Departamento de Ciencias de la Educacin

Seccin de Lenguas Contemporneas

Trabajo de Titulacin: Examen Complexivo

Gua didctica

20 crditos

Titulacin

Ingls

Autores:

Fabian Marcelo Paredes Ziga

Orlando Vicente Lizaldes Espinosa

BACHELORS DEGREE WITH SPECIALIZATION IN ENGLISH

2. Table of contents

UNIT 1: Reading and Writing

1.1 Identifying the main ideas in a paragraph
1.2 A comparison and contrast essay
1.3 Use of figurative language
UNIT 2: Introduction to Applied Linguistics
2.1 The field of applied linguistics
2.2 Sociolinguistics. Language variations
2.3 Theories of language acquisition: Linguistic vs. communicative competence
UNIT 3: Psychology and Language Learning
3.1 First Language Acquisition
3.2 Second Language Learning
3.3 Krashens Monitor Model.
UNIT 4: English Phonology
4.1 Fields of phonology and phonetics
4.2 Main features of pronunciation. The articulation of phonemes
UNIT 5: Culture and Literature
5.1 Interpretation (How to approach a text)
5.2 Speech and writing
5.3 Narrative in story and history
UNIT 6: Communicative Grammar
6.1 Adjectives and adverbs
6.2 Gerunds and infinitives
6.3 More modals and similar expressions
6.4 Adjective clauses with subject/object relative pronouns
6.5 Indirect speech
6.6 Conditionals
UNIT 7: Syntax
7.1 Clauses and Sentences
7.2 Constituency
7.3 Constructions: Types of constructions

UNIT 8: Academic Writing

8.1 Paragraph structure
8.2 From paragraph to essay
8.3 Paraphrase and summary
UNIT 9: Educational Research
9.1 Identifying a research problem
9.2 Reviewing the literature
9.3 Reporting and evaluating research
UNIT 10: Methodology and Didactics
10.1 Methodology and Didactics
10.1.1 Seating arrangement and grouping students
10.1.2 Lesson plan design
10.1.3 Teaching speaking
10.2 Methodology and didactics II: Teaching reading and writing
10.2.1 Intensive and extensive reading
10.2.2 Assessing reading and writing
10.2.3 The writing process
10.3 Methodology and didactics III: Teaching listening and speaking
10.3.1 Models and Types of Listening
10.3.2 Variations of Dictation
10.3.3 Negotiation
UNIT 11: Language Testing
11.1 Principles of language assessment
11.2 Informal and formal assessment
11.3 Formative and summative assessment
UNIT 12: Curriculum and Materials
12.1 Overview of curriculum and materials
12.2 Material design for EFL teaching
12.3 Selection of textbooks for teaching English
 UNIT 13: Teaching Techniques

13.1 Strategies for Language Development

13.2 Strategies for Literacy Development.

13.3. Technology Strategies for English Learners.

3. Introduction

Trabajo de Titulacin: Examen Complexivo is an essential course included at the

end of the English program and it is part of the Sciences of Education of Open and Distance
learning and the On-site modality. Due to its nature and complexity, it is worth 20 UTPL-
ECTS credits. In order to take this course which is taught in the ninth semester of the
English major applicants must have passed all subjects of the English curriculum; that is,
core, basic, complementary, generic, practical, and elective ones.

The current document aims to be a didactic instrument of information. It provides a

step-by-step approach in which Distance-learning and On-site Modality students can find
decisively material to perform in the examination process successfully. The information
revealed in this didactic guide will help applicants recall specific themes of the English
program. The main purpose of this course is to display all generic and specific competences
as well as academic and teaching skills acquired throughout the English program in spoken
and written ways.

The information provided in this guide has been divided in two parts. The first part
corresponds to the first term, and it covers central themes such as language skills,
linguistics and structure of English. In the first term you will review information of the
following components: reading and writing, culture and literature, psychology and language
learning, phonology, applied linguistics and communicative grammar. In the second term
you will be revising information about academic writing, educational research,
methodology and didactics, language testing, curriculum and materials, and teaching
techniques, which are part of the pedagogy of EFL teaching and structure of English
language central themes.
 Finally, careful reading, and time organization are essential factors for successfully
accomplish a positive outcome in this examination. On the occasion of this academic event,
we would like to wish you the greatest possible success in your performance.

4. Bibliography

4.1 Basic

Paredes, F. & Lizaldes. O. (2015). Gua Didctica de Examen Complexivo. Loja-Ecuador:

UTPL

The purpose of this guide is to present a compilation of topics that have been learned by
students during this career. The information presented will guide the students in reviewing
the contents of specific topics. The guide is a necessary tool that will complement the
bibliography provided.

4.2 Complementary

Baker C. L (1995). English Syntax. Library of Congress Cataloging-in Publication Data.

ISBN: 9780262023856. USA.

This textbook constitutes an imperative introduction to Syntax for students who have had
no prior coursework in the field. It includes relevant core themes related to modifiers and
complements as well as introductory tree diagrams and their construction. Besides, it
devotes a complete section to the analysis of complex structures, phrase constructions,
grammar clauses, negation and negative constraints. It proposes a systematic analysis and
some practical strategies for analyzing conjoined structures.

Burneo, R. M. (2014) Didactic Guide. Syntax and Teaching Grammar. Loja, Ecuador:
Ediloja.
This guide is a great source for learning and understanding Syntax. This guide works as a
complement for other books related to the topic.

Brennecke, P. (2005). Academic integrity at MIT: A handbook for students. Retrieved from:
 http://web.mit.edu/academicintegrity/handbook/handbook.pdf

The handbook is a useful material which offers students all the knowledge related to
academic honesty; it makes special emphasis on topics such as: citing, quoting,
paraphrasing, summarizing, and ways of avoiding plagiarism.

Brown, D. & Abeywickrama, P. (2010). Language assessment: Principles and classroom

practices. (2nd. Ed.).White Plains, NY: Pearson Education, Inc.

The basic component of this topic is the book Language Assessment: Principles and
Classroom Practices which provides you with the opportunity of becoming competent in
the field of language assessment and testing. The authors of this book, Professor Douglas
Brown and Professor Priyanvada Abeywickrama have boundless experience in the field of
language teaching and language assessment. Professor Brown has greatly supported the
English language teaching process and language assessment as well because his books
make available valuable information related to classroom language assessment which is the
main focus of this subject; his books contain very useful information for the students of
Language Testing. In addition, Professor Abeywickrama has much experience in the field
of teaching and assessment and she has also contributed to write the second edition of the
book Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices which constitutes an
important contribution to language teachers.

Clark, J. & Yallop, C. (1994). An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology. Malden, USA:
Blackwell Publishers

This book covers many of the basic contents of the introductory course to Phonetics and
Phonology, namely: a description of the anatomy and physiology of speech production; the
articulation of sounds; and the phonemic organization of speech and supra-segmental
features.
Cook, G. (2010). Applied Linguistics. Oxford Introduction for Language Study. ISBN-13:

978-0194375986. New York. Oxford University Press.

The textbook chosen for this course is designed to provide a general view of different areas
of language study, teaching and learning. The book covers the most important topics of
applied linguistics that students are required to know. Besides, it addresses the most
pressing and controversial issues surrounding contemporary language use today such as
intercultural communication, political persuasion, new technologies, the growth of English,
language in education and foreign language teaching and learning.

Creswell, J.(2012). Educational Research. Boston: Pearson

This textbook will provide information about quantitative and qualitative research. By
studying this book, students will get the skills to conduct research. Moreover, students will
learn how to read and evaluate research studies.

English, A. K. & English, L. M. (2009). North Star: Reading and Writing 4,(3rd Edition).

USA: Pearson Education.

This book becomes essential in the teaching of reading and writing. The book provides an
assortment of interesting reading and writing exercises which are presented in a variety of
genres, literature and lectures that will improve the learners skills.

Fuchs, M.; Bonner, M. &Westheimer, M. (2012). Focus on Grammar 3: An integrated

skills approach. New York: Pearson Education.

This book was written by Marjorie Fuchs, Margaret Bonner and Miriam Westheimer, who
are EFL and ESL professionals with a vast experience and knowledge. The purpose of this
book is to help students understand and practice English grammar. In addition, students will
gain confidence in their ability to speak and write English accurately.

Fuchs, M. & Bonner, M. (2006). Focus on Grammar 4: An Integrated Skills Approach,

 Third Edition. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.

This textbook has been selected because it addresses relevant grammar topics that will
increase the students knowledge. The text has many exercises that will allow them to
predict, identify main ideas and details using reading articles, grammar structures and
listening activities for comprehension. The book also prepares the students for better
performance when they need to make oral presentations on various topics.

Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English. England: Pearson Education.

This textbook has been selected because it is a very relevant, didactic, and useful book for
any student who is studying to be an English teacher. This textbook includes very essential
topics and basic aspects regarding English language teaching.

Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching. England: Pearson

Longman.

This book includes information related to educational technology, different learning

contexts, discussions on learner autonomy and teacher development among other
interesting topics.

Herrell, A & Jordan, M. (2012) 50 Strategies for teaching English language learners.

Pearson. Fourth Edition.

50 Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners is an extremely practical book for
teachers alike interested in developing their instructional abilities for teaching English. The
textbook presents detailed approaches and methods by which EFL learners can scaffold
various teaching strategies. Besides, it supplies progressively authentic examples in specific
teaching areas namely planning, building comprehension, classroom environment, student
involvement, and providing feedback. Furthermore, the textbook deploys relevant
information about efficient teaching techniques such as role-play, direct approach, locating
information, sorting rock samples, bilingual text vocabulary acquisition, and leveled
questioning.

Hughes, A. (2008). Testing for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
This book contains relevant information about language testing. In here the student will
find specific information related to this course such as washback, test techniques, testing
listening, testing oral ability, validity and reliability

Johnson, B., Christensen, L. (2014). Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative, and

Mixed Approaches. California: SAGE Publications

The textbook focuses on providing information to students that are taking an introductory
research methods course. It is important to highlight that there is not a need for the students
to have prior knowledge in research.

Kelly, G. (2010). How to teach pronunciation (12th edition). Harlow: Pearson Education.

The book is primarily designed to provide you with a general description of speech, vowel
and consonant systems in English. Second, it will provide you with techniques to teach
pronunciation, intonation, stress, and spelling.

Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. (2010). How Languages are Learned. New York. Oxford
University Press.

This textbook provides a comprehensive overview of first and second language acquisition
theories based on recent information regarding factors affecting learning such as
motivation and learning styles as well as ethnic, cultural, and linguistic backgrounds.
Written in an essay-to-digest language, this will be an important source of reference for
language teachers and trainers for the practical implications in classroom activities and
projects.

Mackey, A., Gass, S. (2005). Second Language Research. New York: Routledge

This book is designed for introductory courses on research methodology and design. Also,
this book contains information that can be used as an alternative source for students that
take general courses in second language focusing on research.
McNamara, T. (2008). Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press

This book provides information related to test design, rating processess, validation and
social dimension of testing in relation to Listening & Speaking.

Miller, J. (2008). An Introduction to English Syntax. Second edition. Edinburgh. Edinburgh

University Press.

This book deals with concepts that are used in the analysis of all types of language
situations- from spontaneous conversation to planned and edited writing. It includes
explanations and critical analyses of the grammatical structures of English- from simple to
more complex structures.

Nation. I.S.P. (2009) Teaching ESL/EFL Reading and Writing. New York: ESL &

Applied Linguistics Professional Series. NY: Routledge.

The textbook contains comprehensive contents based on principles of teaching and

learning. This textbook contains practical suggestions for evaluating the ongoing processes
in the classroom as well as providing plenty of suggestions for helping students develop
their reading and writing skills.

Nation, I. & Newton, J. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking. New York:
Routledge.

This books provides you with information regarding teaching Listening and Speaking. The
relevance of the topics that this book contains makes it the right source of knowledge for
teachers and students who are studying to become English teachers

Nation,I.S.P. & Macalister, J. (2010). Language Curriculum Design. NY: Roughtledge.

This textbook has been selected because it comprehensively describes contents related to
curriculum, to the steps involved in the curriculum design process, and to the elaboration
and justification of these steps. It also provides opportunities for practicing and applying
the steps. Additionally, it integrates knowledge from many of the areas in the field of
Applied Linguistics, such as language acquisition research, teaching methodology,
assessment, language description and materials production.

While studying the material in the textbook, you will come across useful information that
will help you to develop and design your own curriculum. In addition, the textbook can be
useful for all educational professionals interested in learning how to develop and design
their own curriculum to be taught by them or by others. It presents curriculum as a how-
to-do-it activity with examples from the writers experience and from published research.

Nesterenko, N. (2015). Didactic guide. Introduction to Applied Linguistics. Loja, Ecuador.

UTPL. Ediloja.

The didactic guide aims helping students to have a successful studying experience as well
as complementing relevant topics of the course which are not covered in the basic textbook.

Nesterenko, N. (2011). Didactic guide English Phonology: Pronunciation. Loja, Ecuador:

Ediloja

The main purpose of this guide is to facilitate the learning process and to supplement
materials for a Phonology course.

Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2006). Writing Academic English. White Plains, NY: Pearson
Education.

The textbook, Writing Academic English, has been selected because its authors are experts
who have made a great effort to present the subject in a comprehensive and challenging
manner; besides, its content is presented in a step-by-step manner with clear models and
varied assignments for practice.
Writing Academic English contains pragmatic content about: paragraph writing,
summarizing, paraphrasing, different types of essay, and sentence structures. Remember
that this textbook will be your main source of study throughout the whole course.

Pinza, E.I. (2015) Methodology and Didactics II: Teaching Reading and Writing. Gua

didctica. Universidad Tcnica Particular de Loja. ISBN: -978-9942-08-630-3

Loja Ecuador. EdiLoja.

The didactic guide has been written by the tutor of the subject and includes clear
explanations related to the contents to be studied during the semester. Furthermore, you
will find recommended activities and self-evaluations which will allow you to put into
practice what you have leaned.

Pope, R. (2012). Studying English Literature and Language: An Introduction and

Companion. New York: Routledge.

This textbook has been chosen for the subject as a comprehensive guide for the field of
English Studies. The third edition is up-to-date, well-structured text covering a wide range
of areas in English literature and language providing the students with a balanced
combination of theory and practice. It is very resourceful and offers many activities for
students to practice and further develop their thinking. Moreover, Pope clarifies and
explains the concept of English as an interdisciplinary field and also gives students a vision
for the future.

Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. New York, NY.

Cambridge University Press.

This text provides a systematic introduction to the issues pertaining to planning,

developing, and managing effective language programs. It provides a systematic
introduction to the issues involved in developing, managing, and evaluating effective
second and foreign language programs and teaching materials. Additionally, it examines
key stage in the curriculum design including situation analysis, needs analysis, goal setting,
syllabus design, materials development and adaptation, teaching and teacher support, and
evaluation.

TESOL (2003).TESOL/NCATE Program Standards. Retrieved from: http://www.ncate.

org/ProgramStandards/TESOL/TesolStd.pdf

This website describes the standards for the accreditation of initial programs such as
language, culture, instruction, assessment and the core, which is academic professionalism.
Each one of the domains is further divided into Standards. There are a total of 13 standards.
The standards themselves are divided into performance indicators. These indicators will
help you identify evidence of candidate performance.

Vargas, A. (2012). Gua Didctica de Curriculum and Materials. Loja, Ecuador: Ediloja.

UTPL.

This didactic guide has been designed to provide you guidance in your learning process.
The guide is organized in units; it contains clear explanations and information to study the
textbook, and to complete the activities proposed to develop the competences and to
guarantee the autonomous learning.

5. General guidelines for studying the course

5.1 Comprehensive examination

In order to successfully complete this course, it is necessary to follow the next study
guidelines:
- Read this didactic guide, its the only path in terms of bibliographic material. It will
conduct you to references and further material to study, including URLs and Open
sources.
- Be careful with the organization of your time. You need to create a study plan or
time-schedule in order to take advantage of it. Remember, theres no time to waste.
- As a recalling subject, pay a lot of attention on the relevant topics already studied.
Take your books and references: information might be explained and considered
once more in this guide.
 - As you know, reading and writing constitute the fishbone of the English program
schemata. Read patiently and develop all the self-evaluation activities proposed.
Write down notes, links, tips as much as you can, and then go and search for
specific details and information.
- When doubts and uncertainties appear, get in contact with your tutor, please.
Theres always going to be one English instructor willing to respond.
- Feel free to ask as many questions as possible. Please, make use of the UTPL virtual
platform (EVA) and other online technological facilities such as email, virtual
library, skype, and messenger.
- Logging in on EVA on a regular basis. Every week, teachers and instructors are
upgrading material and information which is relevant to complete this subject
successfully.
- A videoconference is going to take place every term of studies. Check timetables
and assigned dates in order to assist to them.
- Please develop all the self-assessment activities suggested in this didactic guide.
Their results will show you if theres something to go over. Remember that an
answer key is provided at the end of this guide.
- Please, check the Evaluation System section since the very beginning. It
illustrates generic and specific skills as well as linguistic competences to be
considered in the exam.
- Do not forget to do the Self- evaluation at the end of each unit. This evaluation will
give you an insight of what you have learned.
- Finally, dont hesitate to contact me when needed. I will be at your side the whole
semester.
I sincerely hope that all these suggestions will guide you to successfully complete your
English program curriculum.

6. Teaching learning process for the achievement of competences

6.1 Generic competences

1. To live the universal values of Christian Humanism.

 2. Written and oral communication.
3. Innovation and research orientation skills.
4. Critical thinking.
5. Team work.
6. Communication in the English language.
7. Social responsibility and commitment.
8. Ethical commitment.
9. Time management and organization.
6.2 Planning of students work

SPECIFIC SPECIFIC CONTENTS LEARNING LEARNING GUIDING

COMPETENCES ACTIVITIES INDICATORS SCHEDULE
COMPETENC
OF THE Units/Topics Estimated
ES OF THE SUBJECT time
PROGRAM
Master the Show 1. Reading and Study from this Analyses Week 1:
linguistic Mastery of Writing guide, web and ,
researched books. identifies 6 hours for
knowledge the 1.1 Identifying the Complete Self- and interaction
of the linguistic main ideas in a Evaluation 1 writes
paragraph
English knowledge Participate in the main 34 hours of
1.2 A comparison chats, forums and ideas in a self- study
language at in the
and contrast essay video conference paragrap
a level in English in EVA h
which the language at 1.3 Use of Participate in the Identify
figurative language workshops all the
student can a level in
elements
have an which the in a
excellent student can Point-by-
professional have an point
method
performance excellent
and
in the professional Block
teaching of performance Method
Uses
English as a in the
metaphor
foreign teaching of and
language. English as a personifi
cation
Apply the foreign
when
language.
writing a
 scientific Apply the paragrap
and scientific h

pedagogical and
knowledge pedagogical
acquired in knowledge
the teaching acquired in 2. Introduction to Study from this Identifies Week 2:
of English the teaching Apply Linguistics guide, web and the field
as a foreign of English researched books. of 6 hours for
2.1 The field of
applied linguistics Complete Self- Applied interaction
language. as a foreign
Evaluation 2 Linguisti
Recognize language. 2.2 Participate in the cs 34 hours of
and value Recognize Sociolinguistics. chats, forums and Establish self- study
Language video conference es the
the cultural and value variations in EVA differenc
implications the cultural Participate in the e
2.3 Theories of
from the implications language workshops between
native from the acquisition: linguistic
Linguistic vs. s and
language as native communicative Applied
well as from language as competence Linguisti
the English well as from cs
Understa
language. the English
nds the
Use spoken, language. importan
written and Use spoken, ce of
written and Sociolin
audiovisual
guistics
information audiovisual for
in a information educatio
in a n and
scientific
teaching
and scientific
/ learning
academic and of
level in academic English
as a
order to use level in
foreign
it in a order to use language
 professional it in a 3. Psychology and Study from this Understa Week 3:
Language guide, web and nds the
field. professional
Learning researched books. process 6 hours for
Formulate, field.
Complete Self- interaction
3.1 First of
design, and Formulate, Evaluation 3 language
Language
execute design, and Acquisition Participate in the acquisiti 34 hours of
chats, forums and on self- study
research and execute
3.2 Second video conference Different
innovation research and Language in EVA iates
projects in innovation Learning Participate in the theories
workshops such as:
the projects in Behavio
3.3 Krashens
educational the Monitor Model. urism,
Innatist,
and educational
Cognitiv
linguistic and ist/Deve
field. linguistic lopment
al and
Identify and field.
Sociocul
pose Identify and tural
alternatives pose Underst
ands
to solve alternatives Krashen
problems to solve s
problems Monitor
related to
Model
professional related to
and social professional
4. English Study from this Identifies Week 4:
practice. and social Phonology guide, web and the fields
Distinguish practice. researched books. of 6 hours for
4.1 Fields of Complete Self- interaction
Distinguish Phonetic
the different phonology and Evaluation 4 s and
stages of the different phonetics
Participate in the Phonolo 34 hours of
human stages of chats, forums and gy self- study
4.2 Main features
developmen human of pronunciation. video conference Analyses
The articulation in EVA the
t in developmen
of phonemes Participate in the physiolo
cognitive, t in workshops gy of
emotional, cognitive, pronunci
emotional, ation
and social
Distingui
aspects. and social
shes the
aspects. features
of
 pronunci
ation

5. Culture and Study from this Discuses Week 5:

Literature guide, web and English
researched books. language 6 hours for
5.1 Interpretation with a
(How to approach Complete Self- interaction
cultural
a text) Evaluation 5
perspecti
Participate in the ve and 34 hours of
5.2 Speech and chats, forums and self- study
recogniz
writing
video conference es
5.3 Narrative in in EVA different
story and history Participate in the fields of
study.
workshops
Explains
the
differenc
e
between
Speech
and
Writing
in
literary
context.
Reflects
o gender
stereotyp
es in
English
culture
as well
as his/her
own and
explains
how this
affects
text
analysis.
6.Communicative Study from this Identifies Week 6 and
Grammar guide, web and and 7:
researched books. analyses
6.1 Adjectives and
Complete Self- structure 12 hours
adverbs
Evaluation 6 s and for
6.2 Gerunds and Participate in the expressio interaction
infinitives chats, forums and ns
video conference related to 68 hours of
6.3 More modals in EVA adjective self- study
and similar Participate in the and
expressions
workshops adverbs
6.4 Adjective Identifies
clauses with and
subject/object analyses
relative pronouns the
structure
6.5 Indirect speech
s and use
6.6 Conditionals of
modals
Identifies
and
analyses
structure
s,
grammat
ical
elements
and
expressio
ns
related to
gerunds
and
infinitive
Produces
correct
sentence
s using
adjective
clauses
in a
spoken
and
written
 way
Changes
sentence
s from
direct
speech
to
indirect
speech
Asks
questions
using
indirect
speech
Produces
sentence
s using
different
condition
als.

7. Syntax Study from this Makes Week 8:

guide, web and use of
7.1 Clause and researched books constitue 6 hours for
Sentences Complete Self- nt interaction
structure
Evaluation 7
7.2 Constituency s
Participate in the 34 hours of
appropri
7.3 Constructions: chats, forums and ately. self- study
Types of video conference Shows
constructions in EVA ability to
Participate in the clearly
workshops understa
nd the
meaning
of clause
and
sentence
correctly.
Demonst
rates
pedagogi
cal
ability to
teach
structure
s and
functions
of
different
construct
ions in
English.
 6.3. Evaluation system of the course

2. Heteroevaluacin
Evaluaci
Formas de Evaluacin
Evaluacin a n

1. Autoevaluacin *

3. Coevaluacin
Distancia ** Presenci
al

Interaccin en el EVA

Parte de Ensayo
Parte de Ensayo
Parte Objetiva

Parte Objetiva
***
Competencia: Criterios

Comportamiento tico X x X x x x x

Cumplimiento, puntualidad, responsabilidad X x X x x x

Actitudes

Esfuerzo e inters en los trabajos X x X x x x x

Respeto a las personas y a las

x x
normas de comunicacin
Creatividad e iniciativa
X x x x
Habilidades

Contribucin en el trabajo colaborativo y de

x x
equipo

Presentacin, orden y ortografa X x x x

Emite juicios de valor argumentadamente X x x x

Dominio del contenido X x X x x x x

Conocimientos

Investigacin (cita fuentes de consulta) x

Aporta con criterios y soluciones X x x

Anlisis y profundidad en el desarrollo de

X x x
temas
20 30
Actividades presenciales y en

PORCENTAJE 10% 20% 40%

% %
1. Autoevaluacin *Estrategia de
aprendizaje

2. Heteroevaluacin
el EVA

Puntaje 2 4 6 20 40
Formas de Evaluacin Evaluaci
Evaluacin a
n
3. Coevaluacin

Distancia **
Presencial
TOTAL 20 puntos
Interaccin en el EVA

Parte de Ensayo
Parte de Ensayo

Para aprobar la asignatura se requiere obtener un puntaje mnimo de 28/40 puntos, que equivale al 70%.
Parte Objetiva

Parte Objetiva

* Son estrategias de aprendizaje, no tienen calificacin; pero debe responderlas con el fin de autocomprobar su proceso de aprendizaje.
***

Competencia: Criterios
** Recuerde: que la evaluacin a distancia consta de dos partes: una objetiva y otra de ensayo, debe desarrollarla y enviarla por el EVA en las
fechas establecidas.

Comportamiento tico X x X x x x x

Cumplimiento, puntualidad, responsabilidad X x X x x x

Actitudes

Esfuerzo e inters en los trabajos X x X x x x x

*** Estrategias de aprendizaje opcionales y de tipo colaborativo: foro y chat , y videcolaboracin.(Estas actividades no tienen puntaje alguno)

Sr. Estudiante:
Tenga presente que la finalidad de la valoracin cualitativa
es principalmente formativa.

6.4 Specific guidelines for learning by competences

Dear Students, Welcome

We are about to begin studying this relevant course, Trabajo de Titulacin: Examen
Complexivo. Before doing so, it is of extreme importance that you consider the following
information.

- First of all, you are going to prepare yourself to take a Comprehensive Examination.
That is, you need to prove by means of a test, that you are competent in the English
language, both written and spoken ways.
- Secondly, Practicum 4 constitutes a preparatory course to test your knowledge across a
variety of English questions. You need to prove your language abilities in about 5 hours
taking into account that you have been studying a very extensive range of linguistic,
pedagogical, and methodological components in English.
- Afterward, it is important to state that Trabajo de Titulacin: Examen Complexivo has
been designed using an interesting methodology. All English components have been
stacked according to their nature and purpose in terms of language skills taking into
consideration the pedagogical profile of EFL trainees. Thus, you will be dealing with
linguistic constructs namely core topics which cover thematic priorities of the English
program.
- Then, four different core topics are proposed along the course; two for the first term and
two for the second one. Each core topic covers a variety of subjects of the English
curriculum. At the end of each, you will find a self-assessment activity which needs to
be done using critical thinking and language scrutiny.
- Finally, thirteen units are included in this didactic guide; seven for the first term and 6
for the sencond term. Please, dont feel disappointed if the length of each unit result
 scarcely limited. We direct you to seek out additional information and thus complement
the topics in this reference didactic guide.

With this in mind, lets start.

UNIT 1: Reading and Writing

1.1 Identifying the main ideas in a paragraph
Dear students,

In this unit we are going to concentrate on how to recognize main ideas and supporting
details in a paragraph. For that reason, you need to understand some terms like paragraph,
topic sentence, main idea and supporting idea. So, lets explain the main terms:

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop a main idea about a

single topic. All paragraphs have a topic sentence and a controlling idea.

The topic sentence is an essential part of all well-written paragraphs and

states the main point or controlling idea. The sentences that explain main
point (main idea) are called supporting details (controlling ideas). These
details may be facts, reasons, or examples that provide further information
about the topic sentence.

In order to understand it in an easier way, lets check the graph provided.

Topic
Sentence

Topic Controlling
Idea
I hope the graph helped you to have a clear idea about the topic.

After the short explanation provided above, you may now analyze the example that
contains a topic sentence. You can notice how all the details relate to one topic and at the
same time explains the topic sentence. Note that the topic sentence is highlighted

There is some evidence that colors affect you physiologically. For example, when subjects
are exposed to red light, respiratory movements increase; exposure to blue decreases
respiratory movements. Similarly, eye blinks increase in frequency when eyes are exposed
to red light and decrease when exposed to blue. This seems consistent with the intuitive
feelings about blue being more soothing and red being more arousing. After changing a
schools walls from orange and white to blue, the blood pressure of the students decreased
while their academic performance improved.

DeVito, Human Communication: The Basic Course, p. 182

After you have finished reading the paragraph, I invite you to carefully read the explanation
about all the information given in the paragraph:

You can think about and visualize a paragraph in this way:

Idea Map
 Respiratory movements increase in red light and decrease in
blue light.

Eye blinks increase in red light and decrease in blue light.

A change in a schools walls from orange and white to blue

decreased students blood pressure and improved academic
performance.

Findings are consistent with the idea that blue is soothing and red
is arousing.

In order to be absolutely sure that you have understood the topic sentence, work on the
following example:

After reading the following paragraph, select the option that best represents the topic
in the paragraph.

Youve probably heard that older men die before older women virtually everywhere in the
world. In the United States, women are expected to live an average of 80.4 years, while
men live only 75.2 years. Sociologists attribute many factors to this trend. For example,
men have higher testosterone levels than women, which may make men more likely to abuse
alcohol and tobacco, drive aggressively, and engage in other life-threatening behaviors.
Men also choose riskier types of work and become involved in wartime aggression, which
are connected to mens decreased life expectancy. Studies also show that women are less
likely to experience life-threatening illnesses and health problems than men are.

Carl, Think Sociology, p. 211

a. womens health

b. men and risky behaviors

c. testosterone and age

d. mens life expectancy

If you answered was d you are right, congratulations.

In order to have a good paragraph, you as a writer need to take into account two important
elements in a paragraph: Unity and Coherence
For Oshima and Hogue (2006, p18) Unity means that a paragraph discusses one and only
one main idea from beginning to end. They also state that every supporting sentence must
directly explain of prove the main idea.
Lets check the example below:

Source: http://keats.kcl.ac.uk/pluginfile.php/757926/mod_resource/content/1/Unit%204/addscreen3.htm

Oshima and Hogue (2006, p.21) explain that in order to have Coherence in writing, the
sentences must hold together, which means that the movement from one sentence to the
next must be logical and smooth. There must be no sudden jumps. Each sentence should
flow smoothly into the next one
In order to achieve coherence we have to:
Repeat key nouns
Use consistent pronouns
Use transition signals and link ideas
Arrange your ideas in logical order
Now lets analyze the following paragraphs and see how they drastically change
Paragraph without coherence

Source: Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2006). Writing Academic English. White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.

Paragraph with coherence

Source: Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2006). Writing Academic English. White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.

Finally, check the link below for more information about topic sentences and writing
paragraphs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IqxuNrhKhMc

1.2 A comparison and contrast essay

In this opportunity, we will focus on comparison and contrast essay. Also, we will cover
the structure and organization of writing a good essay using transition words.
First, lets start with the following questions:
Can you tell me, what does compare and contrast mean?

Is it something like this?

Yes? You got it!

Second, try to answer this question:

What is comparison and contrast essay?

I bet you got the correct answer!

It explains the similarities and differences between two topics (ideas, people, or things).

Now lets check the structure that a comparison and contrast essay must follow:

1. Have an introduction. Include relevant background

information about the two topics being compared and
contrasted.
2. Include a thesis statement. Make sure it indicates the
purpose for comparing and contrasting.
3. Support your thesis throughout the essay. Make sure
your examples and details relate directly to the thesis.
4. Include all points of comparison and contrast. All
points need to be discussed for each topic.
5. Add specific details and examples. Make sure they
illustrate the similarities and differences.
6. Have a conclusion. Summarize the main ideas of the
essay and include any final thoughts.
Apart from the structure, we have to take into account that there are two possible ways to
organize a comparison and contrast essay. The first option is the so called point-by point
organization which focuses on similarities and differences of different aspects of each of
the two topics you are comparing. The second possibility is block organization that is
focused on writing a paragraph about the aspects of the first topic only and another
paragraph about the aspects of the second topic only. It is important to mention that in the
block method you usually compare the same aspects of each topic, but in separate
paragraphs.
To be clear, there is a sample on how to write an essay in a point by point or in a block
method.

Point-by-Point Method Block Method

Intro
Introduction of general topic
Specific topic
Thesis = areas to be covered in this
essay: Both cats and dogs make
excellent pets, but an appropriate
choice depends on the pet owners
lifestyle, finances, and household
accommodations.
Introduction of general topic
Specific topic
Thesis = areas to be covered in this essay: Both
cats and dogs make excellent pets, but an
appropriate choice depends on the pet owners
lifestyle, finances, and household
accommodations.

Body Topic Sentence - Aspect 1 Topic Sentence Topic 1

Paragraph 1 Cats make less of an impact on an
owners lifestyle.
Topic 1 - Aspect 1: Cats
Detail: Dont have to be watched
during the day
Detail: Easier to get care if owner
travels
Topic 2 - Aspect 1: Dogs
Detail: Pack animals shouldnt be left
alone
Detail: Harder to get care when away
Transition Sentence
Body Topic Sentence - Aspect 2
Paragraph 2 Cats are less expensive to own and care
for.
Topic 1 - Aspect 2: Cats
Detail: Food and health care are
usually less expensive
Detail: Less likely to cause property
damage
Cats are easier and less expensive to care for.
Aspect 1: Lifestyle
Detail: Dont have to be watched during the day
Detail: Easier to get care if owner travels
Aspect 2: Cost
Detail: Food and health care are usually less
expensive
Detail: Less likely to cause property damage
Aspect 3: House accommodations
Detail: Dont take up much space
Detail: Less intrusive
Transition Sentence
Topic Sentence Topic 2
Dogs are active and loyally engaging pets.
Aspect 1 Lifestyle
Detail: Pack animals shoudnt be left alone
Detail: Harder to get care when away Need
more living space
Aspect 2 Cost

Topic 2 - Aspect 2: Dogs
Detail: Food is more expensive
Detail: Over-breeding causes some
health problems
Transition Sentence
Body Topic Sentence - Aspect 3
Paragraph 3 Cats need few special house
accommodation.
Topic 1 - Aspect 3: Cats
Detail: Dont take up much space
Detail: Less intrusive
Topic 2 - Aspect 3: Dogs
Detail: Often need yard and fence
Detail: Require more safety and
protective measures
Transition Sentence
Conclusion
Summary of main points
Evaluation and/or possible future
developments
Significance of topic to author: When
considering adopting a pet, a
prospective owner must consider the
lifestyle, finances, and household
accommodations that the pet would
require. Owners who neglect to
compare these aspects will often not
care for their pet in a safe manner.
https://www.sbcc.edu/clrc/files/wl/downloads/WritingaCompareContrastEssay.pdf
Hopefully, this overview could have given you some idea how to organize your thoughts
while writing a comparison or contrast essay.
While writing a comparison or contrast essay, you will have to take into account, that there
are some subordinators and transitions that must be used in this type of essay.
Can you name some of them?
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
Detail: Food is more expensive
Detail: Over-breeding causes some health
problems
Aspect 3 House accommodations
Detail: Often need yard and fence
Detail: Require more safety and protective
measures
Transition Sentence
Optional: develop a paragraph to evaluate the
comparison made in the essay: Last summer, I
was considering adopting a pet, so I visited the
SPCA to gather more information about cats and
dogs. I am a full time student and work part time
in the evenings, so my lifestyle and schedule
didnt seem conducive to owning a dog like I had
originally planned. Now that Ive had my cat
Cookie for a few months, I see that shes the
perfect fit and a great companion for me.
Summary of main points
Evaluation and/or possible future developments
Significance of topic to author: When
considering adopting a pet, a prospective owner
must consider the lifestyle, finances, and
household accommodations that the pet would
require. Owners who neglect to compare these
aspects
Perfect! If you mentioned some of the following ones, you were right, and you can check
that there exist even more transition words that can be used. Have a look.

Connectors That Show Comparison (Similarities)

In additon Correspondingly Compared to

Similarly Just as As well as

Likewise Same as At the same time

Connectors That Show Contrast (Differences)

However On the contrary On the other hand

Even though In contrast Although

Unlike Conversely Meanwhile

Now that you have obtained some specific information how to write a good quality essay,
there is a sample below where you can concentrate and think which of the two methods and
transitions are used.

Compare and Contrast Essay Sample

Differences between the Daily Lives of Teenagers Today and a Century Ago

Technological progress has boosted both mobility and industrial production levels, while
globalization has enhanced communication around the world and made the exchange of
socio-political ideologies possible. For example, one can refer to the political revolutions in
different parts of the globe; the Arab Spring and the continuing political upheaval in Syria,
in particular. Taking these, and many other factors into consideration, one could say that
social processes today and those about a hundred years ago are almost incomparable. At the
same time, particular social groups, such as teenagers, become overexposed to the effects of
these socio-political and technological changes (Connors 129). This fact can be easily
noticed when evaluating modern youths preoccupations, hobbies and behavior, as well as
analyzing how they use leisure time, compared to their counterparts a century ago.

Todays teenagers use many types of technological gadgets, such as computers, TV sets,
smartphones and tabletsboth at school and at home. They also seem to be studying with
the help of technology. Actually, the latter now sometimes takes the place that had
traditionally been left to parents and teachers. This refers not only to the teaching material,
but also to social and communication skills. Young people have become one of the main
target audiences for social media, and waste in an inordinate amount of time on social
networks instead of using it to conduct more constructive activities (Connors 45).

Modern teenagers are also more educated than a hundred years ago. One of the effects of an
easily accessed education is that the youth have become more dynamic and socially active.
They now tend to question and test the norms and traditions of society. By doing so, the
youth have become a source of societal change in many countries; recall the boycotts of
university students in different countries (Silling 256). Due to the fact that teenagers, a
hundred years ago, lacked the access to quality education, they were not so active. Actually,
they were more conservative and adhered to the social norms laid down by society.
Talking about the old times, teenagers a century ago had little, or even no access to modern
technology. They acquired knowledge from parents and through extensive reading, and
used their free time helping their parents around the house, playing outdoors, and so on
(Connors 67). Education, back then, was a facet of society that was not highly emphasized.
Access to education was considered a privilege for male children; and besides, financial
difficulties in many households did not allow parents to send their children to school.
With regard to girls, societal norms a century ago, in the main, would hardly allow them to
perform the same roles as their male counterparts. Managing a household was considered
an appropriate position for women; therefore, girls were mostly confined to the domestic
sphere. However, movements around the globe, in more modern times, have helped
alleviate the plight of girls and women, so that todays female teenagers can freely explore
the same opportunities and careers as young men.

One can notice significant differences between todays teenagers and teenagers a century
ago. Todays youths are more accustomed to technology than their counterparts a hundred
years ago; they are more educated compared to teenagers a century ago. There is also more
gender equality in terms of access to opportunities among modern teenagers. The question
now is what will happen to our youth in the next 100 years.

Did you like the essay?

I hope you found all important points there we have discussed before.

1.3 Use of figurative language

Dear students, the topic to be discussed today is about the usage of figurative language.

Well, there are some figures we are going to talk about in today.

Lets start!

The first figures to be discussed are called metaphors and similes.

Do you have any idea what metaphors and similes mean and can you give me some
examples?

If you thought of the following information, you are correct!

Metaphor is a form of comparison that compares two dissimilar things without

using the word like or as in a sentence. A metaphor makes one thing become
something different by renaming it.

Read the following example to get a better idea what Metaphor is about.

The smoke was cotton balls billowing from the chimney.

Simile is a word that compares words in a sentence and uses the words like or
as. Both metaphors and similes are used to make the sentences more interesting.
Here are some examples:

Don ate his salad like a vacuum cleaner.

The thunder was as loud as fireworks.

You can see that the underlined words in the sentences above are compared to each other.
The words as and like show that a simile occurs in this sentence.

To practice read the two sentences below and identify which sentence is using a metaphor
and which a simile.

Bobs new corner office was just the icing on the cake.

After eating candy, Billy ran around like a chicken with his head cut off.

Finished?

Well done, if you answered that the first option is a metaphor and the second one a smile, it
means you completely understood metaphor and simile.

Lets continue with another important figure which is called personification.

Personification is the act of giving non-living things human characteristics.

Next is a sample of a short paragraph that uses personification to describe a house.

Our house is an old friend of ours. Although he creeks and groans with every gust of wind,
he never fails to protect us from the elements. He wraps his arms of bricks and keeps us
safe. Hes always been a good friend to us and we would never leave him.

After reading the example, underline the words and phrases that show personification

Did you finish?

Now lets check the answers:

house-old friend

he creeks and groans

he never fails

he wraps his arms of bricks

keeps us safe

hes always been a good friend

As you see, all the verbs present human actions, although a thing is described.

There are one more task for you, concentrate on the sentence written below and try to
identify what is being personified and which human trait or quality is given.

I will spend my life remembering you as shells remember the lost sea.

What is being personified?

________________________________________________________

Which human trait or quality is given?

_____________________________________________________________

Answer Explanation: Shells are being personified. They are given the ability to remember.

For more information about the topic, I invite you to check the link below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A0edKgL9EgM
Dear student, we have finished this unit, and I suggest you read the information in the
following book(s) in order to expand your knowledge about this course.

English, A. K. & English, L. M. (2009). North Star: Reading and Writing 4,(3rd Edition). USA:

Pearson Education.

It is time to test your knowledge by doing the next self-evaluation

SELF-EVALUATION 1

1. Read the short text and choose the correct topic sentence.

A century ago politicians used to say, Vote early and often. Cases such as West
Virginias 159,000 votes being cast by 147,000 eligible voters in 1888 were not that
unusual. Largely to prevent corruption associated with stuffing ballot boxes, states adopted
voter registration laws around the turn of the century, which require individuals to first
place their name on an electoral roll in order to be allowed to vote. Although these laws
have made it more difficult to vote more than once, they have also discouraged some
people from voting at all. Voter registration requirements in the United States are, in part,
to blame for why
Americans are significantly less likely to go to the polls than citizens of other democratic
nations.
Edwards, Government in America, p. 313

a. voter turnout
b. voter registration
c. voter eligibility
d. voter fraud
2. Read the short text and choose the correct topic sentence.

Compared with the technical resources of a theater of today, those of a London public
theater in the time of Queen Elizabeth I seem hopelessly limited. Plays had to be performed
by daylight, and scenery had to be kept simple: a table, a chair, a throne, perhaps an
artificial tree or two to suggest a forest. But these limitations were, in a sense, advantages.
What the theater of today can spell out for us realistically, with massive scenery and
electric lighting, Elizabethan playgoers had to imagine and the playwright had to make
vivid for them by means of language. Not having a lighting technician to work a panel,
Shakespeare had to indicate the dawn by having Horatio, in Hamlet, say in a speech rich in
metaphor and descriptive detail:
But look, the morn in russet mantle clad
Walks oer the dew of yon high eastward hill.
Kennedy, Literature, p. 1243

a. impact of technological limitations on Elizabethan theater

b. benefits of modern technology in theater performances
c. effects of Shakespeares writing style
d. the use of language to make ideas vivid

3. Which of the following transitions are used in comparison and contrast essays, choose
one option only.
a. especially, for instance, in particular, generally speaking, in comparison
b. likewise, similar, on the other hand, however, nevertheless
c. above all, accordingly, furthermore, finally, to conclude

4. Read the following essay and choose the correct option, which organization was
used:

Fighting the Battle against Drugs

The use of drugs has increased in recent years, according to numerous
articles in medical journals. They threaten communities all over the world
because of how affect the organs of the body and their functions. Crack and
cocaine are two of these dangerous drugs. Thus, it is important for health
care professionals to have knowledge about them in order to deal with any
problems related to their use that patients may experience. While they may
appear similar at first glance, in fact they have three major differences.

Crack and cocaine have three similar effects on the human body. Although
crack is heat resistant and cocaine is destroyed by heat, both cause
hypertension. Also, crack and cocaine bring about physiological and
psychological damage, depending on pre-existing conditions and the extent
of drug use. For example, hallucination, psychosis, paranoia and aggressive
behavior may occur, and an overdose of either may cause cardiac collapse or
convulsion. Finally, use of both drugs can lead to addiction.

Despite crack and cocaines similarities, they have three major differences.
First, although crack and cocaine are derived from the coca plant, they differ
in form. Crack has the form of flakes whereas cocaine is found in the form
of powder, which can be dissolved. Furthermore, both crack and cocaine
contain cocaine, but in various percentages: crack contains as much as 90
percent pure cocaine whereas cocaine contains from 15 to 25 percent pure
cocaine. Another major difference is how they enter the body. For example,
crack is smoked in a pipe or cigarette. It enters the body by the lungs into the
bloodstream. Cocaine, on the other hand, is inhaled as a powder or is
injected if dissolved. It enters the body via the nasal mucosa into the
bloodstream or, if injected, directly via the bloodstream.

In conclusion, it can be seen that, while being alike in three ways, these two
drugs differ in three ways. They affect the body in similar ways. Both can
 lead to physiological problems such as convulsions and psychological
problems such as hallucinations. Furthermore, their use may result in
addiction. However, cocaine and crack differ in form, content of pure
cocaine and method of entry into the body. Therefore, it is important that
health care professionals know about these drugs.

a. Point by point organization

b. Block method organization
c. Mixture of both of them mentioned above

5. In which of these following examples can we talk about metaphor:

a. Alans jokes were like flat soda to the children, surprisingly unpleasant.
Cassie talked to her son about girls as though she were giving him tax advice.
Allies cell phone dropped into the toilet like a falling star.

b. The bottle rolled off the table like a teardrop.

Laugh a drink from the deep blue cup of sky.
When he kissed her, it felt to her as though he were trying to win a sword fight.

c. Waves of spam emails inundated his inbox

Knowledge is a kingdom and all who learned are kings and queens
The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and
tyrants

6. Read the short article.

Kelly was so happy that Tom and she were moving in together, but when she walked into
her new residence, she dropped her suitcase. She had never seen the inside of the house
which Toms grandmother had given them, and though she was grateful to receive such a
nice gift, the ugly yellow wallpaper in the kitchen that screamed at her. She knew she
would have a lot of work to do to make her new house livable.
Which one of the following examples according to the reading is being personified and
what human quality is given?
a. The suitcase, it is given the ability to be moved.
b. The gift, it is given the ability of receiving.
c. The wallpaper, it is given the ability of screaming.

UNIT 2: Introduction to Apply Linguistics

2.1 The field of applied linguistics
The field of applied linguistics is very broad. Please, get acquainted with the information
below to get a deeper understanding of the importance of Applied Linguistics and its
practical use.
Depending on the area of application, Applied Linguistics extends into such practical
application fields as:
Language Acquisition ( L1 and L2)
Teaching and Learning Foreign Languages (developing foreign language teaching
methods)
Clinical Linguistics (analysis and treatment of language disorders)
Educational Linguistics (the use of the mother tongue in school)
Lexicography ( theory and practice in organizing dictionaries; and methods and
techniques for creating dictionaries
Machine Translation( computerized translation )
Sociolinguistics (study of the link between language and society)
Psycholinguistics (relationship between language and human behavior)
Computational Linguistics (the use of computers in language analysis and use)
Language pedagogy ( theory of developing teaching methods )
ASR Automatic Speech Recognition
Data Mining (the process of processing large volumes of data usually stored in a
database and searching for patterns and relationships within that data. It is automatic
extraction and processing of data)
 Forensic Linguistics ( the application of linguistic knowledge, methods and insights
to the forensic context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, experts, court,
evidence, trademark, law, jurislinguistique )
Language assessment (the way to measure student learning of languages to
determine what a student knows and/or can do and, more indirectly, of how well
instruction is proceeding).
Internet linguistics (It studies new language styles and forms that have arisen under
the influence of the Internet and other New Media such as Short Message Service
(SMS) , and text messaging )
Neurolinguistics (describes the application of linguistic theories to the classification
and analysis of acquired disorders of language or speech in patients with brain
damage).
Psycholinguistics (the study of the psychological factors that enable humans to
acquire, use, comprehend and produce language)
Language interpretation (facilitating of oral or sign language communication
between users of different languages)
Corpus linguistics(the study of language as expressed in samples (corpora) or "real
world" text ; it is approach to deriving a set of abstract rules by which a natural
language is governed or else relates to another language).
Text Analysis (written discourse).
Language Control / Dialectology(the scientific study of linguistic dialect. It studies
variations
in language and is based primarily on geographic distribution and their associated
features.
Dialectology treats such topics as divergence of two local dialects from a common
ancestor and synchronic variation ).

Language, culture, and pragmatics( cultural aspects in language teaching in

intercultural communication ).
And the list can go on!
In what way can Applied Linguistics be useful for you? The answer is: in many ways
because it deals with language acquisition, cognition and teaching methods; language
testing and assessment. It also offers language teachers a practical set of skills that
untrained teachers simply do not have. These skills become a professional tool kit that can
serve you, future educators, in your classroom experiences.
And what is Applied Linguistics?
Let us analyze this term. As you know, this term consists of two words: Applied and
Linguistics. We need to be very clear about the meaning of the parts of this term.
Please read several definitions of applied linguistics written by various linguists and try to
understand the field of study of Applied Linguistics.

The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines the word applied as to put to practical
use; practical as opposed to abstract or theoretical. It refers to practical usage of language.

The domain of Applied linguistics is concerned with the

practical usage, acquisition, teaching language, and
education.

Corder (1974, p.5) defines Applied Linguistics as the utilization of the knowledge about
the nature of language achieved by linguistic research for the improvement of the efficiency
of some practical task in which language is a central component.
Blumfit wrote: Both linguistics and applied linguistics combine empirical and theoretical
activity, but linguistics reifies language. But what does applied linguistics define? More
than just languagelanguage practices (1997, p.90).
Norbert Schmitt defined applied linguistics in this way: it is what we know about
language, how it is learned and how it is used, in order to achieve some purpose or solve
some problem in the real world. 2010, p.1). One more definition of Applied linguistics,
by Richards at al (1985, p.19):
1. Applied Linguistics is the study of a second and foreign language learning and
teaching.
 2. The study of language in relation to practical problems. Applied Linguistics uses
information from sociology, psychology, anthropology, and information theory as
well as from linguistics in order to develop its own theoretical models of language
and language use, and then uses this information and theory in practical areas such
as syllabus design, speech therapy, language planning, stylistics, gender differences
in speech (men, women, and children speak differently), social class differences.
Observe how Applied Linguistics is related to other disciplines.

Sociology
(the scientific study of
human social behavior
and the study of society)

Psychology
Education (the science of mind
(teaching, learning, and behavior, and the
acquisition, assessment) application of such
knowledge of various
Applied spheres of human
activity, including
Linguistics education, health,
occupational and
Linguistics employment services,
(The study of the nature, structure, human services, and
and variation of language, the treatment of mental
including phonetics, phonology, diseases)
morphology and the study of Anthropology
human speech, language form, ( the scientific study of
Source: Ninameaning
language Nesterenko
, and language the origin and behavior
in context. of man, including the
physical, social, and
cultural development of
societies and cultures ).

It can be said that applied linguistics is the study of everything. Its

field is very broad and can be applied to all aspects of language use.
It deals with mother, foreign, second language acquisition. In
addition, it examined the relationship between language and such
areas as law, communication, media, social and educational
psychology and education in general.
Domain of applied linguistics approaches to text, language,
literacy, research, language teaching and learning (the main focus!),
and translation.
Applied Linguistics builds on the findings of Theoretical
Linguistics and, combining its strengths with those of other sciences
such as Psychology, Mathematics, Sociology, etc. seeks to examine
the circumstances under which a language is acquired and used by
a language community.
 Difference between Linguistics and
Applied Linguistics

Linguistics is a science that studies languages and has some

subfields:
PHONETICS - it deals with the sounds of language, how they are
produced
PHONOLOGY it deals with how the sounds are organized
MORPHOLOGY it deals with how sounds are put together to form
words, and everything related to word formation
SYNTAX it deals with how sentences are formed
SEMANTICS it deals with the meaning of words, sentences, and
texts
PRAGMATICS studies how people comprehend and produce a
communicative act or speech act in a concrete speech situation

Difference between Linguistics and Applied Linguistics

.
Applied Linguistics investigates:
- how an understanding of language can be putto
use in a variety of fields including first and
second language acquisition,

- second language teaching and literacy,

- Language and classroom education across the

curriculum,

- the use of language in university academic contexts,

language and the law, forensic speaker identification,
speech pathology, translation and advertising.

- It uses knowledge of how languages work within

different applied settings.

Source: Nina Nesterenko

Please, have it clear that Applied Linguistics is NOT the same as Linguistics, neither is it a
subsection. To make it more understandable, you should know that Linguistics is a science
that studies languages and it has some sub-fields(Morphology, Semantics, Pragmatics,
Phonology, Phonetics, Syntax). Whereas Applied Linguistics is field of study that identifies,
investigates, and offers solutions to language related problems.

2.2 Sociolinguistics. Language variations

What is Sociolinguistics? It can be described as a branch of Linguistics which deals with
the study of language use in society and in socio-cultural context. In addition, it is the study
of the linguistic indicators of culture and power (Schmitt, 2011).
The points explained above represent parts that belong to this vast field. Sociolinguistics
also studies language variations (dialects, accents) and language change; and explains
WHY languages change. It describes language varieties between different ethnic,
religious, status, and gender groups; and explains how educational level, age etc., may
influence the language differences, and categorizes individuals in social or socioeconomic
classes.

Let us summarize it in one sentence: SOCIOLINGUISTICS is the study of

how language and social factors are
related.

Each language exists in a number of varieties and is in one sense the sum of those varieties.
We have one more term: variety. It is necessary to know what variety is.
According to Hudson (1980, p.24),

variety of a language is a set of

linguistic items with similar distribution.

As you can understand, variety refers to a set of linguistic items, or human speech
patterns (sounds, words, grammar) which can be associated with geographical area or a
social group.
The study of the language varieties, dialects, and accents is one of the focuses of
Sociolinguistics.
A language community is a group of people who live, work, socialize, and communicate
together. The shared unique characteristics of their speech are called DIALECT. Everyone
belongs to a language community; therefore, everyone speaks a dialect.
Dialect can be defined as STANDARD language, or PRESTIGE DIALECT used in
business, education, and media.
For complete understanding of the topic, it is necessary to define the terms DIALECT,
STANDARD and NON STANDARD language.
Speakers of the same language may have some differences in the way of using vocabulary,
grammar and pronunciation. Most language users think that their way of speaking is natural
and probably the best. Different ways of pronouncing words or speaking may be considered
as funny. Language attitudes are very powerful. We are likely to make judgments of
people based on what they say and sometimes, most importantly, how they say
it.(Brown,2009:95).

Standard language refers to mode of usage of most educated speakers of a language and
established as the prestigious form of that language.

Standard language refers to a language variety used by a group of people in their public
discourse. This term is also used for that variety of a language which is considered to be
the norm (Jenkins, 2009).

Alternatively, varieties become standard by undergoing a process of standardization

which it is organized for description grammars and dictionaries and encoded in such
reference works. Varieties that become standardized are the local dialects and are spoken
in the centers of commerce and government where a need arises for a variety that will
serve more than local needs.

And what is non standard language?

Sometimes non standard language is associated with a language variety used by
uneducated speakers or socially disfavored groups.
What makes non standard language different from standard is the fact that it is not taught in
schools, and it is not represented in written form unless it is a deliberate direct quotation of
a nonstandard speaker.
The term non standard was originally used by linguists to refer to language varieties that
had previously been labeled with terms such as vulgar.
Non standard English differs from Standard English most importantly at the level of
grammar. (Trudgill,1992).
To expand upon the definition and discussion in our text, I would like to add that non-
standard language does not follow the grammar or pronunciation rules of standard
language.
Note, however, that the use of nonstandard forms is not necessarily restricted to the
communities with which they are associated in the public mind. Many educated speakers
freely use forms such as can't hardly or ain't, or gonna to set a popular or informal tone.
To illustrate the non-standard language, please, read the excerpt taken from Mark Twain`s
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, 1884).

"I see Jim before me, all the time; in the day, and in the night-time, sometimes moonlight, sometimes storms,
and we a floating along, talking, and singing, and laughing. But somehow I couldn't seem to strike no places to
harden me against him, but only the other kind. I'd see him standing my watch on top of his'n, 'stead of calling
me, so I could go on sleeping; and see him how glad he was when I come back out of the fog; and when I
come to him agin in the swamp, up there where the feud was; and suchlike times; and would always call me
honey, and pet me, and do everything he could think of for me, and how good he always was. And at last I
struck the time I saved him by telling the men we had smallpox aboard, and he was so grateful, and said I was
the best friend old Jim ever had in the world, and the only one he's got now; and then I happened to look
around, and see that paper.

"It was a close place. I took it up, and held it in my hand. I was a trembling, because I'd got to decide, forever,
betwixt two things, and I knowed it. I studied a minute, sort of holding my breath, and then says to myself:
"'All right, then, I'll go to hell'--and tore it up."

What makes non standard language different from standard is the fact that it is not taught in
schools, and it is not represented in written form unless it is a deliberate direct quotation of
a nonstandard speaker.
And what is dialect? Please, get acquainted with another definition of DIALECT.

Dialect:
a. the form or variety of a spoken language peculiar to a region, community, social
group, occupational group, etc. It differs from standard language in matters of
pronunciation, syntax, etc.
b. the sum total of local characteristics of speech.
c. any form of speech considered as deviating from a real or imaginary standard
speech.

So, you see that dialect is a variety of language, and it may include accent, but dialect also
may be identified by means of vocabulary.
The differences in grammar may be considered as aspects of dialect, too. We may all speak
a certain dialect regardless the language we use.
The next term to discuss is accent. What is accent? Can you define it? Is it the same as
dialect?
To make distinction between these two terms you need to read the next section. This
information is not included in your textbook but I think that it would be useful for you to
know how to differentiate them .So, please, read this complement information.

Dialect vs. Accent

Now you already know that dialect is usually regional variation of language; it refers to
standard form of a language (including grammar, pronunciation, lexicon) used by a group
of speakers.

Dialect is a product of the individuals geographical and class origin. Remember that
educational experience is also significant.

If two speakers differ in grammar, pronunciation and vocabulary, it

can be concluded that they speak different dialect.

Variation in pronunciation, but NOT in grammar and vocabulary, would

be considered difference of accent.

So, accent can be defined as follows:

Accent: It is a pattern or manner of pronunciation. An accent may identify the locality in
which its speakers reside. We call it a geographical or regional accent. It can indicate the
socioeconomic status of its speakers, their ethnicity or social class.Accent can also allow
to determine the speakers first language ( when the language in which the accent is heard
is not his/her native language). A persons accent can provide a strong clue to his or her
native (first ) language., since most speakers will produce the same kind of pronunciation
deviations.
Accents typically differ in quality of voice, pronunciation of vowels and consonants, and
stress pitch (Compare voice intonation in Spanish and English questions! And compare the
speech of people from Ecuadorian Coast and Sierra regions) .
Although grammar, semantics, vocabulary, and other language characteristics often vary
concurrently with accent, the word 'accent' refers specifically to the differences in
pronunciation.
Please, be clear that accent and dialect are not the same. They are quite different
concepts.

DIALECT ACCENT

It refers to the broader set

It refers to differences in
of linguistic differences
pronunciation

Any dialect can be spoken in any accent, for example, the dialect known as Standard UK
English can be heard in all of the regional accents of Britain. We often hear regional
dialects spoken in foreign accents when they are being learned by non-native speakers.
Every form of spoken language is uttered as a dialect and an accent. When a person says he
or she has no accent, it is usually means that the person speaks in a standardized and
prestigious accent (Schmitt, 2011).

The term dialect can be applied for local varieties of English ( example, Yorkshire dialect ,
in Britain), and for various types of informal, lower-class, or rural speech( e.g. cockney, in
Britain).

To sum up, please observe the following chart:

 Dialect vs Accent
Dialect Accent

-It is usually regional variation of - it is a pattern or manner of

language;
-it refers to standard form of a
language ( including grammar,
pronunciation, lexicon) used by
a group of speakers.
If two speakers differ in grammar,
pronunciation and vocabulary, it
can be concluded that they speak
different dialect.
Dialect is a product of the
individuals geographical and
class origin.
Remember that educational
experience is also significant.
pronunciation, but NOT in grammar
and vocabulary
-It may identify the locality in
which its speakers reside. ( a
geographical or regional accent.)
- It can indicate the socio
economic status of its speakers,
or social class.
-It allows to determine the
speakers 1st language ( most
speakers produce the same kind
of pronunciation deviations.)
-It typically differs in quality of voice,
pronunciation of vowels/consonants,
stress pitch( ( intonation in Spanish
and English questions!

Source: Nina Nesterenko

Sometimes dialect can be considered equivalent to nonstandard or even substandard

language (Wardhaugh, 992). Language contains features of dialect and more transitory
features demanded by social roles.
When speaking about language variations it is necessary to present the notions of jargon
and slang.
Let us start first with Jargon.

JARGON

Read these two sentences below. Can you identify the sentence with slang? And the one
with jargon?

1. - Did you hook up with him?

2. - Get me his vitals.

If it was difficult to do, it means that you need to get acquainted with the explanations
below.
Jargon is defined in relationship to a specific activity, profession, group, or event. In other
words, the term refers to the language used by people who work in a particular area or who
have a common interest. It can be used to express ideas that are frequently discussed
between members of a group, though it can also be developed deliberately using chosen
terms.
So, it can be said that jargon refers to occupational variations.
For example, medical doctors need to be clear when they talk about professional issues, and
they need specific, clear, specialized terms that refer to their job. Can you identify now
which of the examples above represents jargon? Of course, it is the second example.
We can find similar examples in many professions. What can you say about language of
computer programmers, college students, or police officers, for example?
Sometimes jargon can be used when its users want to be understood by the members of their
group only.

To sum up, jargon is used with these purposes:

Provide speakers of specialized Provide speakers of a subgroup with a

domains with clear, well-defined, means of marking in-group
unambiguous terms to refer to their membership and exclude outsiders.
activities. ( Brown, 2009)

Another language variation is SLANG.

SLANG refers to the use of informal words , expressions that are not considered standard
in the speaker's dialect or language. Slang is often found in areas of the lexicon that refer to
things considered taboo or euphemisms(the substitution of an inoffensive terms such as
"passed away" for "died).
It is often used to identify with one's peers and, although it may be common among young
people, it is used by people of all ages and social groups.

REMEMBER: Slang and jargon are not the same.

As you already know, jargon refers to the technical vocabulary of a particular profession.
Whereas slang is a variety of language used by a restricted part of population, usually
young people, teenagers, or less respectable groups ; and it is based on a very informal
lexicon .
The slang vocabulary is usually not long-lasting. Many slang words that were very
fashionable in one period of time are not used anymore.
Dear student, as it was already mentioned, the field of Sociolinguistics is very broad and
extensive. In fact, it should be studied as an independent course subject, because it deserves
much more attention. To give you a more complete picture of Sociolinguistics, please read
the following information which explains why you might need the knowledge of this field of
linguistics in your future professional life , and where it can be applied.
Applications of Sociolinguistics
Why may Sociolinguistics be interesting for educators?
Many sociolinguistic studies have a very practical application in education. The
knowledge about variations in language can be used in teacher-training courses.
To make it clearer, teachers who are aware of nonstandard variations of language
(in grammar, phonology, lexicon ), can include prestigious standard forms in their
teaching courses and encourage students to learn and recognize this diversity.
Dialect is not an important type of language variation for teaching. Although,
teachers must know the fact that there is dialect variation in the target language just
as there is in their native language. All language teaching implies the best dialect
(standard) to teach.

The knowledge of accents can be a useful tool, too (ex, in criminalistics: some
criminals have been caught due to their accent origins).

Sociolinguistics may help understand the development and changes of languages.

Dear student, you know that English is now an international resource. It dominates many
global areas ranging from technology, education, science, commerce, advertising, and
music. Around two billion people are exposed to some version of this language. It is spoken
in more countries than any other language. In addition, English is the official language of
air traffic control, telecommunications, and of course, Internet. (Pope, 2002).
Observe the map below; you can see the countries where English is the official language.

Of course, you already heard the terms English as a Native Language, English as a Foreign
Language, and English as a Second Language. It is necessary to explain the difference
between these terms. This is of crucial importance for the teaching of English, since the
techniques and methodology should be applied to reach the learning goals proposed by the
teacher.
The spread of English around the world should be discussed in terms of three groups of
users those who speak English as:
ENG- a native language
ESL as a second language
EFL- as a foreign language ( Jenkins, 2009)
And now let us see whether your definitions were similar to the following ones:

English as a native language is the language of people born and raised in one of the
countries where English is historically the first language to be spoken ( mainly The UK,
the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand).

English is a foreign language in a community where another language ( mother

tongue) is spoken ( for example, Italian Spanish, Russian or any other language
different from English). English serves no special purpose within these countries.

English as a second language has special proposal in communities.

The term ESL is used frequently in the USA.
ESL refers to English language learning in countries where English is the
main and / or official language, and the student's own native language (first
language) is not English.

It can be used as the medium of instruction of the educational systems, used

in regional or national administration, in radio, TV, press media. In other
words, it is the official language or plays very important role. It is spoken in
a large number of countries such as India, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Malaysia
which were once colonized by Britain. (Jenkins, 2009)

The term second language can be equally applied with languages other than English: ex.
French is a second language in some countries in Africa, in Lebanon( Kachru, 1992).
For example, English is foreign language in Korea, Russia, Brazil, China, etc. and it is a
second language in Philippines, Fiji, Cyprus, etc. What is the difference in attitudes toward
ESL and EFL? Why might it be necessary to distinguish between them? It has to do with
the historical connection with Great Britain.
We need to know the function of English in society where environment is foreign or
second language. As I have already mentioned, these conditions affect the teaching and
learning process, since the results and success depend on learners prior familiarity with
English. The teaching process should be based accordingly.
There are some differences in teaching/learning of EFL and ESL. Observe the chart below.

foreign language ( EFL ) second language ( ESL)

- Learning in some points is like second
language learning : material and
methods are designed to give a practical
command of the language.
- The difference consists in the purpose of
language acquisition.
- The foreign language learner needs it to
be able to establish contacts with a
community of speakers other than his/her own.
- Foreign languages are usually taught in the
secondary school.( It implies that foreign
language teaching is addressed to an older age
group.
Students of EFL may experience conflict between the foreign
language learning and the learning of other subjects.
- Learner needs the language for the use within
his/her own community,
- The second language is usually taught t the
primary level of education.
- It is taught to adult immigrants.
- The medium of instruction of the educational
systems.
- It is used in regional or national administration, in
radio, TV, press media.
- It is the official language or plays very important
role.
It is spoken in a large number of countries such as India, Nigeria ,
Bangladesh, Malaysia, which were once colonized by Britain).

And some psychological factors like a students motivation, are involved in this process,
and may affect the result of learning. (Wilkins,1985).
Students of EFL may experience conflict between the foreign language learning and the
learning of other subjects. We need to consider many factors for selecting the appropriate
methodology for teaching English as a foreign or as a second language.
In relation to this, arises the notion of standard English. Nowadays English language is
spoken as a mother tongue in many countries; consequently, its users are considered native
speakers. But if we closely analyze each variation we can find certain differences in
pronunciation, in word meaning and even in grammar structure. Which of these variations
should be chosen and taught as a standard?
It can be said that social and political factors determine what is considered standard in the
English speaking world. (Brown, 2009)
How many varieties of English could you find? American, Australian, Britishand?
Could you continue the list? Which of these varieties is the pure English?
As you can understand, it is quite difficult to identify the standards. In recent years
linguists proposed several definitions of Standard English language.

Standard English can be considered:

A set of grammatical and lexical forms which is

typically used in speech and writing by educated
native speakers .It includes the use of colloquial and
slang vocabulary (Trudgill, 1984).

The dialect of educated people used in writing,

teaching in schools and universities , TV and radio
broadcasting.
(Hughes and Trudgill, 1996).

The variety of the language that students of EFL or

ESL are taught when receiving formal instruction. The
term standard English refers to grammar and
vocabulary but not to pronunciation (accent).(Trudgill
and Hannah, 2002).

- language spoken in English-speaking country

identified by its vocabulary, grammar, orthography
and which carries most prestige and is most widely
understood (Cristal, 1995, cited by Jenkins,
2009:35).

The dialect of educated people used in writing,

teaching in schools and universities , TV and radio
broadcasting.(Hughes and Trudgill, 1996).

From all above definitions you can understand that Standard English does not belong
exclusively to any certain English- speaking country. It is language that is traditionally the
medium of the upper and especially professional middle class and is better understood by
the users. It is not limited to a single accent (Jenkins, 2009).

2.3 Theories of language acquisition: Linguistic vs. communicative competence

It is necessary to mention the name of Noam Chomsky. He contributed greatly to the

development of this subfield of linguistics. His numerous studies influenced and shaped the
subsequent streams of this discipline.
Noam Chomsky is a leading linguistic scientist and a professor at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. He was responsible for the theory of transformational grammar; he
linked linguistics to mathematics, psychology, philosophy, and neuropsychology and gave
new insights to cognitive psychology. Chomsky introduced the theory of human ability to
use syntax based on innate mental structures that humans have and that these mental
structures emerge from interaction with other humans. He also centered his investigations
around the questions whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human language
or not. In addition, Chomsky presents his research on language acquisition carried out
during many years of investigation. To his view, language acquisition as a uniquely human
ability.
A new term has entered to our discussion of language, competence. How would you
describe it?

Competence refers to someone`s ability, condition, or quality of being competent, it is to

know or do something well. However, we still need to define competence with regards to
language. Since competence means ability, we can conclude that it refers to the knowledge
that enables a person to speak and understand a language.
In other words, Linguistic competence is the system of linguistic knowledge possessed by
all native speakers of a concrete language. It is a principle for correct sentence formation,
and the creation of grammatical sentences.
Competence is also the study of grammars which are psychologically real, and which
contain all linguistic knowledge, both innate and acquired.
This concept was first introduced by Noam Chomsky as part of the foundation for his
Generative Grammar .Here are some main points of this work.
According to Chomsky, language learning basically revolves around the idea that all
humans have an internal capacity to acquire language (meaning, sounds, vocabulary
choice, grammar).In other words, it implies that this ability to learn and analyze linguistic
information is universal and innate. Competence is the 'ideal' language system that makes it
possible for speakers to produce and understand an infinite number of sentences in their
language, and to distinguish grammatical sentences (correct) from ungrammatical
(incorrect) sentences.

For each speaker, there is a right and wrong way of constructing and understanding
sentences. Language cannot be explained in terms of habits or customs. It is rule
governed. It means that we all follow certain grammar rules in our speaking. We are able to
self - correct our accidental mistakes; and we realize when someone is making mistakes in
speech.

A speaker who is willing to correct him/herself or others shows that for him or her there is
a right and wrong way of saying things. These grammar rules we follow are combined with
each other to form a system - a grammar which gives an explicit description of every
sentence of a language.

The functions of grammar are

Provide a means of Register and

association each sentence correct
of a language with its mistakes
correct pronunciation and Describes sentences
meaning. (We understand with no mistakes at all
the message regardless
mispronouncing the parts
of a sentence, it is our
prior knowledge )
 Components of Linguistic Competence

PHONETICS - the physical production and perception of

sounds used in producing language .

PHONOLOGY - the mental organization of

physical sounds
and the patterns formed by the way sounds are
combined in a language.

MORPHOLOGY - the
identification, analysis and
description of units of meaning
in a language.

LEXICON - wordstock of a
language, its vocabulary,
including its words and
expressions.

SYNTAX- the structure and formation of

sentences.

SEMANTICS - understanding the meaning

of sentences.

This theory has since been adopted and developed by other linguists, particularly those
working in the generativist tradition. In the generativist tradition competence is the only
level of language that is studied, because this level gives insights into the Universal
Grammar that is seen as underlying all human language systems.
The term Universal Grammar is credited to Chomsky. Please, read the information below,
to get acquainted with more details on this fundamental work by Chomsky.
Universal grammar is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that all
possible natural human languages have .According to this theory , some rules of grammar
are already in the human brain, and manifest themselves without the need of being learned
or taught.
According to Chomsky, the brain is already programmed to understand certain sentence
structures, and it explains why and how children can understand and speak sentences that
they have never heard before.
All human beings subconsciously know and use the rules of their native language, that is to
say that if humans grow up under normal conditions, they always develop a language with
property X .

For example, we all are able to distinguish parts of speech (nouns from adjectives, adverbs
from verbs, etc.) or distinguish function words. According to Chomsky , development of
language in the individual must involve some factors like genetic endowment, ( the innate
ability to learn language), and external data, ( selection of one or another language within
a narrow range) .
Closely related to this topic is the notion of:
Communicative Competence
Linguists have found communicative competence as a superior model of language
following Dell Hymes' opposition to Chomsky's linguistic competence (grammar
knowledge).
The theory of Linguistic competence is opposed to the Theory of Communicative
competence
The notion of communicative competence is described within the discipline of
Sociolinguistics. As you already know, sociolinguistics deals with the study of language
use in society and in sociocultural contexts.
Since all human societies possess knowledge of languages, we may say that language is a
part of society, and we need to use language for communication with the members of this
society.
Not only we need to know grammar rules and lexicon to be able to communicate, some
other aspects of language are also involved in communication.
Please, get acquainted with the main points of the Dell Hymes Communicative
Competence theory described below .
Dell Hymes (1927 - 2009, USA).As one of the first sociolinguists , Hymes helped to
establish the connection between speech and human relations and human
understandings of the world. He created the Dell Hymes Model of Speaking and proposed
the term of communicative competence within language education, or knowledge
necessary to use language in social context ( appropriate language use). He stated that in
order to speak a language correctly, one needs not only to learn its vocabulary and
grammar, but also the context in which words are used.
His theory is briefly summarized as follows:

COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

Dell Hymes explanation What is needed for effective communication is competence for
use help us understand the importance of possibility, feasibility, appropriateness, and
attestedness.
These components can be explained as follows:

FEASIBILITY

Hymes` original idea was that speakers of a language need to have more than
grammatical competence ( knowledge of the rules) in order to be able communicate
effectively in a language; they also need to know how language is used by members of
a speech community to accomplish their purposes. Hymes developed a model to
identify and label the components of linguistic interaction.

It refers to the process in the mind. Since the capacity of the brain is limited, complicated
(or very extended) sentence are less feasible than the simpler ones. Thus, simpler sentences
are more feasible and less ambiguous. In other words, it is about whether (and to what
degree) something is feasible in virtue of the means of implementation available.
Feasibility helps processing language instances and it is an important component of
language competence, as it makes information easily accessible. (Widdowson, 2007,p.14-
14).
POSSIBILITY

It refers to the formal aspect of a language- whether utterances are grammatically correct or
not. In other words, it is about whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible.
Example:

She goes to school ( grammatically correct, it is possible)

Vs.
She go to school ( incorrect, not possible)

Knowledge of possibility helps deciding whether an

instance conforms to language rules or not.

APPROPRIATENESS

It is about whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate, (adequate, happy,

successful) in relation to a context in which it is used and evaluated. It also refers to the
importance of the context of an utterance. Language should be interpreted within specific
situation, in which it occurs (context).
I would like to cite the words of Hymes regarding this term: a normal child acquires
knowledge of sentences not only as grammatical, but also as appropriate. He or she
acquires competence as to when to speak, when not, and as when to talk about with who,
when, where, in what manner. In short, a child becomes able to accomplish a repertoire of
speech acts, to take part in speech events, and to evaluate their accomplishements by
others. (Hymes, 1972,p. 277).

Example:

It is not appropriate to address a boss darling, or when complaining to a police you

cannot address him /her as sweet heart or darling, etc.

Speech behavior varies according to culture (G. Cook, 2003 ).

To sum up, a language learner/user needs to use the language not only correctly but also
appropriately. Appropriateness refers to the relation of a language and a context.

ATTESTEDNESS
It refers to the actual occurrence of something.

Some constructions may be possible, feasible, appropriate, but they do not occur- they are
not attested.

It is about whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and
what its doing entails. ( Hymes, 1970:281).

Example: walk and perambulate

Both are synonyms, both are listed in the dictionary. But the difference between them is
the frequency of the occurrence. Walk- more common

Perambulate - less common

To be communicatively competent, it is necessary to take into consideration fixed phrases,

idiomatic expressions and speech patterns that are different in the students native and the
target language.Thus, communicative competence involves knowledge of the fixed word
combinations of the target language as well

( Cook, 2003pp.45-46; cited by Widdowson, 2007, p.16).

To put it clearer, the difference between Linguistic Competence and Communicative

Competence theories is summarized in the chart below:

LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE

- It deals with the language structure, e.g.
Grammar, syntax, morphology, phonology, etc.
- It is about how to use the grammar, syntax, and
vocabulary of a language.
- Linguistic competence asks: What words do I
use? How do I put them into phrases and
sentences?
- Linguistic competence is what you actually
know about a language.
- It is the knowledge of communication.
- It is how you actually use the language.
- For effective communication, speakers need to
know the norms of interaction and interpretation ,
and use correctly the four elements: possibility,
attestedness, feasibility, appropriatness.

The Dell Hymes Model of Speaking had great influence on many areas of
sociolinguistics. This theory had a great number of followers who contributed to the
original idea of the importance of emphasizing the communicative functions of language. It
also served as a basis for the creation of the Communicative approach in teaching
foreign/second language where the main emphasis was on real and authentic
communication.

The influence of communicative competence in EFL teaching.

Hymess theory left a deep mark on the subsequent development of sociolinguistics and
linguistics in general. We can see that the communicative approach in language teaching
became widely accepted because today communicative competence is considered the goal
of language education and is mandatory for efficient classroom practice.(This is in contrast
to the previous theory put forth by Chomsky in which grammatical competence was
given priority).
The communicative competence theory also influenced the field of pragmatics and the
philosophy of language concerning speech acts.
The influence of Communicative Competence for the Communicative approach to language
teaching is presented in the following chart:

- Meaning is more important than the structure and form.

- Dialogues if used around communicative functions are not to be memorized.
- Language item should be presented in a context. They should not be taught in
isolation.
- Language learning does not imply learning structures, sounds and words but
learning to communicate.
- Effective communication is emphasized.
- Reading and writing need not weigh for ones mastery over speech.
They may start from the very first day.
- Instead of linguistic competence, communicative competence is the desired
goal.
- Linguistic variation is accepted as a central condition in method and
materials.
- The sequence of units is determined not by the principle of linguistic
complexity but by the consideration of content, function, and meaning, which
maintain interest.

Dear student, we have finished this unit, and I suggest you read the information in the
following book(s) in order to expand your knowledge about this course.

Cook, G. (2010). Applied Linguistics. Oxford Introduction for Language Study. ISBN-13:

978-0194375986. New York. Oxford University Press.

Nesterenko, N. (2015). Didactic guide. Introduction to Applied Linguistics. Loja,

Ecuador.
UTPL. Ediloja.
 It is time to test your knowledge by doing the next self-evaluation

SELF-EVALUATION 2

Read the following statements and choose the correct option:

1. The discipline which is concerned with the practical use, acquisition, teaching language,
and education, is called:

a. Linguistics
b. Psycholinguistics
c. Applied Linguistics

2. Morphology, semantics, syntax, phonology are the branches of:

a. Linguistics
b. Applied Linguistics
c. Sociolinguistics

3. This discipline deals with mother, foreign, and second language acquisition.

a. Linguistics
b. Applied linguistics
c. Sociolinguistics

4. Non standard English differs from Standard English most importantly at the level of :

a. grammar
b. phonology
c. vocabulary

5.Phonetics, phonology, syntax, semantics, and morphology are components of:

a. Linguistic competence
b.communicative competence
c. pragmatic competence

6. The universal grammar theory implies that:

a. the same set of grammar rules is shared by all human languages

b. certain languages have very primitive grammar systems
c. all human beings have an inner ability to use grammar rules in their native language.
 UNIT 3: Psychology and Language Learning
3.1 FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Dear Student,
We are going to begin this topic reading about language acquisition.
Lets get started!

You have to keep in mind that although research has shown that children go through
distinct developmental stages as they acquire their first language, there are conflicting
theories about how the process of language acquisition works.

Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to

perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words to communicate.
The capacity to successfully use language requires one to acquire a range of tools
including syntax, phonetics, and an extensive vocabulary. This language might be vocalized
as with speech or manual as in sign.
Language acquisition usually refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants'
acquisition of their native language.
Over the past fifty years, three main theoretical positions have been advanced to explain it:
Behaviourism, innatist, and interactional/developmental perspectives. Lets review each
one:
The first theory that we study is the Immitation, Nativism, or Behaviourist Perspective.
This theory of learning was very influential in the 1940s and 1950s, and its main figure was
B. F. Skinner.
This perspective has the following characteristics:
Language has long been thought of a process of imitation, and reinforcement.
 Imitation theory is based on an empirical or behavioral approach.
Children start out as clean slates and language learning is process of getting
linguistic habits printed on these slates.
Language Acquisition is a process of experience.
Language is a conditioned behavior: the stimulus response process:

Thus, children learn language step by step:

Reinforcement can either be positive or negative.

We have concluded to study the Behaviourism perspective; now, we can analyze the
innateness perspective. This theory is also known as nativist.
The main argument of this theory is that children must be born with an innate capacity for
language development, and its main figures were Bloomfield & Noam Chomsky.
This perspective has the following characteristics:
Children are born with an innate propensity for language acquisition and that this
ability makes the task of learning a first language easier than it would otherwise be.
The human brain is ready naturally for language in the sense when children are
exposed to speech; certain general principles for discovering or structuring language
automatically begin to operate.
Primary data is then used to make sentences or structures after a process of trial and
error, correspond to those in adult speech
 According to Chomsky, the presence of Universal Grammar in the brains of
children allows them to deduce the structure of their native languages from "mere
exposure".
Lets review some aspects about the Universal Grammar (UG):
According to Noam Chomsky, UG focuses to answer three basic questions about human
language:
1. What constitutes knowledge of language?
2. How knowledge of language is acquired?
3. How is knowledge of language put to use?
Knowledge of language stands in UG for the subconscious mental representation of
language which underlies all language use.
UG claims that all human beings inherit a universal set of principles and parameters which
control the shape human language can take.
Chomskys proposed principles are unvarying and apply to all human languages similar to
one another; in contrast, parameters possess a limited number of open values which
characterize differences between languages.
The biologically endowed UG equip the children naturally with a clear set of expectations
about the shape of the language according to a predetermined timetable and atrophies with
age.

We have completed to study the innateness perspective; now, we can analyze some
aspects about the Interactional / developmental perspective.
The main argument of this theory is that language acquisition must be viewed within the
context of a childs intellectual development, and its most influential figure is Jean Piaget,
who proposed the model of cognitive development.
The following statements are the characteristics of this perspective:
Linguistic structures will emerge only if there is an already established cognitive
foundation.
Before children can use linguistic structures, they need first to have developed the
conceptual ability to make relative judgments
 Focuses on exploring the links between the stages of cognitive development and
language skills.
The links have been clearly shown for the earliest period of language learning (up to
18 months), relating to the development of what Piaget called sensory motor
intelligence, in which children construct a mental picture of a world of objects that
have independent existence.
During the latter part of this period, children develop a sense of object permanence
and will begin to search for the objects that they have seen hidden.

At this instant, we have finished to analyze the three theories of first language
acquisition. In order to make a final understanding, I invite you to see the following graph
that describes the theories of first language acquisition.

FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Behaviourist Perspective Innatist Perspective Interactionist/Developmental

Skinner proposed that children learn from
imitation and repetition (practice). Their
language is shaped by being exposed to
quality and quantity of the language as
well as consistency in reinforcement
offered by others.
Source: How Languages are learned. N.Spada & P. Lightbown (2010)
Author: Ruiz (2010)
The brain is the key factor. According to
Chomsky children were biologically wired to
acquire some skills like talking or walking.
He defends the existence of Universal
Grammar which is a sort or template that
contains principles that are universal to all
human languages.
Development is the key factor. Language is
acquired as cognitive developmental
progresses.
Piaget thought language is a symbol system
used to express knowledge acquired
through interaction with the physical world.
Vytvosky on the other hand conceived
language was essentially internalized
speech, and speech emerged in social
interaction.

Congratulations! You are finished with this this topic!

3.2 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING
Dear Student,
Now that we have reviewed some of the leading theories of FIRST language development
we will now turn our attention to theories of SECOND language development. As you will
see, there are many similarities between first language and second language acquisition
theories. But there are also some important differences.
This section discusses some of the theories related to second language acquisition. Four
perspectives are presented:
Behaviourism
Innatist
Cognitivist/Developmental
Sociocultural

The different perspectives, theories and models can be explained in order you
comprehend better each one. It is important that you compare and contrast the different
ideas among these theories which have caused a great impact in the field of SLA. It is
important to review some book definitions about metacognition and metalinguistic
awareness before we start.
Metacognition is thinking about thinking. More specifically, Taylor (1999) defines
metacognition as an appreciation of what one already knows, together with a correct
apprehension of the learning task and what knowledge and skills it requires, combined with
the agility to make correct inferences about how to apply ones strategic knowledge to a
particular situation, and to do so efficiently and reliably.
 Motivation:
Study strategies
Attribution
self-efficacy

Metacognition

Monitoring:

Reflection and self-

assessment

Metalinguistic awareness refers to the ability to objectify language as a process as well as

an artifact. Metalinguistic can be classified as the ability to consciously reflect on the nature
of language. Metalinguistic awareness can also be defined as the ability to reflect on the use
of language. As metalinguistic awareness grows, children begin to recognize that
statements may have a literal meaning and an implied meaning

Now, we can move to the first perspective, Behaviourism perspective

The behaviorists believe that Foreign Language Learning (FLL) consists of learners
imitating what they hear and develop habits in the First Language by routine practice. In
this view, the learners are thought to relate what they know of their first language (L1) to
what they recognize in the second language (L2). "Positive transfer" is a result of
similarities between the L1 and the L2, because habits used in the L1 easily transfer to the
L2. On the other hand, "negative transfer is caused by differences between the L1 and the
L2, because errors result from using habits from the L1 in the L2.
Some characteristics of this perspective are:
It had a powerful influence on second and foreign language teaching, between the
1940s and the 1970s.
Classroom activities emphasizes mimicry and memorization, students learned
dialogues and sentence patterns by heart.
Language was viewed as the formation of habits.
 It was assumed that a person learning a second language would start off with the
habits formed in the first language.
It was linked to the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH), where the first
language and the target language are similar.
Learners should acquire Target Language structure with ease; but when there are
differences, learns should have difficulty.
First language influence may become more apparent as more is learned about the
second language, leading learners to see similarities that they had not perceived at
an ealier stage.
The influence of the learners first language may not simple be a matter of the
Transfer of habits.

Now, we move on to the next perspective, the innatist theory

I want to review the book definition of Universal Grammar, before to continue analysing
this theory. Heres the definition from the book:
UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR (UG): Innate linguistic knowledge which, it is hypothesized,
consists of a set of principles common to all languages. This term is associated with
Chomskys theory of language acquisition.
This important theory presented by Chomsky is Universal Grammar. Although Chomsky
did not make any specific claims about the implication of his theory for second language
acquisition, some researchers have argued that UG offers the best perspective from which
to understand second language acquisition. Others like Bley (1983 and Schachter (1990),
state that even though it is a good framework for understanding first language acquisition, it
is not a good explanation for the acquisition of a second language.
As you know, Chomsky asserts that children are born biological programmed with a sort of
template containing principles that are universal to all human languages. So, as children
already possess the equipment, they only have to learn the ways in which the language they
are acquiring makes use of these principles.

The next concept I want to highlight is:

3.3 Krashens Monitor Model.
By the 1980s, the theories of Stephen Krashen had become the prominent paradigm in
SLA. In his theories, often collectively known as the Input hypothesis, Krashen suggested
that language acquisition is driven solely by comprehensible input, language input that
learners can understand.
This model is made up of five hypotheses.
- The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis: acquire by being exposed (children), learn by
conscious attention
- The Monitor hypothesis: learned systems acts as a monitor.
- The Natural Order hypothesis: second language unfolds in predictable sequences.
- The Input hypothesis: i+1 and
- The Affective Filter hypothesis: metaphorical barrier that prevents language
acquisition
The following graph illustrates how these hypotheses work together in the model.
Graph No. 2. Krashens monitor model of Second Language Acquisition

Input Hypothesis

Acquisition occurs when input is

comprehensible

i +1

Monitor Hypothesis

Affective Filter Hypothesis Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis Acquired system

responsible for
Feelings, motives, needs, Language is acquired without conscious spontaneous language
attitudes and emotional attention or learned through conscious use
states act as barriers to attention.
learning Learned system
monitors the acquired
system

Natural Order Hypothesis

Second language acquisition occurs in

predictable sequences

Source: How Languages are learned. N.Spada & P. Lightbown (2010)

Author: Weber (2010)

The graph above shows Krashens model influenced by Chomskys theory of first language
acquisition. This model responded to the growing dissatisfaction with language teaching
methods based on behaviourism in the early 70s.
Krashen's model was influential in the field of SLA and also had a large influence on
language teaching, but it left some important processes in SLA unexplained.

Now, lets take a closer look at the Information Processing Model.

According to the Information Processing Model, when information is first introduced

learners need to spend much of their cognitive energy paying attention before they can
understand. After they experience and practice with the information, understanding
becomes automatic and takes less energy.

Heres a diagram of the process:

Graph No. 3 Information processing model of SLA.

Cognitive Experience
New information Understanding
processes focus and
introduced becomes
on paying practice
attention automatic

Source: How Languages are learned. N.Spada & P. Lightbown (2010)

Author: Webber (2010)

Think about how you

learn new information.
Do you go through this
process?

Now, lets take a closer look at the The cognitivist/developmental perspective.

In the cognitive view first language learners are thought to creatively use their skills of
cognition in order to figure out the L2 on their own. The learners notice a pattern and
construct their own rules accordingly, then go back and change the rules if they are faulty.
In this approach to L2 acquisition, the learners benefit from their mistakes because they are
playing an active role in the FLL process and learning first-hand how the language works.
One problem with this view is that cognition is not the only factor that learners use to make
assumptions about a language. It has been viewed that some errors learners make are based
on rules of the L1; they are influenced by these rules as opposed to coming to conclusions
based on their cognitive abilities. Another problem is that it is not always possible to
deduce what the FL learner meant to say, and therefore the error cannot be clearly
determined.

The last concept that I want to highlight is from Sociocultural theory.

Vygotsky emphasised the importance of social interactions to assist learning. This resulted
in teaching strategies focusing on social interactions to promote second language learning.
The idea is to work within a learners Zone of Proximal Development, the area of
understanding where he or she can move to the next level with help from another person.
The graph below illustrates how Vygotskys theory has been applied in the classroom.
Graph No. 4 Vygotskys theory of language acquisition

Collaboration
and
dialogue
emphasized

Learners Tasks require

work with an verbal or
expert or written
each other output

Source: How Languages are learned. N.Spada & P. Lightbown (2010)

Author: Webber (2010)
 Congratulations! You are finished with this this topic!

Dear student, we have finished this unit, and I suggest you read the information in the
following book(s) in order to expand your knowledge about this course.

Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. (2010). How Languages are learned. New York. Oxford
University Press. UTPL. Ediloja.

It is time to test your knowledge by doing the next self-evaluation

SELF-EVALUATION 3

1. Language acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to

perceive and comprehend __________, as well as to produce and use words to
______________.
a. Language / communicate
b. Words / transfer information
c. Learning / native language

2. The innateness perspective language development theory proposed by Bloomfield

, states that:
a. Children develop a capacity for language development
b. Children must be born with an innate capacity for language development
c. Children dont show an innate capacity for language development

3. The presence of Universal Grammar in the brains of children allows them to deduce
the structure of their native languages from "mere exposure", is a theory of
language acquisition attributed to:

a. Bloomfield
 b. Kranshen
c. Chomsky

4. The ability to treat language as an object is called:

a. Metalinguistic acquisition
b. Metalinguistic awareness
c. Metalinguistic ability

5. Innatist theory states that all human languages are fundamentally innate and they all
share the same _________________.

a. Universal principles
b. Universal grammar
c. Universal innateness

6. The theory that it is easier for learners to acquire a second language if its patterns
are similar to their native language is called:

a. Behaviorism hypothesis
b. Acquisition hypothesis
c. Contrastive Analysis hypothesis

UNIT 4: English Phonology

4.1 Fields of phonology and phonetics

4.1.2 Phonetics and Phonology
The study of the sounds of speech is divided into the disciplines of phonetics and
phonology.

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human
speech. It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds like: their
physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological
status.
PHONETICS
 - studies speech sounds as physical objects. It is an empirical science based on the
observation of facts.

- studies human speech sounds, how these sounds are produced and methods for
their classification.

- is concerned with the human sound-producing capacity and analyzes

the whole range of possible speech sounds. (Fasold, R, 2006).

Broadly speaking, a phonetician asks questions such as:

- How are speech sounds made?

- How many different sounds do languages use?
- How does sound travel through the air?
- How can we measure speech? (Fasold. R, 2006)

So we can summarize that in the following definition:

Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, their physical

properties, the way they are received and decoded by the
brain, and the way they are produced. (Rowe, 2009)

Phonetics plays an important role in foreign language teaching. It is important for sound
transmission.
Phonetics is subdivided into different areas:
Articulatory phonetics it studies the nature and limits of human ability to produce
speech sounds and describes the way these sounds are delivered (Fasold, 2006).
It is the study of the production of speech sounds. Altering the characteristics of a stream of
air produces speech.
Most sounds are produced by expelling air. The air is modified by the structures of the
respiratory and digestive systems before it is released. These structures are called
ORGANS of SPEECH.
These are: trachea, larynx, vocal cords, glottis, epiglottis, pharyngeal- throat, nasal- nose,
and oral - mouth cavities. Observe the picture in your textbook and the one to the left.

Dear student: to visualize the organs of speech, I invite you to click on the next link:

http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2013/ling520/LectureNotes2.html

Acoustic phonetics it studies the physical properties of speech sounds; frequency,

amplitude during sound transmission from speaker to hearer, from mouth to ear.(Fasold,
2006).
It focuses on the sound that is produced when a person speaks. The aim of acoustic
phonetics is to understand the acoustic properties of speech, and how that speech is
perceived by the listener's ears.
The process of speech communication is dependent on the nature of sound.
All sounds (music, animal noises, human speech, etc.) are patterns (waves) of energy that
move through air.

Articulatory Phonetics - is the field of study devoted to the investigation of sound

waves: it is the study of the physical properties of sound (Fasold, 2006).

Auditory phonetics is concerned with hearing and perception of speech; our response to
speech sounds as received through the ear and brain (Fasold, 2006).
It is the study of HOW sounds are received by the ear and decoded by the brain.
Auditory phonetics focuses on the listener rather than the producer of speech.
The study of Auditory Phonetics relies on knowledge that comes from the study of anatomy
and physiology.
Phonology, on the other hand, is concerned with the abstract, grammatical characterization
of systems of sounds. It deals with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It
has traditionally focused largely on the study of the systems of phonemes in particular
languages, but it may also cover any linguistic analysis either at a level beneath the word
(including pitch and rhyme, articulatory features, etc.) or at all levels of language where
sound is considered to be structured in order to convey linguistic meaning.
(Fasold, 2006).
It could be said that phonology is a kind of functional phonetics that employs the data as
description of sounds and ways of classifying them to study the sound systems of
languages.

PHONOLOGY is a branch of linguistics.

It is an overall description of the sounds
of a given language. (Fasold, 2006).

Phonology is concerned with scientific theory and the study of the linguistic functions of
sounds.
In other words, phonology studies how languages organize sounds into different patterns.

According to Fasold (2006), Phonologists ask questions such as:

- How do languages organize sounds to distinguish

different words?
- How do languages restrict, or constrain, sequences
of sounds?
- What sorts of changes do sounds undergo if
sequences arise that don t obey the restrictions?
- How are sounds organized into larger constituents
(syllables, words, phrases)?

Differences between Phonetics and Phonology

To understand it better, let us distinguish between these two fields of study:

PHONETICS
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that
comprises the study of the sounds of human
speech.
It deals with the physical production of these
PHONOLOGY
Phonology is a branch of linguistics. It is an overall
description of the sounds of a given language.
sounds.
Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, their
physical properties, the way they are received
and decoded by the brain, and the way they
are produced.(Rowe, 2009)
It studies speech sounds as physical objects.
It studies human speech sounds, how these
sounds are produced and methods for their
classification.
It is concerned with the human sound-
producing capacity and analyzes the whole
range of possible speech sounds .
It is strictly about audible sounds and the
things that happen in your mouth, throat, nasal
and sinus cavities, and lungs to make those
sounds.
Its only a description. For ex., in order to
produce the word bed, you start out with your
lips together. Then, air from your lungs is
forced over your vocal chords, which begin to
vibrate and make noise. The air then escapes
through your lips as they part suddenly, which
results in a B sound.
Its strictly physical. Its not about meaning.
Phonology describes the way sounds function
within a given language or across languages to
encode meaning.
Phonology concerns itself with systems of
phonemes, abstract cognitive units of speech
sound or sign which distinguish the words of a
language.
It explores the differences between sounds that
change the meaning of an utterance.
For ex., the word bet is very similar to the word
bed in terms of the physical manifestation of
sounds. The only difference is that at the end of
bet, the vocal chords stop vibrating so that sound
is a result only of the placement of the tongue
behind the teeth and the flow of air. However, the
meanings of the two words are not related in the
least.
It makes very detailed descriptions of sounds, so
each language has its own unique set of symbols
(because no two languages use all of the exact
same sounds).
It is both physical and meaningful.

Phonemes are considered the basic unit of phonology. The word phoneme is of Greek
origin that means sound.

Phonemes are speech sounds as they are

perceived, that is to say, it is pronunciation.

A phoneme is a perceived unit of language that signals a difference in meaning when

contrasted to another(Phoneme Press, 1997).
Therefore, when we learn a new word, we always learn its pronunciation in phonemes, that
is, in the prescribed sounds that make up all words in English.
 In other words, whenever we think of the individual sounds that are combined to make
up a word, we always think in terms of phonemes. If we learn a new word , we remember
its pronunciation in phonemes. When we learn a new word, we should try to think about its
phonetic pronunciation. We also use phonemes as a reference point for spelling.

Phonemes help us distinguish an uttered (spoken) word from its written form.
Example : log dog fog

To clearly understand this concept, try to recall a poem or song that you learnt or read as a
child. We say that words rhyme because we recognize that some of their phonemes sound
the same, or are alike.

You might also remember a childrens game where phonemes are manipulated to create
new patterns and to invent new words. You might also remember a children s game, as
when kids manipulate phonemes to create new patterns and invent new words; or the so
called Pig Latin, a kind of secret language, for example, words are created in a kind of code
language by shifting vowel and consonant sounds.

Pig Latin :

Example:
messy essmay
chick ickchay
father atherfay
Another example is a telephone connection, for instance, when we cannot distinguish
clearly what was said by another person. This phenomenon usually occurs because we
missed some of the phonemes and are not able to identify the entire word.
Some of you may have also experienced difficulty in understanding a foreigner speaking
your native language. Accents may also hamper the understanding of a word. This happens
because a non- native speaker is accustomed to using the phonemes typical of his or her
native language. These are quite different from the phonemes of your mother tongue.
These sounds, or phonemes, can be identified in any language. For example, the word log
differs from dog because their phonemes, or sounds, are different.

You see, written English differs greatly from the spoken form.
I would like to sum up with the explanation about the phoneme with the following
definition:

A PHONEME is a perceived unit of language that signals a difference

in meaning when contrasted to another phoneme.

4.2 Main features of pronunciation. The articulation of phonemes

In this section, you will read about some key features of pronunciation. Pronunciation
involves far more than individual sounds. Word stress, sentence stress, intonation, and
word linking all influence the sounds of spoken English.
We can also mention the fact that native speakers often slur words and phrases together in
casual speech and this can create some difficulties for non native speakers to understand the
message. In fact, English pronunciation involves too many complexities for learners to
strive for a complete elimination of accent, but improving pronunciation will boost self-
esteem, facilitate communication, and possibly lead to a better job or a least more respect in
the workplace (Colorado State University www.writing.colostate.edu).
A student's first language often interferes with English pronunciation. For example, /p/ is
aspirated in English but not in Spanish, so when a Spanish speaker pronounces 'pig' without
a puff of air on the /p/, a native speaker may hear 'big' instead. Another problem resulting
from differences in the first language is the inability to hear certain English sounds that the
native language does not contain. Often these are vowels, as in 'ship' and 'sheep,' which
many learners cannot distinguish.

In phonological analysis, segmental features refer to phonemes, which correspond fairly

well to vowel and consonant sounds. Vowels and consonants considered as small segments
of speech, which together form a syllable and thus, produce the utterance. Whereas supra-
segmental features are specific features that are superimposed on the utterance of the
speech are known as supra-segmental features.
Among common supra-segmental features we can mention the stress( word and sentence),
intonation and rhythm in the syllable or word for a continuous speech sequence. Supra-
segmental features are used in the context of speech to make it more meaningful and
effective (Manisha Kulshreshtha, C.P. Singh, and R.M. Sharma, 2012).

Observe the chart with the main pronunciation features of English, which are divided in
segmental and supra segmental, as illustrated in the chart below:

Teaching pronunciation consists of two main fields, which are divided into two sub-fields:

segmental supra-segmental

vowels consonants stress intonation rhyth

m

Source: Nina Nesterenko

The first group is comprised of phonemes, which consist of consonant and vowel sounds.
The second group is called supra-segmental features, which consists of intonation and
stress and their elements.

Within the PHONEMES group, you will find consonants and vowels.

As you know, speech consists of sounds that are subdivided into vowels and consonants.
In the following chapters, we are going to analyze their production, articulation, and
become acquainted with how to teach them.
 NOTE: There is a great difference between consonant and vowel sounds.

These differences can be broken down as follows:

1. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL DIFFERENCE - the way the sounds are produced.
Note:
"In written English, the 26 letters of the alphabet comprise 5 vowels and 21 consonants. In
spoken English, there are 20 vowels and 24 consonants.
It is this discrepancy, of course, which underlies the complexity of
English spelling.(David Crystal, How Language Works. Overlook Press, 2006).

During the articulation of a vowel sound, there is no narrowing of the air passage
anywhere in the oral cavity that is sufficient to create turbulence and cause audible friction.
As soon as such friction comes into play, we no longer talk of a vowel sound, but a
consonant.

In other words, in order to produce consonants you have to set up an obstacle course inside
your mouth to block the airstream.

Vowels are made with more or less an open mouth and without blocking the airstream.
2. ACOUSTIC DIFFERENCE auditory quality of sounds.
This distinction is present in all languages.
Note:
Vowels are always produced with an open vocal tract and are therefore highly
resonant.
The articulatory properties of vowels differ in several aspects from those of
consonants, mainly in the degree of vocal tract opening.
Consonants are more constricted and therefore have weaker sound.
Vowels produce longer reaction times than consonants.
Consonants are less prominent than vowels.
Vowels have a timbre which makes them more sonorous than others - vowel sounds are
more sonorous and prominent than consonants. Sonority of sounds depends on their length,
stress, and even intonation.
By increasing the length and stress of a sound, we can make sounds more prominent.

3. Another difference between vowels and consonants is their ROLE IN THE

SYLLABLE.
Note:
- Syllables usually consist of a vowel surrounded by a number of consonants.
- A single vowel forms the prominent nucleus of each syllable.
- There is only one peak of prominence per syllable and this is nearly always a vowel.
- The consonants form the less prominent valleys between the vowel peaks.

Remember, that vowels are usually the center or nucleus of the syllable; and consonants
are marginal.
Observe the example below :
bet - / e / (constitutes the peak of prominence of the syllable and / b / and
/ t / are less prominent).

Physiologically, this reduced prominence corresponds to a narrowing of the vocal tract.

If you continue analyzing the chart in the textbook, you will see that consonants are
subdivided in:
VOICED and UNVOICED, or VOICELESS

Voicing refers to the activity of

the vocal folds (or vocal cords).

REMEMBER: All vowel sounds are voiced

As it was already mentioned, voicing refers to the articulatory process in which the vocal
cords vibrate. At the articulatory level, a voiced sound is one in which the vocal cords
vibrate; whereas, a voiceless sound is one in which there is no vibration. For example,
voicing accounts for the difference between the pair of sounds associated with the English
letters "s" and "z". The two sounds are transcribed as [s] and [z] to distinguish them from
the English letters, which have several possible pronunciations depending on context.
To understand the difference between voiced and unvoiced sounds, the following exercise
may help you. Place your hand on your throat and pronounce the sounds /a /,/ l /, / m /,, / r/
or / u /. You will perceive a slight vibration of cords.

And now pronounce the sounds / p /, / t / / f /, and / k/, and how you wont t feel l any
vibration this time.

Another distinguishing feature of vowel sounds is that there are DIPTHTHONGS and
TRIPHTHONGS.

The term diphthong has a Greek origin (diphthongs ), and means "two sounds" or "two
tones".
A diphthong is also called a gliding vowel since it refers to two adjacent vowel sounds
occurring within the same syllable.

In phonetics and phonology, a glide (or semivowel) is a sound, such as English /

w/ or /y/, that is phonetically similar to a vowel sound but functions as the syllable
boundary rather than as the nucleus a syllable (taken from Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia).

These sounds are produced with little or no obstruction of the airstream that are preceded or
followed by a vowel, as in the examples provided below.
You may observe diphthongs as illustrated in the words:
boy, toy, annoy / /, hey, way, lane , / e /, nice, bite / a /
Vowel sounds in which the tongue starts in one position and rapidly moves to another are
diphthongs.

Conversely, a triphthong is a compound vowel sound resulting from the succession of

three simple vowel sounds and functions as one unit.
 Triphthong also has a Greek origin and means "with three sounds," or "with three
tones". It is characterized by a vowel combination involving a quick, but smooth movement
of the articulator from one vowel quality to another.

Please look at these examples of words containing triphthongs:

[a] hour, flour, sour, flower, our, power, shower
[a] fire, tire, higher, tyre
[] loir, employer, soya
[ ei ] layer , player
[] slower , lower
The next important features of pronunciation are the SUPRASEGMENTAL elements.
This group is composed by: intonation, length, tone, syllable structure, stress, pitch and
utterance.
The term Suprasegmental refers to the manner speech sounds function and how they are
affected at the sentence and discourse levels; that is to say, over multiple sound segments
that combine to make phrases, clauses, and sentences. As you can see in your textbook,
this group is composed by INTONATION and STRESS. These elements will be discussed
in more detail in units 5 and 6.

SUPRASEGMENTAL aspects of
speech include:
- length
- tone
- intonation
- syllable structure
- stress
- pitch
- utterance

Let us now take a. closer look at each element:

To analyze and describe sounds, we first need to know what a syllable is.

According to Encyclopedia Britannica on line,

 A SYLLABLE can be defined as a unit of spoken language consisting of a single
uninterrupted sound formed by a vowel, diphthong, or syllabic consonant alone, or
by any of these sounds preceded, followed, or surrounded by one or more
consonants.

For example:
In the word beautiful, there are three syllables: beau-ti-ful. And the word traffic consists
only of two syllables: tra-, and -ffic.
Therefore,

a syllable refers to a segment of speech that consists of a

vowel sound that usually accompanies consonant sounds.

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica online

The next element of supra-segmental features is stress. Here is a concise definition:

STRESS describes the prominence of

a syllable.

The flow of speech in any language is broken by pauses: short or long periods of silence
that usually come at the end of whole utterances.

Stressed syllables are sometimes referred to as accented syllables, and usually the
prominence is achieved through a relative increase in loudness.
However, a syllable that is stressed may also be longer in duration than an unstressed one.

REMEMBER: Stress is an important phonetic feature in English.

Differences in stress may result in different meanings.

Compare the words: desert (noun, stress on first syllable); and

 desert (verb, stress on second syllable).

NOTE: The stress on different syllables changes the meaning of the words completely.

The next element of supra-segmental features of pronunciation is pitch.

Here is a standard definition of pitch:

PITCH in speech is defined by the online Encyclopedia Britannica as the relative

highness or lowness of a tone as perceived by the ear, which depends on the number of
vibrations per second produced by the vocal cords.
Then pitch is an auditory sensation. When we hear a regularly vibrating sound such as a
note played on a musical instrument, or a vowel produced by the human voice, we hear a
high pitch if the rate of vibration is high and a low pitch if the rate of vibration is low
(Roach, P., 2009).

It is the main acoustic correlate of tone and intonation.

Pitch
Another is the main acoustic correlate of tone and intonation.
definition:
This term is usually applied to languages (called tone languages,) where pitch
differentiates words with identical sequences of consonants and vowels.

For example, man in Mandarin may mean either "deceive" or "slow," depending on its
pitch.

In tone languages, what matters is not absolute pitch, but the pitch of one word that is
relative to another, or how pitch changes within a word.

Tone refers to the use of pitch to convey meaning at the word level. (Fasold, R. 2006).
The next element of suprasegmentals is INTONATION.

Please read the definition below that is provided by Websters dictionary:

 INTONATION refers to the variation in pitch that is used to
convey meaning to sentence at discourse level.

It can also be described as the variations in the pitch of the

voice in connected speech.

Intonation plays an important role in the meaning of a

sentence, statement, or phrase.

Intonation distinguishes different kinds of sentences from each other, or focuses attention
on a particular word. All languages use intonation to some extent, though the patterns and
meanings differ across languages. ( Fasold. R. 2006).
The next term that we need to examine is LENGTH.

LENGTH refers to the duration, or quantity, of a

sound.
Unlike stress and tone, which refer to entire
syllables, length describes the duration of a
particular sound segment.

In English, the length of a vowel is very important. We have long vowels and short vowels
in English. A vowel is longer when it occurs before a voiced sound (as in bead), than when
it occurs before an unvoiced sound (as in pit ).
Observe more examples below:
For example, / ee / is long and / ih / is short. If someone says the long ee vowel, but they
say it short, as in ih, it actually sounds like the wrong word. For example, the word 'deep.'
Deep is with the long vowel. Dip is another word with a short vowel. If I say the long
vowel, ee, but I say it with a short vowel, as in deep, it actually sounds like the word 'dip'
being mispronounced. So the length of the vowel is very important. Some sample word
pairs are:
feet fit sheep ship heat hit sleep slip neat - knit.
Unlike stress, length differences do not result in differences in meaning (in English).
Another term to mention in this chapter is utterance. Please read the following:
An UTTERANCE is a stretch of speech between
two periods of silence or a potential or
perceived silence. (Rowe. B, 2006)
 THE ARTICULATION OF PHONEMES
This section provides the description of the articulation of vowels and consonants. Every
speech sound is either a vowel or consonant. From the point of view of acoustics, there is
no sharp dividing line between consonants and vowels, but we group the speech sounds we
hear in this way because they form syllable structures.
The articulation of vowels
Vowels are harder to describe than consonants because they have an open vocal tract, so the
tongue does not actually touch the upper surface of the vocal tract at any particular place.
Instead, different vowels are described in terms of the ways in which the tongue and lips
move.
The main difference between vowels and consonants consists in the way they are produced.
Please, observe attentively the classification of vowels according to the position of the
tongue during articulation, and pay attention to the corresponding phonetic symbol.
The articulation of consonants
As you know, consonants are sounds that often accompany vowels in the syllable, and are
produced with some degree of air obstruction, ranging from the complete stoppage of air, as
in the sounds p, t, k, b, d, g, v, h to very little air obstruction as in the sounds s, z, , r,
d, , t (soul, zeal, shine, rock, jeans, pleasure, chalk).
Some sounds may function as either vowels or consonants, depending on the syllable
pattern - w, y
(Example: you, well ).
All phonemes have some determined features which help the listener distinguish between
contrasting phonemes and recognize words.
Consonants differ from vowels because they have different phonetic features. What is a
phonetic feature?

A phonetic feature is a generic label for movements or positions of the

speech organs.
Phonetic features provide a means to identify classes of sounds, that
is, groups of sounds that share one or more features in common and
that native speakers of a language may recognize as similar in some
sense.

For example, [p, b, t, d, k, g ] are similar to one another but different

from [ f, v, , , , s ,z]
Each phonetic feature represents an activity that is usually carried out by the vocal tract.
The phonetic features are real; they represent abilities possessed by all physically normal
human beings.

Main Phonetic Features are:

VOICING MANNER OF
ARTICULATION

ASPIRATION POINTS (place)

OF ARTICULATION

Observe the graphs in the link below to understand the process of articulation, and get
acquainted with articulators:

http://www.healthgalleries.com/true-vocal-cords

There are five basic active articulators:

The lip,
The flexible front of the tongue,
The middle/back of the tongue,
The root of the tongue together with the epiglottis and
The larynx
These articulators can act independently of each other, and two or more may work together
in what is called co-articulation

PLACE (POINTS) of ARTICULATION: refers to the place of the vocal cord where the
sound is produced, or where there is the most contact, or near contact, of articulators.

The MANNER OF ARTICULATION describes how the tongue, lips, jaw, and other
speech organs are involved in making a sound. The manner of articulation thus refers to the
degree of air obstruction and the way in which the breath stream is released, that is from
sudden to gradual.

ASPIRATION refers to the audible escape of air following certain consonant sounds. To
better understand this speech phenomenon, you can put a hand or a lit candle in front of
your mouth, and say the words pin ([pn]) and then bin ([bn]).You will notice that the
candle flame will move slightly. You can also feel a puff of air when pronouncing pin, but
this does not happen with bin.

And the last distinguishing feature of consonants refers to the activity of the vocal cords
VOICING.
In phonology, voicing refers to sound changes whereby a consonant changes its type of
voicing from voiceless to voiced, or vice versa, due to the influence of its phonological
environment. Most commonly, the change is caused because of sound assimilation with an
adjacent sound of opposite voicing, but it can also occur word-finally or in contact with a
specific vowel. To better understand it, make another easy experiment: put your finger on
your throat and produce a consonant sound. If you feel a vibration, the consonant is voiced.
Now, pronounce each voiced consonant below. Pronounce the consonants like: b, d, th, v,
l, r, z, and j; if you feel a vibration, the consonant is voiced. Did you notice the difference
between the voiceless and voiced consonants?
Remember: voiceless consonants such as p, t, k in the initial position ARE ALWAYS
aspirated before a stressed vowel. The aspiration symbol is p, t, k.
The following contrasting pairs of words demonstrate this phenomenon:
 p pin- bin p pan- ban p pill - hill
k cat bat k kite -site k come- gum
t take - make t tile- file t time- dime
Dear student, we have finished this unit, and I suggest you read the information in the
following book(s) in order to expand your knowledge about this course.

Kelly, G. (2010). How to teach pronunciation (12th edition). Harlow: Pearson

Education.
Nesterenko, N. (2011). Didactic guide English Phonology: Pronunciation. Loja,
Ecuador: Ediloja
Clark, J. & Yallop, C. (1994). An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology. Malden,
USA: Blackwell Publishers

It is time to test your knowledge by doing the next self-evaluation

SELF-EVALUATION 4
Circle the letter of the correct answer:
1. The branch of Linguistics that studies physical properties of speech sounds , their
physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological
status, is called:
a. Phonology
b. Phonetics
c. Applied linguistics

2. Which of the following fields of phonetics studies the nature and limits of human ability
to produce speech sounds and describes the way the sounds are delivered?
a. Auditory
b. Acoustic
c. Articulatory

3. The smallest unit of phonology is called:

a. Phoneme
b. syllable
c. utterance

4. The supra segmental aspects of speech are represented by:

a. consonants, vowels, triphthongs
b. stress, tone, length, pitch
c. single vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants

5. Voiced phonemes are in the words:

a. coffee, hat, block
b. boot, cat, mashine
c. rock, ocean, smile

6. Voiceless sounds are in the words:

a. telephone, slash, time
b. window, smog, lamp
c. nose, file, globe

UNIT 5: Culture and Literature

Dear student:

We are about to begin studying Culture and literature in English speaking communities.
The purpose of this component is to provide you future teacherswith insights in the board
subject of English studies. Consequently, it is really important as future English teachers to
know the basics about English American culture in general. Remember that we need to
develop a critical and analytical competence since literary masterpieces ultimately reveal
hidden aspects of popular interest such as sexism manifestation, carnival, comedy, tragedy,
and so on.

So, why dont we start right away? I want to let you know three core topics selected:

Topics:

1. Interpretation (How to approach a text)

2. Speech and Writing
3. Narrative in story and history.

5.1 Interpretation

Let me ask you first two basic questions: what do you understand by Interpretation? and
how do we interpret a text? Take a look at the image below:

Figure 1. Interpretations of design

Some design blog (2011). Avoiding the pitfalls of interpretation. Retrieved from
http://somedesignblog.com/2011/10/24/avoiding-the-pitfalls-of-interpretation/

Is it hard for you to answer? Dont worry. We are going to explain this right now.

Interpretation has a lot of definitions and connotations. It depends on the situation or

context to allot a different perspective or signification. Having in mind the literature
environment we display here, the conception of Interpretation for our purposes implies the
possible application of interpreting by means of performance as well as analysis. The
resulting outlook may be an analysis of a text, a creative writing, or a critical reading. The
critical approach states that interpretation is about making as well as finding meaning.

Then, how to approach a text? To answer this question we need to take into account the so
called Notice-Pattern-Contrast-Feeling model answering to key questions: What, Who,
When, Where, How, Why, and What if? You use it basically to analyze texts in detail while
keeping an eye open to broader interpretations. Please read the following poem:

WILLIAN BLAKE, London? (1792)

Pattern Notice Contrast

Feeling

Figure 2. From The Explicator, Blakes LONDON,

Graves, R.N. Acrostic Encoding in William Blakes London. Vol. 63, No. 3, 131-35, Spring 2005.
Reprinted with permission of the Helen Dwight Reid Educational Foundation. Published by Heldref
Publications, 1319 18th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036-1802. www.heldref.org. Copyright 2005.

What? Who? When? Where? How?

Why? What if?

This initial framework is obviously infinitely extendable, and precisely what you do with
it is up to you. But its principles are simple and serviceable, and it proves easy to adapt as
well as remember. So one more time with a fresh lay out of good measure.

NoticePatternContrastFeeling!
 What? Who? When? Where? How? Why?
What if? (Pope, 1998. 86)

Full interpretation takes place if we apply specific questions to a particular text in this
case, to our poem:
- What sort of text is this?
- How language is used?
- Is there any recognizably literary about this text?
- Are there any specific literary genres?
- What kinds of culture are presented?
- How does the text relate to its social and historical contexts?

Individual interpretations and responses, as already observed, can take a wide variety of
critical and creative forms (Pope, 1998. 93). At this point, you are in a good position to be
discussing over literary texts with colleagues and/or supervisors.
What is essential to take into account here, in terms of avoiding speculative undertaking, is
that we must examine what a text does to convey meaning. In other words, it is necessary to
find patterns of content and language to shape the picture or plot of any topic as well as
analyze how these patterns convey underlying meaning.

I highly recommend studying the material below. It will give you a more profound
elucidation on the information stated before.
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCuNiETPlHHKpYJN08oGLFKQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eVHu5-n69qQ
Did you complete the task? Interesting, wasnt it? Now that you have completed this first
lesson, lets move on the next one.
5.2 Speech and Writing

Hello again. We are going to continue dealing with these amazing and necessary topics in
our subject: Speech and Writing. Leaving aside the conceptualizations of both terms the
ones we can find in a dictionary, I would like you to be carefully fixed at the terms and
explain if they can provide information on literary analysis.

speech writing
OK read them again please. What is the first thing that pops into your head? Any ideas?
Write down all your thoughts and preliminary contributions on the topic.

Many scholars state that between speech and writing in English there is no single and
absolute difference. Somewhat there are more or less similar with respect to each
dimension. Figure 3 shows the relationship between the multiple linguistic features and
multiple dimensions.

Figure 3. Oral and literate situational characteristics of four genres

Biber, D. (1998) Variations across speech and writing, NY: Cambridge University Press)

Remember that this approach has widely been used in the composition field, by native and
non-native writers of English, and as stated above, theres no difference between good and
poor writings. Then, According to Pope (1998. 252) speech and writing are analogous but
no identical activities. Speech is made from sounds in air (graphological material), while
writing is made from marks on paper or plastic, etc.
According to Pope, this kind of discussion between speech and writing is primarily
valuable. Dont forget however that both speech and writing need to be experienced in
view of developments in audio-visual media technology (say telephone, photography,
radio, film, television, video, and computer interfaces) since it scrambles and reconstitutes
traditional distinctions between speech and writing.
On the other hand, theres another branch of linguists who assert that of course both terms
are different. Thus, when we use the word Language, sometimes we mean speech either
spoken or written, the first is heard and the latter is read. Besides, we have to consider
aspects such as age, universality, acquisition, level of structure, interdependence,
retrievability, literary use, prestige, standardization, formality, and change. (To more
information on the topic, http://www.linguisticsociety.org/resource/whats-difference-
between-speech-and-writing)
The fact that it doesnt always and that writing, print and the modern audio-visual media
do sometimes simply add richness and variety of possibilities. We therefore have to
approach each instance of speech of writing on its own terms, keeping general models in
mind bit also with a sensitivity to specificities (Pope, 1998. 254).

I highly recommend reading the articles proposed. It will provide a more profound
elucidation on the information stated on this topic:

- Coulmas, Florian. 1996. The Blackwell encyclopedia of writing systems. Oxford:

Blackwell.
- Coulmas, Florian. 1989. The writings systems of the world. Oxford: Blackwell.
- Daniels, Peter T., and William Bright (eds.). 1996. The world's writing systems.
New York: Oxford University Press.
- Sampson, Geoffrey. 1985. Writing systems. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Did you finish the reading? Great! Now you are ready to move to our last topic: Lets take a
look.

5.3 Narrative.

Lets start this new topic analyzing its definition. Let me ask you a simple question.
 How do you define the
Word NARRATIVE?

Brainstorm and write down as many clues as possible. You could verify your production
later to see if youre right or wrong.
In the meantime, I will provide some information which is essentially included in all
language discourse textbooks to define the word. Read it carefully:

In a previous stage, we can tentatively define Narrative as the activity of telling factual or
fictional stories. Such a definition may result a bit handy since it conducts us to identify as
narratives and narrations all sorts of productions. Narrative is any activity which results in
a story being told and an event represented and reportedto offset exclusively literary and
verbal emphases, we also look at narrative in history and news, including film, TV and
video (Pope, 1998, 240-241). In other words, it is a retelling activity which displays
something (a story) that happened. Remember that the narrative is not conceived as the
story itself but rather the telling of the story which could be written or spoken. In any case,
narratives can shape history.
Narrative writing is a crucial competence as future English teacher. From now on, you will
be writing texts, e-mails, cover letters, assignments, etc. about your beliefs, your ambitions,
knowledge, and feelings you have. Hence, you must be able to transmit this academic habit
to your students. Remember, Narrative writing (fiction or non-fiction) tells others a story of
your personal experience. Lets look at the example below to instruct your students:
 The student chooses a title
Yellow that reflects the purpose of
the essay.

She crosses the road, trying to figure out how to navigate the
The first sentence
introduces the town she has called home for some twelve years. There is never
Student uses
purpose with much to do here, the most exciting thing that happens usually being interesting and subtle
subtlety and detail to introduce
sophistication. It an ambulance wailing down the streets, but there are always trees conflict and describe
seems the student setting. She
around, and it is relatively peaceful. Dressed purposely to confuse
will try to figure juxtaposes peace
out how to her friends on the first day of school, she wears clothes she would with uncertainty.
navigate within
her town. normally never wear. With her new haircut, she looks like a

completely different person. Her hair is freshly dyed, almost brown

from its original black. She is not wholly unattractive, though she

almost has a unibrow and has a rather large nose. Still, her eyes are
Student develops
appropriate pleasantly brown and her lips make way to reveal an amiable smile
characterization that
with a set of shiny braces. The
connects to her
purpose through light changes as she crosses, andall too soonthe cars are rushing
vivid physical
description. by her. One whips by before her. Another passes behind. She can

see the light reflecting from the car in the window across the

street. But one car comes directly for her.

Student develops
conflict through
detailed
description, diction,
and repetition.
She tries to dodge, but it is too fast. The metal is

smooth under her fingertips as she tries to roll off the

front. Then she is flying.

 The sky is almost unbearably blue, completely free of

clouds. There is a moment of tranquility, as if time has

stopped. Sound ceases to exist. Then she is on the ground, the pain

slowly seeping in as the adrenaline fades away and sound

returns. She is hurt, she manages to process, but not badly. Her body
Student
Students deliberate will be sore all over the next day, as she will discover. Scrapes mark demonstrates
switch in verb tense purposeful variety in
her arms and although she doesnt know it yet, her spine will never be sentence structures
allows her to shift
perspective and that highlights the
quite the same. Why did you run into the car? a
show an awareness intensity of the
of audience and womans voice laments. It is the driver, and a man tries to comfort moment.
purpose.
her as he calls 911. Only one woman bothers to ask the girl if she can

help, call her parents, or if there is anything she can do. As her long,
Student develops
black hair sways in front of her, the girl stares, trying to remember
conflict and shapes
where she has seen the amiable, but overall uninteresting purpose through
the motif of color.
countenance. Then it comes to her.

She is lifted onto the ambulance on the stretcher. Then she is in the

hospital, lying on a gurney. The next thing she can remember is closing her

Student organizes eyes to listen to the conversation around her, purposefully eavesdropping to
detail and chronology pass the time before her parents come.
to support purpose.
She demonstrates
effective pacing I dont know if hes going to make it, a nurse whispers. The girls heart
through purposeful
variety in sentence clenches. That could have been her.
structures.
 When her parents come, she is grateful that they arent angry. They

do become angry later, though not at her. The three of them are summoned

to the police office a few days later, where the officer smiles and asks for a

statement of what has happened from the girls point of view. She would

like to think well of him, but it seems as if he purposely wants to make her

angry. Did you see the light for the crosswalk? Do you remember what it

was? She shakes her head. She cant remember what the light was, only

that the person in front of her was walking. You know I could press

charges against you for jaywalking, he threatens. I have a signed

statement from a witness and the driver. Both of them say that you ran into

the car. Her parents nearly shout at him, demanding video evidence. He

claims there is none, yet there were camerasshe is sure of that. But he
This well-chosen
detail supports continues to uphold his claim. She feels sick. The woman hit her with a
purpose and
car. Her body still aches. To augment her nausea, her familys insurance
continues to
develop character company has been trying to negotiate with the drivers, and it is clear that
and conflict. The
the woman doesnt want to pay a single cent. She is completely convinced
change in tone
shows an that the girl is at fault. Yet she is the victim, not the driver who claims that
awareness of
audience and the girl came running out of nowhere. She isnt suicidal.
purpose.
And then the second realization dawns on the girl.

The only person who bothered to help her is another

Asian. Bitterness fills her mouth. Even in a place like this, where people

Student creates a are supposed to be treated equally, she can still find this kind of
strong, reflective
behavior. Even the policeman is against her. Tears fill her eyes, but she
sense of closure. She
ends the narrative holds them back, trying to steady her hand to write the statement. She
with an additional
layer of conflict, wants to take the pen and throw it at the policemans head, wants to
revealing a
heightened crumple the paper and scream that he is lying. But she doesnt. She
awareness of her
place in the world. finishes signing the statement. Olivia Chang. It is only after she leaves

that she allows herself to cry.

Example retrieved from http://lps.lexingtonma.org/Page/2254

I decidedly recommend going through the following links. After reading and studying
them, you will be able to answer the next self-assessment activity.
http://lps.lexingtonma.org/Page/2254
http://www.roanestate.edu/owl/Describe.html
http://www.sandhills.edu/academic-departments/english/film/narrativearc.html

Dear student, we have finished this unit, and I suggest you read the information in the
following book(s) in order to expand your knowledge about this course.

Pope, R. (2012). Studying English Literature and Language: An Introduction and

Companion. New York: Routledge.

It is time to test your knowledge by doing the next self-evaluation

SELF-EVALUATION 5

Read the following multiple-choice questionnaire. Choose one of the proposed alternatives.
Only one answer is correct.
1. Interpretation, in the literary range, has one and only one definition.
a. True
b. False
c. Not given

2. _____________ implies the possible application of interpreting by means of performance

as well as analysis.
a. Culture
b. Reality
c. Interpretation
3. According to Rob Pope, Speech and Writing are analogous literary activities, in spite of
this, they arent ____________.
a. similar
b. different
c. congruent

4. Both speech and writing are literary activities that need to be experienced in the view of
developments in audio-visual media since they scramble and reconstitute traditional
distinctions between ___________________.
a. Mind and person
b. speech and writing
c. subject and object

5. Is any activity which results in a story being told and an event represented and reported?
a. Discussion
b. Voice
c. Narrative

6. The narrative, literary undertaking is not conceived as the story itself but rather the
telling of the story which could be ________________.
a. written or spoken
b. mimed or represented
c. told or dramatically read

You have successfully completed this unit.

 UNIT 6: Communicative Grammar
6.1 Adjectives and adverbs
6.1.1 Adjectives and adverbs
At this point, you should be familiar with these terms. Lets review the meaning of these
words.

Adjectives and adverbs describe or give more information about other words.

Adjectives are used to describe nouns or pronouns. Adjectives may come before the word
they modify.

For example: She is a pretty girl.

Adverbs are used to describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

For example:
He speaks slowly (modifies the verb speaks).
He is especially clever (modifies the adjective clever).
He works very quietly (modifies the adverb quietly).

It is also important to notice the word order of adjectives and adverbs as well as the words
they describe. In the following examples, you will see that and adjective is usually placed
right before the noun it describes. On the other hand, the adverb usually goes after the verb
it describes. The following are examples of the placement of the adjective and adverb
respectively:
That is a cute dog. (adjective placed right after the noun it describes)
He speaks slowly. (adverb placed right after the verb it describes)

Another aspect about the word order that you must bear in mind is that an adjective can
also be placed after a non-action verb such as be, look, seem, appear, smell, or taste. An
adverb can be placed right before the adjective or adverb it describes. Please check the
following examples:

This technology is advanced. (adjective placed after the verb be)

Its an extremely nice car. (adverb placed right before the adjective it describes)

Lets continue with the next topic.

6.1.2 Adjectives: comparisons with As as and Than

Another way to use adjectives is by making comparisons. You can use the structure
as+adjective+as to show how people, places, or things are the same or equal.

For example: This new rock band is as good as the Rolling Stones.

We can use comparative adjectives + than to show how people, places, or things are
different.

For example: This new rock band is better than the Rolling Stones.
This new employee is more professional than the old employees.
 There are several ways of forming comparative adjectives. Take a look at the
following chart in which the comparative forms for short adjectives (one syllable and two
syllables ending in y) are summarized:
ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE HOW IS IT FORMED?
hard harder For short adjectives (one
high higher syllable) adjective + -er
early earlier For short adjectives (two
dirty dirtier syllables ending in -y) -
adjective + -er
late later adjective + -er (notice the
hot hotter spelling changes when adding
er)
good better Some short adjectives have
bad worse irregular forms.

In the case of long adjectives (two or more syllables) you have to use the structure
more/less + adjective. Please check the following chart for more cases of formation of
comparatives:
ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE HOW IS IT FORMED?
beautiful more beautiful For long adjectives (one or
expensive less expensive more syllables) more/less +
adjective
fun more fun This is an exception. The short
less fun adjective fun forms the
comparative in the same way
as long adjectives.
lovely lovelier For some adjectives such as
more lovely lively, lovely, friendly, and
friendly friendlier quiet, you can use er or more
more friendly
You can repeat the comparative to show increase or decrease.

For example: The line is getting longer and longer. (increase)

The line is getting shorter and shorter. (decrease)

You can also use two comparative adjectives to show cause and effect.

For example: The more generous you are towards others, the more generous they are
likely to be towards you.

The next topic is somewhat related to comparatives. Lets check it.

6.1.3 Adjectives: Superlatives

You can use superlative adjectives to compare one person, place, or thing with other
people, places or things in a group.

For example: Guayaquil is the biggest city in Ecuador

There are several ways of forming superlative adjectives. The following chart will give you
an explanation:

ADJECTIVE SUPERLATIVE HOW IS IT FORMED?

hard the hardest For short adjectives (one syllable)
high the highest the + adjective + -est
early the earliest For short adjectives (two syllables
dirty the dirtiest ending in -y) - the + adjective + -
est
late the latest the + adjective + -est (notice the
hot the hottest spelling changes when adding
est)
good the best Some adjectives have irregular
bad the worst superlative forms.

In the case of long adjectives (two or more syllables) you have to use the structure the
most/the least + adjective. Please check the following chart for more cases of formation of
superlative:
ADJECTIVE SUPERLATIVE HOW IS IT FORMED?
beautiful the most beautiful For long adjectives (one or
expensive the less expensive more syllables) the most/the
least + adjective
fun the most fun This is an exception. The short
the least fun adjective fun forms the
superlative in the same way as
long adjectives.
lovely the loveliest For some adjectives such as
the most lovely lively, lovely, friendly, and
friendly the friendliest quiet, you can use the -est
the most friendly or most/the least

You can use the superlative with words and expressions such as phrases with in and of
as well as one of and some of. Check the following example so you can see how these
words and expressions are used with superlatives.

This is the tallest building in the world.

This is the best day of the week.
This is one of the tallest buildings in the world.
Ecuador has some of the best food in South America.

It is time to finish this first theme talking about the following topic:

6.1.4 Adverbs: Asas, Comparatives, Superlatives

This last part is focused on the uses of adverbs to make comparisons with asas,
comparative adverbs with than, and superlative adverbs.
You can use as+adverb+as to compare actions and show how they are the same or equal.

For example: Piquet plays as well as Mendez

Use comparative adverbs+ than to show how the actions of two people or things are

different.

For example: Ecuador played better than Mexico.

Use superlative adverbs to compare one action with the actions of other people or things
in a group.

For example: All the players worked hard, but Miguel worked the hardest.

There are several ways of forming comparative and superlative adverbs. They are very
similar to the formation of comparative and superlative adjectives. For most short adverbs
(one syllable) use adverb+ -er or the+adverb+ -est. For long adverbs (two or more
syllables) use more/less+ adverb or the most/the least + adverb.

For example: Davis ran more quickly.

Repeat the comparative adverb to show increase or decrease.

For example: Mendez is playing better and better as the season continues.

With long adverbs, repeat only more or less.

For example: Hes playing more and more aggressively.

Remember that this theme of adjectives and adverbs is broad and complex. You are free to
look for more information and examples of this theme on the links provided here or on
others that you can look up on your own. Lets continue with the second theme related to
gerunds and infinitives.

6.2 Gerunds and infinitives

This topic is related to the use of gerunds and infinitives for various purposes. You will
read a brief explanation of several uses of gerunds and infinitives, but it is better to check
the suggested resources since they will provide you with complete information on the
topics studied.
6.2.1 Gerunds: subject and Object
Lets start with a definition of gerund.
A gerund is the base form of verb+ ing and can be used like a noun. The negative of a
gerund is formed by placing not before the gerund.

For example: She enjoys drinking hot chocolate

I suggested not watching that TV show.

A gerund can act as the subject of a sentence. It is always singular.

For example: Eating healthy food improves my mood.

A gerund can act as the object of verbs such as admit, consider, dislike, miss, suggest,
keep, avoid, enjoy, stop, and finish.

For example: You should avoid drinking vodka.

A gerund can also act as the object of a preposition. One case is the use of gerunds after
prepositions such as about, before, for, on, against, between, in, to, at, by, of, and
with/without.

For example: I look forward to meeting you.

A gerund can follow expressions formed by verb+preposition or adjective+preposition

such as advise against and afraid of.

For example: I am afraid of talking to strangers.

Another use that you have to take into account is the verb go + gerund, which is used to
describe activities.

For example: My sister likes to go swimming in the lake.

6.2.2 Infinitives after certain verbs

It is important to review the concept of infinitive first.

An infinitive is to + base form of the verb and the negative is formed by placing not
before the infinitive. An infinitive can follow certain verbs.

For example: These students want to teach too.

We decided not to go out.

You can see in these examples that the verbs want and decided are followed by infinitives.

Other verbs need an object (noun or pronoun) before the infinitive. Take a look at the
following examples:
They invited me to eat at the beach.
She told John to call her.

Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive or an object+ infinitive.

For example: I asked to come to the meeting.

I asked them to come to the meeting.

Infinitives have a variety of uses. We will focus on more uses of infinitives in the next
topic.
6.2.3 More uses of infinitives

Other uses of infinitives include explaining the purpose of an action.

For example: I went to the mall to buy a phone, eat lunch, and see a movie.

Another use of the infinitive includes the inclusion of the expression in order to + base
form of a verb to explain a purpose. A negative purpose can be explain by using in order
NOT to + base form of a verb.

For example: He bought the computer in order to write his dissertation.

They use a GPS in order not to get lost
We use too+ adjective/adverb + infinitive to show that something is not possible. For
example in the sentence That cellphone was too expensive to buy, I am expressing that
the cellphone was expensive, so it was not possible for me to buy it. Conversely, we use
adjective/adverb + enough + infinitive to show that something is possible. For example,
in the sentence This cellphone was cheap enough to buy, I am conveying the meaning
that the cellphone was cheap, so it was possible for me to buy it.

Another use of infinitives is related to the structure for+noun/pronoun placed before the
infinitive to indicate what person, place or thing the infinitive refers to.
For example: It was possible for me to buy it.
Its too hard for my son to understand.

6.2.4 Gerunds and Infinitives

This topic focuses on different uses of gerunds and infinitives. This part is also a review of
some aspects that you already studied. Consider the following explanations and examples:
There are verbs that can be followed by a gerund.

For example: John keeps making excuses.

Other verbs can be followed by an infinitive.

For example: They plan to go there next year.

Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive (the meaning can be the same or
different depending on the situation). Lets see the following examples:
 Katty hates studying.
Katty hates to study.
In the examples above, the meaning of both sentences is the same.
John stopped taking breaks.
John stopped to take a break.
In the examples above, the meaning of both sentences is different since the meaning of the
first is that John does not take breaks anymore. In the second sentence, the meaning of the
sentence is that John stopped what he was doing in order to take a break.

To make general statements, you can use the gerund as subject or it+infinitive.
For example: Training karate is hard.
It is hard to train karate.

The theme of gerunds and infinitives is broad and complex since you need to be familiar
with many verbs and expressions that can be followed by infinitives, gerunds, or both. Feel
free to look for more information and examples of this theme on the links provided here or
on others that you can look up on your own. Lets continue with the last theme related to
more modals and similar expressions.

6.3 More modals and similar expressions

You must be familiar with the use of modals, but there are some specific uses of modals
and expressions that you should know in order to improve your proficiency in English.
These uses of modals include necessity, expectations, future possibility, and conclusions. If
you do not remember the concept of modals, please read the information below.
It is important to remember that modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that express ideas such
as necessity, expectations, future possibility and conclusions. Modals are always
followed by the simple form of a verb (e.g. You must show your passport when you
check in).

6.3.1 Necessity
This first part focuses on the uses of have (got) to, must, dont have to, must not, and cant
to express different degrees of necessity.
Must is the strongest modal of the three. It is unusual to use it in questions.
Have got to is more common in informal speech. It is not used in questions.
Have to is the most commonly used modal of obligation. It is useful for forming questions
and negatives.
You can also use the negative forms dont have to and must not, but they have different
meanings. In the case of dont have to, this negative form is used to show that something is
not necessary. There is a choice.

For example: I didnt have to show my passport.

In the case of must not and cant, this negative form of the modal is used to express that
something is against the rules. There is no choice.

For example: You must not drive without a license.

6.3.2 Expectations: Be supposed to

We use be supposed to to express the idea that someone expects something to happen. For
example, in the sentence She is supposed to arrive here in half an hour you can see that
we are expecting a person to arrive in half an hour.
Just remember that be supposed to is used in the simple present to express present or future
expectations and in the simple past to express past expectations.

6.3.3 Future Possibility

The modals May, Might, and Could can used to talk about the possibility that something
will happen in the future. These three modals have similar meanings and you can use any
one to talk about future possibility.

For example: The clouds are gray. It could rain during the night.

The negative forms may not and might not express the possibility that something will not
happen.

For example: Its kind of cloudy out there, but it might not rain.

May, might, and could are not often used in questions about possibility. The future (will, be
going to, the present progressive) is used instead. Phrases such as Do you think? or Is it
possible that? are also used. Answer to these questions often use may, might, or could.

For example: Do you think it will start raining?

It might start raining tonight.

6.3.4 Conclusions

This is another way to use modals. Lets review the following points:
When we are almost 100% certain, we use must, have to, or have got to to state
affirmative conclusions.

FACT: Wilson has only one clerk.

CONCLUSION: His shop must be quite small
 When we are less certain about our conclusion, we use may, might, or could to
express that something is possible.

FACT: Watson knows a lot about medicine.

CONCLUSION: He might be a doctor.

When we are less certain about our conclusion, we use may, might, or could to
express that something is possible.

FACT: Vincent knows a lot about cameras.

CONCLUSION: He could be a photographer.

To express negative conclusions, use cant and couldnt when you are almost 100 percent
certain that something is impossible.

For example: He cant be dead! I just saw him!

Use must not when you are slightly less certain.

For example: He must not have enough money. He never buys new clothes.

Finally, it is important to remember that only can and could are used in questions about
guesses.
For example: Someones knocking at the door. Who can it be?

You are invited to look for more information and examples related to this theme on the
links provided here or on others that you can look up on your own. Im going to share this
Open Education Resource (OER) so you can look for more information on the themes
presented here.

http://es.slideshare.net/videoconferencias/modals-to-express-future-possibility-and-
conclusions

6.4 Adjective clauses with subject/object relative pronouns

6.4.1 Adjective clauses with Subject Relative Pronouns
Today we will review adjective clauses in which the subject is a relative pronoun. Before
we start, let me ask you this: What is a clause? Do you remember how a clause is
structured?

I bet you know the answers!

In case you are not sure about the definition of a clause, please read the information in the
box.

A Clause may be defined as a group of words that contain a subject and a

verb.

Examples:
Mary loves vegetables.

Subject verb

Richard speaks three languages.

Subject verb

Furthermore, clauses may be dependent and independent. To understand better the

difference between the two, I invite you to analyze the following examples:

Carlos solves puzzles in his free time. (Independent)

Martha does not drink too much coffee because it makes her sick (Dependent)

Did you understand how these clauses are working?

Yes? Great!

In case you are doubtful about the difference between dependent and independent clauses
allow me to explain.

In the first sentence you do not need extra information to have meaning. In other words, the
sentence can stand alone and it will still be understood; it will never sound as if it was an
incomplete thought.

In the second sentence, we can observe that the part that is underlined corresponds to the
dependent clause. As you can see, the clause needs more information to have meaning; it
needs the information of the independent clause. In dependent clauses there is a presence of
any of the following words: after, before, in order to, because, since, if, though and
although

For further information, you may visit the following site:

http://study.com/academy/lesson/clause-definition-examples-quiz.html

Now that you have reviewed all the information about clauses, we will now move on to the
main topic: Adjective Clauses with Subject Relative Pronouns.

When you read the title, you may start wondering about the word subject. Let me explain
how the relative pronoun works as a subject.

To start, it is relevant to note that the sentences we are going to analyze in the examples are
made of two clauses: Main clause and Adjective clause.

Example:

David reads books that explain the mysteries of the pyramids

Main clause Adjective clause

I know someone who knows how to modify pictures in Photoshop

Main clause Adjective clause

After reading the two examples, you can clearly see the two relative pronouns used: that
and who. Remember that there are more relative pronouns. Check the list of relative
pronouns below:

which
whichever
whichsoever
when
whatever
whoever
whom
whomever
whatsoever

Now that you are acquainted with the structure of the clause and the relative pronouns, we
can now focus on how they work as a Subject.

As you have seen in the examples, the adjective clauses will start with a relative pronoun.
Notice that the in the following example the relative pronoun is working as a subject and it
is immediately followed by a verb.

I know someone who knows how to modify pictures in Photoshop

Verb

Relative pronoun working as a subject of the clause

Also, notice that the relative pronoun refers to the predicate of the main clause.

I know someone who knows how to modify pictures in Photoshop

Predicate

Verb

Relative pronoun working as a subject of the clause

Did you understand?

Yes? Great!!!

Lets continue!

The Adjective Clause with Subject Relative Pronouns may also be inside the main clause.
Analyze the following examples for better understanding:

Main Clause Adjective Clause Main Clause (cont.)

Subject
Subject (Noun / pronoun) Relative Verb Verb
Pronoun
The runner who broke the is from
record Ecuador
Someone who speaks English can help you

After you have read and analyzed the examples provided above, it is time to review one
more aspect about Adjective Clauses with Subject Relative Pronouns. The clauses can be
identifying and non-identifying.

Do you remember those two?

If not allow me to explain identifying and non-identifying adjective clauses.

To start we are going to analyze the following examples:

1. Karla has many friends. Her friend who lives in New York is coming back to Ecuador.
2. Loja, which is located in the south, is my home town.

Sentence one corresponds to an identifying adjective clause because the information in the
clause is telling you which of her friends is coming back to Ecuador. In other words, the
clause is identifying the person traveling to Ecuador. Also, note that there are no commas
before the relative pronoun.

Sentence two corresponds to a nonidentifying adjective clause because the information

provided in the clause is additional. The clause is not identifying anything, and it is clear
that the sentence is referring to the specific city of Loja. As you can see there are commas
surrounding the clause.

Now that you have remembered the use of these clauses, lets analyze these two sentences:
My aunt, who lives in New York, came to visit us.

My aunt who lives in New York came to visit us.

Can you tell me the difference between the two?

If your answer is the following, let me tell you that you are CORRECT!!

In the first sentence the clause is giving extra information; therefore, it is a non identifying
clause. This means that the person only has one aunt. Thus there is no need to identify the
aunt.

In the second question you need to identify which aunt. This means that the person has
more than one aunt, and she needs to specify that the aunt who lives in New York is
coming to visit. Note again that there is no need of a comma before the relative pronoun in
these sentences.

Lets move on to the next topic

6.4.2 Adjective Clauses with Object Relative Pronouns

Dear students now that you have recalled how to structure adjectives clauses with relative
pronouns working as a subject, you will not find any difficulty understanding the adjective
clauses with relative pronouns working as an object.

To understand these clauses, I invite you to analyze the following examples and try to find
the difference with the previous grammar learned.

Main Clause Adjective Clause

Predicate / (Object
Subject Verb noun / Relative Subject Verb
Pronoun Pronoun)

Fernando brought the ipad (that) he brought in USA

She is the woman (who) I met yesterday

Did you read and analyze the examples?

Yes?

I am sure this is what you understood from the examples:

1. The relative pronoun is working as the Object of the clause because in the clause we
already have a subject (he, I).
2. The subject is followed by a verb
3. The relative pronoun is between parentheses, which means that the pronoun can be
omitted. Note that the sentence does not lose its meaning after omitting the pronoun

As we learned in the previous grammar, the adjective clause can also be inside the main
clause. The following examples show this position.

Main Clause Adjective Clause Main Clause

Object
Subject Relative Subject Verb Verb
Pronoun

The music (that) they play is very

relaxing.

The credit card (that) I got has Great

coverage

Now that you are clear about adjective clauses, we will review one last aspect. As the
previously learned clauses, adjective clauses with objective relative pronouns can also be
identifying and non- identifying.

Basically, these clauses work the same as the ones we learned before. Please read the
examples to understand how they work:

Identifying

Mark knows many songs. The song which he just sang is by The Corals.

Non-identifying

Mark knows many songs. The song, which he just sang, is by The Corals

Did you see the difference between the two sentences?

 Yes?

In the first sentence, the clause is identifying who sings the song.

In the second sentence, the information between commas is just extra information.
Remember that if you get rid of the information that is between the commas, the sentence
still has meaning.

Dear student, we have finished with the Adjective clauses and we are ready to continue
with the next grammar topic.

6.5 Indirect speech

6.5.1 Direct and Indirect Speech

Dear student in order to understand the indirect speech, it is necessary to review what direct
speech is. Basically, in direct speech we are repeating or quoting what someone else said.
In indirect speech we report what someone else said. Please read the examples to
understand the difference.

He said, Eat your food (Direct speech)

Jennifer said, I am going to the cinema (Direct speech)

Dear student, as you can see in the examples, the part that is between quotation marks are
the exact words the person said. In Direct Speech you are repeating word for word what the
other person said. When writing these sentences, you must use quotation marks.

Now that you have finished analyzing the examples provided above, lets take a look at the
following examples in indirect speech:

He told her daughter to eat her meal. (Indirect Speech)

Jennifer said that she was going to the cinema (Indirect Speech)

It the examples above you can see that the sentences are not being quoted and they have
been changed in tense. This means that the sentence is being reported. To understand how
both speeches work, take a look to the tables below.

Direct speech

Subject Reporting Verb Direct Speech

He said Eat your food.
Jennifer said I am going to the cinema
Indirect Speech

Subject Reporting Verb Noun or Pronoun Indirect Speech

He told her to eat her meal.
Jennifer said (that) she was going to the
cinema.

Is it clear now? I bet it is!

Please remember that there are other reporting verbs. Therefore, I invite you to do some
research and learn more about reporting verbs.

6.5.2 Indirect Questions

Now that you know the basics of indirect speech, lets focus on Indirect Questions.

In order to understand how the questions in Indirect Speech work, we can analyze the
information in the following tables:

Direct speech

Subject Reporting Verb Direct Question

She asked, Do you have a credit card?

Juan asked, Who brought food to the

classroom?

He asked, Why did you call the

police?

Now, lets change the direct speech to indirect speech

Indirect Speech

Subject Reporting Verb Noun or Pronoun Indirect Question

She asked (Carlos) if he had a credit card.
Juan asked (the students) who had brought food to the
classroom

He asked (his wife) why she had called the police.

Did you finish analyzing the examples?

Before we continue, do not forget to read the information in the box below.

When changing sentences or questions to indirect speech, you need to change the verb
tense. e.g.

Present Simple ----------- Past simple

Present Perfect Simple ----------- Past Perfect Simple
Present Perfect Continuous ----------- Past Perfect Continuous

and so on

Important: There is no change of tense with the Past Perfect

Lets continue with the next topic.

6.6 Embedded Questions

Embedded Questions are questions that are inside a statement or other sentences. In order
to understand how the questions are structured, we need to read and analyze the following
information:

Important

We use Embedded Questions to ask indirectly and also to ask in a polite manner.

Embedded questions start with the following phrases:

Do you know

Could you tell me

Id like to know

Would you mind telling

Note: These are not all the phrases there are. I invite you to do some research and learn the
rest of introductory phrases used in Embedded Questions
Embedded questions inside a statement

Does she know her neighbor? Direct Question (regular question)

I wonder if she knows who her neighbor is. Embedded Question

Can you bring the car? Direct Question (regular question)

I would like to know if you could bring the car. Embedded Question

Dear student note that in the first question we have included the introductory phrase and we
have omitted the auxiliary. We will do the same every time we have an auxiliary (do, does,
did) in the direct question. In addition, you ought to know that the auxiliary tells you the
tense of the questions, so in the embedded question keep the same tense.

In the second question we have also used an introductory phrase. As you can see we have
change the position of the subject and the auxiliary (can).

For more information about embedded questions click on the following link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-BZJtqO9IJ4

Dear student, we have finished our review about embedded questions. We can move on to
the next topic

6.7 Conditionals
The use of conditionals is very common in spoken and written language. Before we
start reviewing the conditionals, I invite you to read again the definition of Clause. We
learned the definition when we were reviewing Adjective Clauses. Lets take a look at
the definition again:
 A Clause may be defined as a group of words that contain a subject and a verb.

Also, it is relevant to remember the structure of a conditional. For this matter, I have
drawn the following graph where you can clearly see how the conditional is structured:

If Clause , Result Clause

or
Result Clause If Clause

Note that you can change the order of the clauses, but with one difference. Did you
notice?... Yes? Exactly! When we have the if clause at the beginning, we need a
comma. If you change the order and put the result clause first, we can omit the comma.
Now that we are clear on that, we can start!
4.1 Present Real Conditionals
According to Fuchs and Bonner (2006) real conditionals can be used in different
instances. You may use them when talking about habits, instructions, commands and
invitations.
Also, as the name says, these sentences express a result that is REAL.

These conditionals follow this structure

If clause result clause

present , present

To understand how these conditionals work, analyze the examples below. Note the if
clause and the result clause.

If it is Saturday , I sleep until 10 am.

 If you dont like the food , you can ask for your money
back.

Call 911 if there is a fire

If you feel that you need to deepen your knowledge about this topic, I suggest you do some
research on the internet.

Now that we have reviewed the present real conditionals, it is time to continue with the
future real conditionals.

4.2 Future Real Conditional

Before we start, it is important to remember that all the conditionals follow the same
structure. In every conditional you will have an if clause and a result clause.
These conditionals describe outcomes, plans and goals.
Now lets check the basic structure of the future real conditionals

If clause result clause

present , future

Dear student, read and analyze the following examples, pay extra attention to the structure
and the tenses in each of the clauses

If Mary takes the baby to the doctor he will help him get better.
,

If your son travels to Europe , he will need travelers checks.

If you do not study for the test , You will get a low grade.
After you have finished reading the examples, you may have noticed that the structure of
the conditionals is not difficult. Lets continue with more conditional sentences.
4.3 Present and Future Unreal Conditionals
The unreal conditionals are used to talk about outcomes and events that will not happen. In
other words these conditionals are used for things you imagine happening.
Now lets analyze the structure of the present and future unreal conditionals.
If clause result clause

Simple past , Would (not) + base form of the verb

To understand this in a better way, check the examples provided below:

If I had a Ford Mustang I would not drive it fast.

,

If I were you I would invest the money.

,

If they bought a Eurorail pass , they could go to Italy.

Now that you understand the basis of the present and future unreal conditionals, lets
continue to the last topic.
4.4 Past Unreal Conditionals
The final conditional that we are going to review in this unit is the Past Unreal conditional.
This conditional is used when we talk about imaginary actions in the past. The situations
expressed in this conditional never happened.
Lets check the structure
If clause result clause
Past Perfect would (not) present perfect

Now that you understand the structure, we can analyze the examples for better
understanding.

If they had bought a house , they would have painted it white.

Dear student, with the examples above, we have finished the review of the conditionals.
Before we move on read the note in the following box.

Important: As you have noticed, all the information provided above is the basis to build
conditionals. It is very important that you do some research on your own to expand your
knowledge about the conditionals. Due to the nature of this course, we cannot expand as
we would like.

Dear student, we have finished this unit, and I suggest you read the information in the
following book(s) in order to expand your knowledge about this course.

Fuchs, M.; Bonner, M. &Westheimer, M. (2012). Focus on Grammar 3: An integrated

skills approach. New York: Pearson Education.

Fuchs, M. & Bonner, M. (2006). Focus on Grammar 4: An Integrated Skills Approach,

Third Edition. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.

It is time to test your knowledge by doing the next self-evaluation

SELF-EVALUATION 6

1. Choose the correct sentence

a. I have never been more surer of anything in my life
b. Come quick or we will miss our bus.
c. You did that somersault so well.

2. Choose the correct sentence

a. You look angrily. What did I do?
b. This is the worst oil spill I have ever seen.
c. She looked suspicious at the man wearing the coat.
3. Choose the correct words to complete the sentence
Did you remember ___________ the letter?
a. to post
b. posting
c. to posting

4. Choose the conditional sentence that is written in the present real conditional
a. If I had a ladder, I would climb to the second floor.
b. If he had bought new spark plugs, he would not have had problems with his car.
c. If it rains now, I will get wet.

5. Choose the conditional sentence that is not correct.

a. If Mary does not study she will fail
b. If he had not showed up, we would have died.
c. you will be grounded if you do not clean your room.

6. Choose the conditional sentence that expresses an imaginary action in the past
a. If he had bought a flashlight, he would have been able to walk than path at night.
b. If Pedro does not pay attention to what his mother is saying, he will not be going out
tonight.
c. If it does not rain, the plants do not grow.

UNIT 7: Syntax
Dear student, I highly recommend reading the information below as well as looking for
further information and examples in order to improve your learning. Lets start with the
first topic.

7.1 Clauses and sentences

Before starting the syntactic structure analysis, it is essential to define these two
important syntax definitions:

Clause

Words and phrases are the parts of language (called constituents) that make up clauses.
A clause is a large structure built out of phrases and which forms a grammatical unit. A
clause is a grammatical unit that has two main constituents: an NP that occupies the
subject position, and a VP that functions as the predicate. The NP is built around a noun
and the VP is built around a verb. A clause only contains one main verb. A clause (also
called simple sentence) expresses a single idea. Besides, clauses enable us to talk
coherently about the relationship between verbs and different types of phrase. An ideal
clause contains a phrase referring to the people and things involved in the action or state
and possible phrases referring to place and time (Miller, 2002-2008; p 11-12). Finally,
a clause is a syntactic unit which consists of a verb and its constituents. Here are some
examples of simple sentences that are each comprised of a single clause:

Johnny walked.

Joshua played the piano.

 So, what do you think about it? It is clear enough? Dont worry if you dont understand
the figures at first sight. It is important to become familiar with syntactic trees since the
very beginning. Lets continue with the second one!

Sentence

A sentence is a grammatical unit that is composed of one, two, or more clauses.

According to some grammarians, there are three types of sentences: Simple Compound,
and Complex. An independent clause sometimes is regarded as a simple sentence. E.g.
She works in the United Kingdom.

Remember that Compound and complex sentences contain two or more clauses:

Compound: Two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. E.g.

He travels by airplane but his friends go by car.

Complex: A dependent clause joined to an independent clause by a subordinator.

While his friends are still in Monaco, Sasha is staying with his family.

How did you feel after reading this grammatical information?

It was clear enough? If not, dont worry, reread the main points again.
 To state again the main points: a sentence is a grammatical unit that is comprised of two
or more clauses. There are two well-known types of sentences: complex and compound.
A complex sentence is composed of a main clause and a subordinate clause. When Bob
handed in his report, he forgot to give the teacher the last page. The teacher returned
the homework after she noticed the error. A compound sentence is a structure
comprised of two or more coordinate clauses:

I tried to speak Spanish and my friend tried to speak English.

7.2 Constituency
Dear Student:

Lets continue studying our next topic, Constituency. Remember, we are dealing
with a syntactic connotation. What do you know about it?

What does Constituency mean?

Constituent structure in grammar refers to the hierarchical arrangement of the

constituent words and phrases of a sentence to form well-formed and meaningful
structures. It is a formal representation of the grammatical structure of a sentence in
terms of its individual constituents.

In order to use language to communicate coherently, speakers establish different

relationships between words and between phrases or clauses. These relationships are
called dependencies. Dependencies provide a representation of grammar relations
between words in a sentence. Thus, the basic idea of dependency is that the syntactic
structure of a sentence is described in terms of binary relations (dependency relations)
between pairs of words; for instance, a head and its complement. For example: John
likes beans. The noun beans is dependent of the verb likes. Dependency relations
are the basis for constituency, which refers to the tasks performed by constituents.

When analyzing the structure of a sentence, one pivotal tool is the notion of
constituency. Phrases, clauses and sentences are not random strings of words; on the
contrary, they are well-structured constituents that express meaning. Thus, to analyze the
structure of sentences, it is necessary to keep in mind that sentences consist of structural
and meaningful units called constituents.

Consequently, a string of words is regarded as a constituent only if it can be conjoined

with another similar string. For example, we have two independent clauses: a) Elizabeth
is a very nice person. b) Elizabeth is a good friend. When joined by the conjunction
AND, the result is a compound sentence like: Elizabeth is a very nice person and a good
friend.

How to prove constituency? Well, a constituent is a word or a group of words that

functions as a single unit within a hierarchical structure. Then phrases are the
constituents of a clause. Nevertheless, it is necessary to provide some reasons to prove
that a certain string of words can or cannot be regarded as a constituent. According to
Radford (1986), a string of words is a constituent when:

1. It behaves in a distributional way as a single structural unit that forms a meaningful

construction. The earth moves around the sun.

2. It can be combined with another similar string of words as in: You will cook dinner
and set the table.

3. It can be replaced by a proform, or it can serve as the antecedent of a proform. He

said that he will cook dinner, and so he will.

4. It can be omitted under appropriate discourse conditions. Who will cook dinner? I
will (cook dinner).
 In this regard, a constituent structure plays a fundamental role in how speakers
understand the meaning of sentences in their language. It also enables speakers to
identify the different constituents belonging to distinct categories, or as being of the
same category. For example, the words: house, people, table, cloud, rain, etc. all belong
to the lexical category known as noun. While, words such as: live, work, make, are
recognized by speakers as belonging to the lexical category of verbs. Moreover,
speakers recognize other lexical categories like prepositions, adjectives, adverbs, etc.

7.3 Constructions. Types of Construction

Dear all: As you might suppose, this unit deals with phrase and clause constructions.
Therefore, to start our discussion about this topic, it is necessary to bear in mind some
important syntactic principles.

Constructions are not isolated structures, but they fit into a general system of patterns.

Speakers use different types of constructions to perform different functions, for example to
make statements, to ask questions, to issue commands, etc.

Speakers and writers need different types of constructions with different functions in order
to hold a conversation, to deliver a speech, to write a novel, or to comment on any topic.

Since phrases, clauses and sentences are built out of smaller constituents according to
particular patterns that express meaning, it is necessary to understand what a construction
is.

A basic grammatical construction is the clause. Syntactically, a clause is a large

construction expressing full meaning and forming a grammatical unit. It has two main
constituents: an NP that occupies the subject position, and a VP that functions as the
predicate. Syntactically, the subject occurs before the predicate. Semantically, a subject
defines a topic; and a predicate makes a comment about the topic. Please study the
following clause:
 Isabel finished her class work.

The subject of the clause is the noun phrase [Isabel], and [finished her class work] is the
verb phrase bearing the function of predicate. This clause can stand on its own as a
sentence with full meaning, but it also can be embedded inside another clause.

They said (that) Isabel finished her class work.

Clause constructions can be of different types; lets look at the descriptions provided
below:

Voice, as well as, time and aspect, is a linguistic phenomenon (Berk, 1999). Tense and
aspect work together to place an activity, state, or event within a time frame. On the other
hand, voice focuses on different participants in an action or event.

English, as some other languages like Spanish, recognizes two types of voice: active and
passive.
Syntactically speaking, passive clauses are formed by the auxiliary BE followed by a verb
in past participle form. They also contain a phrase headed by the preposition BY that goes
after the main verb.

The factory workers cut some trees. (active voice)

Some trees were cut by the factory workers. (passive voice)

Further examples:

Ruth baked a cake. (active voice)

A cake was baked by Ruth. (passive voice)

Michael wrote two letters. (active voice)

Two letters were written by Michael. (passive voice)

Dear student, we have finished this unit, and I suggest you read the information in the
following book(s) in order to expand your knowledge about this course.

F Miller, J. (2008). An Introduction to English Syntax. Second edition. Edinburgh.

Edinburgh University Press.

Baker C. L (1995). English Syntax. Library of Congress Cataloging-in Publication Data.

ISBN: 9780262023856. USA.
Burneo, R. M. (2014) Didactic Guide. Syntax and Teaching Grammar. Loja, Ecuador:
Ediloja.

It is time to test your knowledge by doing the next self-evaluation

SELF-EVALUATION 7
Choose the best alternative in the following statements.
1. A clause is a large structure built out of phrases and which forms a _____________.
a. Grammatical Unit
b. Specific constituent
c. Deontic meaning.
2. An independent clause sometimes is regarded as a _____________.
a. Complex sentence
b. Definite sentence
c. Simple sentence

3. Constituent structure in grammar refers to the _________________ of the constituent

words and phrases of a sentence.
a. Grammar relations
b. Hierarchical arrangement
c. Individual constituents

4. A string of words is regarded as a constituent only if it can be conjoined with another

similar ____________.
a. Independent clause
b. String of words
c. Constituent

5. To make statements, to ask questions, and to issue commands speakers use different
types of constructions to perform different language ___________________.
a. Meanings
b. Effectiveness
c. Functions.

6. Semantically speaking, a subject defines a topic and a predicate makes a comment about
______________.
a. The subject
b. The object
c. The topic
 SECOND TERM
6.5 Generic competences

1. To live the universal values of Christian Humanism.

2. Written and oral communication.
3. Innovation and research orientation skills.
4. Critical thinking.
5. Team work.
6. Communication in the English language.
7. Social responsibility and commitment.
8. Ethical commitment.
9. Time management and organization.
6.6 Planning of students work

SPECIFIC SPECIFIC CONTENTS LEARNING LEARNING GUIDING

COMPETENCES COMPETENCES ACTIVITIES INDICATORS SCHEDULE
OF THE OF THE Units/Topics Estimated
PROGRAM SUBJECT time
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linguistic Mastery of
guide, Writes well- 6 hours for
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writing difference
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 UNIT 8: Academic Writing
8.1 Paragraph structure
8.1.1. The Three Parts of a Paragraph

Before you review the information about the three parts of the paragraph, it is important to
refresh the meaning of a paragraph.

I am sure you have a clear idea about the meaning of a paragraph; anyway, lets reinforce
that knowledge by reading the definition and features of a good paragraph.

A paragraph is a series of sentences all relating to the same topic or central

idea. The aim of all paragraphs is to communicate to the reader that idea clearly
and effectively. [] It should do what it sets out to do in the topic sentence. [],
the paragraph must contain only one idea. (Anonymous. n.d., p, 37)

Once you have read the definition of a good paragraph; lets answer in your own words a
couple of questions to check how much you remember of the definition above.

What are all the sentences in a paragraph related to?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .

What is the aim of a paragraph?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .

How many ideas does the paragraph develop?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- .

I am sure you did not have any difficulties answering those questions.

Now it is time for you to reinforce the information about the parts of a paragraph.
 The first thing that you need to do is to read the information about the parts of a
paragraph; then, draw a line to join the part of the paragraph to its corresponding
definitions.

Adapted from (Anonymous. n.d., p. 37-43)

Did you manage to join the parts of the paragraph to the corresponding definitions?

I am sure you did it.

Lets check the answer:

- The concept of topic sentence with the information in the third box, from left to
right
- The concept of supporting sentences with the information contained in the first box,
on the left?
- The concept of conclusion with the information contained in the second box, from
left to right

Congratulations! If you got all the answers correct!

Once you learned about the three elements that make up a paragraph; lets read the
information below to expand that knowledge.

8.1.2 Topic Sentence

 According to Anonymous. (n.d., p. 37), A topic sentence is usually the first
sentence in the paragraph, and it limits the topic of the paragraph. [] The topic sentence is
always a complete thought or sentence. The topic sentence is made of three elements: The
topic, a controlling idea, and the writers point of view.

8.1.2.1. The Topic of the Sentence

Regarding the topic of the sentence, Anonymous (n.d., p. 37) states that The topic is the
subject, what is being written about in the paragraph. The main idea expressed in the topic
sentence should not be too general or too specific.

8.1.2.2. The Controlling Idea

The controlling idea is described by Anonymous. (n.d., p. 37) as follows: The controlling
idea limits the topic of the paragraph to one definite idea or one aspect of the topic that
represents a particular idea, feeling, or opinion. The controlling idea must not be too broad
it must be specific enough for the subject to be discussed within one paragraph

8.1.3 Supporting Sentences

Regarding supporting sentences, Anonymous. (n.d., p. 41) states that The supporting
sentences [] should be more specific and develop the idea expressed in the topic
sentence; according to the same author, one of the methods to make supporting sentences
more specific is to use details, facts, statistics, examples, [].

8.1.4 Concluding Sentence.

Concerning concluding sentence, Anonymous (n.d., p, 43) states that The concluding
sentence is the last sentence of the paragraph []. The function of the concluding sentence
is to signal the end of the paragraph. Concluding sentences can either be restatements of the
topic sentence, a summary of the supporting sentences, or contain a final comment about
the topic.

Dont forget that a single paragraph composition should have a concluding

sentence; however, it may not be necessary all the time for a multi-
paragraph composition.
As you already know, Academic Writing is a subject which knowledge can be
demonstrated through written exercises; therefore, it is necessary that you develop some
practical exercises that are meant to put the theoretical knowledge into practice.

Now, lets perform a challenging exercise related to topic sentences.

Activity.

Look at the topic sentences below, and decide whether they are good or lacking. Put a
check mark () in the space if it is a good topic sentence, a G or S if it is too general or too
specific respectively, and a C if it lacks a controlling idea.

_____ Jogging is an exercise.

_____ Using cell phones while driving can be dangerous for you and others.

_____ Religion is a good option.

_____ Bananas are the best fruit because they contain essential vitamins needed
for a healthy body.

Adapted from: Anonymous. (n.d.)

If you answered in this way, from top to bottom: C, , G, S, you did a great job.

So far so good!

Now that you know how to write a topic sentence and its parts, lets move on to the next
step; lets read and analyze the following exercise related to supporting statements. As you
already know, supporting statements are specific statements that help to develop the topic
sentence.

Lets get started:

Activity.
Read the supporting statements below, and become familiar with the procedure to make
them more specific.

Guayaquil is a big city. (no statistics, just a general statement)

Guayaquil has a population of over 2 million people (INEC, 2011) (statement with
the use of statistics)
He is an Ecuadorian soccer player. (a very general statement)
He is an Ecuadorian soccer player who has played for more than 4 years at
Manchester United in U.K. (a very specific statement)
Mr. Garcia enjoys life. (statement with use of abstractions)
Mr. Garcia is always in a good mood, most often has a smile on his face, is quick to
laugh, and always sees the positive, even in terrible situations. (statement using
words that expresses greater detail.)

Adapted from: Anonymous. (n.d.)

Was the example helpful? I bet it was.

Now it is time to move on to concluding sentences; for this purpose, you are going to
develop a practical exercise that will help you to reinforce the knowledge of concluding
sentences.

Activity

Read the following paragraph about automobiles; afterwards, check the information below
that will help you to identify the different manners that can be used to write a concluding
sentence.

The invention of the automobile has provided many benefits to travelers. With a car, man is
able to travel vast distances in short periods of time. What once took a two or three weeks
on horseback can now be done in a matter of hours. The comfort enjoyed by travelers,
compared to a horse drawn wagon, is amazing. No longer do travelers have to endure the
bone-jarring ordeal of riding on a stiff leather saddle or splinter infested wagon seat. Their
voyage is now made on softly cushioned seats that can be adjusted to fit the sojourners
level of comfort. Travelers are no longer subjected to the harsh elements of the weather. In
the past, travelers had to suffer the biting cold of winter and the blistering heat of summer,
not to mention the suffering encountered by gale force winds, blinding snow, and drenching
rain. Today people can enjoy a soothing and relaxing trip thanks to the totally enclosed
interiors that offer air conditioning and heating units in most vehicles. Needless to say, with
all the advantages an automobile has to offer, no one would dream of using the expression
Get a horse today.

(Anonymous, n.d., p. 42)

Answer: there are different manners to write a concluding sentence of a paragraph.

In the above paragraph, about automobiles, the concluding sentence was a final
comment about automobiles.

A concluding sentence that restates the topic sentence from the article above could
have restated the advantages of traveling by automobile compared to traveling by horse.

A concluding sentence that summarizes the supporting sentences could be Speed,

comfort, and a controlled environment are just a few of the advantages that a modern day
car has over a horse. Taken from (Anonymous, n.d., p. 43)

I am sure this practical exercise helped you to clarify doubts.

Remember! Single paragraph compositions should have a concluding sentence;

however, it may not be necessary, all the time, for a multi-paragraph composition.

By now, you are clear about the different ways to write a concluding sentence; it is also
important to know that there are some common words or phrases that can be used to signal
the end of a paragraph.

Few common signal words and phrases used to signal the end of the paragraph in
the concluding sentence. (These require a comma to follow them)

finally, in conclusion, in summary,

therefore, thus, as a result,

indeed, in brief, in short,

Few phrases (that do not require commas) include:

we can see that there can be no doubt that

it is clear that the evidence suggest that

these examples show that Taken from: (Anonymous,

n.d., p. 43)

Remember! Before starting to write about any subject, it is necessary to develop and
organize your ideas and thoughts. Here you have a list of some common techniques
that can be used to help you organize and develop your ideas. These techniques
are: clustering, brainstorming, free writing, outlining and using a tree diagram.
Adapted from: (Anonymous, n.d., p, 43)

Congratulations! You have successfully finished with the study of the theme:
Paragraph Structure

8.2 From paragraph to essay

8.2.1 Essay Definition
In order to become familiar with the definition of essay, read the definition below,
and then search for an additional definition for essay in the following text: Oshima, A. &
Hogue, A. (2006). Writing Academic English. White Plains, NY: Pearson Education;
afterwards, write your own definition for essay.

An essay or composition is a collection of paragraphs that cover one particular topic.

(Parts of the Essay, n.d., p. 59)
You were faced to two definitions, from different sources, of essay; now it is your turn to
take the best of them, and write your own definition for an essay.

Your own definition:

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_.

8.2.2. The three parts of an essay.

Now that you know the definition of an essay, it is important to expand about the parts that
make up an essay.

Can you tell all the parts that make up an essay?

I am very sure you came up with a correct answer to the question above.
In order to clarify your answer to the question above, lets take a look to the diagram
below, and tell if it is similar to your own response.

Introduction

PARTS OF AN ESSAY Body

Conclusion

If your answer to the question above is similar to the information provide in the chart; then,
I have to say that you clearly identify the parts that make up an essay.
I am sure you remember the parts that make up an essay. Now it is time to analyse, in
detail, each of these parts.
8.2.3. Introductory paragraph
Regarding introduction, the first element of the essay, it is necessary that you become
aware of the essential elements that must be included here.
In order to get familiar with the elements that are part of the introduction, lets do the
suggested exercise below.
Read the information related to the essay introduction in the chart below, and the
one presented in your textbook; afterwards, label in the given diagram the elements that
must be included in a well essays introduction.

There are two primary functions of the introductory paragraph: to indicate what
the essay will be about and to attract the attention of the reader. The introduction
may include making an initial general statement and narrowing it down to the
thesis statement or explaining the importance of the topic.
(Parts of the Essay, n.d., p, 59)

An introductory paragraph has two parts, general statements and the thesis
statement.
The General Statements: introduce the general topic of the essay, capture the
readers interest.
The Thesis Statement: states the specific topic, may list subtopics or
subdivisions of the main topic or subtopics, may indicate the pattern of
organization of the essay, is normally the last sentence in the introductory
paragraph.
(Oshima, & Hogue, 2006., p, 59.)

Once you performed the comparative exercise, label the elements that must be included in
the essay introduction.

PATTERNS
I am sure you mentioned general statements and thesis statements. You are doing great!

It is time to move forward.

8.2.3.1. Function of the general statements and thesis statement

Lets get acquainted about the function of the general statements and the thesis statement.

General Statements/function

If the introduction does not grab the readers attention, they may stop reading and seek
entertainment or information elsewhere. {The general statements play an important role in
this part.} There are several techniques that can be used in introductions to help get the
attention of the reader. These are anecdotes, quotes, surprise with an unexpected view,
questions, interesting facts or statistics, background or historical information, or a
combination of these.
(Parts of the Essay, n.d., p, 59)

Thesis Statement/function

The thesis statement is the most important sentence in an essay, It tells what the essay is
about,The thesis statement is the last sentence in the introductory paragraph. It lets the
reader know what will be discussed in the remaining paragraphs and expresses the opinion
or point of view of the writer. It contains the topic, a controlling idea, and opinion. The
topic is what the essay will be about. The controlling idea is what will be said about the
topic
(Parts of the Essay, n.d., p, 59)

Make sure you expand this information with the one presented in your textbook.
Once you have become familiar with the function of general statements and thesis
statement, in an essay; it is important that you analyse an example which is going to
contribute for your better understanding.
SAMPLE:
Hugh Lofting's character, Dr. Doolittle, could talk to animals and they could talk back.
Many people fantasize about having such a skill. Imagine being able to talk to your
household pets and getting a response back. Could it ever be possible? Language
acquisition studies among primates such as gorillas, chimpanzees, and bonobo chimpanzees
suggest that the answer is yes, and no.
(Parts of the Introduction, n.d.)

8.2.4 Body Paragraphs

Do you know what the function of the body paragraphs, in the essay, is?

Lets read the information provided below

The body or supporting paragraphs are the paragraphs after the introduction that contains
the support or development of the ideas presented in the thesis statement.
(Parts of the essay, n.d., p, 64)

The body paragraphs in an essay are like the supporting sentences in a paragraph. They are
the place to develop your topic and prove your points.
(Oshima, & Hogue, 2006., p, 64.)
.
Lets expand the information about body paragraph.

Body Paragraph Important Features

The sentences in the body paragraph must

provide concrete support; it can be established by using facts, statistics, illustrations,
examples, and personal experience.
include transitional signals to connect sentences and paragraphs.

For you to expand your knowledge of connecting words and transition signals, search for it in
Appendix C of the following book: Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2006). Writing Academic English.
White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.
Now that you have learned about the body of a paragraph, I recommend doing the
following activity to deepen your knowledge.

Activity
From the given introductory paragraph, identify the thesis statement, and write one body
paragraph.

Introductory paragraph:
Everyone has a favorite restaurant that they like to go out to eat at. There are many things
that influence a persons choice of where they will dine. The price is a deciding factor for
many people. Lets face it, not everyone can afford a fifty-dollar steak, especially if there
are six in the family. For others, the most important thing is the quality of the food.
Fortunately for those on a tight budget, good food can be found in inexpensive and
moderately priced restaurants, as well as in expensive restaurants. For individuals on the
go, a deciding factor is many times the speed of service and convenience of the restaurant.
Trendy restaurants are the perfect choice for those want to-be socially popular individuals
who want to dine with the in-crowd. The reasons I choose a restaurant are its location, its
price, and its service.
(Parts of the Essay, n.d., p, 64)
Your body paragraph:
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

Remember that writing is a skill that you learn through action which means that if you want
to be a good writer, you have to write as much as you can.
Lets review!
 Remember that well-written body paragraphs include the following aspects:
Specific evidence or supporting detail
Unity and cohesion.
Transition words between sentences and paragraphs.

8.2.4.1. Organizational Patterns for Body Paragraphs.

Do you know which are the organizational patterns used for body paragraphs?

In order to reply to the question above, I will ask you to search for information in textbooks
and the internet. After, you have found the information fill in the chart below.

Patterns to Organize
Body Paragraphs

I am pretty sure that as part of your answer to the question above, you mentioned that
chronological order, comparison/contrast, combination of both, and logical division of
ideas are the patterns used to organize body paragraphs. If it is the case, let me tell you that
you are right.

8.2.5 Concluding Paragraph.

How do you define a concluding paragraph?

Did you think of the answer?

Yes?
Lets compare your answer with the definitions presented below.

All good conclusions bring an essay to a satisfactory end by wrapping up the important
information that is presented throughout the essay. A conclusion should always restate the
thesis and/or the main points from the paper. This is your last chance to remind the reader of
the importance of what you have been writing about and why it is important and is the last
chance to leave the reader with something interesting to consider after the reader has finished
reading it. (Conclusion, 2014, para. 2)

The conclusion is the final paragraph in an essay. It has three purposes.

1. It signals the end of the essay. To do so, begin your conclusion with a transition signal.
2. It reminds your reader of the main points, which you can do in one of two ways: You can
summarize your subtopics.
paraphrase your thesis.
3. It leaves your reader with your final thoughts on the topic. This is your opportunity to
convey a strong, effective message that your reader will remember. (Oshima and Hogue,
2006)

Lets summarize!

The whole purpose of the concluding paragraph is to:

Restate the thesis.
Remind reader the importance of your writing.
Leave the reader with something interesting to consider.

Moreover, there is one important element to the development of a good concluding

paragraph. This element must be present in every single paragraph in the essay; this
element is transition words; transition words are responsible for coherence in the paragraph
and in the essay.

How would you define transition words?

For you to confirm your response, lets read the definition provided below.

Transition words refer to the words or phrases that are used to link sentences
in a paragraph, and also they are used to connect one paragraph with the
following. In other words, transition words tell your reader when you are
giving a similar idea, an opposite idea, and example, a result, or a conclusion.
(Oshima and Hogue, 2006)

As it was previously mentioned, you can expand your knowledge of transition words by
search for them, Appendix C (pp, 291-299 ), in the following book: Oshima, A. & Hogue,
A. (2006). Writing Academic English. White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.

Lets now talk about the function of the transition words.

What is the function of transition words?

In order to get an accurate response to the question above, read the information in the chart
below.

. Effective transitions are what enable the main idea(s) and important points in an
essay to flow together. In a sense, it is transitions that make a paper become an
actual essay as opposed to just a random assortment of various facts. Without them,
an essay will often seem to be lacking in unity and coherence
(Transitions, 2014, para. 1)

Now you know the definition and function of transition words clearly.

Remember that Identifying, highlighting and underlying these transitions will help
you to improve your background knowledge which will enable you to write coherent
paragraphs and essays.
8.3 Paraphrase and summary
Regarding previous themes, paragraph structure, and essay structure, they both focus on
writing. The process of writing includes supporting writers ideas with the ideas of experts;
in order to support writers ideas, it is necessary to include information from outside
sources. In this sense, including outside sources require, from the writers side, to avoid
plagiarism; How could we avoid plagiarism then? There are different ways to avoid
plagiarism: quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing.
The current theme will focus on reviewing the best way to paraphrase and summarize
outside sources. Since the actual theme is about two manners to include information from
outside sources; it is important that you invest some time to refresh the topic about avoiding
plagiarism.

Strategy: spend a couple of hours searching for detailed information about plagiarism.
Here is a suggested source for you to find out some information about plagiarism:

Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2006). Writing Academic English. White Plains, NY: Pearson
Education.
After you have reviewed the information about plagiarism, it is important for you to
become familiar with the APA citation style which is the citation style adopted by UTPL;
for you to do that, you can look for it at:

American Psychological Association. (2009). Publication Manual of the American

Psychological Association. Washington, DC: American Psychological

Association.

With the preliminary information in mind, we are better prepared to understand the study of
the current theme.

8.3.1 Paraphrasing
In order to understand Paraphrasing, please read the information below:
 Keys to Write a Good Paraphrase

1. Use your own words and your own sentence structure.

2. Make your paraphrase approximately the same length as the original.
3. Do not change the meaning of the original.
(Oshima & Hogue, 2006, 129)

Techniques for paraphrasing

1. Changing vocabulary:

studies research society civilization

Find synonyms for the words in italics.

Sentence:

The growth of the car industry parallels the development of modern capitalism.

Paraphrased:

The rise of the automobile industry matches the progress of contemporary capitalism.

Not all words and phrases can be paraphrased. For example, economics, socialism or global
warming do not have effective synonyms.

2. Changing word class:

Egypt (n.) Egyptian (adj.)

mountainous regions (adj. + n.) in the mountains (n.)

 Change the word class of the words in italics, and then rewrite the sentences.

Sentence:

In the 1920s Alfred Sloans management theories helped General Motors to become the
worlds dominant car company.

Paraphrased:

In the 1920s, with help from the managerial theories of Alfred Sloan, General Motors
dominated the worlds car companies.

3. Changing word order:

Ancient Egypt collapsed the collapse of Egyptian society began

Change the word order of the following sentences (other changes may be needed).

Sentence:

At this time, trades unions became increasingly militant in defense of their members jobs.

Paraphrased:

At this time increasingly militant trades unions defended their members jobs.

Taken from: (Bailey, 2006).

Did the activity help to expand your knowledge about the best way to paraphrase?

Yes?

Great!

Now you are ready to develop a practical activity to show your understanding of the topic.

Activity.
Study all the given information about paraphrasing; afterwards, paraphrase the paragraph
below.

Before the last century no humans had visited Antarctica, and even today the vast continent
has a winter population of fewer than 200 people. However, a recent report from a New
Zealand government agency outlines the scale of the pollution problem in the ice and snow.
Although untouched compared with other regions in the world, the bitter cold of Antarctica
means that the normal process of decay is prevented. As a result some research stations are
surrounded by the rubbish of nearly 60 years operations. Retrieved from: (Bailey, 2006).

_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.

Once you have learned the different techniques and tips to paraphrase information from
outside sources; it is important that you become acquainted of the techniques and tips for
summarizing.

8.3.2 Summarizing

Can you tell the difference between paraphrasing and summarizing?

Lets analyze the information below which will help you understand the difference.

Keys to write a good paraphrase

-Use your own words and your own sentence structure.
-Make your paraphrase approximately the same length as the original.
-Do not change the meaning of the original. From:
Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2006, p. 129).
 Keys to write a good summary
-Use your own words and your own sentence structure.
-Remember that a summary is much shorter than a paraphrase; it only includes the main
points and themain supporting points, leaving out most details.
-Do not change the meaning of the original.
From Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2006, p. 137).

Once you read the information above, I am sure that you were able to identify the
difference between paraphrase and summary. Great job!
If your answer stated that length is the only difference between paraphrase and summary,
it is correct. Remember that paraphrase is almost the same length as the original source;
while, summary is a lot shorter than the original source.

To reinforce what you have just learned, study the example below. It shows the original
text and the text that has been summarized

Original text
America has changed dramatically during recent years. Not only has the
number of graduates in traditional engineering disciplines such as mechanical,
civil, electrical, chemical, and aeronautical engineering declined, but in most of
the premier American universities engineering curricula now concentrate on and
encourage largely the study of engineering science. As a result, there are
declining offerings in engineering subjects dealing with infrastructure, the
environment, and related issues, and greater concentration on high technology
subjects, largely supporting increasingly complex scientific developments.
While the latter is important, it should not be at the expense of more traditional
engineering.
Rapidly developing economies such as China and India, as well as other
industrial countries in Europe and Asia, continue to encourage and advance the
teaching of engineering. Both China and India, respectively, graduate six and
eight times as many traditional engineers as does the United States. Other
 industrial countries at minimum maintain their output, while America suffers an
increasingly serious decline in the number of engineering graduates and a lack
of well-educated engineers. (169 words)
(Source: Excerpted from Frankel, E.G. (2008, May/June) Change in education:
The cost of sacrificing fundamentals. MIT Faculty Newsletter, XX, 5, 13.)
(Brennecke, 2005, p. 22)

Summary:
In a 2008 Faculty Newsletter article, Change in Education: The cost of sacrificing
fundamentals, MIT Professor Emeritus Ernst G. Frankel expresses his concerns regarding
the current state of American engineering education. He notes that the number of students
focusing on traditional areas of engineering has decreased while the number interested in
the high-technology end of the field has increased. Frankel points out that other industrial
nations produce far more traditionally-trained engineers than we do, and believes we have
fallen seriously behind. (81 words)

Why is this a good summary?

The summary cites the source, and restates the key ideas using original wording and
structures. (Brennecke, 2005, p. 23)

Summary:
MIT Professor Emeritus Ernst G. Frankel (2008) has called for a return to a course
of study that emphasizes the traditional skills of engineering, noting that the number of
American engineering graduates with these skills has fallen sharply when compared to the
number coming from other countries. (47 words)

Why is this a good summary?

This summary cites the source, and synthesizes the key ideas using original wording
and structures. (Brennecke, 2005, p. 23)
Dear student, we have finished this unit, and I suggest you read the information in the
following book(s) in order to expand your knowledge about this course.

Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2006). Writing Academic English. White Plains, NY: Pearson
Education.
Brennecke, P. (2005). Academic integrity at MIT: A handbook for students. Retrieved from:
http://web.mit.edu/academicintegrity/handbook/handbook.pdf

It is time to test your knowledge by doing the next self-evaluation

SELF-EVALUATION 8

Read the statements below; then, choose the option that provides the best response.

1. The structure of a paragraph is made of the following parts:

a. Subject, verb, complement.
b. Topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding sentences.
c. Examples, statistics, and quotations.

2. The topic sentence provides:

a. Explanation of the topic, details about the topic.
b. Signals for the end of the paragraph, important points to remember.
c. The main idea of the paragraph, and the controlling idea.

3. The main parts of an essay are:

a. introduction, body, and conclusion.
b. topic sentence, supporting sentences, and conclusion.
c. examples, facts, statistics
4. The introductory paragraph is made of two parts:
a. words that signal the end of the essay, and final thoughts of the author
b. General topic of the essay, and hook of the essay
c. General statements and thesis statement.

5. Choose the best option to complete the following statements.

When you paraphrase, you .
a. copy another person exact words
b. do not cite the source
c. rewrite outside information by using your own words, and cite the source.

6. To write a good summary, you need to ..

a. change the meaning of the original
b. use your own words, use your own sentence structures, credit the source.
c. include only the main points of the original text

UNIT 9: Educational Research

9.1 Identifying a research problem
When doing or reading a study, how do you know where or what is the research problem?
In our search to find appropriate explanations of what a research problem is, we read on
Booth W., Colomb G. & Williams J. (2008) that the word problem due to its special
connotation for most people is one that we would like to keep the furthest the possible and
which we would not like to be involved with; but, in the academic world, a problem is
something we seek out, even invent if we have to confirms Booth (2008).
It is clear then, that for a researcher is good that problems are around any corner and so
he/she will have his job to do.

According to Creswell (2012), in order to locate this part along a research, you need to ask
yourself the following four questions (Creswell, 2012):
What was the issue, problem, or controversy that the researcher wanted to address?
What controversy leads to a need for this study?
 What was the concern being addressed behind this study?
Is there a sentence like The problem addressed in this study is . . .?

Now that you have identified the research problem, we need to identify the different parts
of a research. To do this, it is necessary that you understand the difference among each part.
Creswell, 2012, identifies and proposes the following definitions of the parts of a research:
A research topic is the broad subject matter addressed by the study.
A research problem is a general educational issue, concern, or controversy
addressed in research that narrows the topic.
A purpose is the major intent or objective of the study used to address the problem.
Research questions narrow the purpose into specific questions that the researcher
would like answered or addressed in the study.
Next you will see a figure that explains sufficiently the four elements of a research. This
figure has been taken from Creswell, (2012, pg. 60). We can go over figure 2.1, so that we
have a clear picture of what are the characteristics of each element. Lets notice the way
each part of a research is stated.
Figure 1

Source: Creswell 2012, pg. 60

The importance of knowing how to define a Research Problem lies on the fact that this is
the main step to start a successful process of investigation. Once identified the problem the
researcher can state through clear ideas at the statement of the problem, as Creswell
(2012, pg. 66) suggests.

Another important step that is considered mandatory is how to distinguish the research
problem from other elements of the research. To do this, we need to clearly understand
what Creswell (2012, pg. 66) clarifies about the issue: The topic is the subject matter of
the study, the purpose statement sets forth the intent of the study, and the research
questions raise questions that the researcher will answer based on data collected in the
study.

As Creswell (2012) asserts The researcher must have access to people and sites and
possess the time, resources, and skills to study the problem. The study needs to contribute
to knowledge and practice. There also needs to be a match between the research problem
and the approachquantitative or qualitativechosen for the study.

9.2 Reviewing the literature

Figure 2

RESEARC UNDERSTAND THE TOPIC

H REVIEWING
DEVELOP YOUR OWN IDEAS LITERATURE
PROCESS
DEMONSTRATE KNOWLEDGE

Source: Geovany Castillo Herrera

Dear student, in the process of every research, we need to explore different sources of
information. Among the various sources a researcher has to investigate are the books; and
closely related to them are: journals, magazines, articles, scientific papers and the like.

Once a researcher has read sufficiently, he might want to take notes and create a summary
from all the information he gathered. That is what we call literature review. The of
literature review is to learn and be informed, if possible, on the most updated information
related to the topic under research. As Creswell (2012, pg. 80) asserts: You conduct a
literature review to document how your study adds to the existing literature. Which is also
very important since in every researched topic you have always to add something extra to
the state of the art.

Along the literature review you need to document and reference your sources attached to
technical criteria. In our case, we need to follow closely the APA style, which is a set of
patterns one need to follow to standardize criteria and not to lose the sense of direction
along a formal research.

You, as a researcher, might want to search in different sources. Among those well known
formats or types of literature reviews we can consider these as follows:

Figure 3
Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t2d7y_r65HU

There exist differences in the way a researcher approaches the problem. These differences
are shown in the chart extracted from Creswell (2012, pg. 81). The researcher decides over
what approach he/she will use and the literature review role on each case will be slightly
different.
Figure 4

Source: Creswell 2012, pg. 81

Creswell (2012) claims that the steps to follow when conducting a literature review are
usually the same, therefore knowing these steps helps you read and understand a
research study. If you conduct your own research study, knowing the steps in the process
will give you a place to start and the ability to recognize when you have successfully
completed the review. (pg. 81)

Nevertheless the path you follow Creswell (2012) advices to count and not miss the
following five steps:
1. Identify key terms to use in your search for literature.
2. Locate literature about a topic by consulting several types of materials and
databases, including those available at an academic library and on the Internet.
3. Critically evaluate and select the literature for your review.
4. Organize the literature you have selected by abstracting or taking notes on the
literature and developing a visual diagram of it.
5. Write a literature review that reports summaries of the literature for inclusion in
your research report.

9.3 Reporting and evaluating research

Figure 5

Reports an
investigation

Identifies questions
to be addressed

RESEARCH
REPORT
Includes the
collection and
analysis of data

Advances an
interpretation of
the data
Source: Geovany Castillo Herrera

Dear students, after you have analyzed the figure above I am providing an extract of the

textbook on Educational Research by John Creswell (2012, pg. 288 289) I have included

as a summary of the whole chapter since the way it is summarized is pretty clear and easy

to understand.

The Purpose of a Research Report and Its Types

Creswell (2012) states that a research report is a completed study that reports an

investigation or exploration of a problem, identifies questions to be addressed, includes the

collection and analysis of data, and advances an interpretation of the data. Researchers

write their reports with their audiences in mind. The audiences differ for six types of

research reports. These reports are dissertations and theses, dissertation and thesis

proposals, journal articles, conference papers, conference paper proposals, and policy or

school reports. Reports vary in purpose, length, and format.

How to Structure Your Research Report

According to Creswell (2012) researchers also structure these reports differently. A good

structure facilitates the reading, understanding, and composing of a research study. The

structure of a study can be determined by examining the headings and by looking for the

process steps of research.

Readers can also search for answers researchers provide to questions (or hypotheses) and

become familiar with typical structures used in educational research studies. The structure

of a quantitative report follows a standard format: introduction, review of the literature,

methods, results, and discussion. A qualitative report can be presented in alternative

formats: scientific, storytelling, thematic, descriptive, theoretical, and experimental.

Sensitive, Ethical, and Scholarly Writing Practices

Regarding this topic Creswell (2012) says that when writing a scholarly study or proposal,

use language that will not introduce bias. Language should avoid demeaning attitudes,

biased assumptions, and awkward constructions that suggest bias because of gender, sexual

orientation, racial or ethnic group, disability, or age. The language of research can be

specific, be sensitive to stereotyped labels, and acknowledge participation of people in a

study. Incorporate into research reports standard research terms such as those found in

glossaries, encode reports with appropriate language, and frame them within either a

quantitative or qualitative approach. Address ethical issues when reporting and sharing your

research. Research needs to be honestly reported, shared with participants, not previously

published, not plagiarized, not influenced by personal interest, and duly credited to authors

that make a contribution. The point of view of a study for a quantitative project tends to be

the omniscient third-person style of writing. For qualitative research, inquirers express a

first-person or collective point of view. In a qualitative study, the writer tends to be more in

the foreground than in a quantitative study. Writers need to balance content about their

subject matter with good research discussions. The sections of a report need to interrelate

so that a proposal or a final study is an integrated set of ideas. Linking devices such as

variables, hypotheses or research questions, key concepts or a phenomenon, and the

problem of the study interconnect sections in a research report.

Titles to studies need to be written in a concise form.

Criteria for Evaluating a Research Report

Creswell (2012) indicates that the criteria for evaluating the quality of a study differ

depending on the evaluator. Evaluators may be faculty, journal editors and reviewers,

policy makers and practicing educators, and conference paper reviewers. Evaluators look

for different characteristics of a good quantitative or qualitative study. Although no set

standards exist, several general guidelines are available that researchers might use to

evaluate a study. Quantitative evaluators are most concerned about aspects related to data

collection, analysis, and the reporting of results. Qualitative researchers are concerned

about data collection as well, but also about the persuasiveness of the study and the self-

awareness of the researcher.

Dear student, we have finished this unit, and I suggest you read the information in the
following book(s) in order to expand your knowledge about this course.

Creswell, J.(2012). Educational Research. Boston: Pearson

Mackey, A., Gass, S. (2005). Second Language Research. New York: Routledge
Johnson, B., Christensen, L. (2014). Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative, and
Mixed Approaches. California: SAGE Publications

It is time to test your knowledge by doing the next self-evaluation

SELF-EVALUATION 9

Answer the following questions. Choose the correct alternative.

1. In the research world, the word problem can be considered a synonym for ___.
a. mathematics
b. controversy
c. drawback
2. Which of the following is broader in terms of extent and scope from the point of view of
the researcher? The _____.
a. Research topic
b. Research problem
c. Purpose of the study

3. What will be the best source of information for a scientific research about the quality of
students health at a local college campus?
a. A dictionary of American idioms.
b. A monthly report of national health system.
c. An internal health report of in-campus accidents.

4. What is not a literature review?

a. A research paper
b. A series of notes taken along a research.
c. Diagrams drawn after reviewing a text.

5. What inconveniences might arise from poorly structured reports?

a. Abundant content with lots of examples.
b. Messy and hard to understand report.
c. The readers might want to search every source of information.

6. What personnel can evaluate a Research report?

a. Librarians
b. President of a fraternity
c. Faculty

UNIT 10: Methodology and Didactics

10.1 Methodology and Didactics
10.1.1 Seating arrangement and grouping students
Dear students, I would like to start this part telling you about the different kinds of seating
arrangement, the advantages and disadvantages of each one of them.

Orderly rows
Horseshoe
Circles
Separate tables

The way teachers organize the seats in the classroom can have a very positive impact on
students, especially on the ones that are shy and introvert. Some students prefer to sit near
the window or the door, others near aisles, some at the back, and few in front.
Have you thought about it?

Why students prefer one or other way?

prefer one or other way?

In my personal opinion, I think students who sit at the front are the ones who are
more participative and learn more, because they are the ones who keep on paying
attention and answering questions most of the time. Seating arrangement
symbolizes students personality. Students, who usually occupy the front benches,
are the ones who do not want to miss any information, and the ones who usually
seat at back rows, are those who do not want to be noticed by the teacher.
Some students prefer sitting near doors and windows because it provides them with
sufficient distractions to escape the monotony of lessons taught. Pranks, whispering,
passing of notes, doodling, etc. is frequent among students who generally sit in the
back.
Figure 1. STEM classrooms. (MooreCo Inc, 2015).

STEM is an acronym for Science, Technology, Engineering and Math.

Now that you have an idea about students preferences, do you think you could control this
situation?
What would you do to avoid students
distraction?

I guess you thought about changing students to different seat, dont you?

Orderly Rows
Figure 2. Classroom. (wordpress, 2010).

This seating arrangement is the most common one. The room is divided into columns
which are decided according to the number of the students teachers have to work with. This
arrangement allows teachers to walk between the aisles and help students if necessary.

PROS
Students focus is teacher not
surrounding distractors
Teacher has a clear view of all the
students.
Teacher is able to guide instruction
Designed for lecture based instruction
Efficient set up
Prevents cheating on exam
CONS
Considered by many to be the least
favorable way to facilitate learning
Makes students feel like they are in
class
No areas for class participation
No space for group work
No areas for collaboration or
exploration

Horseshoe
Figure 3. Semicircle arrangement. (Group1PhysicalEnvironment, 2015).

This arrangement is very useful when using audio visual aids, interactive boards, overhead
projectors. This ensures clear visibility for all students. Teachers can keep eye contact with
all students and check how attentive they are.

PROS CONS
Excellent choice for discussion Difficult to enter and exit desks
classes Teacher becomes one of the
Teacher becomes incorporated with students, may lose respect
discussion Students can get off task easily
Allows for collaboration Teacher is often located in a
Students dont feel like they are in commanding position.
class
Focus is still at the front of classroom,
yet able to discuss material presented
in class
The classroom is a more intimate
place and eye contact or expressive
body movements is greater than other
 seating arrangement.

Circles

Figure 4. Class in circle. (Lodwick, 2015).

This kind of seating encourages all students to participate, it also allows the teacher to see
everyone from an equal distance and communicate easier with the students.

PROS
Involves everyone in the group
People can speak directly to each
other
Creates equality through the group
CONS
Some students may feel
uncomfortable or exposed
Not conductive to visual aids or
audiovisual presentations
The teachers position is less
dominating.
The kind of seating arrangement will depend on the task, but keep in mind that the rotation
system when integrated into the classroom can ensure that students are not categorized as
front or back benchers. Bu doing it, everyone is given an opportunity to sit in the front,
middle and back.
Seating arrangements can play a huge role in student performance. Hence, it is the duty of
teachers to wisely select an arrangement what best suits their particular circumstances and
classes.
Separate tables
Teacher walks around checking the students work and helping out if they are having
difficulties, prompting the students at this table, or explaining something to the students at
the tables.
PROS CONS
Groupwork is easy to arrange. Are more difficult to teach to in
Useful in mixed-ability classes. whole-group activities, depending on
Different groups of students can the size of the room and the group.
benefit from concentrating on Students may not always want to be
different tasks. with the same colleagues.
Useful if students are working around
a computer screen.
Useful if students are litening to
different audio tracks in jigsaw
listening
It is time now to talk about grouping students.

What different ways to group your students have

you used during your classes?

Does the way your group your students depend

on the activity you have assigned them to do?
Im sure you have imagined yourselves pairing or grouping your students, havent you?
Teachers can group their students as a whole, getting students to work on their own, or
having them perform tasks in pairs or groups
Whole-class teaching
The way teachers usually place seats in the classroom is students seating in rows listening
to what the teacher is explaining, this is the most common teacher-student interaction in
many cultures.

PROS
An engaging atmosphere is created
Suitable for activities where the
teacher is acting as a controller.
Good for giving explanations and
instructions.
Ideal for presenting material.
It allows teacher to gauge the mood
of the class in general.
It is a good way for teachers to get a
general understanding of student
progress
______________________________
______________________________
CONS
It favors the group rather than the
individual
Everybody is forced to do the same
thing at the same time and at the same
pace.
Individual students do not have much
chance to say anything on their own.
Many students are afraid to participate
and mistake.
It may not encourage students to take
responsibility for their own learning.
Students dont have opportunities to
discover things by themselves since it
is the teacher who explains
everything.
______________________________

______________________________
 Can you think on other pros and cons of whole-
class teaching?

Please add one more to each column.

Lets talk about students on their own

Do you think this represents a kind of individualized learning? If so, in what way?
It is said that this kind of learning a vital step in the development of learning autonomy.

PROS
It allows teachers to respond to
individual student differences in terms
of pace of learning, learning styles
and preferences.
It is likely to be less stressful for
students than performing in a whole-
class setting.
It promotes skills of self-reliance and
investigation over teacher-
dependence.
It can be a way of restoring peace and
tranquility to a noisy and chaotic
classroom.
CONS
It does not help a class develop a
sense of belonging. It does not
encourage cooperation among
students.
It involves more thought and
materials preparation than whole-class
teaching involves.
When teachers work with individual
students as a tutor or resource, it takes
much more time than interacting with
the whole class.
Pairwork
In pairwork, students can practice language together, study a text, research language or take
part in information-gap activities. They can write dialogues, predict the content of reading
texts or compare notes on what they have listened to or seen.

PROS
It increases the amount of speaking
time.
It allows students to work and interact
independently, promoting learning
independence.
It recognizes the saying two heads
are better than one , promoting
cooperation.
It is relatively quick and easy to
organize.
CONS
It can be noisy sometimes.
The chances of misbehavior are
greater.
Some students would prefer to relate
to the teacher rather than on their
classmates who can sometimes be
linguistically weak as they are.
The actual choice of paired partner
can be problematic.

Groupwork

Dividing the students into groups can work for some activities such as writing a story,
performing role-play, preparing presentations, or discuss an issue and come to a group
decision.

PROS
It increases the talking opportunities.
Personal relationships are usually less
problematic; there is a great chance of
different opinions.
It encourages broader skills of
cooperation and negotiation.
CONS
It is likely to be noisy.
Some students would prefer to be the
focus of the teachers attention rather
than working with their peers.
Individuals may fall into group roles
that become fossilized, so that some
 It promotes learner autonomy by are passive whereas others may
allowing students to make their own dominate.
decisions in the group. Groups can take longer to organize
than pairs.

It is time now, to deepen your knowledge. Please watch the video for more information
regarding classroom seating

Or find it as: Classroom seating for effective learning

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ott9QFzegRg

10.1.2 Lesson plan design

Planning is very important even for experienced teachers are the words of Harmer (2007); I
agree with this, since teachers have to rely on them always. It means teachers have devoted
time to prepare coordinated activities for their students. Lesson plans are useful to remind
teachers what they intended to do; it is a guide to follow.

Pre-planning and planning

Pre-planning takes place before teachers actually make a plan about what is going to
happen in their lesson. During this stage, what teachers do is to gather ideas, material and
possible starting-off points. Of course, all the activities and material have to be prepared
taking into consideration students needs and interests.
What teachers need to consider first are the goals, these are the ones who help to determine
what kinds of activities are needed and why.
Now that you have read something about planning, think about the following question:
 Am I the kind of the teacher who pre-plan
lessons?___________________________
__________________________________
__________________________________
_____________

Is it better to have something written

or to keep it on my head?
______________________________
______________________________
________________

______________________________
_
Further reading at: http://www.tesol.org/docs/books/bk_morethannative_325

Lesson stages
Good lessons should contain a blend of coherence and variety. When talking about
coherence we refer to the logical pattern a lesson should have; activities should be varied
and connected one another.
Students should be aware about when one activity has finished and when another is about
to start.
According to Harmer (2007) the following are questions teachers should always ask
themselves before planning.
 Who exactly are the students for these Age, level, cultural
activities? background, learning
styles
What do we want to do and why? Activities, skills,

Planning questions
language

How long will it take? Time assigned for each

activity

How does it work? How and when?

What will be needed? Sources, tools, e-devices

Problems that might arise

What might go wrong

How will it fit in with what comes before Connections between

and after it? activities

To sum up: the purpose of the lesson plan is to be as useful as possible to the people who
are going to use it.

Note: there are different plans formats, in most of the cases the educational institutions are
the ones who provide teachers with them, if not you can use the one you prefer.
This link will be helpful for creating a lesson plan

http://www2.ed.gov/free/toolkit/explanation.pdf

I hope you have found this information useful. Im sure you will consider all these tips to
prepare good lesson plans.
10.1.3 Teaching speaking
Teaching Speaking
Teachers have to provide students with opportunities to practice the language they have
learned this will give feedback about the progress to both teachers and students. Speaking
activities should be planned to foster better speaking, rather than having students speak
only to focus on specific language constructions. Good class atmosphere usually favors
speaking activities, since students will participate freely and enthusiastically.
There are cases in which students are reluctant to speak because of their shyness, or maybe
because they feel afraid to make mistakes, in such situations there are a number of things
teachers can do to help.
Preparation
Wilson (2005) suggests that it is necessary to be prepared to use the language, he
advises to think what you are going to say and how to say it. Practice and rehearsal
are necessary at this point.
According to Helgesen (2003) imagining you are in a taxi and give the imaginary
taxi driver directions will help to improve our speaking. Students can also practice
telling themselves about the best thing that happened to them today or tell the
person in their heads about their plans for their future.
Mennim (2003) mentions that recording is also a good strategy for students to
improve their speaking, once they record their presentations, they transcribe what
they have said , correct it and give it back to the teacher for his comments before
finally making the presentation.
Grouping students to brainstorm ideas is also useful when it comes to discuss a
determine topic.

Have you used any of these

strategies to improve your speaking
skills?

The value of repetition

Repetition has many beneficial effects. Facing with a word or phrase helps to fix it in the
students memory, it also allows students to improve on what they did before.
It is important that students work on their first draft first, so when it comes to do the final
one, they have already rehearsed once, each rehearsal gives them the opportunity to get
more confidence are they are not attempting to get the words out for the first time when
they try to speak in subsequent performances.
If students get a chance to review what they have done, repetition will work. Of course,
feedback from the teacher plays a very important role.
Big groups, small groups
Some students feel very nervous about having to express their opinions and ideas in front of
big groups, a way to reduce anxiety is to form small groups and give them chances to talk,
this can offer them a preparation time for dialogues and discussions.

Correcting students speaking

Teachers should take students mistakes as opportunities to work from where learners are at
and to expand outwards from this point. Students have to be aware that errors are normal,
natural and inevitable and not to worry about making them.
In order to correct students speaking, teachers have to find the appropriate time and way in
order not to hurt students feeling or embarrass them in front of their classmates. What
teachers can do is to take notes of the mistakes every student made and then present them
on the board, so everybody can benefit from the feedback which can come from teachers or
students themselves.
Gentle correction might take the form of reformulation where the teacher repeats what
the student has said, but correctly this time.

Important: You as teacher know your students, and you

will be able to detect what way of correcting them is better,
you just need to be kind and gentle.

For further reading click the following links:

http://ngl.cengage.com/emea/en_uk/innovations/content/speaking2/mod4a.pdf

http://palssresources.wikispaces.com/file/view/Error+Correction-
+A+Traffic+Light+Approach%282%29.pdf
10.2 Methodology and didactics II: Teaching reading and writing
10.2.1 Intensive Reading

Just before we start this new topic, let me ask the following question:

What is the difference

between Intensive
Reading and Extensive
Reading?

How was your answer? Do you have the notions of both terms? Thats alright. Dont worry
if you dont have them yet. Lets read the definition of Intensive Reading:

Intensive reading often refers to the careful reading (or translation) of

shorter, more difficult foreign language texts with the goal of complete
and detailed understanding. Intensive reading is also associated with the
teaching of reading in terms of its component skills. Texts are studied
intensively in order to introduce and practice reading skills such as
distinguishing the main idea of a text from the detail, finding pronoun
referents, or guessing the meaning of unknown words. (Day, R. &
Bamford, J. Extensive Reading. What is it? Why bother? Retrieved
http://jalt-publications.org/old_tlt/files/97/may/extensive.html
OK, what do you think about this definition? Is it clear enough? Excellent. Lets move on.
To reinforce the concept, lets read these three adjacent notions:

Intensive study of reading texts can be a means of increasing learners

knowledge of language features and their control of reading strategies. It
can also improve their comprehension skill Paul Nation.

Many students have learnt to listen and to read English by working

intensively on such passages. The idea of reading which they have formed
is one of starting at the first word and battling through till the last, with
all elements of comprehension, grammar and vocabulary being tested
before the text has been done. J. Edge (1996) Essential of English
language Teaching.

Intensive Reading, which deals with reading in textbooks, makes

students learn new grammar, vocabulary, and reading skills. The
textbooks selected usually need to be a little more difficult than learners
level. Intensive Reading introduces short passages by the teacher in the
classroom or at home as homework in which s/he asks comprehension
questions as exercises as an assessment instrument since key language is
recycled. P. Nation.

Many students have learnt to listen and to read English by working intensively on such
passages. The idea of reading which they have formed is one of starting at the first word
and battling through till the last, with all elements of comprehension, grammar and
vocabulary being tested before the text has been done. J. Edge (1996) Essential of English
language Teaching.

Remember that the main purpose of teaching your students Intensive Reading is to foster
language development. Paul Nation and his single-mindedness learning-focused input
perspective states: Intensive study of reading texts can be a means of increasing learners
knowledge of language features and their control of reading strategies. It can also improve
their comprehension skill (pag. 25).

Another encouraging hypothesis using Intensive Reading states that determining language
features of a course beforehand students will get attention more easily. That is to say,
using the language features that are related to each text become the language core-
prospectus of the program because those features contribute to the future communicative
written or oral task of the text.

As future teachers, apprentices need to keep in mind that the classic procedure for intensive
reading is the grammar translation approach; that is, the teacher uses his/her mother tongue
to explain meaning of texts, sentence by sentence. It is quite useful as long as this approach
is only a part of the reading intensive learning program, otherwise this application might be
contra-productive. Another harmful effect of just using intensive reading with our students
in a specific reading program is the fact that it focuses only on comprehension features in
an isolated reading selection deliberately; in other words, the intensive reading material
and structures studied for a specific reading selection wont be useful when reading
different kinds of texts.

Reading widely is a highly effective means of extending our command of language, so it

has an important place in classrooms where language learning is the central purpose.
However, students need to learn how to read for meaning, and it is not always possible to
teach for both purposes at the same time or with the same text C. Nuttall (1996) Teaching
Reading Skills in a Foreign Language (P. 30).

If Intensive reading is to be done well, the major principle determining the focus of the
teaching should be that the focus is on items that will occur in a wide range of texts P.
Nation (pag. 26). Teachers ultimately want to teach different aspects of reading, for doing
so, they need to apply reading microskills and strategies taking into account that students
read in different ways. Intensive Reading involves approaching the text under the
guidance of a teacher or a task which forces the student to focus on the text. The aim is to
arrive at an understanding, not only of what the text means, but of how the meaning is
produced. (C. Nuttall (1996), P. 38)

Below, a reading example in which you can validate the previous information delivered
already. Take your time to analyze it.

Before reading

1 Work in pairs. Make brief notes on two environmental problems the world is facing at me
moment (e.g. The world is getting warmer.).

2 In some countries there is a political party called the 'Green Party' or 'The Greens'. What
is its purpose? Discuss with your partner.

Reading

1 Read the text. Match each of the paragraphs with one of the items in the pictures (e.g.
paragraph 1 refers to f). You should be able to work out most of the more difficult words
from the context.

ARE THESE PEOPLE CRIMINALS?

1 For a start, Julia Moore's not just killing flies with that spray. By using it, she is helping to create a
hole in the ozone layer - the 'gas screen' which helps protect us from the dangerous rays of the sun.
The spray is full of chemicals called chlo-rofluorocarbons (CFCs) that eat up the ozone gas. There
are now huge holes in the ozone layer, which is why CFCs should be banned.
2 The cooking pots are boiling over and wasting power. This means that more and more oil and coal
has to be burned and this causes pollution and 'acid rain'. 'Acid rain' has already killed more than
half of Germany's trees.
3 The vegetables you can see have probably been treated with pesticides chemicals which kill the
small animals and insects that live on them. They have also been fed with fertilisers which can
exhaust the soil and kill wild animals. The pesti-cides and fertilisers end up in our water which is
then polluted by them. In many shops you can now buy organic fruit and vegetables which are not
treated with chemicals.
4 The eggs Emma is eating come from battery farms which cause great cruelty to mil-lions of hens
kept in confined spaces. Freerange eggs are more expensive but are healthier and are not as cruel to
hens.
5 The hardwood which the kitchen furniture is made of comes from the tropical rain forests, which
are disappearing as they are cut down to provide hardwood for the western world. Fewer trees
means more carbon dioxide in the air and this traps the sun's heat and leads to the 'greenhouse
effect' - a hotter climate which melts ice, causes floods and drought and changes our climate.
6 The fridge is full of meat. Tropical rain forests are often cut down to provide space to breed cattle
to provide our hamburgers.
7 Julia doesn't always save her plastic shop- ping bags. Yet it is impossible to recycle them and
plastic can harm animals.
8 The Moores throw a lot of rubbish out but glass and aluminium cans can be recycled and used
again
9 Julia's cupboard near the sink is full of washing powders and cleaners, many of which are packed
with things which pollute water.
10 Out in the garden Derek Moore is spray-ing his plants with insecticides, which not only kill
animals and birds but can also harm human eyes and skin and are also related to birth defects and
cancer.
2 Look back at the text and find these words and

phrases which are often associated with the environment. Try to work out their meanings
from the context. If necessary, check your answers with a dictionary.

a) ozone layer (paragraph 1)

b) acid rain (paragraph 2)

c) battery farms (paragraph 4)

d) greenhouse effect (paragraph 5)

e) recycle (paragraphs 7 and 8)

3 What do the words in italics refer to?

a) By using it. ..(paragraph 1)

b) which helps protect us ...(paragraph 1)

c) that eat up the ozone gas ...(paragraph 1)

d) This means that ...(paragraph 2)

e) which are not treated with ...(paragraph 3)

f) this traps the sun's heat (paragraph 5)

g) to recycle them ...(paragraph 7)

h) many of which are packed. ..(paragraph 9)

4 List the things which, according to the article, are bad for the environment.

(Retrieved from : http://web.orange.sk/horanic/2001_2002/zs/texty/unit6.htm)

- Two more video examples:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ko-9Sef81w
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jqijMX5PLtw

Notice again how the students have been given a simple task to balance the
difficult text. This encourages them to keep on reading without worrying too much
about the fact that they dont understand all the words. Using this strategy will
also help students develop the skill of reading difficult texts for a general
understanding or for specific information. As teacher, you could:

- Give the students five minutes to do the task individually;

- Give them five minutes to check their results in pairs;
- Check with the whole class if there are any disagreements (i.e. ask someone for
a response, ask if anyone disagrees, ask for reasons before giving any indication
whether the response is correct);
- Point out how the key items come at the beginning of each paragraph, a
common place for important information. (Retrieved from J. Edge, 1996)

Extensive Reading

When teachers refer the term Extensive Reading, they must refer to enjoyment. Extensive
Reading means reading as much as possible. It is an alternative teaching approach in which
students are allowed to choose the books they want to read depending on their interests and
level of difficulty. In Extensive Reading sessions students are encouraged to read for
pleasure and should become better readers since they read simpler books that are at below
the level at which they normally read. Its preferable to be in a repetition atmosphere of
more or less 500,000 words per year.

Extensive reading fits into the meaning-focused input and fluency development strands of
a course (P. Nation pag 49) Extensive Reading provides the conditions for meaning and
fluency development at a variety levels of proficiency using simplified texts. Besides, Elley
(1991) presents plenty of evidence that reading can result in a variety of substantial
proficiency gains.
Something to keep in mind is the fact that Extensive Reading drives students into incidental
learning since their attention is not on the form of the text but rather on the plot or story.
According to Nation, during extensive reading learners should be interested in what they
are reading and should be reading with their attention on the meaning of the text rather than
on learning the language features of the text.

In Extensive Reading environments, students know that there is not always a discussion or
work in class related to what they are reading. In this way, students are encouraged to read
much more graded readers quantity for pleasure and should become better readers at the
end. According to some research, second and foreign language readers can benefit from
extensive reading because they can read what they want and what they can read without
any boundary. The benefits of extensive reading are seen as offering many advantages
(Day & Bamford, 1998; Krashen,1993; Nation, 1997) some of which are as follows:

1. Enhance language learning in such areas as spelling, vocabulary, grammar, and text
structure.
2. Increased knowledge of the world
3. Improve reading and writing skills
4. Greater enjoyment of reading
5. More positive attitude toward reading
6. Higher possibility of developing a reading habit

"English teachers who are interested in having their students reading extensively
are faced with a challenge. What do they, as teachers, actually do in the classroom?
Simply having the students read for an entire class period strikes many teachers as
inappropriate. This fourth and final article on extensive reading discusses activities
your students can do after they have finished reading their books. Why do we use
Extensive reading activities? ER activities contribute to student motivation and
make student reading a resource for language practice and use in reading,
vocabulary learning, listening, speaking and writing. That is, you can use ER
activities to help your students improve their oral fluency, writing, and vocabulary,
in addition to reading. And equally important, ER activities can also help you
monitor and evaluate the reading your students do (Richard Day)
Extensive Reading is a teaching approach that develops students confidence at the time
they read. Kranshen (1993) states that through extensive reading we can develop a good
writing style, an adequate vocabulary, advance grammar, and become good spellers
beyond these gains, reading offers more. It offers a richer understanding of the world, a
worldwide dialogue.

Extra activity: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NtkGkW378Y8

An example is provided: (Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/Usuario/Downloads/extensive-reading-activities-for-teaching-

language-paperback-sample-pages.htm) Cambridge University Press 0521016517 - Extensive Reading Activities for
Teaching Language - Edited by Julian Bamford and Richard R. Day Excerpt

10.2.2 Exploring Personal Reading Histories

Students discuss the past and present role of reading in their lives.

Level: Intermediate to Advanced

Aim: To develop students awareness of the role of reading in their lives.

Preparation: Choose some or all of the discussion questions in Box 1.1. Be ready to
answer the questions from your own experience.
Procedure:
1. In class, introduce the discussion questions, for example, by writing them on the
board or using an overhead projector (OHP). The questions can focus on first,
second, or foreign language reading, depending on your teaching situation or aims.
Model the activity by answering the questions from your own experience.
2. Have students discuss the questions in small groups.
Variation: Make photocopies of the questions for students to answer as homework. Have
students bring their answers to class for discussion in small groups.
Contributed by: Anne Burns, Macquarie University, Australia
Anne writes: There needs to be a certain amount of sensitivity in presenting the questions
so that students do not feel threatened or exposed because of lack of previous reading
experiences. Given that proviso, I find students enjoy discussing their reading histories and
find it interesting to compare them with others. The discussion raises awareness of the
importance and influence of early reading experiences on the way students learn and think
about reading in later life. The activity also raises discussion about how first language
reading experiences and practices can be transposed to second or foreign language
situations.

BOX 1.1 Discussion Questions

What are your first memories of reading?

Did anyone read to you? If so, who? If not, why was that?
What kinds of things did they read?
Where did this reading take place? Were others involved?
What kinds of things did you enjoy reading most?
Do you still enjoy reading these kinds of things today? If not, how has your reading
changed?
Which author or types of reading have been most important to you?
What role does reading play in your life now (for example, as a parent or for work,
pleasure, community, or religious purposes)?

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS 2004

Well, did you do it? How did you feel? Was it hard? Greatly done! Lets move on.

Now you have a clear understanding of what Intensive and Extensive Reading deal with.
To know about the aspects that intensive and extensive work on a reading text can focus on,
you need to read information in your textbook. So please while reading underline the most
important ideas.

Great !! That was a good effort.

Lets continue with a new topic.

 2. ASSESSING READING AND WRITING

As an introductory reflection, please read the following citation:

Our assessments need to interrupt teaching and learning as little as

possible without reducing the constructs we are assessing. In other
words, we cant reduce reading to something other than making sense of
texts if we are going to effectively assess what we need to know about
our students as readers. Frank Serafini.

Do you know that there are several reasons for assessing reading and writing? Lets study
this interesting topic! Take a look of the illustration.

Assessment

Reading Writing

Encourage
monitor progress provide feedback
Learning

Figure 1. The assessment of Reading and Writing

Lizaldes, O.V. (2015) Methodology and Didactics II: Teaching Reading and Writing. Course notes. UTPL.

Did you understand it? GREAT. Assessment is an essential step into the teaching and
learning process. Besides, good assessment needs to be reliable, valid, and practical.
 Do you know the assessment techniques we use to measure reading and writing
proficiency? If not, dont worry. Here below you will find this information. Lets read it.

Types of Reading assessment

There several ways of assessing reading. The most common are:

Perceptive: involves attending components of discourse (letters, words, punctuation)

Reading aloud that consist in reading aloud.

Written response, similar to reading aloud but in writing form
Multiple-choice that includes circle the answer, true or false, choose the letter and
matching.
Picture-cued items that involves reading sentences and point pictures.

Interactive: focus on identify relevant features and retain information.

Close-task consist in completing a task of two paragraph with words chosen by a

task-taker
Impromptu consist in reading and answering a question.
Shorts answer task, after reading answer with one or two sentences.
Editing consist on rewriting a paragraph without errors
Scanning consist on finding relevant information in a text.
Ordering-task that consist in ordering sentences.

Extensive: the purpose is to check global understanding of any text.

Skimming consist on finding the main idea

Summarizing consist on the students writing a summary.
Note-taking and outline consist on retaining information through outline or notes.

Types of Writing assessment

Imitative: Measure the ability to write letters, words, punctuation and sentences.

Copying: consist of copying letters or words

Listening: cloze selection task which combines dictation and writing
Picture-cued task: students write words that identify pictures.
Form completion task: consist of filling up forms
Converting numbers and abbreviation to words: specifies abbreviations
Multiple choice techniques: Consist of presenting words or phrases as multiple
choice.

Intensive: Measures the ability to produce appropriate vocabulary within context,

colocations, idioms, and grammatical features.

Dictation: the teacher reads a paragraph and students write.

Grammatical transformation: includes changes of tenses in a paragraph,
making contractions and statements into yes/no questions or Wh-questions.
Vocabulary assessment: consist of reading and finding meaning of words or
collocations.

Great !! That was a good effort.

Is it clear the notion of assessment? Lets take into account the following extra information
intended to reinforce your understanding.

Teachers of English must be aware that assessment quality is a complex process of

analysis. It entails more than just a single school classroom in which students come to take
tests to examine their learning. The process should serve to motivate students and measure
achievement. Through assessment application teachers must diagnose problems and
fallacies as well as measure students proficiency using valid, reliable, and practical
didactic instruments.
We, as teachers, have available to us a wide variety of information that can be used to
provide evidence of a students reading processes, preferences, and strategies. Each source
provides a different type of information that helps us to come to know our students as
readers and literate beings. Various assessment windows or data-generating techniques
are used to tap into these sources of information, so lets turn to those next. Serafini
(2010) P. 24.

Sources of Information about Reading

Before Reading
What strategies do students use for selecting a text?
How do students approach a text? (Do they skim through it? Read the title page? Look at
the end pages and other peritextual information?)
Are students able to state their purposes for reading a particular text?
When and where do students choose to read?

During Reading
Do students demonstrate immediate emotional reactions (laugh, cry, etc.)?
Can students code or mark important passages in the text during reading for further
inquiry?
Do students stop and think aloud during their reading? What do the students talk about?
As students read a text, what strategies do they employ? Are they reading fluently, or is
the reading choppy? Can they adjust their rate of reading to ensure understanding?

After Reading
Are students able to talk about the text when they are finished? Can they paraphrase or
summarize what they have read? Do students draw inferences from the text?
Can students write a response entry in their literature response notebook?
Are students able to answer questions about what they have read?
Can students respond in other ways (write a book review, draw a picture, act out the story)
to what they have read?

Figure 2. Sources of Information about reading

Serafini, F. (2010) Classroom Reading Assessments. More efficient ways of view and evaluate your readers.
Heinemann. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. ISBN 13: 978-0-325-02712-8

Wonderful.
Now you know why assessment is so important in our role as
teachers.

Lets continue with a new topic.

10.2.3 The writing process.

Why do we say that

Writing is a process?

Paul Nation explains this concept and, briefly, we summarize it in the following paragraph:

Writing is a process very recent in language history which intends to

accomplish a specific purpose: turn ideas and thoughts of a variety of
intentions into paper. Centuries ago, literacy was most likely used by the
church and governments but education and literateness demanded the
acquisition of this important skill in order to succeed in life.

Do you agree with the concept presented before? OK, lets continue.

Now, take a look of this information:

The writing process entails basically a four step process quite

well identified nowadays: Planning, drafting, editing and
final draft.
 Figure 2. The Process wheel

Harmer, J. (2004) How to Teach Writing

Planning: writers need to plan what are they going to write, this include choosing a

purpose, audience, and content structure.

Drafting: It is the first version of a piece of writing.

Editing: Means reflecting and revising; that is, once writers have produced any draft,

then they read the material to analyze it.

Final version: after editing the inadequate version of their writing, writers produce

their final version

Did you understand the process wheel? Good. Lets move on.

Paul Nation provides us again with the four teaching-based principles to make sure
that our students are getting a good setting of learning opportunities (meaning-focused
Input, meaning-focused output, language-focused learning and fluency development).
Besides, Nation quotes if learners do not have enough experience to do a task, then either
the task can be changed so that it is brought within their experience, or the learners can be
provided with the experience which will help them to do the task.

Methodologically speaking, all these teaching perspectives grasp interesting elements such
us task design, guided tasks, and experience tasks. A slightly different perspective not
away from considering Writing as a process is the Teaching Writing as a process. This
approach makes clear the difference between words like process and product in the writing
production. Lets take a look of this conceptualization:

Teaching Writing as Process

Process vs. Product

For the purpose of this particular discussion, it's perhaps useful to make a distinction
between writing-as-process and writing-as-product. While these distinctions may not
hold up under deep scrutiny, they were useful in the early years of Composition
Studies as a way of talking not only about what students write, but also about how
they write. James McCrimmon, for instance, understood this distinction as the
difference between writing as a way of knowing (process) and writing as a way of
telling (product). Donald Murray defined it as the difference between internal and
external revision (revising in order to clarify meaning for oneself vs. revising in order
to clarify meaning for the reader). Linda Flower framed it as the difference between
writer-based and reader-based prose. Though these theorists differ in their definitions
of the distinction between process- and product-oriented writing, they do agree on
one point: good product depends on good process.

Retrieved from https://writing-speech.dartmouth.edu/teaching/first-year-writing-

pedagogies-methods-design/teaching-writing-process#sthash.AqQK9xsk.dpuf

Did you finish with the study of the writing process? Excellent.
10.3 Methodology and didactics III: Teaching listening and speaking
10.3.1 Models and Types of Listening
As you have already known, Listening has always been considered a passive process by
which the only thing a listener does is to be a receptor of the information given by a
speaker.
Recently, there have been new conceptions about listening, by which listening is considered
as more active and interpretive process in which the message is not just heard but is
processed in the interactional space between participants. The meaning of the message
heard is understood by the listener does not depend only on the words heard but constructed
from context and situation. .
This lets us understand that there are two conceptions or models of listening, they are:
- Passive listener
- Active listener

Now, can you tell what the difference between the two types of listening is?

Im sure you understood and were able to answer the previous question.

From the two points of view of seeing listening we can distinguish two types of listening.
They are:

- One-way listening: This implies the listener receiving information and the speaker
transferring it. It is usually known as transactional listening.

- Two-way listening: in which there is participation of both parts; listener and speaker. It
lets maintain social relations. It is usually known as interactional listening.

These two ways of classifying the types of listening, of course has influenced on the way
materials have been elaborated and teaching has been planned. As you may know, real
classes and conversations imply interaction so, two-way type of listening mostly occurs,
that is why, new material need to be selected or elaborated.
Can you tell the differences between the two types of listening? Write on this chart the
differences between the two of them

One way listening Two way listening

Now you know about models and types of listening. Lets go on the next topic:

10.3.2 Variations of Dictation

As you know we have been discussing dictation, an exercise which most of the times
involves an instructor who speaks a text (depending on the type, students can also) and a
student or a group of students attempting to take down that text.

Now it is time to learn the different types of dictation we can use with our students. As
future teachers you need to be aware that you can not only try one exercise or technique.
There are many to take advantage of depending on the level of the students, the purpose of
the activity, the circumstances, the group, etc. In order to know how to work each one of
the techniques, please go to the book, find the corresponding topic, read, analyze and take
note of the important tips for each one of the techniques.

Lets take a look of the different types of dictation:

Running dictation: for this type of dictation the teacher needs to prepare a poster in
which a short dictation text typed in a large font is posted on the wall outside the
classroom.
What students do is ask students to work in pairs or small groups. One learner is the
writer and the other is the runner. The runner goes to the dictation text, memorizes a
short sentence, goes back to the writer and retells it to the writer who writes it on the
boar. When the students work in groups, the runner goes to the text and retells it to
another student who runs to the next. They continue the same until the last student tur,
who writes the phrase on the board.

One Chance dictation:

Used when learners make very few mistakes in dictation. The teacher reads short
phrases of the text once. This is challenging for students because have to be very
attentive to what is read.

Dictation of Long Phrases During the writing part of the dictation, instead of reading
short phrases once, the teacher can read long phrases or sentences several times.
Each group can be about ten or more words long.

Guided Dictation:
In this type of dictation the teacher writes nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs on
the blackboard in same order as they are in the text. Then, he reads the whole text.
This helps students to pay attention to other difficult words. The words on the
blackboard help the learners remember the complete sentences.

Dictation for a Mixed Class: when in a class there are strong and weak students at
dictation. The text is written once without stopping. Then a phrase is read quite
quickly for the good learners to write it. After few seconds the same phrase is read
slowly for the other learners. During the second reading the good learners just check
their work. The teacher goes through the dictation, reading each phrase twice in this
way.
Peer Dictation: in this type of dictation, students work in small groups, one person
reads the dictation for the others to write. It may be turned into a competition in the
following way. It is good to set a time limit for the dictation to make it a little
challenging. When used as a competition, once time is over, say stop the winner
 is the group that has finished the dictation. The learner who is writing can ask the
other to repeat words and phrases, and to spell them aloud.

Completion Dictation: The learners receive several printed copies of one text. The
copies have missing words. Every copy has more missing words than the previous
one. The students listen to the text phrase by phrase and fill in the words missing on
their first copy. Then the text is read again and the learners fill in the missing words
on the next copy which has more words missing than the first copy. This continues
until the learners are writing the whole dictation

These are some of the variations of dictation. Did you understand how they work? What the
role teachers and students have in each type of dictation? If you understood, please write a
chart of the different types of dictation. If you need to improve your knowledge you can
look for more information.

10.3.3 Negotiation
To start this topic, the textbook presents some information about Negotiation in listening
and speaking activities. It is important that you understand the meaning of negotiation
because these will be the basis for the activities proposed later on in the chapter. Analyze
the examples the book presents. This will give you a clear idea how negotiation helps in
language developing. In addition, you will read about different definitions and points of
view of different authors regarding this topic.

Negotiation is an activity by which you give feedback to your students especially when the
message give, tasks, instructions and/or activities are not clear.
This feedback may involve pointing out problems with the comprehensibility of the
message and specifying where the problem lies.
Negotiation also plays other roles in assisting language development, such as the following
which are based on Longs detailed discussion of interaction.
The interaction produced while negotiating helps language learning by providing
opportunities to learn from others, and by speakers having to adjust their output to
communicate with others. This interaction helps learning by providing plenty of
comprehensible input, by encouraging pushed output, by making learners aware of what
they do not know, and by helping learners develop the language and strategies needed for
interaction.

Well, now you have read about negotiation, I think you are able to answer the following
questions:

1. What is negotiation?
2. What is it used for in the context of teaching?

Were you able to answer the questions? Great!!!

Now you can plan a dialogue in which you apply negotiation in one of your classes, do it
please:

Teacher:
Students:
Teacher:
Students:
Teacher:
Students:
Teacher:
Students:

Dear student, we have finished this unit, and I suggest you read the information in the
following book(s) in order to expand your knowledge about this course.
 Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English. England: Pearson Education.
Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching. England: Pearson
Longman.

Nation. I.S.P. (2009) Teaching ESL/EFL Reading and Writing. New York: ESL &

Applied Linguistics Professional Series. NY: Routledge.

Pinza, E.I. (2015) Methodology and Didactics II: Teaching Reading and Writing. Gua

didctica. Universidad Tcnica Particular de Loja. ISBN: -978-9942-08-630-3

Loja Ecuador. EdiLoja.

Nation, I. & Newton, J. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking. New York:
Routledge.

Hughes, A. (2008). Testing for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

McNamara, T. (2008). Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press

It is time to test your knowledge by doing the next self-evaluation

SELF-EVALUATION 10

Choose the option that answers the question

1. What is the seating arrangement that ensures clear visibility for all students?
a. Separate tables
b. Horseshoe
c. Orderly rows

Complete the following statements with the correct information

2. It is said that students develop learning autonomy when they
a. are paired
b. work on their own
c. are grouped

3. Intensive reading has been associated with the teaching of reading in terms of its
_______________.

a. component skills
b. experience task
c. didactic method

4. Extensive Reading means reading as much as possible. It is an alternative teaching

approach in which students are allowed to choose the books they want to read depending on
their __________ and ___________.

a. Interests/level of difficulty
b. Background / linguistic knowledge.
c. Perception / ways of learning

5. In the past listening was seen as:

a. A process by which you kept a conversation
b. A passive process by which one person establishes a conversation
c. A passive process in which the information is sent to a listener.

6. In one chance dictation:

a. The teacher reads the whole text only one time.
b. The teacher reads short parts of the text only once.
c. The teacher read parts of the text more than one time
 UNIT 11: Language Testing
Dear student, language testing is a field through which you will obtain the necessary
understanding and a variety of worthwhile tools that can be applied to assess students
knowledge during the teaching-learning process. In addition, you will be able to design
practical and effective assessment techniques to be used in your classrooms.
11.1 Principles of language assessment

Do you have any knowledge of the principles of language

assessment?

Of course you do! You have already learned about this topic! But if it is necessary, please
take your time to recall the five principles of language assessment.

It is important that you remember that the principles of practicality, reliability, validity,
authenticity, and washback are very necessary when assessing students knowledge because
they ensure the quality of language tests.

In relation to practicality, a test is practical when it fulfills the following characteristics:

- It is not too expensive

- It is completed within the time limit
- Its administration is easy because directions are clearly stated
- Available human and material resources are properly used.
- The process of designing and scoring the test is done having in mind time and effort

Concerning the principle of reliability, it is stated that for a test to be reliable, it must be
consistent and dependable which means that the test should give similar results when
applied to the same students in two different occasions. The main characteristics of a
reliable test are as follows:

- It gives clear directions and has uniform rubrics for scoring and evaluation.
- Items or tasks are unambiguous to the test-taker.

The third principle is validity and it is considered the most important because it is related to
the content to be tested. Mainly, a valid test measures relevant content or variables, relies
on performance which tests the objective to be reached; in addition, a valid test makes
evident the test takers ability in relation to the content. To make the concept of test validity
clear, please carefully read the following information:

A valid test A test that is not valid

- For a reading test to be valid, it - Previous knowledge of a subject
must measure reading ability. to test reading ability is
- For a writing test to be valid, considered to design the test.
some elements such as
comprehensibility, rhetorical - Test takers are asked to write 50
discourse elements, and the words as a writing test.
organization of ideas must be
considered.

As you noticed in the examples above, previous knowledge of a subject and to write 50
words are not valid tasks for measuring neither reading nor writing ability because these
specific tasks do not focus on measuring reading or writing skills.

Continuing with this topic, authenticity is another principle of language assessment that
must be considered when designing tests to guarantee that the language used is natural,
topics presented in the test are meaningful, relevant, and interesting; regarding the tasks,
they must be designed within a context that replicate real-world tasks.

Relating to washback, it is a principle that refers to the effects that tests have on teaching
and learning. In this sense, washback can be positive or negative; for this reason, it is
necessary that teachers consider the following aspects to enhance washback:

In classroom-based assessment, washback can be provided when preparing and reviewing

which is beneficial because learning increases and diagnoses of strengths and weaknesses
can be used to wash back to students.

In informal performance assessment, teachers provide interactive feedback which is useful

because it constitutes significant washback on students learning.
In formal tests, positive washback can be given if teachers suggest strategies for success
instead of just giving grades.

11.2 Informal and formal assessment

Can you think about the difference between informal and

formal assessment?

Yes? Excellent!
Now, it is important to study informal assessment, which is focused on providing students
unplanned feedback through comments or responses. This type of assessment can be given
by assigning classroom tasks to make students participate, giving written feedback on
papers and essays, helping students to pronounce new words. These are some examples of
how teachers can informally assess students; this type of assessment is not intended to
record results or make conclusions on students performance.

In relation to formal assessment, it is used to know students achievement through exercises

and procedures which may not necessarily be a test in the sense that students journals or
portfolios can be part of formal assessment.

Well done! Now you know when to use formal and informal assessment and the purpose
for its use.

Dear student, the following link provides you with more information about informal and
formal assessment. Please review it and work on the activity bellow.
http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-formal-and-vs-informal-
assessment/

11.3 Formative and summative assessment

In the field of assessment, you reviewed information about formative and summative
assessment. In relation to formative assessment it is necessary to remember that it plays an
important role in language testing; this type of assessment is significant to develop
students skills and abilities. In addition, appropriate feedback is one necessary aspect in
formative assessment from the part of teachers and students to guarantee learning.
Generally, informal assessment is used with formative purposes.

Concerning summative assessment, its main purpose is to know what the students have
learned in the course. Some examples of summative assessment are final exams, quizzes,
review tests, etc.

Once you have read about formative and summative assessment, I suggest that you watch
the following video which contains the main characteristics and examples of formative and
summative assessment:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aEHhrAu3ShY

After watching the video, please complete the following chart with the characteristics of
formative and summative assessment.

Formative assessment Summative assessment

- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -

Dear student, we have finished this unit, and I suggest you read the information in the
following book(s) in order to expand your knowledge about this course.

Brown, D. & Abeywickrama, P. (2010). Language assessment: Principles and

classroom practices. (2nd. Ed.).White Plains, NY: Pearson Education, Inc.

It is time to test your knowledge by doing the next self-evaluation

SELF-EVALUATION 11

Choose the letter of the response that best reflects the principles of practicality and validity
on a language test.

1. A practical test

a. gives clear directions are rubrics are uniform.

b. gives learners feedback that enhances their language development.

c. appropriately utilizes available material resources.

2. A valid test

a. relies as much as possible on empirical evidence (performance).

b. contains language that is as natural as possible.

c. has uniform rubrics for scoring/evaluation.

3. Formal assessment
 a. focuses on evaluating and grading students achievement.

b. evaluates students performance through incidental comments and responses.

c. makes use of presentations to assess students.

4. Informal assessment

a. applies a method of grading and interpreting grades which allow teachers to assess
students performance.

b. uses some exercises and procedures to tap into a storehouse of skills and knowledge.

c. evaluates students without judging or making decisions about their performance.

5. The principle of washback

a. is used to design tasks that are unambiguous to the test taker.
b. provides learners with tests that contain language that is as natural as possible.
c. gives learners feedback that enhances their language development.

6. One of the characteristics of summative assessment is to

a. measure to what extent students have learn the material they have been taught.
b. provide feedback to the students during the learning process.}
c. use informal assessment to know the students progress.

UNIT 12: Curriculum and Materials

12.1 Overview of curriculum and materials
Dear students,

Welcome to the study of Curriculum and Materials.

Curriculum and materials is a part of language pedagogy which provides foundations and
principles for examining and shaping the set of lesson plans for a class, the classes required
for a major or all the courses available at school, high school or university. Among the
principal topics that curriculum and materials comprises are:

- The concept of curriculum,

- The role of curriculum in the teaching learning process,
- Issues involved in developing, designing, managing and evaluating language
programs.
- Designing, selection, adoption or adaption of teaching materials.

Lets get ready!. It is time to look for a quiet but comfortable place equipped with all
material you need to read, research, and learn.

Figure 1. Classroom (free downloadable images retrieved from www.google.com)

Lets start studying some of the different aspects involved in developing, implementing,
and evaluating language programs and any course of language instruction. First of all, I
would like to invite you to brainstorm ideas about the following questions:

What does curriculum mean?

Why is it important for EFL (English as a Foreign Language)

learners to study curriculum and materials?

Which are the aspects to be considered in language curriculum

design?
Good job!. You have a wide range of ideas!. Now lets confirm or deny your assumptions
on these topics, and study them in depth.

Lets first start defining the term curriculum for better understanding of the topics related to
this field. According to the New Oxford American Dictionary, the word curriculum comes
from the Latin curricle, meaning course, racing, chariot, and from currere, which means
to run.

Now that you have a better idea of what curriculum implies, lets study the parts of the
curriculum design process. Nation and Macalister (2010) propose the following model
made up of three outside circles and a subdivided inner circle (Figure 2). The outer circles
involve practical and theoretical considerations that will have a major effect in guiding the
actual process of course production. Meanwhile, the first inner circle deals with the format
of the lessons or units of the course, including the techniques and types of activities that
will be used to help learning, as well as the monitoring and assessing of a course, whereas
the last inner circle contains the goals. Thus, the curriculum design process is connected
and is ended with an overall evaluation.
 Figure 2. A model of the parts of the curriculum design process.
Nation, I.S.P. & Macalister, J. (2010). Language Curriculum Design. NY: Roughtledge.

Suggested activity:

After analyzing this figure, I invite you to watch the following video
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GJOEkEAp1xs and describe each one of the parts of
the process that teachers must follow when designing an EFL course or a program.

Goals..

Monitoring and assessing..

Format and presentation ..

Content and sequencing .

Needs ....

Environment

Principles: ...
Evaluation..

12.2 Material design for EFL teaching

EFL teachers are required to get involved in designing teaching materials as part of course
design; within this context, materials development means creating, organizing, or
adopting/adapting materials and activities so that students can achieve the objectives of a
course. Lets analyze these questions:

How do teachers What is authentic

select material? material?

Materials can be authentic or not. They can be designed, adapted or adopted by the teacher.
These materials can be, for example, a textbook, a workbook, pictures, CDs, videos,
handouts, white board among others. The use of basic or supplementary material as well as
technological resources is crucial in the effectiveness of the teaching learning process.
Undoubtedly, the incorporation of appropriate teaching materials and educational
technology in the EFL classes will support the achievements of the learning outcomes.
However, teachers must be careful to avoid that teaching material and technological
resources control the instruction, since teachers and learners tend to rely heavily on them.

Suggested activity

Dear students,

Analize the following open course ware: English for Professional and Academic
Communication: Curso de Adaptacin (http://ocw.upm.es/filologia-inglesa/english-for-
professional-and-academic-communication-curso-de-adaptacion), then complete the task.

Name of the course ...

Objectives

Methodology:

Material designed for the course .

Syllabus (brief description)

As you could see in the course analyzed, when making material, instructors should always
keep their own learners in mind. This will ensure that the material is appropriate and
consistent. Teachers can use material which is available in the market or they can design
their own material. In any case, the instructors must take into account the objective of the
class, the topic, the students age and level and of course the quality. In fact, materials need
to have an underlying instructional philosophy, approach, method and technique which suit
the students and their needs since some of them are appropriate for a particular class but
not for other.

Lets read the following article Guidelines for designing effective English Language
Teaching materials available at
http://www.paaljapan.org/resources/proceedings/PAAL9/pdf/Howard.pdf, then complete
the following table:

Factors to consider when designing Guidelines for designing

material effective teaching material

12.3 Selection of textbooks for teaching English

Language courses are planned based on standards, principles and on a selection of different
types of syllabus. This is the foundation for the selection, creation or adoption of a
textbook. Nowadays, there is a great array of textbooks available in the market. Teachers
must critically evaluate them in order to select the best option, however.
Before selecting a book teachers and educational staff evaluate a lot of books in order to
select the most suitable one according to the goals and students needs. Here are some
questions that can help you to understand what to consider when evaluating a course book:

Does the content of the course book suit the

proficiency level of the learners and reflect
sensible selection and sequencing principles?

Does the course book Do the goals of the course

apply sensible principles of book match the goals of the
teaching and learning? course?

Is the course book interesting

and does it use effective
techniques?
Does the course book include
tests and ways of monitoring
Does the course book progress?
suit the environment in
which it will be used? Does the course book meet
the needs of the learners?

A systematic approach to course book evaluation can be also based on the parts of the
curriculum design process or any other aspect and may cover a wide range of items which
can be evaluated by using checklists. Among the aspects to be considered are:

- content,
- level
- Content
- vocabulary and grammar
- exercises and activities
- methodology,
- layout
- complexity
 - cost
- accessibility, etc.

Suggested activity

Analyze the textbook evaluation checklist provided in the following site:

http://www.crtpesaro.it/Materiali/Materiali%20di%20Valutazione/Course%20Book%20Ev
aluation%20CheckList.pdf

Once a book has been selected, teachers may follow the course book very closely, making
only small essential changes and additions according to the specific needs of the group of
learners. However, in other cases substantial changes may be required. According to Nation
& Macalister (2010), there are several reasons for doing this and these could be classified
as responding to the environment, taking account of needs, or putting principles into
practice.

The figure below illustrates the interrelation that exists among the teacher, the learners and
the course book. The goal of this section is to help teachers clarify the roles that they, the
course book and the learners play in the curriculum design process, and aims to provide
teachers with a rational approach to follow when deciding to adopt or adapt a course book.

The
Teacher

The The
Learners course
book

Figure 3. Interrelation among teacher, learners, and course book

Vargas, A. (2012). Gua Didctica de Curriculum and Materials. Loja, Ecuador: UTPL.
Undoubtedly, as Charalambous (2011, p. 1) states course books play a significant role in
EFL teaching and learning since they provide useful ready-made material to both teachers
and students. Therefore, most teachers spend much time using textbooks, especially in
EFL classes because they help them to facilitate the teaching of the target language. Before
adapting or adopting any textbook, teachers have to analyze different course books in order
to find the one which copes the students needs, level, content, context, methodology,
teaching principles, and price among other issues.

Dear students, as you can see the textbook is the most important resource for English as a
Foreign Language; therefore, I invite you to research more about course books and about
the other two topics previously mentioned in order to brad your knowledge on this field.

Dear student, we have finished this unit, and I suggest you read the information in the
following book(s) in order to expand your knowledge about this course.

Nation,I.S.P. & Macalister, J. (2010). Language Curriculum Design. NY: Roughtledge.

Vargas, A. (2012). Gua Didctica de Curriculum and Materials. Loja, Ecuador: Ediloja.

UTPL.

Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. New York,

NY. Cambridge University Press.

TESOL (2003).TESOL/NCATE Program Standards. Retrieved from: http://www.ncate.

org/ProgramStandards/TESOL/TesolStd.pdf

It is time to test your knowledge by doing the next self-evaluation

 SELF-EVALUATION 12

Choose the option that correctly completes the statement.

1. The three major parts of the curriculum design model are: __________________.
a. Needs analysis, Environment analysis and principles
b. Learner, Teachers, Situation
c. Time. Constrains and environment analysis

2. Needs analysis can play a major role in determining the_____________.

a. content of courses, particularly for language items.
b.steps of the environment analysis
c. number of students for the course

3. Materials for teaching English must be basically designed based on ___________.

a. teachers needs and interests
b. learners and their needs
c. EFL writers and publishers
4. The major role of incorporating technology into the curriculum design is to
a. provide teachers with tools for professional development .
b. save time and to overcome the students lack of the basic content knowledge
c. enhance motivation and to promote collaborative and autonomous learning.

5. The foundation for the selection, creation or adoption of a textbook of language courses
are based on_______________________.
a. standards, principles and on a selection of syllabus types
b. teachers` preferences and students capacity to afford them.
c. the availability of the course book in the market and costs.

6. Changes in a course book may be done by using techniques different from those used in
the book that is _________________ when teaching.
a. changing the contents
b. adding monitoring
c. changing presentation

UNIT 13: Teaching Techniques

Much education today is monumentally

ineffective. All too often we are giving
young people cut flowers when we should
be teaching them to grow their own
plants. John W. Gardner

John W. Gardner
Dear Students, in this subject we will be checking some strategies to ease the teaching-
learning process of the English language. This is a wonderful area that, as teachers, we
should take into account to get successful learning outcomes in our students.

13.1 Strategies for Language Development

First of all, I invite you to remember what you understand by strategy. Please read the
following statements about it and get your own definition of strategy.

1) A strategy is a plan of action or policy designed to achieve a major or overall aim.

2) A strategy generally involves setting goals, determining actions to achieve the goals,
and mobilizing resources to accomplish the actions.
3) A strategy is a careful plan or method for achieving a particular goal usually over a
long period of time.

Considering the aforementioned definitions, we can add that teaching strategies help to
activate students' curiosity about a class topic, engage students in learning, develop critical
thinking skills, keep students on task, engender sustained and useful classroom interaction,
and, in general, enable and enhance the learning of course content. We propose twelve
strategies for the acquisition of language in classroom settings:
- Total physical response
- Realia strategies
 - Modeled talk
- Vocabulary role-play
- Leveled questions
- Collecting and processing words
- Reporting back
- Story reenactmernt
- Language focus lessons
- Language framework planning
- Syntax surgery
- Communication games
Due to the limited length of this didactic guide, we propose just one example from the
strategies above: Modeled Talk.

http://www.cwu.edu/~grovedim/Modeled%20Talk.pptx.

http://www.cwu.edu/~grovedim/Modeled%20Talk.pptx.
Modeled talk (Herrell, 1999) is a powerful application of context-embedded academic
language that serves to support English learners in successful classrooms participation
(Peregoy & Boyle, 2001). Basically, in the application stage, you need to consider the
following steps:
- Identify the lesson and gather materials.
- Practice your modeled talk.
- Design a visual of directions.
- Review the steps to be taken.
It takes some planning and practice. We recommend watching this video and practice your
talking:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gCgbvdHdC9o
So, how was the first lesson? Did you enjoy it? Were happy for this!

Its time to continue with our second topic. Lets move on!

13.2 Strategies for Literacy Development

These strategies encourage teachers to support English learners as they acquire reading
and writing skills while improving vocabulary and fluency in English. Beginning with
strategies to support students as they move into reading, approaches are provided for
helping students understand the way the English language works, for helping them to
process written information, and for using free reading to increase their background
knowledge and reading fluency.

Literacy development involves a particularly complex set of skills and attitudes. Phonemic
awareness, phonics, oral reading fluency, comprehension, and writing skills are all acquired
over time and require innovative instruction and active participation.
 Figure 1. Literacy development
Welch (2014) Digital Storytelling for Multilingual Literacy Development: Implications for Teachers.
Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/oerafrica/digital-storytelling-for-multilingual-literacy-development-
implications-for-teacherswelch

A vital part of a childs development is the growth of literary skills. Its basically
socializing pretty well at school, increasing independence, working, life managing, and so
on. Before a child learns to read and write, s/he needs to build the literacy blocks; that is,
his or her ability to speak, to listen, to understand, to watch, and to draw. Then, little by
little, step by step, children will come to understand the close relation between letters on a
written page and utterances. In order for this to happen, they need a great amount of
practice with:

- Words and letters: its shapes and sounds

- Pictures and real objects: describe them or talk about them.
- Sounds: rhymes, syllables, blended sounds

This textbook proposes thirteen different strategies to develop literacy; lets take a look of
them:
 - Moving into reading (using multiple strategies to foster comprehension)
- Sorting activities
- Read-Aloud plus
- Guided reading
- Scaffolding English writing
- Imaging
- Cohesion links
- Bilingual books and labels
- Read, Pair, Share
- Repetition and innovation
- Cloze (Using context to create meaning)
- Free voluntary reading
- Repeated reading

Due to the limited length of this didactic guide, we propose just one example to illustrate
the strategies above: Guided reading. The following example has been retrieved from
http://www.readwritethink.org/professional-development/strategy-guides/using-guided-
reading-develop-30816.html

Guided reading gives teachers the opportunity to observe students as they read from texts at
their instructional reading levels. This strategy guide describes ideas that support guided
reading, including practical suggestions for implementing it in the classroom; introduces
guided reading; and includes a reading list for further investigation.
Research Basis
Guided reading is subject to many interpretations, but Burkins & Croft (2010) identify
these common elements:
Working with small groups
Matching student reading ability to text levels
Giving everyone in the group the same text
Introducing the text
Listening to individuals read
Prompting students to integrate their reading processes
Engaging students in conversations about the text
The goal is to help students develop strategies to apply independently. Work focuses on
processes integral to reading proficiently, such as cross-checking print and meaning
information, rather than on learning a particular books word meanings. (For example, a
student might see an illustration and say dog when the text says puppy, but after noticing
the beginning /p/ in puppy, correct the mistake.) During guided reading, teachers monitor
student reading processes and check that texts are within students grasps, allowing
students to assemble their newly acquired skills into a smooth, integrated reading system
(Clay, p.17)

Burkins, J.M., & Croft, M.M. (2010). Preventing misguided reading: New strategies for
guided reading teachers. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Clay, M. (1994). Reading Recovery: A guidebook for teachers in training. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.

Strategy in Practice: Preparation for Instruction

Here is a general task list to consider before initiating guided reading instruction.
1. Assess students to determine instructional reading levels (IRLs). At IRL, students
should sound like good readers and comprehend well.
2. Look for trends across classroom data. Cluster students into groups based on their
IRLs, their skills, and how they solve problems when reading. Make groups
flexible, based on student growth and change over time. If you must compromise
reading level to assemble a group, always put students into an easier text rather than
a more difficult one.
3. Select a text that gives students the opportunity to engage in a balanced reading
process. If a student looks at words but doesnt think about the meaning or consider
the pictures, find an IRL where the student uses all of the information the text
offers. If there are more than a few problems for students to solve during reading,
the text is too difficult.
4. Plan a schedule for working with small groups, and organize materials for groups
working independently. Independent work should be as closely connected to
authentic reading and writing as possible; try things like rereading familiar texts or
manipulating magnetic letters to explore word families.

The Guided Reading Session

Individual lessons vary based on student needs and particular texts, but try this general
structure.
1. Familiar rereadingObserve and make notes while students read books from earlier
guided reading lessons.
2. IntroductionAsk students to examine the book to see what they notice. Support
students guiding themselves through a preview of the book and thinking about the
text. Students may notice the books format or a particular element of the print.
3. Reading practiceRotate from student to student while they read quietly or silently.
Listen closely and make anecdotal notes. Intervene and prompt rarely, with broad
questions like What will you do next?
4. DiscussionLet students talk about what they noticed while reading. Support their
efforts to think deeply and connect across the whole book. For example, a student
may notice that an illustration opening the text shows ingredients in a pantry, and at
the end, they are all over the kitchen.
5. Teaching pointOffer a couple of instructions based on observations made during
reading. Teaching points are most valuable when pointing to new things that
students are demonstrating or ask for reflection on how they solved problems.
As you could read, literacy strategies help student succeed not only in the development of
the English linguistic skills but also in other areas.

Great! You have successfully completed the second lesson. Was it interesting? Wonderful!!

Lets move on our third and last topic!!!

13. 3 Technology Strategies for English Learners.

English learners need a variety of language experiences. They need to hear language,
write language, speak language, and read language. Technology can play an integral part
in providing English learners with valuable language experiences as they are acquiring a
new language (Ybarra & Gree, 2003).
 http://edtechreview.in/trends-insights/insights/401-teachers-who-use-technology-replacing-teachers-who-dont

Technology is expanding so rapidly worldwide that teachers must dedicate themselves to

staying current; this can help teachers get started in this exciting area.

Technology resources can help teachers meet the needs of students at varying levels of
English development, supporting their growth in both written and oral English. Oral and
written practice programs are valuable in providing effective practice for students while
the teacher works individually or in small groups with others.

Nowadays, young learners are fascinated by technology, thats why the teacher has to take
into advantage this resource to encourage and develop students learning.

The technological strategies proposed in this section are:

- Multimedia presentations
- Interactive comprehension building
- Wiki building
- Handheld computers and smartphones

Due to the limited length of this didactic guide, we propose just one example to illustrate
the strategies above: Handheld computers and smartphones.
 Figure 2. Apps in the Classroom

Apple Inc. (2015). Using iOS Apps for Teaching and Learning. Retrieved from
https://www.apple.com/education/docs/L523172A_EDU_App_Guide_062013.pdf.
Remember: Technology doesnt teach, Teachers teach. But today, Teachers who don't use
technology will be replaced by teachers who do (Kumar Snehansu, 2013)

Well, these are three kinds of teaching strategies; I invite you to check every strategy
corresponding to these three big groups. GOOD LUCK!!!

Dear student, we have finished this unit, and I suggest you read the information in the
following book(s) in order to expand your knowledge about this course.

Herrell, A & Jordan, M. (2012) 50 Strategies for teaching English language learners.

Pearson. Fourth Edition.

 It is time to test your knowledge by doing the next self-evaluation

SELF-EVALUATION 13

Self-assessment

Circle the letter of the correct answer:

1. It is a plan of action or policy designed to achieve a major or overall aim.
1. Strategy
2. Method
3. Skill

2. It provides examples, gestures, visuals for learners and reduces the anxiety
students may have in language learning. We are dealing with:
a. Realia strategies
b. Modeled talk
c. Vocabulary role-play

3. These strategies encourage teachers to support English learners as they acquire

reading and writing skills while improving vocabulary and fluency in English.
a. Reading development
b. Vocabulary development
c. Literacy development

4. Literacy development involves a particularly complex set of skills and attitudes.

Phonemic awareness, phonics, oral reading fluency, comprehension, and writing
skills are all acquired over time and require innovative _____________.
a. Execution
b. Monitoring
c. Instruction

5. Technology can play an integral part in providing English learners with valuable
language experiences as they are acquiring a new __________.
a. Habit
b. Strategy
c. Language
 6. Technology resources can help teachers meet the needs of students at varying
levels of English development, supporting their growth in both
__________________.
a. Written and oral English
b. Performing and thinking
c. Verbal practice /curriculum connections

Dear student, you have successfully finished the study of the different topics presented in
this guide. By reviewing the information provided here along with the research you carry
out, you will be ready to take the Comprehensive Exam

Please take a moment to read this important information about the Comprehensive exam:

In compliance with general provisions of the Academic Regimen issued

by the Higher Education Council of Ecuador, the Universidad Tcnica Particular
de Loja (UTPL) adopted under Resolution RPC-SO-13-N 146-2014 the
provisions relating to the establishment of the Special Graduation Unit (Unidad
de Titulacin Especial) which is a non-physical unit, comprising the options of
bachelors Thesis Project and bachelors Comprehensive Examination as well as
their correspondent preparatory courses. The bachelors comprehensive
examination includes a holistic assessment which keeps correspondence with the
learning outcomes of the English program. The test looks for demonstration of
skills acquired by students during their training and has the same degree of
difficulty as the Thesis (Trabajo de Fin de Titulacin).
8. References

Baker C. L (1995). English Syntax. Library of Congress Cataloging-in Publication Data.

ISBN: -0-262-02385-7 (hc). USA.
Brennecke, P. (2005). Academic integrity at MIT: A handbook for students.
Brown, D. & Abeywickrama, P. (2010). Language assessment: Principles and classroom
practices. (2nd. Ed.).White Plains, NY: Pearson Education, Inc.
Burneo, R. M. (2014) Didactic Guide. Syntax and Teaching Grammar. Loja, Ecuador:
Ediloja.
Clark, J. & Yallop, C. (1994). An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology. Malden, USA:
Blackwell Publishers
Cook, G. (2010). Applied Linguistics.. Oxford Introduction for Language Study. ISBN-13:
978-0194375986. Oxford University Press. NY
Creswell, J.(2012). Educational Research. Boston: Pearson
English, A. K., English, L. M. (2009). North Star: Reading and Writing 4,(3rd Edition).
USA: Pearson Education.
Fuchs, M.; Bonner, M. &Westheimer, M. (2012). Focus on Grammar 3: An integrated
skills approach. New York: Pearson Education.
Fuchs, M. & Bonner, M. (2006). Focus on Grammar 4: An Integrated Skills Approach,
Third Edition. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.

Harmer, J. (2007). How to teach English. England: Pearson Education.

Harmer, J. (2007). The Practice of English Language Teaching. England: Pearson

Longman.
Herrell, A & Jordan, M. (2012) 50 Strategies for teaching English language learners.
Pearson. Fourth Edition. USA.
Hughes, A. (2008). Testing for Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

Johnson, B., Christensen, L. (2014). Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative, and

Mixed Approaches. California: SAGE Publications
Kelly, G. (2010). How to teach pronunciation (12th edition). Harlow: Pearson Education.
Lightbown, P. & Spada, N. (2010). How Languages are Learned. Oxford University Press.
New York.
Mackey, A., Gass, S. (2005). Second Language Research. New York: Routledge
McNamara, T. (2008). Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Miller, J. (2008). An Introduction to English Syntax. Second edition. Edinburgh University
Press. Edinburgh.

Nation. I.S.P. (2009) Teaching ESL/EFL Reading and Writing. New York: ESL &
Applied Linguistics Professional Series. NY: Routledge.
Nation, I. & Newton, J. (2009). Teaching ESL/EFL Listening and Speaking. New York:
Routledge.
Nation,I.S.P. & Macalister, J. (2010). Language Curriculum Design. NY: Roughtledge.
Nesterenko, N. (2015). Didactic guide. Introduction to Applied Linguistics. Loja, Ecuador.
UTPL. Ediloja.
Nesterenko, N. (2011). Didactic guide English Phonology: Pronunciation. Loja, Ecuador:
Ediloja

Oshima, A. & Hogue, A. (2006). Writing Academic English. White Plains, NY: Pearson
Education.

Pinza, E.I. (2015) Methodology and Didactics II: Teaching Reading and Writing. Gua
didctica. Universidad Tcnica Particular de Loja. ISBN: -978-9942-08-630-3
Loja Ecuador. EdiLoja.

Pope, R. (2012). Studying English Literature and Language: An Introduction and

Companion. New York: Routledge.

Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching.Cambridge

University Press, New York, NY.
TESOL (2003).TESOL/NCATE Program Standards. Retrieved from: http://www.ncate.
org/ProgramStandards/TESOL/TesolStd.pdf

Vargas, A. (2012). Gua Didctica de Curriculum and Materials. Loja, Ecuador: Ediloja.
UTPL.
9. Answer Key

SELF-EVALUATION 1

1. b
2. a
3. .b
4. b
5. c
6. c

SELF-EVALUATION 2

1. b
2. c
3. a
4. b
5. c
6. a

SELF-EVALUATION 3

1. a
2. b
3. c
4. b
5. a
6. c

SELF-EVALUATION 4

1. b
2. c
3. a
4. b
 5. c
6. a

SELF-EVALUATION 5

1. c
2. a
3. b
4. a
5. a
6. c

SELF-EVALUATION 6

1. c
2. b
3. a
4. c
5. a
6. a

SELF-EVALUATION 7

1. a
2. c
3. b
4. b
5. c
6. c

SELF-EVALUATION 8

1. b
2. c
3. a
 4. c
5. c
6. b

SELF-EVALUATION 9

1. b
2. a
3. c
4. a
5. b
6. c

SELF-EVALUATION 10

1. b
2. b
3. a
4. a
5. c
6. b

SELF-EVALUATION 11

1. c
2. a
3. a
4. c
5. c
6. a

SELF-EVALUATION 12

1. a
2. a
 3. b
4. c
5. a
6. c

SELF-EVALUATION 13

1. a
2. b
3. c
4. c
5. c
6. a