b) cross section (optical microscope) [33].
Fig. 14. Surface roughness/topography; areas denoted measured in Table 6 (a) C/SiC SF; (b) C/SiC SF 11Coke.
3830 N. Langhof et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society 36 (2016) 38233832
Table 5
Detailed comparison of the tribological tests on the lab-scale and the full-scale test rig; TDisc measured on the surface, TPads measured on the backside.
Pad type COF Wear rate k in 105 mm3 /J TMaxDisc in C TMaxPads in C COF Wear in mm TMaxDisc in C TMaxPads in C
Low Met Reference 0.200.42 4.4 530 140 0.280.44 0.58 800 300
C/SiC SF 0.240.63 7.4 380 610 0.270.58 1.48 850 500
C/SiC SF 11Coke 0.280.64 1.3 440 370 0.310.49 0.8 800 450
Table 6
Surface and prole roughness according to the areas in (Fig. 14), Sa resp. Ra = average roughness, Sp resp. Rp = max. peak height, Sv resp. Rv = max. valley depth.
e.g. Sa Sp Sv e.g. Sa Sp Sv
Area 1 3.3 11.7 16.6 Area 1 3.1 10.1 32.3
e.g. Ra Rp Rv e.g. Ra Rp Rv
Line 1 5.1 9.9 13.3 Line 1 1.8 3.9 5.8
Line 2 5.1 10.1 13.9 Line 2 1.3 4 3.5
Line 3 5.7 10.8 14.3 Line 3 1.8 6.4 4.6
Line 4 5.9 12.6 15.1 Line 4 1.8 4.1 7.9
Mean 5.5 10.9 14.2 Mean 1.7 4.6 5.5
deep grooves evolve and the potential contact area, which could resp. teared of 3rd-body from the surface of the C/SiC SF material
enhances the friction forces, decreases. The coke containing mate- (Fig. 15a). Additionally, at 3.4 m/s the stick-slip effect was observed
rial has the ability to avoid theses abrasion mechanisms, by with the C/SiC SF materials. Noises, vibrations and harshnesses
trapping these particles inside of the soft coke akes. (NVH) occurred by the frequently transition between static and
dynamic friction at 3.4 m/s.
Low silicon contents and the solid lubricant coke on the fric-
3.6. Adhesion tion surfaces prevent the predominance of the adhesion-abrasion
mechanism, the evolution of harshness peaks on the rotor and NVH
In conjunction with the abrasion, the adhesion has to be issues for the C/SiC SF 11Coke materials. We assume that only small
discussed. Adhesion between the C/SiC rotor and C/SiC SF pad spots temporarily evolve for C/SiC SF 11Coke. They are immediately
accompanied by material transfer occurred due to the free silicon abraded by the SiC of the opposing rotor. Furthermore, the author
on both frictional surfaces. Silicon welds together during friction has already conrmed that, no transfer resp. adhesion-abrasion
and can incorporate hard SiC wear particles (Fig. 13b). Speeds occurred, when silicon from the pad is extracted [33].
above 20 m/s and temperatures above 400 C enable this observed Signicantly more smooth and polished contact plateaus resp.
phenomenon, because of the brittle to ductile transition of silicon 3rd-bodies can be detected on the surface of C/SiC SF 11Coke
[33,3638] and a presumably incorporation of the SiC wear debris. (Fig. 15b).
Furthermore, the new evolved welding contacts start to transfer
Si from the C/SiC SF pads to the C/SiC rotor, where the silicon is
3.7. Oxidation
bonded stronger and the peaks continuously grow the longer a
brake test last. Due to the higher SiSiC content, the thermal con-
The oxidation of carbon starts at about 400 C in air. Further-
ductivity of the rotor is signicantly higher (>20 W/mK) compared
more, the formation of SiO2 from the oxidation of Si and SiC is
to the pads (<10 W/mK). Therefore, after the brittle to ductile tran-
possible due the signicantly higher temperature on contact area
sition, the Si within the C/SiC SF pads gets softer and is transferable
of the frictional surfaces, which cant be determined during braking
more easily than from the colder opposite direction. The silicon
[20,21,28,32,41]. The EDX analysis conrms the presence of oxygen
from the rotor is derived from the SiSiC friction layer. This friction
(Fig. 16). It is hard to detect, whether SiO2 occurs as a lubrication
layer is formed during the siliconization and its microstructure is
lm or in local spots on the tribological surfaces of C/SiC SF and
similar to a monolithic SiSiC ceramic with only few C-bers. On
C/SiC SF 11Coke. Further measurements are required, to conrm or
the one hand, the silicon matrix with this friction layer is homoge-
disconrm the statements in the literature.
nously distributed over the whole surface of the friction layer. On
the other hand, silicon in the pads is not so well distributed and can
be found in spots or small cracks resp. aggregates in the dimension 3.8. Fatigue
of 1050 m width surrounded by SiC and mainly carbon. There-
fore, it is more realistic to assume, that silicon is transferred from The ceramic materials can be damaged partially by the cyclic
the pads towards the rotor. Lower forces are required to pull the thermomechanical loadings during braking. This wear mechanism
silicon out of the pads, compared to the silicon from the rotor. This is detectable by some cracks evolved after braking within the
unfavorable mechanism, is the reason for the partially removed microstructure (Fig. 17). CMC are C-ber reinforced and much less
N. Langhof et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society 36 (2016) 38233832 3831
Fig. 15. Frictional surfaces (SEM images, topography contrast); (a) C/SiC SF with partially removed friction layer due to adhesion; (b) C/SiC SF 11Coke; SD = sliding direction.
Fig. 16. EDX-analysis of the C/SiC disc surface indicate the presence of oxygen, besides of Si and C.
Fig. 17. Cross sections (optical microscope) after braking; (a) C/SiC SF; (b) C/SiC SF 11Coke.
brittle than monolithic ceramics. Nevertheless, the strain to failure and the rotor, adhesive-abrasive wear were observed and are cru-
at room temperature is below 1% and the fracture toughness of Si, cial for the C/C-SiC SF materials.
C and SiC is below 5 MPam1/2 at room temperature as well [43]. Due to the addition of coke (C/SiC SF 11Coke) as a solid lubricant
Fatigues damages are also detected in a previous work [31] and the stiffness of the material decreases to 25%. Soft and exible
could be another factor in the explanation of the higher wear of coke particles within C/SiC SF 11Coke increase the real contact
the ceramic materials compared to the Low Met reference on the area, accompanied with higher COFs, lower wear rates and less
full-scale dynamometer. COF uctuations. The average COFs rises from 0.39 up to 0.45 (AK-
Master) and the wear rate drops from 7.4 105 mm3 /J down to
4. Summary and conclusions 1.3 105 mm3 /J for the lab-scale tests and during the AK-Master
from 1.48 to 0.8 mm thickness loss.
All brake pads within this study were tested on a full-scale CMC In order to make some conclusions we have to point out some
brake rotor at conditions, which are relevant for automotive appli- statements after this study.
cations.
A lab-scale and a full-scale test rig were applied to study the
tribological behavior of these full-ceramic brake systems.
C/C-SiC SF materials show COFs between 0.24 and 0.63 and the The studied full-ceramic brake systems are promising materials
highest wear rates (7.4 105 mm3 /J) on the lab-scale and on the for high braking pressures and especially for speeds up to about
full-scale test rig. Due to the residual silicon within the brake pads 20 m/s.
3832 N. Langhof et al. / Journal of the European Ceramic Society 36 (2016) 38233832
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