IMP5Manual3 0

USER MANUAL FOR
IMP 5.0
(Integrated Method For Power Analysis)
February 3, 2004
239 Menzies Street, Suite 210 Tel: (250) 385-0206

Victoria, BC V8V 2G6 Canada Fax: (250) 385-7737
www.powelgroup.com User Manual: 2103-1800-3.0
Table of Contents
Page
DISCLAIMER ..........................................................................................................................................................iv
1.0 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................1
1.1 Purpose of IMP 5.0 ......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 How to Obtain IMP.......................................................................................................... 1
1.3 Minimum Software Requirements................................................................................... 2
1.4 Installation Procedure ..................................................................................................... 2
2.0 GETTING STARTED................................................................................................................3
2.1 Navigating Around .......................................................................................................... 3
2.2 Creating a New Project ................................................................................................... 3
2.3 IMP File Formats............................................................................................................. 4
2.3.1 Project File (.PRO) .................................................................................................................. 4
2.3.2 Flood Frequency File (.FFA) ................................................................................................... 4
2.3.3 Watershed File (.PAR) ............................................................................................................ 4
2.3.4 Powerhouse File (.PIN) ........................................................................................................... 5
2.3.5 Database File (.MDB).............................................................................................................. 5
2.3.6 Excel File (.XLS)...................................................................................................................... 5
2.3.7 Text File (.TXT)........................................................................................................................ 6
2.3.8 Filename.AES.......................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.9 Filename.WSC ........................................................................................................................ 6
2.3.10 FilenameHDY.HSP................................................................................................................ 7
2.3.11 FilenameHHR.HSP................................................................................................................ 7
3.0 DATA IMPORTING...................................................................................................................8
3.1 Using the AES Format .................................................................................................... 8
3.2 Using the WSC Format ................................................................................................... 9
3.3 Using the HSP Format .................................................................................................... 9
3.4 Using the TXT Format..................................................................................................... 9
3.5 Using the XLS Format................................................................................................... 10
4.0 PRECIPITATION DATA .........................................................................................................11
4.1 View Meteorological Stations Closest to a Selected Location ...................................... 11
4.2 View All Meteorological Stations in Canada ................................................................. 11
4.3 View Precipitation Statistics .......................................................................................... 11
4.4 View Average Annual Precipitation for a Selected Location ......................................... 12
4.5 View 24-Hour Maximum, One-in-Ten Year Rainfall for a Selected Location ................ 12
5.0 WEATHER AND STREAMFLOW DATA ..............................................................................13
5.1 Select a Station............................................................................................................. 13
5.2 Select a Period to View................................................................................................. 13
5.3 Select Data Type .......................................................................................................... 13
6.0 FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSIS DATA.............................................................................14
6.1 View and Edit Catchment Data ..................................................................................... 14
6.2 View and Edit Streambed Data..................................................................................... 15
6.3 Estimate Stream Width ................................................................................................. 15
6.4 View and Edit Precipitation ........................................................................................... 15
6.5 View and Edit Observed Streamflow ............................................................................ 16
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Integrated Method for Power Analysis File: User Manual 2103-1800-3.0
7.0 FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSIS RESULTS......................................................................17
8.0 WATERSHED DATA..............................................................................................................18
8.1 View and Edit Basin Characteristics ............................................................................. 18
8.2 View and Edit Water Budget ......................................................................................... 18
8.3 View and Edit Time Constants...................................................................................... 20
8.4 View and Edit Weather Stations ................................................................................... 20
8.5 View and Edit Meteorology ........................................................................................... 21
9.0 WATERSHED RUNOFF SIMULATION ................................................................................22
9.1 Simulate Watershed Runoff .......................................................................................... 22
9.2 View Simulated Discharge and Watershed Conditions................................................. 22
9.3 Analyze Results ............................................................................................................ 22
10.0 POWERHOUSE STUDY DATA.............................................................................................23
10.1 View and Edit Efficiency Curve Data ............................................................................ 23
10.2 View and Edit Reservoir Levels .................................................................................... 23
10.3 View and Edit Turbine Data .......................................................................................... 24
10.4 View and Edit Penstock Data ....................................................................................... 24
10.5 View and Edit Operating Limits..................................................................................... 24
11.0 POWERHOUSE OPERATION MODELING..........................................................................26
11.1 Simulate Powerhouse Operation .................................................................................. 26
11.2 View Powerhouse Operation Results ........................................................................... 26
11.3 Analyze the Results ...................................................................................................... 27
12.0 INSTALLED CAPACITY OPTIMIZATION.............................................................................28
13.0 STREAM GEOMETRY DATA................................................................................................29
13.1 View and Edit an Existing Cross-Section...................................................................... 29
13.2 Define a New Cross-Section......................................................................................... 29
13.3 Delete an Existing Cross-Section ................................................................................. 30
13.4 View and Edit the Discharge-Rating Curve................................................................... 30
14.0 FISH PREFERENCE DATA...................................................................................................31
14.1 Add a New Fish and Stage ........................................................................................... 31
14.2 Delete a Fish................................................................................................................. 31
14.3 View and Edit Composite Fish ...................................................................................... 31
15.0 WEIGHTED USABLE AREA .................................................................................................32
15.1 Simulate Weighted Usable Area vs. Discharge ............................................................ 32
15.2 View Weighted Usable Area vs. Discharge Results ..................................................... 32
16.0 THE FLOOD FREQUENCY MODEL.....................................................................................34
16.1 Use of Climatological Data to Define Probability .......................................................... 34
16.2 Definition of Rainfall Events .......................................................................................... 34
16.3 Probability Density Function ......................................................................................... 36
16.4 Probability and Return Period ....................................................................................... 38
16.5 The Flood Frequency Watershed Model....................................................................... 40
16.6 Flood Probability ........................................................................................................... 42
16.7 Evaluation of Flood Probability ..................................................................................... 42
16.8 Uses for Approximate Flood Frequency Formula ......................................................... 44
16.9 Evaluation of Flood Frequency Method ........................................................................ 45
16.10 Estimates of Climatological Parameters ....................................................................... 46
16.11 Estimates of Area Producing Runoff............................................................................. 47
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17.0 THE WATERSHED MODEL METHODOLOGY....................................................................49
17.1 UBC Watershed Model Meteorological Analysis .......................................................... 50
17.1.1 Temperature Lapse Rate..................................................................................................... 50
17.1.2 Precipitation Elevation Gradients ........................................................................................ 51
17.1.3 Orographic Enhancement as Function of Elevation, Barrier Height and Temperature....... 51
17.1.4 Form of Precipitation ........................................................................................................... 53
17.1.5 Precipitation Interception Adjustment.................................................................................. 54
17.1.6 Precipitation Transposition Factors ..................................................................................... 54
17.2 Soil Moisture and Groundwater .................................................................................... 55
17.2.1 First Priority: Impermeable Percentage - Fast Runoff Control ........................................... 55
17.2.2 Second Priority: Soil Moisture and Actual Evapotranspiration ........................................... 55
17.2.3 Third Priority: Groundwater Percolation (GWPERC) ......................................................... 57
17.2.4 Fourth Priority: Medium Runoff........................................................................................... 57
17.3 Watershed Routing ....................................................................................................... 57
17.3.1 Fast Runoff Routing............................................................................................................. 57
17.3.2 Medium Runoff Routing....................................................................................................... 58
17.3.3 Slow Runoff Routing............................................................................................................ 58
17.4 Snowmelt Formulation .................................................................................................. 59
17.4.1 Forested Melt Formulation................................................................................................... 60
17.4.2 Open-Area Melt Formulation ............................................................................................... 60
17.4.3 Negative Melt Budget .......................................................................................................... 61
17.5 Calibration Considerations............................................................................................ 61
17.5.1 Regional Precipitation.......................................................................................................... 61
17.5.2 The Watershed Model Parameters ..................................................................................... 62
17.5.3 Runoff Area Contributing to Floods ..................................................................................... 63
18.0 THE POWER STUDY METHODOLOGY ..............................................................................66
18.1 Linear Programming Approach ..................................................................................... 66
18.2 The Objective Function ................................................................................................. 67
18.3 Constraints.................................................................................................................... 67
18.4 Operating Rules ............................................................................................................ 69
19.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................................................................................70
20.0 APPENDIX A SCREENS FROM IMP 5.0...........................................................................73
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List of Figures
Figure 16-1 Rainfall and Runoff Spectra ................................................................................36

Figure 16-2 Probability Density Function, Storm Duration......................................................37
Figure 16-3 Probability Density Function, Storm Intensity ......................................................37
Figure 16-4 Watershed Concept.............................................................................................40
Figure 16-5 Effect of Rainfall Intensity on Time of Concentration at Pearson Creek..............41
Figure 16-6 Flood Frequency Comparison .............................................................................44
Figure 16-7 Estimator for Rainfall Event Intensity...................................................................46
Figure 16-8 Estimator for Rainfall Event Duration ..................................................................47
Figure 16-9 Estimator for Number of Rainfall Events .............................................................47
List of Tables
Table 17-1 Calibration Factors for Regional Precipitation .....................................................62

Table 17-2 List of Watershed Model Parameters ..................................................................64
Table 17-3 Watershed Model Parameter Values in the IMP Database .................................65
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DISCLAIMER
This manual and corresponding computer program were prepared by Powel Group, Inc. as a
result of work sponsored by Natural Resources Canada. Neither the Government of Canada nor
its ministers, officers, employees or agents nor Powel Group, Inc. nor any of their employees
make any warranty, express or implied, or assume any legal liability or responsibility for the
accuracy, completeness or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process
disclosed or represented that its use would not infringe privately owned rights.
Her Majesty the Queen Right of Canada as represented by the Minister of Natural Resources
Canada (1990-2003).
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose of IMP 5.0
The purpose of IMP is to provide a convenient tool for evaluating small-scale hydroelectric power
sites. By utilizing IMP (combined with the relevant meteorological and topographical data), in
approximately one day of in-house study, an experienced user can evaluate all aspects of an
ungauged hydro site. This includes a power study, development of a flood frequency curve and fish
habitat analysis.
IMP consists of five basic components that include:
An Atmospheric Model of annual precipitation and one in ten year, 24 hour maximum rainfall.
This model consists of a database on a ten-minute latitude longitude grid and a database of
nearly 10,000 weather stations in Canada. Note: This database contains data up to 1976 and
should be used with caution, as it may not be representative of current climate conditions. To
reduce errors, more recent precipitation data should be used from stations closer to the hydro
site. In Canada precipitation data can be obtained online at: www.ec.gc.ca.
A Flood Frequency Analysis Model that uses topographic information specific to the site and
information from the Atmospheric Model to generate the flood frequency curve. This is a
knowledge-based program that incorporates hydrologic judgment to suggest site-specific
parameters.
A Watershed Model that will generate a continuous hourly or daily time series of streamflow for
an ungauged site based on daily precipitation, maximum and minimum temperature and a
description of the basin including information from the Atmosphere Model.
A Hydroelectric Power Simulation Model that determines the daily energy output for a
run-of-river or reservoir storage site based on selected generation facilities and the hydrologic
daily time series generated by the Watershed Model. An optimization routine performs a
sensitivity analysis on the results of a simulation and provides an estimate of the optimal
installed capacity from economic data.
A Fish Habitat Analysis Model to help determine the weighted usable area (WUA) of one or
more types of fish in a particular stream cross-section at a particular flow. Weighed usable
area is the area available in a stream for fish to inhabit, and is a function of discharge and
fish preference.
1.2 How to Obtain IMP
IMP 5.0 is distributed by downloading directly from the IEA Small Hydro website at www.small-
hydro.com. The downloaded software is open to the public at no cost. User registration allows
user updates by email and dissemination of news items regarding IMP 5.0 software. For
international users without sufficient access to the Internet, a low cost or free CD-ROM can be
provided.
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1.3 Minimum Software Requirements
IMP 5.0 is designed for Windows 2000 Service Pack 4 with Microsoft Office 2000 Professional
including Access 2000.
1.4 Installation Procedure
IMP 5.0 can be successfully installed on any Windows 2000 while logged in with administrative
privileges. Execute the IMP 5.0 installation kit and follow the instructions on the screen to
complete the installation.
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2.0 GETTING STARTED
The program starts with a [Browser] window that displays the four files required to run IMP 5.0.
By default, the program loads the Demo project and its related files. The Demo project has been
set up based on data from British Columbia, Canada and is distributed with IMP as a sample
file.
2.1 Navigating Around
The program provides a Menu Bar, Toolbar and Status Bar that are visible at all times and common
to all screens. The Menu Bar and Toolbar are located at the top of the screen and the Status Bar
can be found at the bottom.
The Menu Bar offers utilities to open, create and save files, as well as access user options offered
in IMP. The four main components of the Menu Bar are: File, Options, Window and Help. The [File]
menu option is used to manage the file structure in a project. The [Options] menu offers user
options to change units and user level. The [Window] menu lists the current screen and allows for
different screen arrangements. The [Help] menu links to the online help system and provides
information about the program. The Toolbar is used to navigate and access the various screens in
the program. The Status Bar provides information related to the loaded screen, activity, and the
current date and time.
2.2 Creating a New Project
The IMP package requires a project file that stores the names of the four parameter files. The
files loaded in a project are displayed in the [Browser] window. Different information is stored in
each parameter file as described above. A new parameter file can be created and saved with
the project. To load a new database file, click on [File] in the Menu Bar and select [New Project
Database File] from the list of menu options. Similarly, select [New Flood Frequency File] to
load a new flood frequency file, [New Watershed File] to load a new watershed file, [New
Powerhouse File] to load a new powerhouse file. New file is loaded each time and all
information must be re-entered. A new file name can be defined when the project and files are
saved.
To make an existing file part of the loaded project, click on [File] in the Menu Bar and select
[Add File] from the list of menu options. Select the file and click on the [Open] button, keeping in
mind that the correct file extension must be selected. (i.e., To load a Flood Frequency file,
select a file name with an FFA extension.) All five files must be stored in the same directory.
To save the project, select [Save Project] from [File] in the Menu Bar. To save all files, click on
the [Save] button in the Toolbar. To create a new project, select [Save Project As] from [File] in
the Menu Bar. Define a new name for your project and click on the [Save] button. Only new
project file will be created.
It is recommended that the Demo project and the related parameter files be used as a starting
point when performing new analysis. All data can be edited and saved. Use the Windows
Explorer to copy and rename these files first, then load them in IMP or add them to your new
project.
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2.3 IMP File Formats
The IMP package requires parameter and raw data files and creates a variety of files. Five files
are required to run IMP: project file (.PRO), project database (.MDB), flood frequency file (.FFA),
watershed file (.PAR) and powerhouse file (.PIN). If one of these files is missing, some features
in IMP will not be available. Other weather and streamflow data files are not required by IMP but
may be useful when importing streamflow and meteorological data. A detailed description of
files included and required by IMP is described in the sections that follow and sample files are
located in \IMP\Demo.
2.3.1 Project File (.PRO)
The PRO file is a project file created, edited and saved in the program. This file controls the four
files that store data for a project and the units and user level type. This file is a required input for
IMP 5.0.
2.3.2 Flood Frequency File (.FFA)
The FFA file can be created, edited, used and saved in the program. It contains all stream and
catchment parameters needed for flood frequency analysis. This file is a required input for IMP
5.0, and is in ASCII format as follows:
Line Contents
1 Watershed name
2 Units (1 = metric, 0 = English)
Catchment area (sq. km or sq.mi.)
Stream length (km or mi.)
Stream slope
Catchment slope
Stream width (km or mi.)
Manning's n of streambed
Manning's n of catchment
3 Phi1 * Phi2
Area runoff / area catchment
Average rain event duration (hrs)
Average rain event intensity (mm/hr or in/hr)
Average number of rain events / year
Average snow event duration (hrs)
Average snow event intensity (mm/hr or in/hr)
Average number of snow events / year
2.3.3 Watershed File (.PAR)
The PAR file is a basin parameter file created, edited and saved in the program. This file contains
all basin parameters needed to simulate streamflow from weather data. The file is in ASCII and a
title line identifying the parameter precedes each line of data. This file is a required input for IMP
5.0.
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2.3.4 Powerhouse File (.PIN)
The PIN file is a hydro plant configuration file created, edited, used and saved in the program. It
contains all project parameters needed for reservoir operations simulation. This file is a required
input for IMP 5.0 and is in ASCII in the following format:
Line Contents
1 Station name
2 Dummy variable, # reservoirs (1), unit flag (1 = metric, 0 = English)
3 Firm energy period: Start Year, Start Month, End Year, End Month
4 Dummy Variable
5 Reservoir Levels: Maximum, Minimum and Starting (m/ft)
6 Minimum operating reservoir level for each month (m/ft)
7 Maximum operating reservoir level for each month (m/ft)
8 # of points on the Stage-Storage Curve
9 Elevations for Stage-Storage Curve (m/ft)
10 Storage Volumes at each of above elevations (cms-days/cfs-days)
11 Turbine Rated Flow (cms/cfs)
12 Turbine Rated Head (m/ft)
13 Dummy variable
14 Penstock: Length (m/ft), Diameter (m/ft), Manning's n
15 Maximum operating Turbine Flow for each month (cms/cfs)
16 Minimum Downstream Flow for each month (cms/cfs)
17 Maximum Downstream Flow for each month (cms/cfs) - 0 = no limit
18 # of points on the Tailwater Curve
19 Discharges for Tailwater Curve (cms/cfs)
20 Elevations for each of the above discharges (m/ft)
21 # of points on the Turbine Efficiency Curve
22 Discharges for Turbine Efficiency Curve (cms/cfs)
23 Turbine Efficiency at each of the above discharges (%)
24 # Default Turbine selected, # Default Penstock selected, Penstock
Material
Note: All monthly data begins in October (Month 1) and ends in September (Month 12).
2.3.5 Database File (.MDB)
The MDB file is a Microsoft Access 2000 database that stores information including: simulated
hourly streamflow, simulated daily and hourly reservoir operations, meteorological and
streamflow data. This file is a required input for IMP 5.0.
2.3.6 Excel File (.XLS)
The XLS file is a Microsoft Excel 2000 spreadsheet that may store meteorological and
streamflow data. This file is not required for IMP 5.0 but may be used to import data into the IMP
database.
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2.3.7 Text File (.TXT)
The TXT file is an ASCII file that may store meteorological and streamflow data. This file is not
required for IMP 5.0 but may be used to import data into the IMP database.
2.3.8 Filename.AES
The AES files contain weather data (maximum and minimum temperature as well as
precipitation depth), in a compressed format. This file has a standard file format and can be
obtained from Environment Canada in the 4 column/field format.
The AES data begins in January of the Start Year and ends in December of the End Year.
Missing data is expressed as -99999. The file is in ASCII and has the following format:
Line Contents
1 Station identifier
2 Year of data to follow (yyyy)
A Month (1-12)
B Maximum temperature for each day of this month in o C * 10
C Minimum temperature for each day of this month in o C * 10
D Precipitation for each day of this month in mm of water * 100
E If Month = 12 then this line exists and lists the next Year (as line 2)
Note: Lines A - E continue for each month until all data for the End Year (shown in line 1) has
been listed.
2.3.9 Filename.WSC
The WSC files contain streamflow data and can be obtained from Environment Canada. The
WSC file has a standard file format and can be used in IMP for simulation of reservoir
operations and calibration of simulated streamflow.
The WSC data usually begins in January of the Start Year and ends in December of the End
Year. The file is in ASCII and has the following format:
Line Contents
1 Station name (Start Year - End Year)

2 Streamflow for 1 period in cms
Note: Line 2 continues for each period until all data for the End Year (shown in line 1) has
been listed.
The streamflow is listed in the following fields:
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Column Contents
3-5 Line # (not including title)

21-22 Current Year
23-24 Current Month
25 Period (1-3)
26-END Streamflow (cms) for each day of period
Note: Periods 1 and 2 are always 10 days, Period 3 contains the remaining # of days in the
month.
2.3.10 FilenameHDY.HSP
IMP also has the ability to read streamflow records from HSPF that are in a standard
Hydrocomp Daily Format.
The HDY file is in ASCII and each line has the following format:
Column Contents
8-9 Current Year

10-11 Current Month
12 Period (1-3)
13-END Streamflow (cms) for each day of period
Note: Periods 1 and 2 are always ten days; Period 3 contains the remaining days in the month.
2.3.11 FilenameHHR.HSP
IMP also has the ability to read streamflow records from HSPF that are in standard Hydrocomp
Hourly Format.
The HHR file is in ASCII and each line has the following format:
Column Contents
1-10 Station Name

11-12 Current Year
14-15 Current Month
17-18 Current Day
20 Am, Pm flag (1,2)
21-END Streamflow (cms) for 12 hours, 5 significant figures
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3.0 DATA IMPORTING
To perform any runoff or power simulations, time series data must first be entered and stored in
the project database file. Mandatory time series data include: daily total precipitation and daily
maximum and minimum temperature. The IMP package includes sample weather and flow data
for British Columbia, Canada. Observed streamflow data is helpful during the calibration
process to compare simulated streamflow against observed streamflow. Sample files for all data
types and variety of formats is distributed with IMP.
The Data Import utility is used to import meteorological and streamflow data into the IMP
database from the following formats:
Atmospheric Environment Service (*.AES) - a predefined format that can be obtained from
Environment Canada containing weather data (maximum temperature, minimum
temperature and precipitation depth), in a compressed format. The file extension is AES.
Water Survey of Canada (*.WSC) - a predefined format that can be obtained from
Environment Canada and contains streamflow data. The file extension is WSC.
HSPF format (*.HSP) - a predefined format generated by Hydrocomps HSPF Model and
constraints hourly or daily streamflow records. The file extension is HSP.
Generic format - a user-defined format in an ASCII file. The file extension is TXT.
Excel format - a user-defined format in Microsoft Excel. The file extension is XLS.
Refer to Section 2.2 for a detailed description of each file format. Screen capture of the Data
Import utility can be found in Section 20, Screen A.2.
Click on the [Import Data] button in the Toolbar to access the Data Import utility. Data can be
imported into an existing station or a new station can be created. To import data into an existing
station, select a station from the [Station Name] drop down menu. To import data into a new
station, enter a station name in the [Station Name] drop down menu. Data can be imported from
a variety of formats described in the sections that follow.
The most convenient way to import data to IMP is to create a file in Microsoft Excel with date in
the first column and the data in the second. Create separate files for streamflow, maximum
temperature and minimum temperature. In Microsoft Excel, save the file as a space delimited
text file. Make sure that the file extension is txt. For a text file, the extension can be easily
changed in Windows Explorer. Using this procedure, the file can be imported as described in
Section 3.4.
3.1 Using the AES Format
The following AES formats are supported in IMP 5.0:
Archived Hourly - The length of the entire line must be 184 or 185 characters. See example
in \IMP5\Samples\6Charhr.AES.
Compressed Hourly - The length of the entire line must be 113 characters. See example in
\IMP5\Samples\4Charhr.AES.
Archived Daily - The length of the entire line must be 232 or 231 characters. See example in
\IMP5\Samples\6Charday.AES.
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Compressed Daily - The length of the entire line must be 139 characters. See example in
\IMP5\Samples\4Charday.AES.
IMP recognizes only a 3-digit year 'YYY' for both daily and hourly AES formats. Any line with
extra space at the beginning or end of the line will cause an error "IMP does not recognize the
file format".
1. Select the [Atmospheric Environment Service (*.AES)] option. The AES files are standard
files distributed by the Atmospheric Environment Service and do not require any additional
setup.
2. Click on the [Import] button to advance to the next step.
3. Select the file to import and click on the [Open] button.
4. Review the data and click the [Import] button or click on the [Cancel] button.
3.2 Using the WSC Format
1. Select the [Water Survey of Canada (*.WSC)] option. The WSC files are standard files
distributed by the Water Survey of Canada and do not require any additional setup.
3.3 Using the HSP Format
1. Select the [HSPF Data] option. HSPF provides standard file types for streamflow,
temperature and precipitation.
4. Select the type of data, units and data resolution from options provided at the top of the
window.
5. Using the [Start Import at Line Number] up and down buttons to select the line number to
start the import.
3.4 Using the TXT Format
1. Select the [Generic Format] option.

window.
5. Use the [Start Import at Line Number] up and down buttons to select the line number to start
the import.
6. Use the [Width of Date Column] up and down button to identify where the date ends and the
data begins.
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3.5 Using the XLS Format
1. Select the [Excel Format] option.

window.
5. Use the [Start Import at Line Number] up and down buttons to select the line number to start
the import.
6. Use the [Width of Date Column] up and down button to identify where the date ends and the
data begins.
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4.0 PRECIPITATION DATA
The precipitation grid in IMP is composed of a map of Canada and maps of the provinces and
territories in Canada. The map of Canada provides access to the directory of approximately
10,000 Atmospheric Environment Stations (AES) climatological stations located throughout
Canada. The database contains data up to 1976 and should be used with caution, as it may not be
representative of current climate conditions. To reduce errors, more recent precipitation data should
be used from stations closer to the hydro site. In Canada precipitation data can be obtained online
at: www.ec.gc.ca.
To view the precipitation data of Canada click on the [View Precip Grid] button in the Toolbar.
Select the appropriate region by clicking on the [Canada], [United States] or [Other] options and
click on the [OK] button. IMP 5.0 is distributed with information for Canada only. When the
[Canada] option is selected, a map of Canada is displayed on the screen.
This is not a required feature and is included to provide guidance only. Screen capture of the
precipitation grid can be found in Section 20, Screen A.3.
4.1 View Meteorological Stations Closest to a Selected Location
Place the mouse anywhere on the map of Canada and left-click to see the list of stations closest
to the selected location. The stations are displayed as dots on the map and are also listed in the
table at the bottom of the screen. The table displays the station identification, name, latitude and
longitude.
4.2 View All Meteorological Stations in Canada
To view all meteorological stations in Canada, click on the [Plot All] button located in the top
right of the screen. It may take several minutes to display all the information. The stations are
displayed as dots on the map and are also listed in the table at the bottom of the screen. Use
the horizontal and vertical scroll bars to view the stations in the table.
Click on the [Clear] button located in the top right of the screen to remove all the stations from
the map.
4.3 View Precipitation Statistics
Place the mouse anywhere on the map of the province of British Columbia and right-click to view
the average annual precipitation and 24-hour maximum, one-in-ten year rainfall for that area. The
[Precip-British Columbia] screen is displayed.
On a latitude and longitude grid of ten minutes, IMP contains the grid for both average annual
precipitation and 1:10 year, 24-hour maximum rainfall. The grid covers most of British Columbia
except for some areas in the region of Prince Rupert. This database was prepared by M.B. Danard,
a meteorological consultant to the BC Ministry of Environment, and contains data up to and
including 1976.
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The average annual precipitation and 24-hour maximum rainfall databases are not essential to
IMP; however, both the Watershed and Flood Frequency Models require the average annual
precipitation information. The Watershed Model utilizes average annual precipitation at the site
to develop a scalar factor for transposing the daily record of precipitation and maximum and
minimum temperature from the regional weather station onto the ungauged watershed. The
watershed modeling procedure itself manages the effects of elevation on temperature and
precipitation in the watershed. The Flood Frequency Model uses the average annual
precipitation at the site to estimate rainfall event parameters from internal relationships
developed from hydrological research into the characteristics of severe floods and individual
rainfall events. Average annual precipitation can be entered in the appropriate screens.
4.4 View Average Annual Precipitation for a Selected Location
To select a location in the [Precip-British Columbia] screen, click on the map at the location of your
hydro project or enter the longitude and latitude in degrees and minutes in the labeled boxes in the
[Location] window and click on the [Go to Location] button.
Select the [Average Annual Precipitation] option in the [Data] window. The data in the [Information
Around Selection] table is updated with information for the selected location.
4.5 View 24-Hour Maximum, One-in-Ten Year Rainfall for a Selected Location
To select a location in the [Precip-British Columbia] screen, click on the map at the location of your
hydro project or enter the longitude and latitude in degrees and minutes in the labeled boxes in the
[Location] window and click on the [Go to Location] button.
Select the [10 Year Return Period, 24 hr Precip] option in the [Data] window. The data in the
[Information Around Selection] table is updated with information for the selected location.
The precipitation grid contains values at 10-minute intervals so that minutes will be rounded to the
nearest ten minutes.
The precipitation data is shown in a grid for the 24 points surrounding the selected location. In a
large basin, it is a good idea to mark the precipitation values on a topographic map at the
appropriate 10-minute intervals of latitude and longitude in order to sketch the isohyetals over
the watershed. This procedure will develop a better appreciation for the variability of the
precipitation and the potential for errors in estimates of runoff.
If there are localized cells of very high precipitation in the vicinity of the watershed, or if the
precipitation is changing rapidly over short distances, there is a high potential for significant errors in
the precipitation estimates. In these circumstances the Atmospheric Model is very sensitive to
orographic effects. When the precipitation database is in error it is usually low.
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5.0 WEATHER AND STREAMFLOW DATA
To view the streamflow and weather data available in the loaded project database, click on the
[View Weather and Streamflow Data] button in the Toolbar. Utilities below the graph can be
used to view data types for different periods of available stations. Screen captures of the
weather and streamflow data features can be found in Section 20, Screens A.4 and A.4.
5.1 Select a Station
Select a station from the [Historical Data Station] drop down menu and click on the [Refresh]
button to update the graph.
5.2 Select a Period to View
To change the period to view, click on the [Starting Date] and [Ending Date] windows at the
bottom of the screen. Click the [Refresh] button to update the graph with the selected period.
5.3 Select Data Type
To view the streamflow data, click on the [Streamflow] option and select either [Observed] or
[Simulated] or both. Observed and simulated streamflow data can be compared for each
station.
To view the weather data, click on the [Weather] option and select [Max Temperature], [Min
Temperature], [Precipitation] or all. Temperature and precipitation are plotted on two separate
scales.
At least one data type must be selected at all times. If the data is not available for the selected
period, an error message will be displayed. Click on the [Refresh] button to update the graph
each time a different selection is made.
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6.0 FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSIS DATA
Simulation of average daily discharge as described in Sections 8.0 and 9.0, is not suitable for
evaluating flood peaks that might endanger the safety of a small hydro plant. These less
frequent events produce very high flood peaks in a few hours on the watersheds of interest for
small hydro developments. To provide estimates of such floods, the Flood Frequency Analysis
Model uses a completely different technique involving additional data to describe how the
watershed and stream channel route heavy rainfall to the site.
Before using the Flood Frequency Analysis Model, it will be necessary to measure certain
parameters from a topographic map. The watershed above the penstock intake should be
delineated on the map and its area should be measured. The topographic map should also be
used to estimate representative values for the slope of the stream and the catchment. These
parameters need not be calculated with great precision since they have only a secondary effect
on the flood frequency curve. Reasonable estimates are easily obtained by inspection of a
topographic map.
To view the Flood Frequency Analysis data, click on the [Edit FFA Data] button in the Toolbar.
The [Flood Frequency Analysis Data] screen allows for viewing and editing of catchment data,
streambed data, precipitation and observed streamflow. The Flood Frequency Analysis data
will be edited in the flood frequency file loaded in the current project.
The [Parameter File Description] located at the top of the screen displays the watershed name
and the date of last change. The watershed name can be modified and saved. The name is
overwritten when the file is saved. For more detailed information on the model parameters, see
Section 16.0. Screen captures of the flood frequency analysis data can be found in Section 20,
Screens A.6 to A.9.
6.1 View and Edit Catchment Data
The [Catchment Data] tab contains information related to the basin. Click on the [Catchment
Data] tab to view and edit the basin information. The catchment area should be measured from
a topographic map. Enter the catchment area in the [Area] field using the correct units. The
units are shown in brackets and can be changed by clicking on [Options] in the Menu Bar,
selecting [Units] and clicking on either [Metric] or [English]. The selected screen must be
refreshed for the selected units to be displayed.
The watershed slope can be estimated from the topographic map by dividing the distance
across the predominant area of the watershed towards the stream by the corresponding change
in elevation. There are no units associated with the slope. Enter the slope in the [Slope] field.
The catchment parameters are used by the model to develop estimates of the routing that takes
place during storm events and the approximate water balance. However, the driving force
behind flood peaks is obviously the rainfall, which occurs during an event. Each year there are
several hundreds of rainfall events occurring in coastal watersheds. Detailed analysis of hourly
records for several stations in BC has shown that the probability distributions of duration,
intensity and annual number of events can be estimated solely from their averages.
During most floods the entire area of the catchment does not contribute to the direct runoff that
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appears in the flood peak. Runoff Area/Catchment Area is a fraction that represents this ratio.
The area, which is actually contributing to runoff usually, varies between 0.4 and 0.6 times the
drainage area, which is measured from a topographic map. On a given watershed the value is a
random variable depending upon previous precipitation. For extreme events on small, steeply
sloping catchments and in areas of very high annual precipitation (3000 mm annually) a value of
1.0 is appropriate. This ratio is the most important parameter influencing flood frequency
estimates. Enter the appropriate ratio in the [Runoff Area/Catchment Area] field.
6.2 View and Edit Streambed Data
The [Streambed Data] tab contains information similar to those in the catchment. Click on the
[Streambed Data] tab to access the information provided in this screen. The length of the
stream along with its slope and the width of stream must be estimated. The stream slope can be
estimated by simply dividing the difference between high and low elevations of the watershed by
the length of the stream. Enter the length, width and slope in the appropriate fields using the
selected units.
6.3 Estimate Stream Width
The stream width for an ungauged watershed is often unknown since the site may not yet have
been visited. The program will calculate the width with an internal routine based on
morphological relationships for British Columbia to provide a first guess at the stream width. To
calculate the stream width, click on the [Estimate Width] button in the [Streambed Data] tab. The
value entered in the [Width] field will be overwritten.
6.4 View and Edit Precipitation
The [Precipitation] tab contains information specific to rain and snowmelt events. Click on the
[Precipitation] tab to view the information. The Flood Frequency Analysis deals with rainfall and
snowmelt independently and then combines them to produce the overall flood frequency curve.
In most cases, this is a valid procedure.
The [Precipitation] tab contains average annual precipitation and the 10-year, 24-hour rainfall.
Enter these two numbers in the appropriate fields.
The [Estimate Event Parameters] button provides an estimate of the average rain event
duration, intensity and the number of rainfall events per year based on an empirical correlation
between annual precipitation and the values obtained from an analysis of hourly rainfall at
several stations in British Columbia. The values can then be adjusted based on other
information about the statistics of individual rainfall events or by comparing flood frequency
curves obtained from the program with those obtained from records of runoff on nearby gauged
small streams.
Snowmelt is a factor for small hydro watersheds, however, it does not contribute significantly to
rare flood peaks. The average snow event duration, intensity and annual number of snowmelt
events can be left blank.
For larger watersheds (500 sq. km and above) hydrologic simulation can be used to identify
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snowmelt. An analysis of the snowmelt time series can determine the required statistics. This
capability is not part of IMP.
6.5 View and Edit Observed Streamflow
To view, add and edit actual streamflow measurements, click on the [Observed Streamflow] tab.
The annual maximum flows are displayed in a table on the right side of the screen. This data is
used for comparison with the computed Flood Frequency Analysis values. If a discharge record
is available, the user can click on the [Retrieve Max Flows From Station] button and the
historical yearly maximums will be updated in the [Maximum Flow] table.
To add an entry to the table in the [Observed Inflow] tab, click on the [Add Entry] button. A
blank row is inserted at the bottom of the table.
To delete an entry from the table in the [Observed Inflow] tab, highlight the entry by clicking
on the left hand bar of the table and then click on the [Delete Entry] button.
To delete all data in the table in the [Observed Inflow] tab, click on the [Clear Entries] button.
To complete the Flood Frequency Analysis, click on the [Calculate FFA] button in the Toolbar.
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7.0 FLOOD FREQUENCY ANALYSIS RESULTS
The results of the Flood Frequency Analysis are shown in the [Flood Frequency Analysis
Results] screen. Click on the [Calculate FFA] button in the Toolbar to access the screen. Every
time the data is updated or modified in the [Flood Frequency Analysis Data] screen, the results
are automatically recalculated when the [Calculate FFA] button is selected. The results are
saved when the project is saved.
The [Flood Frequency Analysis Results] screen displays the results in both graphical and
tabular formats. The graph in the top half of the screen shows the observed and computed
discharge. The table below the graph summarizes the results by intensity, concentration time,
discharge, return period rainfall, return period snowmelt and return period total.
For methodology for calculating flood frequency curves, please refer to Section 16.0. Screen
capture of the flood frequency analysis results can be found in Section 20, Screen A.10.
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8.0 WATERSHED DATA
The [Watershed Data] screen contains the watershed modeling parameters that describe the
watershed and the various paths which precipitation takes over land and through the soil as well
as temperature and precipitation information. To access this screen, click on the [Edit
Watershed Data] button in the Toolbar.
The watershed files contain the watershed modeling parameters that describe the watershed
and the various paths which precipitation takes over land and through the soil. The database
contains daily precipitation and maximum and minimum temperature values. The Watershed
Model uses these files to develop estimates of average daily runoff.
The [Parameter File Description] button located at the top of the screen displays the watershed
name and the date of last change. The watershed name can be modified and saved. The name
is overwritten when the file is saved. For more detailed information on the model parameters,
see Section 17.0. Screen captures of the watershed data features can be found in Section 20,
Screens A.11 to A.15.
8.1 View and Edit Basin Characteristics
Click on the [Basin Characteristics] tab to view and edit the characteristics required for
watershed runoff simulation. A watershed can be broken up into several sub-basins, each with
its own hypsometric (area vs. elevation) curve. For small hydro analysis there would normally be
only one sub-basin. Working from a topographic map the areas between certain intervals can be
estimated. The hypsometric curve can then be plotted from it and the elevation bands can be
defined.
The [Basin Characteristics] tab contains a [Number of Elevation Bands] slider bar and a table
describing each elevation band. The slider bar defines the number of elevation bands. Click to
the left or right of the slider to decrease or increase the number of elevation bands. A minimum
of one and a maximum of ten elevation bands can be defined. To update the parameters in
each band, edit the values in the table.
The elevation, area, percent of tree cover, glaciated area, percent of impermeable area and
precipitation adjustment parameter can all be edited from the table. All percentages are entered
as fractions that IMP automatically converts to a percentage.
The precipitation adjustment parameter accounts for the variation of precipitation with elevation
within the watershed. The parameters, which should be input, are fractional changes. For
example, a precipitation transposition value of 0.9 in a specific elevation band would indicate
that the desired precipitation in that band is 90 percent of the value automatically computed by
the Watershed Model.
8.2 View and Edit Water Budget
Click on the [Water Budget] tab to view and edit the water budget characteristics. The [Water
Budget] tab contains six slider bars, which are used to incrementally increase or decrease the
value for each parameter. Click on the bar to the left or right of the slider.
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Use the [Soil Moisture Loss Threshold] slider bar to edit the parameter. The soil moisture loss
threshold uses the same concept as the fast runoff soil moisture deficit control to determine the
ratio of actual evapotranspiration to potential evapotranspiration. Before groundwater flow can
occur, soil saturation must be exceeded by the threshold limit for groundwater allocation.
Use the [Fast Runoff Soil Moisture Deficit Control] slider bar to edit the parameter. The fast
runoff soil moisture deficit control parameter is the value at which 10 percent of the indicated
impermeable watershed area occurs. The indicated impermeable area occurs at the soil
moisture, which causes saturation. Between these values there is an exponential shrinkage in
the impermeable area as the watershed dries out towards the lower value of 250 mm of water
deficit in the root zone.
Use the [Threshold Limit for Groundwater Allocation] slider bar to edit the parameter. The
threshold limit for groundwater allocation establishes the daily limit allocation to the groundwater
runoff system in a day.
Use the [Depressional Storage Allocation] slider bar to edit the parameter. A value of 1.0 for the
depressional storage allocation indicates that depressional storage is not being used in the
runoff routing. A value of less than one will allocate depressional storage to represent, for
example, natural regulation by marshes or lakes within the catchment.
Use the [Deep Zone Storage Allocation] slider bar to edit the parameter. The groundwater flow
itself is split between the deep and shallow zones. The deep zone storage allocation indicates
the fraction of total groundwater, which goes to the deep zone. For example, a value of 0.5
would indicate that the groundwater is equally split between the deep and shallow components.
Use the [Initial Outflow from Deep Groundwater] slider bar to edit the parameter. The initial
outflow from deep zone groundwater specifies the base flow level, which is prevalent at the
beginning of the simulation. This deep zone groundwater outflow may take up to one year of
simulation before the effects of the initial value disappear. The parameter files distributed with
IMP contain representative values of this outflow. The value shown for the region in which a site
is located must be multiplied by the ratio of the drainage area of the ungauged hydro site to the
drainage area of the representative watershed for that hydrological region.
The importance of the initial outflow for the deep zone groundwater is different in the interior
than it is on the coast. Interior watersheds do not receive significant recharge to the deep zone
groundwater after freeze up in the fall, whereas on the coast there is a significant amount of
input during the rainy season in the winter. An interior watershed experiences its lowest runoff,
often, in late spring. At that time, a significant proportion of the total flow in the stream will be
coming from deep zone groundwater, which has finally percolated through, to the stream. The
initial value chosen during the previous October may have significant influence on the total
amount of water that appears in the stream at that time. Thus, in analyzing the power potential
of watersheds of this type, it may be important to carry on the simulation for more than one year
to reduce the importance of assumptions about this deep groundwater outflow initialization
value. For each of these components, a different time constant governs the rate at which it
returns to the stream. Calibration between computed and observed runoff is required in each of
the hydrological regions.
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8.3 View and Edit Time Constants
Click on the [Time Constants] tab to edit the runoff component time constants. The hydrograph
shape is governed primarily by five runoff component time constants. One of them, interflow, is
not shown for editing because, for the small watersheds considered here, it behaves essentially
like surface runoff. Use the appropriate slider bar to edit the time constants for fast rainfall
runoff, fast snowmelt runoff, upper groundwater and deep groundwater.
The values used in the parameter files for each hydrological region were obtained by
calibration. The fast runoff time constants vary from 0.1 for a 10 sq. km basin to 0.5 for a
watershed area of 1000 sq. km. Values can be interpolated for other watersheds within this
range.
8.4 View and Edit Weather Stations
Click on the [Weather Stations] tab to select weather stations for simulation. This tab displays
available and selected stations with utilities and link to other properties related to the weather
station.
To select a weather station for simulation, click on the appropriate station in the [Available
Stations] window and then click on the [Add Station] button. The selected station is displayed in
the [Stations Used in Simulation] window. Multiple stations can be used in the simulation. Add
each station separately to the [Stations Used in Simulation] window. A station must be
assigned to an elevation band, using the [Assign to Elevation Bands] button.
Click on the [Edit Station Attributes] button to view and edit the elevation and transposition
factors. Select the station from the [Station Name] drop down menu. The station elevation, rain
and snow transposition factors are shown in their respective fields. The elevation of the weather
station is required to perform orographic transposition to watershed elevation bands. Update the
station elevation by entering a new value in the [Station Elevation] field. The rain and snow
transposition factors can be updated by entering a new value in [Rain Transposition Factor] and
[Snow Transposition Factor] fields or calculated using the [Calculate Transpositions Factors]
button.
In the [Calculated Transposition Factors] window, enter the average annual rainfall and snowfall
at the weather station and at the hydro site. Some values may be available in the database.
Click on the [Retrieve Station Data] button to load the station information from the database.
The transposition factors are calculated via mouse click in another field or when the screen is
closed by clicking on the [Close] button in the top right of the screen. The transposition factors
are saved when the watershed file is saved. The transposition factors are updated in the
[Station Attributes] screen when the [Calculate Transposition Factors] window is closed.
The [View Hourly Hydrograph] button allows the user to specify an hourly precipitation pattern
for hourly streamflow simulation. The simulation computes streamflow due to snowmelt and
rainfall on a daily basis and then divides that streamflow into hourly increments. The streamflow
due to rainfall is desegregated according to the indicated hourly precipitation pattern. The
snowmelt portion is desegregated according to a diurnal temperature fluctuation. The hourly
precipitation pattern can be adjusted by sliding the hourly slider bars or by selecting one of the
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patterns determined from historical hourly weather records. To select a predefined pattern for
the coastal region, click on the [Coastal] button. To select a predefined pattern for an interior
region, click on the [Interior] button. The pattern does not need to sum to any particular number;
it is normalized by IMP. The hourly pattern is displayed graphically in the bottom graph. Click
the [OK] button to return to the previous screen.
Click on the [Assign to Elevation Bands] button to access the utility to define stations to
elevation bands. The [Weather Stations] window lists all stations selected for simulation in the
[Weather Station] tab and assigns an index to every station. Use the index to assign the
precipitation and temperature to each elevation band in the sub-basin in the [Station
Assignments] table. The index is updated by entering a new value. Click on the [Save] button to
save your assignment. A station must be assigned to an elevation band to be used in the
simulation.
8.5 View and Edit Meteorology
Click on the [Meteorology] tab to view and edit the temperature lapse rates, orographic
enhancement factors and degree-day snowmelt factors. Each value can be edited in the
appropriate field.
To complete the runoff simulation, click on the [Simulate Runoff] button in the Toolbar.
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9.0 WATERSHED RUNOFF SIMULATION
The watershed runoff simulation performs a day-by-day or hour-by-hour simulation to determine

runoff from the watershed project. Click on the [Simulate Runoff] button in the Toolbar to access
this screen. Screen captures of the watershed runoff simulation can be found in Section 20,
Screens A.16 and A.17.
9.1 Simulate Watershed Runoff
Select daily or hourly simulation by clicking on the appropriate option in the [Simulation Type]
window. To change the simulation period, click on [Starting Date] and [Ending Date] windows at
the bottom of the screen. Once all the desired options have been selected, click on the
[Simulate] button to activate the simulation process.
When the simulation is complete, the simulated runoff and watershed conditions are displayed
in this screen. The Watershed Model is explained in detail in Section 17.0. The parameters can
be adjusted until the simulated flow matches the observed flow.
9.2 View Simulated Discharge and Watershed Conditions
When the simulation is complete, the simulated runoff and watershed conditions are displayed
in this screen. To view the simulated discharge, click on the [Discharge] tab at the bottom of the
screen. The graph in the top portion of the screen illustrates both precipitation and maximum
and minimum temperature for the simulation period. The bottom graph shows the simulated
streamflow over the simulation period.
Click on the [Watershed Conditions] tab to view the simulated watershed conditions. The
[Watershed Conditions] tab illustrates the deep and shallow groundwater flow and the snow
pack content for all elevation bands defined in the Watershed file.
For simulation with multiple stations, click on the [Weather Data from] drop down menu to view
the precipitation and maximum and minimum temperature of different stations. The top graph is
updated with weather for the selected station.
9.3 Analyze Results
To view statistics and analyze the results, click on the [Analyze Results] button. Observed and
streamflow runoff can be compared for all values, selected months or selected years by clicking
on the appropriate option in the [Analysis Type] window below the graph. Click on the [Refresh]
button every time an option is changed and the graph is updated.
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10.0 POWERHOUSE STUDY DATA
Click on the [Edit Powerhouse Data] button from the Toolbar to view and edit the powerhouse
characteristics. The [Parameter File Description] located at the top of the screen displays the
plant name and the date of last change. The plant name can be modified and saved. Screen
captures of the powerhouse study data features can be found in Section 20, Screens A.18 to
A.22.
10.1 View and Edit Efficiency Curve Data
Click on the [Efficiency Curve] tab to specify a turbine efficiency curve available from a turbine
database distributed with IMP. Click on the [Turbine Type] drop down menu to select a turbine.
To view the efficiency curve for the selected turbine, click on the [Edit Turbines] button. The
turbine types distributed with IMP cannot be deleted, changed nor modified. Only user-defined
turbine types can be edited.
An additional turbine type can only be added to the turbine database in the Advanced Mode.
Select the [Advanced User Level] option from the [Option] menu in the Menu Bar. Click on the
[Edit Turbines] button to access the utilities. The [New Turbine] button is enabled in Advanced
Mode.
Click on the [New Turbine] button to add a new turbine, enter a turbine name and click on the
[OK] button. To add points to the turbine efficiency curve, click on the [New Entry] button. Enter
the values in the appropriate fields and click on the [Add] button. Click the [Add] button each
time you enter a new point. Click on the [Close] button to finish. The efficiency curve is
automatically sorted.
To delete an entry from a user-defined turbine efficiency curve, click on the appropriate cell in
the [Turbine Efficiency Curve] table and click on the [Delete Entry] button. At least one entry
must remain in the table.
To delete a curve, select the curve in the [Turbine Types] window and click on the [Delete
Turbine] button. Only user-defined turbine types can be deleted.
10.2 View and Edit Reservoir Levels
Click on the [Reservoir Levels] tab to set the minimum, maximum, and starting levels for the
reservoir and define the tail water and stage-storage curves.
The minimum, maximum and starting levels can be entered in the appropriate fields. Define the
tail water curve by clicking on the [Tail Water Curve] button. Define the stage-storage curve by
clicking on the [Stage-Storage Curve] button.
The total flow below the powerhouse, the sum of the powerhouse discharge and the spill, may
increase tail water levels on the plant. The variation in tail water elevation with discharge
defines the tail water curve. The net head on the plant will be calculated by interpolating
between the values specified. If a single point is given, its elevation will be used for all
discharges.
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Points on the stage storage curve should cover the full range of possible reservoir storage
volumes. The program will interpolate between the points specified, therefore a minimum of two
points is required. There must be a "dead" storage pocket below the elevation of the intake. The
pocket can be small but if it is not specified, the program will not always operate properly.
The window and utilities accessed by clicking on the [Tail Water Curve] and [Stage-Storage
Curve] buttons operate similarly. Use the [Add Entry] button to add a blank row to the table and
enter appropriate values in the new row. The table is automatically sorted and the graph below
the table is automatically updated when a new data point is entered. To delete a data point from
the curve, select the point to delete and click on the [Delete Entry] button. At least one data
point must remain in the table.
Click on the [Close] button to close the window or click [Cancel] to close without saving the
data.
10.3 View and Edit Turbine Data
The [Turbine Data] tab contains the rated flow and rated head for the powerhouse. The rated
flow capacity of the powerhouse is the maximum total flow that the turbine set can pass at the
rated net head. The turbine capacity should be carefully matched to the hydraulic capability of
the penstocks. The rated head can be defined by subtracting estimated penstock losses and tail
water at the rated discharge from the maximum gross head. Under a given condition of head
and flow, the discharge through the powerhouse is calculated from the ratio of the net head to
the rated head raised to an exponent. The value of the exponent depends upon the type of
turbine and its configuration within the powerhouse. A value of 0.5 is often used as the
exponent in this discharge capacity relationship.
Enter the rated flow and rated head in the appropriate fields.
10.4 View and Edit Penstock Data
The [Penstock Data] tab enables the user to set the various penstock parameters. IMP assumes
that the penstock intake is connected directly to the reservoir. During the calculation of energy
production, the net head accounts for drawdown in the reservoir and all controlled releases are
assumed by the program to pass through the penstock and powerhouse. If there is more than
one reservoir or a reservoir that is located some distance upstream from the penstock intake,
this can be modeled by aggregating the upstream storage, selecting an appropriate stage
storage curve and defining appropriate operating rules for use of the storage during the year.
Enter the penstock length and diameter in the appropriate fields. Friction losses in the penstock
are calculated in the program using the Manning's equation. The Manning's n can set by
choosing the penstock material from the [Material] drop down menu. Selecting an effective
length that reflects minor losses can incorporate additional losses due to bends and joints.
10.5 View and Edit Operating Limits
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The [Operating Limits] tab allows the user to set various reservoir levels and downstream flows.
The maximum and minimum monthly reservoir levels and the maximum monthly turbine
operating discharge control the operation of the reservoir. The reservoir levels are used by the
program as a guide for drawdown and refill in accordance with the hydrologic behavior of the
watershed.
The minimum monthly reservoir levels in each reservoir and the minimum downstream flow for
each reservoir are the essential elements when modeling powerhouse operations. These two
parameters are interrelated and should be developed with this in mind. The amount of water
that can be released on any day depends upon the water available in storage and the inflow.
The two targets can be in conflict if there is not enough water to satisfy both. If the minimum
downstream flow is too high, it may not be possible to meet the minimum monthly reservoir
levels. A workable combination of the two targets is dependent on hydrology, the live storage
volume and how it will be used to regulate the flow. Appropriate targets will develop as the user
gains experience modeling the project under study. Enter each value in the table in the
appropriate row and column. Make sure you hit [Enter] on the keyboard after each entry.
The appropriate minimum monthly reservoir levels can be determined from the volume of the
minimum downstream flow, which must come out of storage in each month. Assume the
reservoir is empty at the end of the dry season; then calculate backwards in time to determine
the levels required at each month. A similar procedure can be used to develop the minimum
monthly reservoir elevations during filling.
For reservoirs that are to operate as run-of-river, a different approach is required. These
reservoirs are always full and simply pass the inflow. Therefore, the minimum downstream flow
would be the powerhouse capacity (provided that the penstock is large enough) and the
minimum monthly reservoir level is the full supply level throughout the year.
The maximum operating turbine flows are more than a guide; they are the absolute maximum
releases through the powerhouse. If the reservoir is full and an additional release is required, it
will bypass the powerhouse and appear as spill in the simulation results.
The minimum downstream flows provide additional guidance to the program where flexibility in
operations is possible. The program will normally ensure that powerhouse flows are at least as
high as the minimum downstream flows.
To simulate the powerhouse operation, click on the [Simulate Powerhouse] button in the
Toolbar.
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11.0 POWERHOUSE OPERATION MODELING
Click on the [Simulate Powerhouse] button in the Toolbar to perform a day-by-day simulation to
determine energy production from the powerhouse project or view an existing simulated
operation. Screen captures of the powerhouse study results can be found in Section 20,
Screens A.23 to A.26.
11.1 Simulate Powerhouse Operation
Prior to performing the powerhouse simulation, the simulation period, firm energy period and
streamflow source must be defined.
The simulation period depends on the available streamflow selected in the [Streamflow Source]
window. By default, the simulation period is set to the period of available streamflow. To change
the simulation period, use the [Starting Month] slider bar to set the starting date and the
[Number of Years] slider bar to define the end of the simulation period.
There may be some portion of a period of record that is known to be very important (i.e., a
period of known very low runoff or very high energy demand). This firm energy period can be
defined in the [Firm Energy Period] window. The firm energy period must fall within the
simulation period. During the simulation, the program will identify the energy produced during
this period separately. Use the [From] slider bar to set the firm energy period start date and the
[To] slider bar to set the firm energy end date.
To perform the simulation with observed streamflow, click on the [Use Observed Streamflow]
option and select the streamflow station from the [Gauge] drop down menu. To perform the
simulation with simulated inflow, click on the [Use Simulated Streamflow] option. If simulated or
observed streamflow is not available, the appropriate option box will be disabled.
The streamflow can be adjusted by indicating a correction factor that will scale all of the
streamflow values. Enter the correction factor in the [Streamflow Correction Factor] field. To use
the streamflow values without an adjustment, enter 1.
To start the powerhouse simulation, click on the [Simulate] button. The [Power Study Simulation
Results] screen is displayed when the powerhouse simulation is complete.
11.2 View Powerhouse Operation Results
To view powerhouse operation results click on the [View Existing Results] button. The [View
Existing Results] button will bypass the powerhouse simulation and provide plots of the current
powerhouse simulation results in the [Power Study Simulation Results] screen. The powerhouse
operation results are automatically displayed when the powerhouse simulation is complete.
The tabs at the top of the screen control displays of simulated flows, reservoir levels and power
generation. Click on the [Flows] tab to display the inflow, turbine release and spill. By default, all
three flows are displayed on the graph. Click on the check boxes on the legend of the graph to
change the display. When a check box is selected, the flow type is displayed in the graph. The
[Reservoir Levels] tab displays the reservoir levels during the simulation period. The [Power
User Manual for 26

Generation] tab displays the power generation during the simulation period.
Summary of the simulation results are displayed below the graph in the [Simulation Results]
window. These results summarize the simulation period, firm energy period, firm power and
average power. These values cannot be edited.
To return to the powerhouse simulation, click on the [Close] button.
11.3 Analyze the Results
Click on the [Frequency Analysis] button to analyze the results. The [Frequency Analysis]
screen allows the user to perform a frequency analysis for different periods and data types. The
frequency analysis can be performed on all values, selected months or selected years for inflow,
turbine release, spill, reservoir level and power generation. Select the appropriate options and
click on the [Analyze] button. The graph is updated with a frequency analysis on the selected
data. The [Statistical Results] window in the bottom right of the screen displays the average,
mode, median and frequency interval. The units vary with the data set selected in the [Analysis
Data Set] window. The mode is the value occurring most frequently in the selected data set.
Click on the [Close] button in the [Frequency Analysis] screen to return to the [Power Study
Simulation Results] screen.
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12.0 INSTALLED CAPACITY OPTIMIZATION
The Optimize Powerhouse Module performs a simple incremental analysis on the results from
the powerhouse simulation for the chosen project configuration. Click on the [Optimize
Powerhouse] button to access the [Installed Capacity Optimization] screen.
This module examines the spill, which could be captured or created if the powerhouse capacity
was changed within specified lower and upper limits. The resulting increase or decrease in
energy generation is used as the basis for calculating the marginal value and the marginal cost.
When these are equal (ratio = 1) the optimum installed capacity is indicated.
Optimizing the installed capacity may be useful in suggesting whether the powerhouse capacity
is correctly matched with the hydrologic capability of the site and the penstock dimensions. If
the powerhouse discharge capacity is limiting energy output, there will be a gradual increase in
annual energy production as powerhouse discharge capacity is increased. Penstock hydraulic
losses limit energy production if annual energy production reaches a maximum at a discharge
less than the mean annual runoff.
When the [Installed Capacity Optimization] screen is loaded the [Optimization of Installed
Capacity] table in the middle of the screen is blank. Define the discharge range for analysis in
the [Maximum] and [Minimum] fields at the top of the screen. The default discharge range is
plus or minus 50% of the discharge capacity at the rated head of the turbine selected for the
simulation. Define the cost of analysis by entering appropriate values in the [Value of Energy]
and [Cost of Capacity] fields.
Click on the [Compute] button to start the optimization.
The results are displayed in the [Optimization of Installed Capacity] table in the middle of the
screen. The optimum capacity occurs at the point where the ratio of the marginal value to the
marginal cost is 1.00. After reviewing the output, the optimum installed capacity may be
examined more closely by reducing the range of capacities and recalculating the analysis.
Results from simulating powerhouse operation for discharge, installed capacity and average
power are displayed in the [Capacity Simulated in Detail] window at the bottom of the screen.
Screen capture of the optimized powerhouse study results can be found in Section 20, Screen
A.27.
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13.0 STREAM GEOMETRY DATA
The first step of the hydraulic analysis for fish habitat is to define the coordinates of the cross-
section of the stream and the discharge-rating curve. Manning equation, the mean velocity and
depth can be determined for each panel of a single transect. This information is later used in the
Weighted Usable Area Vs. Discharge and Weighted Usable Area Vs. Time analysis.
The cross-section geometry determines the size of the elements (panels) across the stream.
Each panel can be a different size. The water stage varies from zero (the stream bed) to the
maximum elevation of the cross-section. If the stage and the cross-section are known, the cross
sectional area, wetted perimeter and hydraulic radius for the stream and for each panel can be
found. The wetted perimeter for each panel is the linear distance along the streambed between
two bottom elevations of the panel. The area and depth are computed directly for the
trapezoidal panel. The hydraulic radius for each panel is the area of that panel divided by the
wetted perimeter. Thus it is assumed that there is no friction between panels.
Computing the velocity for each panel and the entire transect requires another input
relationship. If the rating curve is input, the program will compute the overall discharge at a
given stage. The average stream velocity is found by dividing the discharge by the total cross-
sectional area. Once the average velocity is found then, effective roughness, square root of
slope divided by the roughness, can be calculated. The effective roughness is then used to find
the velocity in each panel. This procedure, which uses the overall stream parameters to infer the
element parameters, eliminates the need for dividing the discharge among the elements.
To load the stream geometry data, click on the [Edit Cross Section Data] button in the Toolbar.
When the [Stream Geometry Data] screen is displayed, it loads in the [Standard] mode by
default. The basic shape of the curve, elevation and width can be defined in [Standard] mode
using the utilities provided.
To add detailed points to the basic shape of the curve, select the [Advanced User Level] option
from the [Option] menu in the Menu Bar. Refresh the screen after the selection. A table is
displayed on the right side of the screen where the detailed points are entered.
Screen captures of the stream geometry data can be found in Section 20, Screens A.28 and
A.29.
13.1 View and Edit an Existing Cross-Section
To select a cross-section, click on the [Cross-Section] drop down menu and select the
appropriate cross-section. The graphical display of the cross-section is displayed at the bottom
of the screen and the width, elevation and shape are displayed next to the graph.
13.2 Define a New Cross-Section
To define a new cross-section, click on the [New] button, enter the new cross-section name and
click the [OK] button. Define the width, elevation and shape of the new cross-section in the
appropriate fields. The cross-section information is saved in the project database.
User Manual for 29

To add specific points to the basic shape of the curve, select the [Advanced User Level] option
from the [Option] menu in the Menu Bar. Refresh the screen after the selection. A table is
displayed next to the graph. The coordinates in the table represent specific points on the cross-
section. The graph is updated every time a new point is entered.
13.3 Delete an Existing Cross-Section
To delete an existing cross-section, select the appropriate cross-section from the [Cross
Section] drop down menu and click on the [Delete] button. The cross-section is deleted.
13.4 View and Edit the Discharge-Rating Curve
Click on the [Discharge-Rating Curve] button to view and edit the curve data. In either mode,
data can be entered as Discharge vs. Stage or Discharge vs. Area. Click on the drop down
menu above the table to select the appropriate option. Enter values in the table. A blank line is
available at the bottom of the table when the down arrow key is pressed.
Close the [Discharge-Rating Curve] window to return to the [Stream Geometry Data] screen.
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14.0 FISH PREFERENCE DATA
Click on the [Edit Fish Definitions] button in the Toolbar to access the [Fish Definitions] screen.
New fish suitability data can be viewed and added in this screen. Velocities, depths and their
corresponding percent suitability for each fish are defined in the table below the graph. Included in
the IMP package are preference curves for several fish. The fish preference data is used in the
calculation of the Weighted Usable Area vs. Discharge and the Weighted Usable Area vs. Time.
Screen capture of the fish preference data can be found in Section 20, Screen A.30.
14.1 Add a New Fish and Stage
To add a new fish or a new stage, click on the [New Fish] button. Enter the fish type and
development stage in the appropriate fields. To add a new stage to an existing fish type, enter
the existing fish name in the [Fish Type] field and define the development stage in the
[Development Stage] field. The new stage will be added to the [Development Stage] drop down
menu. By default, the new fish and development stage take on the velocity and depth suitability
from the previous fish. The information in the tables can be edited and saved.
14.2 Delete a Fish
To delete a fish or a development stage, click on the [Delete Fish] button. If a fish has multiple
fish stages, each stage must be deleted for the fish to be removed.
14.3 View and Edit Composite Fish
Use a composite fish to find the weighted usable area of a group of different fish that inhabit a
certain stream. Click on the [Composite Fish] button to view, add or delete composite fish. In the
[Composite Fish Definition] window, select a composite fish from the [Composite Fish Name]
drop down menu to view the composite fish makeup. To add a new composite fish, click on the
[New] button. Define the composite fish name in the field above the table. In the table, select the
fish name and development stage from the drop down menu that is displayed upon a mouse
click in the [Fish Name and Development Stage] column of the table. Enter its weighting as a
fraction of the total number of types of fish located in the stream. The make up fraction is
converted to a percentage when the [Enter] key is pressed. Repeat this process until a
composite fish with a make up fraction of 100% is defined.
Click on the [Save] button when the composite fish is defined.
To delete a composite fish, click the [Delete] button. The composite fish is permanently deleted.
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15.0 WEIGHTED USABLE AREA
The cross-section geometry, discharge-rating curve, fish type and development stage define the
weighted usable area in the [Weighted Usable Area] screen which is accessed by clicking on
the [Calculate WUA] button in the Toolbar. The calculation of the weighted usable area obtains
information from the [Stream Geometry Data] and [Fish Definitions] screens. Select the fish
type, development and cross-section from the appropriate drop down menus. The weighted
usable area is automatically calculated when a different option is selected. Screen captures of
the weighted usable area features can be found in Section 20, Screens A.31 to A.34.
The weighted usable area vs. discharge simulation uses the cross-section geometry, discharge-
rating curve, fish type, development stage and streamflow described in previous screens of IMP.
Click on the [Calculate WUA vs Discharge] button in the Toolbar to define the simulation inputs.
For a given discharge, the wetted perimeter of each panel of the cross-section is multiplied by
the fish preference for the velocity and depth found in that panel. Then these weighted
streambed areas of unit width are summed. The weighted usable area for the chosen flow is the
sum of the weighted wetted perimeters.
WUAk = Pv(Vkj) x Pd(Lkj) x Pkj
where:
WUA = weighted usable area at the kth discharge.
Pv(Vkj) = fish preference for the velocity found in the jth panel at the kth discharge.
Pd(Lkj) = fish preference for the depth found in the jth panel at the kth discharge.
Pkj = wetted perimeter of the jth panel at the kth discharge
The weighted usable area vs. discharge curve is composed of the straight-line segments
connecting the simulated WUA values.
There are several features in this screen:
15.1 Simulate Weighted Usable Area vs. Discharge
Select streamflow data type as either simulated or observed using the options and the drop
down menu in the [Streamflow Data] window. The start and end dates can be defined by
clicking on the [Start Date] and [End Date]. Select the fish type, development stage and cross-
section from the appropriate drop down menus. Click on the [Simulate] button to start the
simulation.
15.2 View Weighted Usable Area vs. Discharge Results
The [Weighted Usable Area vs. Discharge Results] screen is automatically displayed when the
simulation is complete. The summary of the simulation inputs is displayed at the top of the
screen. They include the fish type, cross-section, development stage, streamflow data and the
start and end dates. The results are presented in two formats: Click on the [Time Series] tab to
view the time series results; or the [Frequency] tab to view the frequency analysis.
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The [Time series] tab displays the weighted usable areas and the related discharge graphically
and in a tabular format. The [Frequency] tab can be used to determine which flows and
weighted usable areas occur most often for certain cross-sections and fish types. The results
are plotted both graphically and in a tabular format. To view the cumulative frequency of each
result, click on the [Plot Cumulative Frequency] check box below the table.
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16.0 THE FLOOD FREQUENCY MODEL
For every stream or river for which hydrometric data are available, there are many for which no data
are available. The need to provide a rational approach to design of bridges, culverts and small
dams on ungauged watersheds has led to innumerable empirical methods and rules-of-thumb. In
many cases, these approaches are adequate for average conditions in the region for which they
were developed, but application to extreme events or to new regions is either impossible or
dubious. The flood frequency method for ungauged watersheds presented in this report has more
general application. Both large and small watersheds can be modeled, as well as diverse
climatological and geographic regions. The watershed modeling parameters that must be estimated
are physically meaningful.
16.1 Use of Climatological Data to Define Probability
The fundamental input to a watershed is the liquid water deposited as rain or snow. The
climatological data that is involved in runoff includes direct measurements of the quantities of these
liquid water sources, their availability in time, and in the case of snow, those parameters that
contribute to melting. In this section, climatological data are discussed considering only those
aspects that influence the analysis of direct runoff - the principal component of a flood hydrograph.
16.2 Definition of Rainfall Events
One of the major purposes of this work is to provide convenient methods for estimating the
probability of runoff events. These estimates are developed by mathematical transformations on the
probability of certain rainfall (and snowmelt) properties. An important step in the analysis is,
therefore, to determine the probability behavior of the rainfall. Before this can be done it is
necessary to define what is meant by a rainfall event.
Rainfall does not take place continuously but consists of a sequence of discrete periods of rainfall of
varying average intensity, followed by periods without precipitation. Occasionally the rainfall stops
only briefly, to begin again later. For some purposes it might be reasonable to ignore the brief
rain-free interlude and to consider the event as a single longer duration rainfall with average
intensity reduced by the brief period without rain. The duration of the rain-free period and the
anticipated runoff behavior of the watershed are important considerations in making this judgment.
If the watershed is large, it might be expected that a short, temporary reduction in rainfall could not
show up in a measured hydrograph. Furthermore, if the rain results from a synoptic disturbance,
covering a large region, the temporary interruption might properly be ignored on the physical
grounds that the synoptic disturbance is the event of interest, not the minor variation in its detection
as measured by the rain gauge.
The frequency response of the watershed also enters into the definition of an event. This aspect
can be investigated by examining the Fourier cosine transform of the autocorrelation function of
rainfall. Such a transformation yields the "power" spectrum of the rainfall data and provides a
display of the frequency characteristics of rainfall. The calculation is accomplished by:
= max
1
p (w) =
2
( ) e

=
- jw
(16. 1)
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in which the frequencies, are related to the "period" of events by:
2
w= (16. 2)
T
This same type of calculation can be made on the continuous, long-term hydrograph of direct runoff
to produce the frequency spectrum of the transient portion of runoff. Figure 16.1 illustrates typical
rainfall and runoff spectra in which the higher frequencies in the rainfall time series do not appear in
the runoff. The natural hydraulic damping processes of the watershed and stream have acted to
filter out the short duration rainfall fluctuations. This comparison will also suggest that a cut-off
frequency for the rainfall analysis can be at wc.
Frequencies higher than this would have little effect on the runoff record and could be "smudged"
into lower frequencies. The corresponding cutoff period Tc can be calculated from equation 16.2
and the maximum sample interval to define such frequencies is t*/3.2 as given by Harley (1977), in
which t* is the time of concentration. Considering the watershed's effects on rainfall, it would be
adequate to recognize rainfall intensity variations which take place over periods of time greater than
t*/3.2.
Often there are no streamflow records available and the cutoff frequency for the watershed cannot
be estimated directly, as outlined above. In this case, the times of concentration of the stream and
catchment combination, calculated as explained below provide the basis for selecting an
appropriate event time scale. The definition of a rainfall event should consider the natural damping
effect of the watershed, and the rainfall data should not be smudged by averaging events which
take place within t* /3.2 of each other. In practice this means that, for example, if the time required
for a hydrograph to reach peak discharge is more than 3.2 hours then hourly rainfall data provides
sufficiently fine resolutions for estimating peak flows. Daily averaged rainfall data could be used for
watersheds that require 3.2 days or more to reach peak flow. For IMP, the flood frequency analysis
was based on statistics of hourly rainfall and an empirical relationship with the average annual
precipitation values provided by the grid values of the precipitation database as described in
Section 4.0.
User Manual for 35

1.0 Catchment
Parameters
L = 10 miles
a = 10 sec-1
Normalized Energy Density
0.1
Runoff Rainfall
10-6 10-5 10-4 wc 10-3 10-2 10-1
Frequency (cycles/sec)
Figure 16-1 Rainfall and Runoff Spectra
16.3 Probability Density Function
The rainfall data series can be grouped into a series of individual independent events, each with its
own duration, average intensity, depth (volume) and each separated from the previous event by an
interval longer than one hour. These characteristics of the individual, independent events may then
be subjected to frequency analysis to determine their probability distribution. Figures 16-2 and 16-3
present some examples of distributions that were calculated from actual data. These results are
typical of what has been found from analyzing rainfall data of many other climatological stations
(Flatt and Howard, 1978).
The duration of rainfall events has a probability density function that is approximately exponentially
distributed as illustrated in Figure 16-2. The equation for this distribution is:
f tre ( t 0) = e
- t0
(16.3)
The first and second moments (mean, and standard deviation) of this distribution are 1/ and it can,
therefore, be estimated from the mean storm duration. Alternatively some fitting procedure could be
used to estimate by minimizing deviations from the actual histograms. In practice is estimated
by the reciprocal of the average rainfall event duration.
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The main advantage of Equation 16.3 is its simplicity; this feature is also its main disadvantage
because a good fit to both average and more extreme events may not be possible with such a
single parameter distribution.
Figure 16-2 Probability Density Function, Storm Duration
Figure 16-3 Probability Density Function, Storm Intensity
Rainfall event intensity (averaged over each event) and the inter-event time can also be
represented statistically by exponential probability density functions. Thus, for intensity, i:
f i (i0) = e
- i0
(16.4)
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in which B is again both the first and the second moments and is adequately represented by the
reciprocal of the mean value.
In practice the data are recorded at discrete intervals and the continuous exponential distribution
shown above may provide inappropriate results for values near zero. This can be avoided by taking
care to use a minimum lower limit equal to the sample interval and to normalize all distributions to
account for this procedure. For example, the sample interval for rainfall duration is often one hour
and this is, therefore, the shortest duration that could be recorded for a rainfall event. Therefore,
dividing it by the factor N should normalize the distribution for rainfall duration:
e
- t
N= dt (16.5)
t =1
The probability of rainfall event durations between 1-hour and 2-hours is then given by,
t=2
1
Prob { 1 t re 2 } =
N
t =1
e t dt (16.6)
and the probability of all durations is,
t =
1
e
- t
dt = 1 (16.7)
N t =1
Similar normalization should be applied to the other continuous distributions when they are
estimated from discrete data.
16.4 Probability and Return Period
The probability density functions of rainfall can be used to calculate the probability of certain event
characteristics.
For example, the probability of a rainfall duration exceeding tn hours is:

t =
1
e
- t
Prob { t n < t re < } = dt (16.8)
N t = tn
which upon integration reduces to:

-
e tn
Prob { t n < t re < } = (16.9)
N
Thus, when a rainfall event occurs, the probability that the duration will exceed tn hours is Equation
16.5. The number of independent events that, on the average, would have to occur before one had
a duration of tn hours or greater is the reciprocal of this probability. If there is an average of events
each year then the return period is the number of events necessary divided by the number of
User Manual for 38

events each year.
This defines the return period Te:
N e t n
Te ( t n ) = (16.10)

or, more generally, the return period of an event j, is

(16.11)
1
Te ( j) =
Prob( j)
In many cases, it is useful to be able to estimate the return period of a combination of events after
the probabilities of these have been defined by some other analysis. For example, flood frequency
curves developed from measured streamflow may include spring floods caused primarily by
snowmelt with those caused by rainfall later in the year. It is often realistic to assume that these are
independent and in such a case it is easy to desegregate the flood frequency curve into two
components by investigating snowmelt and rainfall separately.
Suppose the return period of a snowmelt or rainfall flood peak of magnitude Qp is Ts and Tr
respectively. The probabilities of these floods occurring during any one year are the reciprocals of
Ts and Tr. Thus, the probability of no flood exceeding Qp in a given year is:
1 1
Prob { Q < Qp } = (1 - )(1 - ) (16.12)
Tr Ts
The probability of a flood greater or equal to Qp is then:
1 1
Prob { Q Qp } = 1 - (1 - )(1 - ) (16.13)
Tr Ts
and the return period for a Qp flood is the reciprocal:
1
T e (Q p ) = (16.14)
1 1
1 - (1 - ) (1 - )
Tr Ts
which reduces to:

T r Ts
T e (Q p ) = (16.15)
T r + Ts - 1
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Figure 16-4 Watershed Concept
Physical Characteristics:
Catchment Stream
Slope, Sc Slope, Ss
Length, Lc Length, Ls
Area, Ac Hydraulic Roughness, ns
Hydraulic Roughness, nc Wetted Perimeter, Ps
16.5 The Flood Frequency Watershed Model
The watershed can be thought of as consisting of a catchment area which routes water to a stream
channel. Obviously, each of these components of the watershed includes many details and some of
these may be very important to the analysis. However, if we restrict our interests to rare flood
events, these details can be lumped into a manageable number of coefficients that are surrogate
representations of the real watershed. For the present, we will deal with the watershed concept
illustrated in Figure 16-4. The watershed is assumed to consist of two equally sloping planes
leading down to a central stream channel of uniform width and slope throughout its length.
User Manual for 40

This watershed performs a hydraulic transformation on the liquid water input to it. If groundwater
flows, evapotranspiration and other factors are unimportant, as would be the case during a flood,
these transformations are represented algebraically through solutions to the equations of motion.
Solving these equations, using a kinematic wave model gives the time of concentration of the
catchment, tc, and the stream channel, ts, by:
1
nc Ar
2
t c = 0.914 (16.16)
Sc Ls ie
1
Ps n s 2
3
t s = 0.130 (16.17)
Ss A r ie
where: the constants in (16.16) and (16.17) apply to English units as follows:
Ls .............................................. length of stream (miles)

Ar .............................................. area of catchment contributing to runoff (sq. mi.)
Ps ............................................. wetted perimeter of stream at location of interest (feet)
sc .............................................. slope of the catchment (overland flow path)
ss .............................................. slope of the stream
nc .............................................. Manning's n for the catchment (typically 0.3)
ns .............................................. Manning's n for the stream
ie ............................................... storm averaged rate of rainfall excess (in/hr)
The total time of concentration of the catchment and stream, t, is given by:
t* = t c + t s (16.18)
Figure 16-5 Effect of Rainfall Intensity on Time of Concentration at Pearson Creek
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Integrated Method for Power Analysis File: System Manual 2103-1800-3.0
Equation 16.18 can be rewritten using (16.16) and (16.17) to give:
- 1 - 1
t* = a ie 2 + b ie 3 (16.19)
The parameters a and b, therefore, represent the time of concentration of the catchment and
stream for an average intensity of one. Figure 16-5 shows the variation of the total time of
concentration in hours for a small catchment. If actual hydrographs and corresponding rainfall for
the Watershed Model or snowmelt are available, a and b can be estimated from actual data by
calibration.
For the Watershed Model, if the rainfall duration at the "steady" rate ie exceeds the time of
concentration t, "steady" flow will be reached on the watershed. Since the flow is "steady", the rate
of outflow is directly proportional to the rate of input of liquid water. Thus, the peak discharge, Qp, is
given by:
Qp = 645 K A r ie , t re > t* (ie ) (16.20)
in which the constant, 645, supplies the appropriate conversion of units with ie in inches/hour, Ar in
square miles, Qp in cfs, and K is a factor that prorates point rainfall to the entire watershed.
16.6 Flood Probability
The "steady" flow formula, Equation 16.20 is applicable to the joint occurrence of an intensity, ie,
and an associated rainfall duration which exceeds the value of a function of ie. The probability of Qp
is not related only to the probability of ie but to this joint occurrence.
The estimation of the return period of Qp requires evaluation of the joint probability density function
describing the occurrence of tre and ie.

[
Prob Q Qp = Prob ie ] Qp
645 KA r
| t re t* (ie ) (16.21)

[
Prob Q Qp = ] f i e , t re ( i o , t o ) dt re di e (16.22)
Qp t re = t *
io =
645 KA r
f ie , tre ( io , to ) dt re d ie
where: io,to is the desired joint probability function for determining flood probability.
Since ie and tre are independent, this function is simply the product of the two marginal distributions.
16.7 Evaluation of Flood Probability
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The basic method used is to integrate the joint probability distribution for rainfall intensity and
duration over limits that are determined by the watershed's intensity-time-of-concentration
relationships as obtained from an analysis of topographic data.
For flood probability calculation, we must integrate over limits to the probability volume to the right of
io and to the left of the steady flow curve. This gives the probability of events for the steady flow
curve. This gives probability of events for which i > io and tre > t. The desired probability is then:
ie = t re =
Prob [ Qp Q0 ] =
Q0 t re = t*( ie )
e- i- t dt di (16.23)
ie =
645 Ar
integrating over t and using "a" and "b" as defined by Equations 16.16 and 16.17:
ie =
[
Prob Qp Q0 = ] exp { - ie - (
a
1
+
b
1
) } die (16.24)
Q0 ie 2
ie3
ie =
645 Ar
Note that the probability of the flood peak depends on the probability of the intensity, as expressed
by, the duration, as expressed by, and the watershed and stream characteristics as expressed by
"a" and "b".
The integral of Equation 16.24 can be evaluated numerically, on a programmable hand calculator or
mini-computer; it can be approximated by power series; or it can be fitted by another function that is
integrable. IMP includes the numerical integration based on Simpson's Rule.
Another approach is to develop a solution which, although strictly speaking is incorrect, is in

mathematical closed form and therefore more useful for many purposes. The approach is to
incorrectly integrate Equation 16.23 by ignoring the dependence of t on ie during the integration,
accounting for ie when the limits are applied.
[ ]
Prob Qp Q0 e- i- t* (16.25)
Now substituting for ie and t
Q0
[ ]
Prob Q p Q0 e xp - {
645 A r
+ (tc + ts ) } (16.26)
and, from (16.16) and (16.17):

645 A 2r n c
1
645 Ps n s2
1

Q0
[ ]
2 3

Prob Qp Q0 exp - + 0.914 + 0.130 Ls Ss Q (16.27)
645 A r Sc Ls Q 0
0

Equation 16.27 is a good approximation to (16.24) for rare floods but drops off rapidly for more
frequent floods, as illustrated in Figure 16.6.
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300
200
(16.24)
Discharge cfs
(16.27
)
100
0
1 -1 .01 .001 .0001
Log Probability
Figure 16-6 Flood Frequency Comparison
16.8 Uses for Approximate Flood Frequency Formula
While (16.27) is known to be incorrect for moderate floods, it can provide a good approximation for
rare floods and it has the advantage of being readily useable on a hand calculator. It can also be
differentiated to provide other equations for directly determining the importance of the various
parameters on the flood frequency. A typical derivative of interest is:
P Q0
= E (16.28)
645 KA r
in which: P is the probability that the discharge will exceed Qo and

E is the expression in braces in Equation 16.27.
The sensitivity of the return period to errors in estimating the intensity parameter B is dependant on
the flood peak of interest, the watershed physiological parameters and the duration parameter.
Other derivatives can be determined in an analogous way and a complete sensitivity analysis can
be made available in analytic form. Such a result is of more practical value than Equation 16.24 that
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requires numerical integration to test sensitivity.
The approximate result of Equation 16.27 is also useful for estimating climatological parameters
from known flood frequency curves. Such a procedure directly accounts for many uncertainties in
estimating flood frequency curves for ungauged watersheds from data of nearby gauged
watersheds
Suppose that the parameters of interest are and . The method is simple and may suggest other
applications for such an approach. Equation 16.27 may be written twice using physiographic data
for the gauged watershed and pairs of P and Qo from its flood frequency curve. The two equations
may then be solved simultaneously to provide calculated values of and B. These values may then
be used to develop a flood frequency curve for the ungauged watershed.
There are two cautions:
The approximate flood frequency formula is a poor approximation for more frequent floods. The
climatological parameters should be calculated from pairs of rare floods of known probability -
this may be impractical because of limited streamflow records.
Sensitivity analysis of Equation 16.27 shows that the equation is much more sensitive to than
to . When used in reverse, to estimate and , small errors may result in ridiculous values of
while having little effect on . It may be more practical to guess at and solve only for .
16.9 Evaluation of Flood Frequency Method
Peak flows can result from several types of climatological events interacting with properties of a
watershed. The analysis presented here is intended to illustrate a systems analysis approach to
obtaining practical results from what appears at first to be an unsolvable complex problem. A
principal step involved discarding all runoff events for which steady flow was not achieved and/or for
which the catchment response was slower than the stream response (ts < tc situations were not
evaluated). In reality there may be many circumstances in which such assumptions are not good.
The method provided here should not be used in such circumstances, and another, more
appropriate procedure, should be developed.
The method outlined here does not depend, in concept, on the exact relationships used to relate
time of concentration to rainfall intensity. Other relationships, developed from complex hydrological
modeling, or observed from actual data, may be used in place of Equations 16.16 and 16.17.
The joint probability density function for ie and tre was developed here from the independent
marginal distributions of ie and tre. This procedure was possible because independence between
these parameters was established statistically by the way in which events were defined. Hourly or
daily rainfall totals can be used for this analysis depending on the watershed response. As
discussed above, the watershed response should not be rapid enough to reflect variations in the
rainfall that are masked by the reporting interval of the rainfall data. For example, if the watershed's
time of concentration were close to the one-hour sample interval of hourly rainfall, it would be
necessary to analyze rainfall data at shorter time intervals and/or to account for variations in rainfall
during events that continue for several hours. The joint distribution would then need to be
developed by direct enumeration of the data since independence assumptions would not be valid.
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16.10 Estimates of Climatological Parameters
IMP contains a database for annual average precipitation and 24-hour 10-year maximum rainfall.
This database cannot be used directly to estimate flood frequency because:
The resolution is too coarse for small watersheds that reach peak discharge in a few hours; and
The database provides no information about the probability distribution of rainfall duration or the
annual number of rainfall events.
To overcome these deficiencies a correlation analysis was developed for parameters of the hourly
rainfall data and the grid point values in the database for several first order climate stations in B.C.
The statistics of hourly rainfall time series were obtained from an intensive computer analysis of
rainfall data tapes for the Environment Protection Service as part of an urban runoff control
technology development project (Environment Canada, 1979).
Figures 16-7, 16-8 and 16-9 illustrate the remarkably good relationships developed for the rainfall
regimes of BC, varying from less than 200 mm per year to more than 2000 mm. These relationships
are programmed into Flood Frequency Analysis Model. The program uses the average annual
precipitation estimate provided by precipitation database as described in Section 4.0 (adjusted for
regional discrepancies in the Danard grid).
Figure 16-7 Estimator for Rainfall Event Intensity
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Figure 16-8 Estimator for Rainfall Event Duration
Figure 16-9 Estimator for Number of Rainfall Events
16.11 Estimates of Area Producing Runoff
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The watershed modeling analysis discussed in Section 17 provides insight into the flood behavior of
small streams in the various regions. It was found that the area producing floods varied from near
zero in the driest region to the full catchment area in the humid coastal area. Flood Frequency
Analysis Model estimates the ratio of the area producing flood runoff to the catchment area from:
Ar P
= , P 3000 (mm) (16.29)
Ac 3000
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17.0 THE WATERSHED MODEL METHODOLOGY
This portion of IMP generates a time series of average daily runoff from a data series consisting of
daily precipitation and daily maximum and minimum temperature. IMP contains this database for
fifteen years at one Atmospheric Environment Service (AES) station in each of the six regions of the
Province. The Watershed Model assumes that these daily precipitation data can be realistically
transposed to any watershed based simply on the ratio of the average annual precipitation at the
hydro site to that at the AES station in the region and a lapse rate correction for the elevation
difference. To reduce errors, weather data could be obtained from stations closer to the hydro site.
A paper by Quick and Pipes (1976) discusses the modeling approach, as follows:
The Watershed Model is based on the area-elevation characteristics of the watershed and utilizes
relationships describing effects of lapse rates on precipitation. Watershed parameters were
estimated from a study of the watershed response resulting from the rain and snowmelt inputs to
gauged small watersheds.
A key aspect of the model is the division of the watershed into area-elevation bands. In
mountainous regions, both precipitation and temperature are strongly elevation dependent. In
addition, many watershed characteristics such as soil characteristics, permeability, and
groundwater storage can also be elevation dependent.
An important aspect of any Watershed Model is the stability of the calibration from year to year. It is
important to test whether flood and drought sequences can be correctly calculated with the same
set of hydrologic parameters. Errors may arise from two primary sources. Firstly, there may be
errors in the meteorological data inputs, especially rainfall. Secondly, errors may result from
incorrect description of watershed behavior, for example, incorrect allocations to the fast and slow
runoff components. Behavior of the Watershed Model depends on the accuracy of meteorological
inputs and stream flow outputs so it is only feasible to identify large and obvious errors in either
streamflow or precipitation values. A common problem with rainfall is the correct evaluation of its
areal distribution from point measurements.
An objective of calibration is to identify parameter values that can reproduce watershed behavior on
a continuous basis for a complete range of hydrologic conditions.
To achieve stability of this type for watershed parameters, the model must be physically realistic in
its description of the interactions of the various phases of runoff. To test parameter stability,
calibration of the Watershed Model is carried out by operating continuously for a number of years of
data so that snowpacks are accumulated by the model from the measured precipitation and from
precipitation-elevation relationships.
The major control parameter in the model is the soil moisture deficit, although when extreme rain
intensities occur, the surface infiltration capacity may also become important. Soil moisture deficit is
used to control the amount of runoff that is released to fast, medium, and slow runoff. These
components of runoff can be thought of as direct runoff, interflow, and groundwater flow, although
there is probably no precise physical interpretation. The amount of soil moisture fluctuates with rain,
snowmelt, and evapotranspiration.
The routing of the fast component of runoff to the stream system is accomplished using unit
hydrograph convolution. The unit hydrograph ordinates are based on a cascade of linear reservoirs
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(Nash 1957). The medium component of runoff can be routed through an additional linear storage
reservoir before being convoluted. The slow component is accumulated in a linear storage reservoir
and is released slowly from groundwater to the stream as long-term recession flow. This method
provides flexibility while maintaining simplicity in calibration by minimizing the number of
parameters. More detailed information on the UBC Watershed Model procedure is provided by
Quick and Pipes (1983), from which the following discussion is provided in abstract.
17.1 UBC Watershed Model Meteorological Analysis
Meteorological data is available as point values at a given elevation in a watershed. Before

watershed response calculations can be made, these meteorological data at a point must be
distributed to the mid-elevation points of elevation bands.
17.1.1 Temperature Lapse Rate
Lapse rates are known to be quite variable, ranging from high values approximating the dry
adiabatic lapse rate to low values representing inversion conditions. A complete and detailed
representation of this lapse rate variability is not possible, but the main features of lapse rate can be
represented as a function of daily temperature range.
The following major features of lapse rate variation are recognized in the temperature lapse rate
algorithm:
During continuous rainstorm conditions the lapse rate will approximate the saturated adiabatic
rate. Under these conditions the daily temperature range will tend to be zero or very low; and
Under clear sky, dry weather conditions, the lapse rate during the warm part of the day will tend
to the dry adiabatic rate. During the night, under these clear sky conditions, radiation cooling will
cause the temperatures to fall to the dew point temperature, and this is particularly true for a
moist air mass. As a result, night-time lapse rates under clear skies will tend to be quite low,
and at times even zero lapse rates will occur.
Based on these considerations, two lapse rates are specified in the model, one for the maximum
temperature and one for the minimum temperature. The lapse rate is calculated for each day using
the daily temperature range (diurnal range) as an index.
Maximum Temperature Lapse Rate - TXLAPS
TD
TXLAPS = TZLAPS + (TLXM - TZLAPS) x (17.1)
TERM
Minimum Temperature Lapse Rate - TNLAPS
TD
TNLAPS = TZLAPS - (TZLAPS - TLNM) x (17.2)
TERM
where:
TD = daily temperature range (TX - TN)
and
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PP PP
TZLAPS = TZ - ( ) x (TZ - TZP), 1
PPM PPM
and for the above,
PP = daily precipitation
TLXM = 10oC/km, dry adiabatic lapse rate
TLNM = 0.5oC/km, nighttime (dewpoint) lapse rate
TZLAPS = Saturated adiabatic lapse rate (maximum 3.2C/km)
TZ = 6.4oC/km, that is, a reference lapse rate for rain-free conditions
TZP = 3.2oC/km, that is, a reference lapse rate when PP > PPM
PPM = 10 mm/day, maximum interception
and the calibration parameter TERM equals the maximum temperature range under open sky
conditions (selected from the data set (TX-TN)).
17.1.2 Precipitation Elevation Gradients
The enhancement of precipitation as a moist air mass is driven by wind across mountain barriers is
called orographic precipitation. This is an important aspect of mountain watershed modeling.
Orographic precipitation is influenced by three main factors, the slope of the mountainside, the
mountain barrier height and thirdly, the stability of the air mass. Precipitation distribution in the
Watershed Model was modified for the IMP package, and is based upon a single precipitation
gradient and on estimates of average basin precipitation developed from the precipitation database.
For completeness, however, all of the precipitation distribution concepts included with the UBC
Watershed Model are reviewed in Section 17.1.2 to 17.1.6.
The stability of the air mass depends on the relative values of the saturated adiabatic lapse rate and
the prevailing lapse rate of the surrounding air mass. Comparing the values of the saturated and dry
adiabatic lapse rates can develop a useful index of stability. The saturated adiabatic lapse rate is
dependent on temperature being considerably less than the dry adiabatic rate when temperatures
are high, but increasing to similar values as the dry adiabatic rate when temperatures are low. This
variation of saturated adiabatic lapse rate will be used to account for the variation in orographic
precipitation influences between winter snowfall, which shows a high orographic increase and warm
summer rain that is relatively insensitive to orographic effects.
The algorithms that describe the variation of precipitation with elevation are subdivided into two
aspects to give the final orographic effect. The first algorithm describes the basic enhancement of
precipitation with elevation barrier height if the temperature is 0oC and the second algorithm
modifies this basic distribution for variations in temperature.
17.1.3 Orographic Enhancement as Function of Elevation, Barrier Height and Temperature
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The precipitation in any elevation band is calculated from the precipitation at the AES station
(PAES) using the equation
PJ, L = PAES x (1 + ) (17.3)
where: PJ,L is the precipitation derived from the AES station precipitation for day J and elevation
band L.
is the precipitation enhancement factor that is separately defined above and below a
certain elevation (ELNORO). The value of will be set to zero when the elevation
exceeds PrecElevZero, which is specified in the PAR file. It is typically 1.5 ELNORO or
two-thirds of the average barrier height in the watershed. can be modified using the
precipitation adjustment factor, i.e. 0.1 results in 90% of model-calculated
precipitation. It will be appreciated that the (1 + ) multiplier produces a logarithmic
increase in precipitation with elevation.
Definition of by elevation
At 0C and below the value of ELNORO, 1 is defined by
ELLD
= 10 ELLKPL
1
where: ELLD is the elevation range per band

ELLKPD is the lower precipitation constant, which controls the steepness of the
precipitation elevation gradient (semi-log) and is determined trough calibration.
At 0C and above the values of ELNORO, 1 is defined by
ELLD
= 10 ELLKPU
1
where: ELLD is the elevation range per band

ELLKPD is the upper precipitation constant, which controls the steepness of the
precipitation elevation gradient and is determined through calibration.
Note, increasing ELLKPU and ELLKPL decreases the precipitation gradient.
Modification of with temperature
The second algorithm modifies for temperature other that a base elevation band temperature of
0C. The fractional increase in precipitation between bands will be reduced by the amount STABIF
for each degree of excess band temperature above 0C.
= STABIF * TA
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where: TA is the average air temperature above 0C.
STABIF is related to stability of the air mass, which can be measured by:
L D LS
LD
where: LD is the dry adiabatic lapse rate and LS is the saturated adiabatic lapse rate.
At higher air temperatures, the greater difference between LD and LS indicates that warm moist air
is much more unstable than cold moist air. Warm moist air is therefore likely to produce convective
precipitation and does not rely so much on orographic lifting. In contrast, cold moist air has very
little difference between LS and LD, so that convective rain is rather unlikely. Consequently, a cold
moist air mass is very dependant n orographic lifting to produce precipitation. This argument leads
to the defining of an orographic opportunity factor.
L D LS L
OrographicOpportunity = 1 = S
LD LD
If there is already considerable instability of the air mass, then there is a much-reduced
opportunity for precipitation to be enhanced by orographic lifting. The factor, LS / LD will be
proportional to the vertical flow rate induced by the orography and it will also be a measure of the
condensation rate per unit volume of air. The reduction in orographic effect with temperature,
STABIF, will therefore depend on (LS / LD)2. A graph of (LS / LD)2 versus temperature, reveals an
almost linear variation between -28C and 15.6C. This results in a STABIF value of 0.01 per C
and ths value should not be changed.
17.1.4 Form of Precipitation
The model must distinguish between precipitation in the form of snow and precipitation falling as
rain and this distinction must be made for each elevation band. Snow is stored until melted whereas
the Soil Moisture Model immediately processes rain.
The mean daily temperature (TA) in each band controls the form of precipitation.
If TA < 0oC all precipitation is SNOW.

If TA > TRFORM all precipitation is RAIN.
where: TRFORM = temperature above which all precipitation is rain
Between 0oC and TRFORM, a proportion of the precipitation will be specified as rain, and this
proportion is defined by FORMPP where:
TA
FORMPP = (17.4)
TRFORM
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Then rain, RN = PP ( FORMPP ) and snow, SN = PP ( 1 - FORMPP )
17.1.5 Precipitation Interception Adjustment
Tree cover intercepts a percentage of precipitation in each elevation band. The model assumes
that this portion of precipitation does not reach the ground and is lost through evaporation or
snow sublimation.
PP = [(PP IN ) * TREE ] + [PP * (1 TREE )] < MaxIn
IN = Pr ecIn * PP
where: PP = daily precipitation

In = daily interception
TREE = percentage of tree cover in the elevation band
PrecIn = percentage of precipitation intercepted by the forest
MaxIn = maximum interception
One limitation of this algorithm is the assumption that all the daily intercepted water or snow is
lost to evaporation or sublimation. This assumption may not apply when low
evaporation/sublimation rates occur for one or more days, leaving water or snow in the canopy.
The model assumes the canopy storage is empty at the start of the next precipitation event and
thus fills the storage capacity first. In reality, little water from this event would be stored in the
canopy and would go directly to the soil or snowpack, which occurs when the canopy has
reached its maximum capacity.
17.1.6 Precipitation Transposition Factors
Each meteorological station has two precipitation transposition factors associated with it, one for
snow, SNOREP, and one for rain, RANREP. These factors are introduced because precipitation
measured at a point is not always representative of the areal distribution of precipitation. For
example, a meteorological station may be in a rain shadow situation, or it may be in a narrow valley
where it is receiving precipitation that is more representative of the mountainside some hundreds of
meters higher than the station. These transposition factors can be determined by comparing long-
term volumes of runoff with computed values.
In general, snow measurements are more likely to be distorted by local exposure and orography.
As temperatures rise, rain values tend to be more representative because warm rain tends to be
more convective in origin. When temperatures are above 18oC, the local convective nature of the
rain makes it more reasonable to introduce an area reduction factor. The program logic is:
If TX < 0 use SNOREP

If 0 < TX < TREP, use linear interpolation between SNOREP and RANREP
If TX > TREP, use RANREP and area reduction factor
TX StormFact
Area (Thunderstorm) Reduction = (17.5)
StormFact
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where: StormFact is the thunderstorm reduction factor related to the convective nature of rain
when temperatures are above 18C.
17.2 Soil Moisture and Groundwater
The daily amounts of snowmelt and rain are subject to various delays and loss before eventually
appearing as river flow at some watershed outflow point. the Watershed Model contains certain
logical statements that decide how these snowmelt and rain inputs are subdivided between
evaporation loss, and fast, medium, slow and very slow runoff.
The central control parameter for the subdivision of total watershed input is the soil moisture deficit.
Rather than attempting to specify a total soil moisture capacity, the model operates from a lack of
soil moisture. When this soil moisture deficit reaches zero, the watershed reaches its maximum
runoff potential.
The Soil Moisture Model priorities for allocating runoff are described below.
17.2.1 First Priority: Impermeable Percentage - Fast Runoff Control
Part of each elevation band can be specified to be impermeable, so that any input of water to this
area will enter the fast runoff component. Such runoff can be thought of in terms of surface runoff or
very superficial percolation through coarse sediments. Usually such areas must be riparian in
nature.
The impermeable percentage of the watershed can be made to vary with soil moisture deficit. The
algorithm in the Watershed Model that describes this process is:
-BSD
( )
Impermeable fraction = MXIMP 10 AREGEN
(17.6)
where: MXIMP is the maximum impermeable fraction when the soil is fully saturated.
BSD is the soil moisture deficit in an elevation band.
AREGEN is a constant that regulates how sensitive the impermeable area is to changes in
soil moisture.
17.2.2 Second Priority: Soil Moisture and Actual Evapotranspiration
Before any further runoff can occur, other than fast runoff, the soil moisture deficit must be satisfied.
While soil moisture deficits are being satisfied by incoming water from snowmelt and rain, there is
also an evaporative demand that is continually building up a deficit.
Potential Evapotranspiration (PET)
Evaporation estimation in the IMP Runoff Model can be subdivided into three processes. In the
first process, estimates are made of the daily potential evapotranspiration (EVAP) for the
reference meteorological station. In the second process, this EVAP value is distributed to each
elevation mid-band level and is designated by potential evapotranspiration (PET). In the third
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process, these PET values are used in conjunction with the calculated soil moisture deficit values
to yield an actual evapotranspiration value for each band (AET).
EVAP = K * MK * TX (17.7)
where: K is an evaporation constant = 0.133

MK is a factor that is specified as a monthly factor. It accounts for the seasonal variation of
EVAP.
TX is the maximum temperature
PET ( L) = EVAP 0.90 * ELD (17.8)
where: ELD is the elevation range between band elevation and the AES elevation.
The IMP Runoff Model can adjust potential evapotranspiration rates for environments such as the
Douglas fir coastal forests in BC that have rates 1.5 times above calculated rates:
PET ( L) = PET ( L) * ( ETFactForest * TREE ) (17.9)
where: ETFactForest = adjustment of potential evapotranspiration in forested areas

TREE = fraction of tree covered area.
To turn off this function, use a value of 1 for ETFactForest
Actual Evapotranspiration (AET)
On any given day, in any given elevation band, there will exist a specified potential
evapotranspiration. The soil moisture deficit that exists in that band will represent the actual
evapotranspiration capability of that band. The soil moisture loss threshold uses the same concept
as the fast soil moisture deficit control to determine the ratio of actual evapotranspiration to potential
evapotranspiration.
-BSD

AET = PET 10 AETGEN
(17.10)
where: AET is the actual evapotranspiration

PET is the potential evapotranspiration
BSD is the current value of the band soil moisture deficit.
AETGEN is a specified constant, which controls the rate at which BSD influences PET.
This actual evapotranspiration demand will influence the area of the watershed, which is
permeable.
For each day a new value of soil moisture deficit is computed:

BSD = BSD PRN BM + AET (17.11)
where: PRN is rain input.
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BM is snowmelt input.
17.2.3 Third Priority: Groundwater Percolation (GWPERC)
Groundwater percolation accepts any water excess up to a fixed limit (GWPERC). Any excess
above this limit goes to a fourth priority, medium runoff.
The groundwater flow itself is split between the deep and shallow zones. The deep zone storage
allocation indicates the fraction of total groundwater that goes to the deep zone. This subdivision of
groundwater is controlled by DZSHRE, the deep zone share. For example, a value of 0.5 would
indicate that the groundwater is equally split between the deep and shallow components
Upper groundwater zone recharge = (1 - DZSHRE) x GWPERC

(17.12)
Deep groundwater zone recharge = DZSHRE x GWPERC
17.2.4 Fourth Priority: Medium Runoff
Any excess moisture input now remaining is assigned to medium runoff, or interflow. Although this
is the lowest priority, it is frequently a most significant runoff component during active snowmelt and
rainstorms.
In the model, interflow is considered to be a large reservoir that receives inflows day by day during
active snowmelt and rain. These inflows are the excesses remaining after satisfying soil moisture
and groundwater abstracted. This reservoir releases a certain fraction each day, but the volume of
water released does not immediately appear in the downstream channel system. Instead, this
released water undergoes a convolution very similar to the fast component unit hydrograph. This
release from an interflow storage reservoir and convolution before reaching the channel outflow
point produces a much more sluggish response for this medium runoff component.
17.3 Watershed Routing
Water allocated to each of the components of runoff, namely fast, medium, slow and very slow, are
subjected to a routing procedure which produces a time distribution of runoff. The routing procedure
for each component is based on the same underlying concept, namely the linear storage reservoir.
The fast and medium components of runoff are subjected to a cascade of reservoirs that is
essentially identical to unit hydrograph convolution. The slower components of runoff simply use a
single linear reservoir, thus avoiding the necessity to convolute for the final outflow.
17.3.1 Fast Runoff Routing
The Watershed Model calculates unit hydrograph ordinates for convolution of fast runoff. The
calculation is based on a conceptual model of the runoff process developed by Nash in which
inflows are passed through a cascade of linear reservoirs. The resulting outflow at time t from a unit
impulse of inflow is:
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n -1
1 t -t
u (t) = n
x x e TK (17.13)
TK (n - 1) !
where: TK is the linear storage constant for each of the reservoirs in the cascade.
n is the number of linear reservoirs in the cascade (usually 2).
t is the time after the water input has occurred.
The Watershed Model uses Equation 17.13 to calculate unit hydrograph ordinates for each day.
Linear reservoir routing of the components of runoff is computed as follows:
1
First reservoir : Q1 = Q1 + ( ) (WB Q1 )
1 + TK
1
Second reservoir : Qm = Qm + ( ) (Qm 1 Qm )
1 + TK
where: Qm = outflow from the mth linear reservoir

TK = time constant of the linear reservoir
WB = water input to the first linear reservoir
17.3.2 Medium Runoff Routing
The medium speed runoff is often thought of as an interflow component and for the small
watersheds considered here, it behaves essentially like surface runoff. The daily release QI is
subjected to time distribution by convolution with a unit hydrograph, which is similar to the fast unit
hydrograph.
1
Q1 = Q1 + ( ) (WI Q1 ) (17.14)
1 + INTK
where: WI is the water input to the interflow reservoir.
17.3.3 Slow Runoff Routing
The slow components of runoff, usually termed groundwater flow or base flow components, are
divided by the Soil Moisture Model logic into a slow, upper-zone component and a very slow,
deep-zone component. Both of these groundwater components are routed using a single linear
reservoir that accumulates each days inflow and releases a fixed percentage of the total storage
each day.
In British Columbia, interior watersheds do not receive significant recharge to the deep zone
groundwater after freeze up in the fall, whereas on the coast there is a significant amount of input
during the rainy season in the winter. An interior watershed experiences its lowest runoff, often, in
late spring. At that time, a significant proportion of the total flow in the stream will be coming from
deep zone groundwater that has finally percolated through to the stream. The initial value chosen
during the previous October may have significant influence on the total amount of water that
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appears in the stream at that time. Thus, in analyzing the power potential of watersheds of this type,
it may be important to carry on the simulation for more than one year to reduce the importance of
assumptions about this deep groundwater outflow initialization value.
17.4 Snowmelt Formulation
The simple degree-day method for the calculation of snowmelt based on mean daily temperature
has been proved to be reasonably adequate at least for moderate melt rates, and this method has
had wide use in many studies. However, there are certain conditions under which the simple
method seriously under estimates the melt rate. These conditions are, firstly, when humidity is high
and minimum temperatures are also high, and secondly, when radiant energy input is at a high level
and the minimum temperatures are also high. These conditions are the situations from which
snowmelt floods arise and it is during these conditions that melt rates can approximately double.
There are three main sources of energy that produce snowmelt:
Air temperature producing convective heat transfer;

Radiant energy, the net result of short and long wave exchange; and
Condensation or evaporation on the snow surface and the resulting latent heat release.
The total energy resulting from these sources can produce snowmelt or sublimation. A crucial
consideration is to determine how much of this energy input produces melt and how much produces
sublimation. This partition of the energy input between melt and sublimation is controlled by the air
vapor pressure compared with the vapor pressure of the snow surface, which explains why little
melt occurs when air temperatures are low, even if there is considerable radiant energy, because
cold air has a low vapor pressure.
In most hydrological situations, there is insufficient data to define the net radiant energy exchange.
Vapor pressure may be recorded, usually as a dew point temperature. The more complex melt
equations (such as the U.S. Corps equations), attempt to evaluate the three separate components
of convective heat transfer, net radiant energy and vapor exchange, but these equations appear to
ignore the partitioning of energy between melt and sublimation.
A simple melt formulation, based entirely on air temperatures has been set up in the following
manner. The mean daily temperature above freezing represents convective heat transfer. This term
requires no further adjustment: if the mean temperature is equal to or less than freezing, then no
convective melt will occur. The net radiant energy is represented in the Watershed Model by the
daily temperature range, namely the maximum daily temperature minus the minimum daily
temperature. But this term will only produce melt if the minimum temperature is above freezing. The
underlying assumption here is that the minimum temperature is a good estimate of the dew point
and so represents the vapor pressure relative to that of the snow surface. The minimum
temperature is used as a linear switch, or multiplier, and controls how much of the radiant energy
contributes to snowmelt and how much produces sublimation.
The third important energy source or sink is condensation to or evaporation from the snowpack.
This term is controlled by vapor pressure of the air compared with the vapor pressure of the snow
surface. Again the minimum temperature is used as an estimate of dew point. The rate of
condensation is determined by multiplying the dew point above 0oC by the linear multiplier based on
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minimum temperature.
The resulting snowmelt formulation is specified in two different forms, the first for forested areas of
the catchment and the second for open areas.
17.4.1 Forested Melt Formulation
TD
BM = (TM + TCEADJ x ( ) + TN ) x PTM (17.15)
XTDIUN
where: BM = Band melt for a particular band mid-elevation

PTM = Point melt factor
TM = Mean daily temperature of the band
TCEADJ = Energy partition multiplier, defined below
TD = Daily temperature range (TX-TN) in the band
TX = Band maximum daily temperature
TN = Band minimum daily temperature
XTDIUN = Radiant energy factor
TN + TD/XTDIUN
TCEADJ = XTCEMX
XTDEWP + TD/XTDIUN
XTDEWP = Reference dewpoint controlling energy partition between melt and sublimation.
XTCEMX = Maximum value of the multiplier TCEADJ
Note that the TD/XTDIUN portion of the multiplier permits some radiation melting days when TN is a
little below freezing but the maximum temperature goes somewhat above freezing.
Snowmelt BMR from rain is computed as follows:
BMR = K x TM x RN (17.16)
where: K = a constant
RN = rainfall.
17.4.2 Open-Area Melt Formulation
Open area melt (BMO) occurs above the tree-line and in open areas and is dominated by the
radiation component of snowmelt.
BM0 = MMF x BM (17.17)
BM0 = PTM (TX + TCEADJ TN)
where: MMF is specified as a monthly factor which varies with solar radiation.
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In these open areas, the radiation component of melt is far more significant, so that melt is more
dependent on the maximum daily temperature than on the mean.
A similar open-area melt formulation is used for the melt, BMG of glaciers.
BMG = KG x BMO (17.18)
where: KG is a constant > 1.0 which controls the intensity of glacial melt.
17.4.3 Negative Melt Budget
If temperatures have been below freezing for any length of time, the snow becomes deeply frozen
and requires ripening before melt can occur. These antecedent conditions are accounted for by
keeping a running sum of antecedent mean temperatures, and allowing the total to decay by a
certain fraction each day, specified by CCTK, the antecedent negative melt time constant. This
decaying of the negative melt budget is essentially a "forgetting" process, so that the negative melt
budget depends primarily on temperatures that have occurred over about the previous 10 days or
so. The memory of earlier cold temperature decays away.
The ripening of the snowpack takes into account thermal input from rainfall, and further accounts for
time delays induced by the water holding capacity of the snowpack. The ripening of the snowpack
is computed as follows:
1
CC = CC + ( ) x (CCB - CC) (17.19)
1 + CCTK
where: CCTK = antecedent negative time melt constant

CCB = TM + KCC*RN
CC = cold content storage
KCC = a constant.
The water holding capacity of the snowpack is expressed as a simple fraction of the cumulative
snowfall.
17.5 Calibration Considerations
The purpose of calibration is to define those relationships and concepts that cannot be quantified
from known basic physical principles. Calibration also provides an opportunity to fine tune
components of IMP based on actual experience with the procedures in British Columbia.
17.5.1 Regional Precipitation
The most sensitive factor affecting calculation of runoff from a drainage area is the knowledge of
precipitation over the basin. Errors in estimates of basin precipitation will be directly reflected in
comparisons of flow duration curves developed from simulation results and actual measurements.
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Initial tests with IMP revealed differences between the mid-range of these curves and the need for
adjustments in precipitation assumptions.
The regional validity of the precipitation database was examined by comparing long term, average
precipitation records of the AES station network with long term average runoff records recorded by
the WSC network of stream gauges. Differences reflect water losses from evapotranspiration and,
on a unit area basis, this should be uniform within a given region of British Columbia.
Evapotranspiration varies throughout British Columbia from 300-400 mm in the interim to 500-700
mm on the coast even though precipitation ranges more widely from about 250 to 500 mm annually
between these regions.
While large variations of runoff per unit area occur among watersheds in B.C., a large portion of this
variation results from elevation differences and the consequent affect on precipitation.
Representative hypsometric curves for each region were used to remove this source of variability
and this made it possible to compare runoff and precipitation data on a consistent basis. (Runoff is
also affected by evapotranspiration but, as discussed above, this factor does not have significant
variability within a region of the Province).
This comparison showed that the spatial pattern of precipitation defined by the Danard grid correctly
reflects the effects of topography but requires a scaling adjustment to bring the actual quantitative
values into line with the AES/WSC data networks in areas away from the AES stations. This scaling
factor was determined for each region by comparing Danard grid values with regionally
representative values of precipitation developed from our analysis of the AES/WSC data for the
region. Table 17-1 shows the specific values of average annual precipitation at the gauged
watersheds in each region and the corresponding estimated adjustment factor that is representative
for the region.
Annual Basin Recommended

Watershed Precipitation (mm) Adjustment
Region Name WSC DANARD Factor
1 Pallant 3760 1880 2.00
2 Carnation 3680 3200 1.15
3 Chapman 2980 2590 1.15
4 Pearson 724 483 1.50
5 McHale 1372 686 2.00
6 Cottonwood 1040 520 2.00
Table 17-1 Calibration Factors for Regional Precipitation
17.5.2 The Watershed Model Parameters
The UBC Watershed Model was developed as a research tool for testing the effects of hydrologic
coefficients on basin yield and hydrograph shape. Although many of these processes and
coefficients do not vary appreciably in nature it was informative to be able to examine them with this
tool. For practical applications, as in IMP, many of the coefficients do not change. However a few
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need to be adjusted to reflect differences in hydrologic conditions among the six regions of the
Province - these are the parameters that were calculated for IMP. The calibrated values were
chosen with using the UBC Watershed Model in many past hydrology studies. Additional refinement
to more exactly match simulation results to WSC data could be achieved for specific gauged
watersheds within each region. This was not undertaken for IMP because it would involve a major
hydrologic research effort to develop a significant improvement in the methodology designed here
for analysis of ungauged watershed.
The values of the calibrated parameters defined in Table 17-2 that we recommend for use in the
various regions are shown in Table 17-3.
17.5.3 Runoff Area Contributing to Floods
The Flood Frequency Analysis Model provides the capability to develop the relationship between
average intensity and the time of concentration for ungauged watersheds. The use of this model in
studies by BC Hydro for many small streams in the upper Columbia River basin has shown that the
primary factor affecting time of concentration in the maintenance area of BC is the watershed area.
For specific small-gauged watersheds, this knowledge was used to estimate the appropriate rainfall
intensity from regionally representative intensity - duration - frequency curves developed by AES.
The WSC instantaneous peak flow data for many small watersheds was used to calculate the
equivalent rainfall intensity IWSC at specific return periods using the relationship:
Qp
i wsc = (17.20)
645 Ac
with Qp in cfs and Ac in sq. miles. The ratio of IWSC to the intensity given by the AES intensity -
duration - frequency curve at the appropriate time of concentration provided an estimate of the ratio
of the area producing the flood runoff, Ar, and the measured area of the catchment, Ac.
The many values of the Ar/Ac were examined and it was found that a good estimator is simply the
mean annual precipitation. This result defined the following relationship that is incorporated into the
Flood Frequency Analysis Model:
Ar P
= , P 3000 (mm) (17.21)
Ac 3000
in which the average annual precipitation P is in millimeters.
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Number of Bands The number of elevation zones that represents the area vs. elevation
distribution of the basin (hypsometric curve).
Elevation of AES Stations Elevation of the AES meteorological station.
Precipitation Transposition (Avg. precip. at hydro site/ Avg. Precip at AES station) - 1.
Number of Sub-Basins Defines the level of segregation on the basin.
Mean Elevation of each Band Mean elevation of each elevation zone in meters.
2
Area of each Band Area of each elevation zone in km
Tree cover Fraction Fraction of the area of each elevation zone that is tree covered ranges
from zero (no trees) to 1.0 (all heavily forested.)
Glaciated Area The area in sq. km that is glaciated.
Impermeable Fraction of Area Fraction of the land area of each elevation zone that acts as if it were
impermeable.
Precipitation Adjustment Factors Allows precipitation input data to be adjusted independently for each
individual element.
Depressional Storage Allocation Limits the runoff allocation to depressional storage. The fraction of fast
and interflow runoff that bypasses the depressional storage
reregulation (ranges from 0.1 to 1.0).
Fast Runoff Soil Moisture Provides a soil moisture deficit control over fraction of runoff from each
area element that is allocated to fast runoff (ranges from 50 to 300mm).
Soil Moisture Loss Threshold Controls the relationship between actual and potential
evapotranspiration. Actual evapotranspiration equals the potential
evapotranspiration when the soil moisture deficit is zero.
Threshold Limit for Groundwater Establishes the daily threshold limit daily allocation to the groundwater
Allocation runoff system in mm
Deep Zone Storage Allocation Establishes the proportion of the groundwater input allocated to the
deep zone storage.
Time constant for Fast Rainfall Runoff The linear reservoir time constant for fast rainfall runoff.
Time Constant for Upper Groundwater The linear reservoir time constant for the upper groundwater
component.
Time Constant for Deep Zone Groundwater The linear reservoir time constant for deep zone groundwater
component.
Outflow from Deep Zone Groundwater Initial value at beginning of simulation in cms.
Table 17-2 List of Watershed Model Parameters
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Region
Parameter I II III IV V VI
Number of Bands 5 5 5 5 5 5
Elevation of AES Station (m) 15 61 34 1250 1265 674
Precipitation Transposition -0.275 0.157 0.343 -0.028 0.064 0.686
No. of Sub-Basins 2 2 2 2 2 2
Mean Elevation of each Band (m) 30 100 290 1260 1270 1070
110 150 620 1350 1600 1250
230 230 850 1550 1850 1430
380 370 1040 1670 2050 1620
600 630 1200 1740 2300 1780
Area of each Band (square km) 15.34 2.02 12.9 14.72 50.4 177.6
Tree Cover Fraction of each Band 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
Glaciated Area of each Band (square km) 0 0 0 0 0 0
Impermeable Fraction Area of each Band 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Precipitation Adjustment Factor for each Band 0 0 0 0 0 0
Depressional Storage Allocation 0.3 1 1 1 1 1
Fast Runoff Soil Moisture Deficit Control (mm) 250 250 250 250 250 250
Soil Moisture Loss Threshold (mm) 250 250 250 250 250 250
Threshold Limit for Groundwater Allocation (mm/day) 7 7 7 7 7 7
Deep Zone Storage Allocation 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Time Constant for Fast Rainfall Runoff (days) 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5
Fast Snowmelt Runoff (days) 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.5
Upper Groundwater Component (days) 7 14 7 30 30 30
Deep Zone Groundwater (days) 500 70 500 500 500 500
Outflow from Deep Zone Groundwater 0-Storage (cms) 0.910 0.040 0.350 0.108 1.29 2.97
Table 17-3 Watershed Model Parameter Values in the IMP Database
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18.0 THE POWER STUDY METHODOLOGY
The purpose here is to describe how the Power Simulation Model makes operational decisions from
one day to the next, particularly if there is a reservoir involved. Unlike many simulation programs
that use a series of ad hoc tests to determine operations, the Power Simulation Model is based on a
well-defined mathematical structure. The advantages of this approach to simulation are:
Minimizing the number of statements that must be executed increases speed of execution; and
The mathematical structure simplifies explanation of the program and makes it easy to modify
the simulation algorithm to deal with additional reservoirs or complex connectivity among the
individual reservoirs in a river basin.
The cornerstone of the simulation procedure is the operations research technique known as Linear
Programming (LP) and it would be useful to be familiar with what this procedure does (as opposed
to the mathematical details of how it works). The following sections should provide sufficient
background information on LP for the purposes of this report. Please refer to the paper by Robert
G. Blank (1981) for a more detailed and easily understandable description of LP and its general
application.
18.1 Linear Programming Approach
Linear Programming (LP) is a standardized method for optimizing a certain class of problem that
has a linear structure; this structure is solved by a step-by-step, systematic, or "programmed"
procedure. A linear programming problem is one in which the objective of the problem to be
optimized, either maximized or minimized, is a linear sum of a set of decision variables, for
example:
maximize c j x j (18.1)
j
The decision variables, xj, are those parameters whose values are to be determined by the
optimization procedure. The selection of the decision variable values that maximize the objective
function is restricted to the set of decision variable values that are allowed by linear constraints of
the form:
a
j
ij x j bj (18.2)
The decision variables must also be non-negative. The coefficients cj, aij and bj are all constants
that are to be defined by the problem. The "less than or equal" relation can be "greater than or
equal" or strictly "equal" as well. Any of these relationships are valid in constraints. All constraints
together define the "feasible region" which is the set of all possible values of the decision variables
that satisfy all constraints. The goal is to find the ones that maximize equation 18.1. There are
standard methods and many computer programs are available for solving these problems. The
detail of the solution technique used in the Power Simulation Model is not described here.
Reservoir release decisions made by the Power Simulation Model are structured in an LP
formulation for each day with the objective of maximizing the total energy generated from the
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system of reservoirs. The version of IMP that accompanies this report contains a special adaptation
of the Power Simulation Model that will deal with only one reservoir.
18.2 The Objective Function
In a Reservoir Simulation Model, the basic problem at each time step is to determine the controlled
(powerhouse) release, the spill, and how much water should be left in storage. The release, Q, the
spill, P, and the volume in storage, S, at the end of each day are the decision variables and the
objective of maximizing energy at each time step is expressed as:
maximize (b Q + C P) (18.3)
Where b and C are coefficients with values proportional to their contribution to the total system
energy.
The coefficient b on the release is calculated from the efficiency, n, and net head, H, on the
reservoir so that in the objective function, the term,
bQ=nHQ (18.4)
is the energy produced by the release. Spills, of course, do not produce energy and are a waste of
water if they can be avoided. Therefore the coefficient, C, is set to a large negative number. This
will ensure that the spill, P, will be zero unless it is absolutely necessary - when the reservoir is full
and the controlled release is at capacity.
Equation 18.3 is the objective function used in the Power Simulation Model. It has the same form as
(18.1), a maximization of a sum of decision variables multiplied by coefficients that are updated
each day. The LP is solved to determine S, Q, and P for the current time step such that the total
energy is maximized.
18.3 Constraints
The constraints include, the continuity equation for the reservoir, the capacity of the facilities, and
the operational rules. All of these considerations are structured in the form of (18.2).
The continuity constraints are of the form:
S + t Q + t P = St-1 + I (18.5)
where the time step t, the storage, St-1, at the beginning of the time step, and the upstream inflow, I,
are all known for the current day from the results of the previous day. The values of the decision
variables, S, Q, and P will maximize the objective function and satisfy this continuity equation. The
inflow includes the local runoff into the reservoir.
The capacity constraints establish the size of the physical components. Capacity constraints have
the form:
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Q QCAP (18.6)
which simply states that the controlled release must be less than or equal to the maximum
controlled discharge capacity. This is governed by the rating curve of either the penstock or the
turbine set, whichever is less.
A similar constraint applies to the storage decision variable:
S SMAX (18.7)
where SMAX is the live storage volume of the reservoir and S is the volume in storage at a
particular time.
Additional constraints must be specified to control the seasonal operation in a realistic manner.
These are specified for each month and although this may result in a discontinuity in daily
operations at months'-end it provides a convenient compromise between high resolution and
simplicity in the model. The additional constraints deal with the following controls on reservoir and
powerhouse operations:
Monthly maximum reservoir levels (i.e. for flood control);

Monthly maximum controlled releases through the powerhouse (i.e. for scheduled unit
maintenance);
Monthly target minimum reservoir levels; and
Monthly target controlled releases (i.e. to shape generation to the load pattern).
The targets impose a special set of constraints on the system. Here,
Q QT (18.8)
and
S ST (18.9)
where QT and ST are the targets for each reservoir for the particular month.
Note that these constraints are of the "greater or equal" type. Thus, while the energy is to be
maximized the reservoir is not to be drawn below ST and the controlled release is not to be less
than QT. Selection of these values controls how the project is to be operated.
It is possible to set the targets so high that there is no possible combination of decision variables
that will satisfy all of the constraints. For example there may not be enough water available at a
particular time to meet all of the demands for it. If this occurs the Power Simulation Model will
automatically redefine the constraints to make a feasible solution possible. If QT <> 0, the Power
Simulation Model drops the constraint on reservoir levels, equation (18.9), and at the same time
changes (18.8) to:
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Q QT (18.10)
This will guarantee a solution but will limit the controlled release to the targets rather than exceeding
them. However, if the targets are set to zero the Power Simulation Model does not make these
changes and equations (18.8) and (18.9) continue to apply. If you are having difficulty in obtaining
good operations from your choice of these targets it is usually a good idea to set them to zero. This
gives the Power Simulation Model a larger feasible region in which to develop the solution.
18.4 Operating Rules
The target minimum reservoir elevations (month and storage levels) in each reservoir and the
target-controlled releases for each reservoir are the essential elements in the reservoir-operating
scheme in the Power Simulation Model These two parameters are interrelated and should be
developed with this in mind. The amount of water that can be released on any day depends upon
the water available in storage and the inflow. The two targets can be in conflict if there is not
enough water to satisfy both. If the target release is too high then it may not be possible to meet the
target reservoir level. A workable combination of the two targets is dependent on hydrology and the
live storage volume and how it will be used to regulate the flow. Appropriate targets will develop as
the user gains experience modeling the project under study. In this section, some suggestions are
made for developing a trial set of targets.
The basic purpose of a large storage reservoir is to store water from the wet season for use in the
dry season. Using this simple concept, a hand calculation of the reservoir routing of the annual
hydrograph of mean monthly flows gives a good indication of what the appropriate targets should
be. The year can be divided into wet and dry seasons based on whether or not the monthly average
flow is above or below the annual average. Compute the average flow for the dry season and add
the amount of live storage in the reservoir to obtain the desired dry season average flow by
augmentation from storage. This proves a good starting estimate of the target-controlled release for
the dry season. Note that the target controlled release should never be more than the annual
average runoff otherwise over-year storage is used continuously and this will eventually cause the
reservoir to empty and never refill.
The appropriate target minimum reservoir elevations can be determined from the volume of the
target-controlled release that must come out of storage in each month. Assume the reservoir is
empty at the end of the dry season; then calculate backwards in time to determine the levels
required at each month. A similar procedure can be used to develop the target minimum reservoir
elevations during filling.
For reservoirs that are to operate run-of-river, a different approach is required. Basically, these
reservoirs are always full and simply pass the inflow. Therefore, the target release would be the
powerhouse capacity (provided that the penstock is large enough) and the target elevation is the full
supply level throughout the year.
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19.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Acres International Limited, Hydrologic Design Methodologies for Small-Scale Hydro at

Ungauged Sites - Phase II - Feasibility Level Study for Atlantic Provinces:, for Environment
Canada, Mines and Resources Canada, Study Documentation Report, Summary Report, and
Applications Manual, April 1985.
Atmospheric Environment Service: Temperature and Precipitation, 1941-1970, British Columbia,

94 pp.
Blank, Robert G., 1981: Scientific American, June 1981, Vol. 244, No. 6, p. 126.
Charles Howard & Associates Ltd., Flood Frequency and Hydrograph Analysis for Ungauged
Watersheds, Indian and Northern Affairs, Northern Affairs Program, March 1978.
Charles Howard & Associates Ltd., POP - User's Manual, Project Oriented Program for
Simulation of Hydroelectric Development Projects, for B.C. Hydro, Hydroelectric Generation
Project Division, December 1982.
Charles Howard & Associates Ltd., Analysis and Use of Urban Rainfall Data in Canada, for
Environment Canada, Report EPS 3-WP-79-4, Water Pollution Control Directorate, July 1979.
Crippen Consultants, MICRO HYDRO, Volume I - A Survey of Potential Micro Hydro

Developments for Use by Remote Communities in British Columbia; Volume II - Guidance
Manual of Procedures for Assessment of Micro Hydro Potential; Volume III - Site Investigations
- A Survey of Potential Micro Hydro Developments for Use by Remote Communities in British
Columbia, for the Ministry of Energy, Mines and Resources, Conservation and Renewable
Energy Policy Division, October 1980.
Danard, M.B., Mean Annual Precipitation (1941 - 1970) Over British Columbia for Water
Investigations Branch, Water Resources Service, Province of British Columbia, Report No. 24,
March 1980.
Danard, M.B., Maximum 24 hour Rainfall in Northern Interior British Columbia, for Water
Investigations Branch of the Ministry of Environment, Province of British Columbia, Report No.
23, March 1979.
Danard, M.B., 1974: A physical model for the variation of precipitation over the Toquart
watershed. Rep. No. 14, prepared for Water Investigation Branch Dec. 31, 1974, 27 pp. Danard,
M.B., 1975: A model for the variation of precipitation over the Greater Vancouver Water District
catchment basins. Rep. No. 15, prepared for Water Investigations Branch, Apr. 1975, 22 pp.
Danard, M.B., 1975: 24 hr Rainfall Amounts for Various Return Periods over Southwestern
British Columbia. Report No. 17, prepared for Water Investigations Branch, Aug. 31, 1975, 37
pp.
Danard, M.B., 1978: 24 hr Rainfall Amounts for Various Return Periods over South-central and
User Manual for 70

South-eastern British Columbia. Report N. 21, prepared for Water Investigations Branch, Jan.
1978, 28 pp.
Danard, M.B., 1979: Maximum 24 hr Rainfall in Northern Interior British Columbia. Report No.
23, prepared for Water Investigations Branch, March 1979, 91 pp.
Eagleson, Peter S., The Stochastic Kinematic Wave, Proceedings of the United States - Japan
Bi-Lateral Seminar in Hydrology, Honolulu, January 1971, pp 202-225.
Flatt, Paul, and Howard, Charles D.D., Preliminary Screening Procedure for Economic Storage-
Treatment Trade-offs in Stormwater Control, International Symosium on Urban Stormwater
Management, Lexington, Kentucky, July 1978.
Hage, K.D., 1961: On summer cyclogenesis in the lee of the Rocky Mountains. Bull. Amer.
Meteor. Soc., 42, pp. 20-33.
Harley, Brendan M., Sensitivities of Hydrological Engineering Design Models to Meteorological

Inputs, 2nd Conf. on Hydrometeorology, Joint AMS and CMOS Meeting, Oct. 25-27, 1977,
Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Howard, Charles D.D., A Study of Hydrologic Phenomena in the Yukon Territories, Report by
UNIES Limited, for Comptroller of Water Rights, Yukon Territory, Department of Indian Affairs
and Northern Development, Whitehorse, March 1975.
Howard, Charles D.D., and Smith, D.DI., Floods on Ungauged Watersheds, Canadian
Hydrology Symposium, Edmonton, August 29-31, 1977.
Leith, R.M., Streamflow Regionalization in British Columbia, No. 1, Regression of Mean Annual
Floods on Physiographic Parameters, Report Series No. 40, for Environment Canada, Inland
Waters Directorate, Pacific Region, Water Resources Branch, 1975.
Leith, R.M., Streamflow Regionalization in British Columbia, No. 2, Regression of Mean Annual
Flows on Physiographic Parameters, Report Series No. 46, for Environment Canada, Inland
Waters Directorate, Pacific Region, Water Resources Branch, 1976.
Leith, R.M. Streamflow Regionalization in British Columbia, No. 3, Statistics of Mean Annual
Flow, Report Series No. 50, for Environment Canada, Inland Waters Directorate, Pacific Region,
Water Resources Branch, 1977.
Leith, R.M., Streamflow Regionalization in British Columbia, No. 4, Regression of Low Flows on
Physiographic Parameters, Report Series No. 57, Environment Canada, Inland Waters
Directorate, Pacific Region, Water Resources Branch, 1978.
Quick, Michael, C., and Pipes, Anthony, A Combined Snowmelt and Rainfall Runoff Model,
Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 3, No. 3, 1976, pp. 449-460.
Quick, Michael, C., and Pipes, Anthony, Formulation of the UBC Watershed Model, Snowmelt
User Manual for 71

Model Used in Operational Forecasting of Snowmelt Runoff, WMO Intercomparison Project,
Geneva, March, 1983.
Sigma Engineering Ltd., Small Hydro Power Resource in the Provincial System - Technology
and Resource Assessment:, for Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Energy, Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Conservation and Technology Division, February 1984.
Sigma Engineering Ltd., Small Hydro Power Resource in the Provincial System - Economic and
Financial Assessment, for Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Energy, Mines and
Petroleum Resources, Conservation and Technology Division, February 1984.
Sigma Engineering Ltd., Feasibility of Supplying Hydro Power to Moses Inlet, B.C. Forestry
Camp Under Contract, for Lancaster Resource Corporation, March 1984.
T. Ingledow & Associates Limited, British Columbia Hydrometric Network Study, for Government
of Canada, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Volumes I and II of Interim Report,
March 1969, Volumes I and II of Report, April 1969.
Titus, R.L., 1967: Upper Air Climate of Canada - Charts of Monthly Geopotential, Temperature
and Humidity 1951-1960. Toronto, Meteor. Branch, Dept. of Transport 103 pp.
Wooding, R.A., A Hydraulic Model for the Catchment-Stream Problem. I Kinematic Wave
Theory, Journ.Hydrol., vol.3, now 3/4, pp. 254-267, 1965.
User Manual for 72

20.0 APPENDIX A SCREENS FROM IMP 5.0
Screen A.1 Browser
Screen A.2 Data Import Utility
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Screen A.3 Meteorological Stations in Canada
Screen A.4 Weather and Streamflow Data Screen - Streamflow
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Screen A.5 Weather and Streamflow Data Screen - Weather
Screen A.6 Flood Frequency Analysis Data Screen Catchment Data
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Screen A.7 Flood Frequency Analysis Data Screen Streambed Data
Screen A.8 Flood Frequency Analysis Data Screen - Precipitation
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Screen A.9 Flood Frequency Analysis Data Screen Observed Streamflow
Screen A.10 Flood Frequency Analysis Results Screen
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Screen A.11 Watershed Data Screen Basin Characteristics
Screen A.12 Watershed Data Screen Water Budget
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Screen A.13 Watershed Data Screen Time Constants
Screen A.14 Watershed Data Screen Weather Stations
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Screen A.15 Watershed Data Screen Meteorology
Screen A.16 Watershed Runoff Simulation Screen
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Screen A.17 Watershed Runoff Results Screen
Screen A.18 Power Study Data Screen Efficiency Curve
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Screen A.19 Power Study Data Screen Reservoir Levels
Screen A.20 Power Study Data Screen Turbine Data
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Screen A.21 Power Study Data Screen Penstock Data
Screen A.22 Power Study Data Screen Operating Limits
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Screen A.23 Powerhouse Simulation Screen
Screen A.24 Powerhouse Simulated Results Screen
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Screen A.25 Powerhouse Simulated Results Screen Frequency Analysis
Screen A.26 Powerhouse Simulated Results Screen Generation
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Screen A.27 Installed Capacity Optimization Screen
Screen A.28 Stream Geometry Data Screen
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Screen A.29 Stream Geometry Data Screen Discharge vs Storage Curve
Screen A.30 Fish Preference Data Screen
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Screen A.31 Weighted Usable Area Screen
Screen A.32 Weighted Usable Area vs Discharge Screen - Setup
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Screen A.33 Weighted Usable Area vs Discharge Screen - Results
Screen A.34 Weighted Usable Area vs Discharge Screen Results Analysis
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Figure 16-1 Rainfall and Runoff Spectra ................................................................................36

Table 17-1 Calibration Factors for Regional Precipitation .....................................................62

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User Manual for v

1.1 Purpose of IMP 5.0

IMP consists of five basic components that include:

1.2 How to Obtain IMP

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1.4 Installation Procedure

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2.1 Navigating Around

2.2 Creating a New Project

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2.3.1 Project File (.PRO)

2.3.2 Flood Frequency File (.FFA)

2.3.3 Watershed File (.PAR)

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2.3.5 Database File (.MDB)

2.3.6 Excel File (.XLS)

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1 Station name (Start Year - End Year)

The streamflow is listed in the following fields:

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3-5 Line # (not including title)

8-9 Current Year

1-10 Station Name

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3.1 Using the AES Format

The following AES formats are supported in IMP 5.0:

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3.2 Using the WSC Format

3.3 Using the HSP Format

3.4 Using the TXT Format

1. Select the [Generic Format] option.

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1. Select the [Excel Format] option.

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4.1 View Meteorological Stations Closest to a Selected Location

4.2 View All Meteorological Stations in Canada

4.3 View Precipitation Statistics

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4.4 View Average Annual Precipitation for a Selected Location

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5.1 Select a Station

5.2 Select a Period to View

5.3 Select Data Type

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6.1 View and Edit Catchment Data

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6.2 View and Edit Streambed Data

6.3 Estimate Stream Width

6.4 View and Edit Precipitation

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6.5 View and Edit Observed Streamflow

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8.1 View and Edit Basin Characteristics

8.2 View and Edit Water Budget