Dismemberment of Pakistan

The bruised sentiments of National unity and the constant

conflict between them dramatically erupted into mass civil
disorder that was blatantly and shamefully fuelled by India,
which tragically resulted in the brutal and violent amputation
of Pakistans Eastern Wing.
GLOBAL WARMING Haunts Mankind
Tuesday, December 01, 2009

Learning from experience is a faculty almost never practiced.

Introduction: Remembrance of national tragedies is as important as celebrating victories. In short

but tremulous history of our beloved homeland, we have often found ourselves pitched against
mighty challenges in both scope and scale, sometimes by chance and sometimes by design. We
managed to negotiate many of them fairly, if not with perfection like achievement of Nuclear
capability as a minimum deterrent despite inordinate global pressure and offsetting Brass tacks
crisis (1986-87). But one such instance has become a perpetual source of torment and shame for
us Dismemberment of Pakistan. The purpose of writing this article is to review the catechism of
this tragedy and to evaluate our post debacle national performance to understand whether or not
we have learnt any lessons from it and to trace its relevance with our contemporary socio-politics.

Separation of East Pakistan was a tremendous loss and unbearable tragedy. Cocktail of various
factors generated, directed and expedited the flow of unfortunate events towards this debacle. It
was the outcome of perpetual deficit of good governance which created an unbridgeable hiatus
between the two wings of Pakistan. The bruised sentiments of National unity and the constant
conflict between them dramatically erupted into mass civil disorder that was blatantly and
shamefully fuelled by India, which tragically resulted in the brutal and violent amputation of
Pakistans Eastern Wing.

It is a rebuke to our political sagacity that we failed to

mature the dream of our founding fathers right from the first
step i.e. we miserably failed in framing a unanimously agreed
upon constitution. Whereas in India, passed by the
Constituent Assembly on November 26, 1949, the
constitution came into effect on January 26, 1950.
Political factors
i. Delay in Framing Constitution: It is a rebuke to our political sagacity that we failed to
mature the dream of our founding fathers right from the first step i.e. we miserably failed in
framing a unanimously agreed upon constitution. Whereas in India, passed by the Constituent
Assembly on November 26, 1949, the constitution came into effect on January 26, 1950.

The delay in producing a constitutional framework made the reconciliation of these two
dialectically different inheritances a far more difficult and almost hopeless task.
-Lawrence Ziring

ii. Flawed One Unit system: Though in theory one Unit system was in vogue but practically
West Pakistan enjoyed the superiority because had it not been the case, Awami league would have
been allowed by the west Pakistans administrative elite to form the government after its blazing
victory in 1970s elections.
iii. Dysfunctional Democracy:

Our history of dysfunctional democracy has caused us great grief, most hauntingly in the
separation of East Pakistan in 1971
-President Musharraf
In the Line of Fire

iv. The war of 1965 and flawed military strategy: Ayub Khan had developed the fatal
theory that the defence of East Pakistan lay in the West. Therefore the East Pakistanis were left
undefended and completely abandoned to their fate. This policy only added to the feeling of
isolation and alienation in East Pakistan.

v. Role of Mujeeb Ur Rehman: Mujeeb, in the words of Yahya khan, was an unreliable and
immature person who thrived on publicity and mass hysteria, could only gesticulate and shout
and was incapable of analyzing and thinking. His uncompromising insistence on his infamous 6-
points agenda and equally rigid response of Mr. Bhutto made reconciliation, virtually, an impossible
task.
Awami league demanded nothing less than the break-up of Pakistan.
-Lawrence Ziring

vi. Role of Ayub Khan: Three of the Prime Ministers hailing from East Pakistan - Khawaja
Nazimuddin, Mohammad Ali Bogra and Suhrawardy were manoeuvred out of office by the west
Pakistani elite. Ayub Khans martial law proved to be the proverbial last straw.

vii. Hostility of India and Mukti Bahni: It was a regional sectarian force, created and trained
by BSF, to challenge the authority of Pakistan Army. It escalated the violence into a full-fledged
civil war.

viii. Imposition of Marital law: Ayub khans decision to hand over the power to the then army
chief Gen. Yahya instead of politicians, as a quid to escape a public trial further worsened the
already tensed environment.

ix. Negative attitude of leaders of East Pakistan: Taj-ud-din Ahmad, General Secretary
Awami League said in 1970 that

A class of exploiters belonging to western region had sucked east Pakistan for the last 23 years.
History of Pakistan is the history of conspiracy and a history of continued oppression.

2. Economic Factor
i. Economic inequality of both the wings: It was widely and pervasively shared thought
though not without some substance that more funds were allocated to West Pakistan and the
development of the other half was altogether neglected.

ii. Larger share of West Pakistanis in administration and Army: The medium built
Bengalis found it quite difficult to finesse their way to Army as compared to the strong built
Punjabis and Pathans. Though there was no discrimination in recruitment process but
unfortunately it was interpreted with the mindset of narrow nationalism.

3. Geographical factors
i. Geographical discontinuity:.

The integration of the nation, split at its birth into two segments separated from one another by a
thousand miles of India territory, was a daunting exercise.
-Lawrence Ziring

ii. Flood of 1970: Government acted quite late to carry out the relief operation during the
heavy flood of 1970 that caused havoc in East Pakistan and the sheer enormity of the disaster
attracted worldwide attention. Sheikh Mujeeb cashed the opportunity and ignited the sentiments of
sedition of general populace by labelling it as a deliberate delay on the part of West Pakistan
because it was least concerned by the sufferings and plight of the East.
When the Pakistan government finally acted, its assistance was only a fraction of that provided
by international agencies
-Lawrence Ziring

4. Social Factors
i. Language and emotive issues: This was the first schism in the Centre-East Pakistan
relationship and developed immediately after the Quaid declared in a speech in Dhaka on March
24, 1948, that Urdu alone would be the official language of Pakistan. This took an ugly turn when
3 students of Dhaka University were killed by the riot police when they were protesting against the
announcement.

ii. No attempt for cultural unity of both the wings: No attempts were made to develop
common cultural ties and solidarity between both the blocs. Bengalis resented that even though
they were learning the Urdu language yet there was no desire amongst the Western half to learn
Bangla language.

5. Administrative Factors
i. Issue of the Capital: East Pakistan, that was culturally homogenised, politically sensitive and
socially united, wanted to have Dhaka as the capital of Pakistan but instead of negotiating a
mutually agreed upon solution to this problem, unilaterally, Karachi was declared capital of
Pakistan, a decision that was greatly resented by East Pakistan.

ii. Military Operation: Instead of following a proper course to develop political reconciliation
through negotiations with the spirit of mutual accommodation, the Government resorted to the
easy-looking but fateful option of launching military operation Search Light. Atrocities were
committed in the name of national interest further polarising the eastern wing.

Pakistans failure to strengthen her political institutions and her political frailty were an invitation
to disaster. If the politicians blundered.....the military harmed the country no less with its repeated
intervention in civil affairs. Both are at fault, and both accuse each other for causing greater
disservice to the state.
- Gen. K. M. Arif (Khakhi Shadows)
iii. Role of State Controlled Media: The state controlled media was feeding the Pakistanis with
the news of imaginary victories and resultantly when the reality surfaced, the people of Pakistan
were not mentally prepared to accept the magnitude of defeat.

6. Military Surrender: After a lacklustre military performance, on 16 December 1971,

Lieutenant-General A. A. K. Niazi, supreme commander of Pakistani Army in East Pakistan,
surrendered to the Allied Forces (Mitro Bahini) represented by Lieutenant General Arora of Indian
Army at the surrender.

7. Hamood-ur-Rehman Commission Report: A half-hearted attempt was made to surface the

facts that caused the debacle but unfortunately that report was not published by Mr. Bhutto
ostensibly to save the army from further demoralisation. The crux of this report is:
i. It accused the army of carrying out wanton arson killings in the countryside in the name of
quelling rebellion.
ii. Moreover, the orders emanated from the GHQ were studiously ambiguous.
iii. It asserts that the political turmoil and the power struggle between Bhutto and Mujeeb along
with the flawed military strategy and poor leadership hastened the dismemberment of Pakistan.

While many others share the blame for this monumental tragedy, neither President Yahya Khan
nor the military can escape responsibility.
- Khaki Shadows (Gen. K. M. Arif)

8. Critical Analysis: What would have happened had there been good governance and political
stability; had there been a logical and a mature approach of our brain dead politicians and ear
jammed bureaucracy towards simmering domestic issues; had Mr. Bhutto, instead of insisting on
power sharing, decided to sit in the parliament as the opposition leader? - is a realm of
speculation. But there is an intellectual consensus that had it been so, the situation would not have
come to such a shameful denouement. Today East Pakistan debacle still offer us many lessons to
learn such as:

i. Federalism can only work if each of the units is a willing and an equal partner.
ii. Resource distribution formula must be transparent and mutually agreed upon. It cannot be
and must not be tilted by force in favour of any single unit.
iii. Political stability and good governance is the only way to survive as a nation state and to rise
among the comity of nations with dignity and respect.
iv. Finally yet importantly, Military option must be carefully planned and executed and must be
backed by a profound political vision.
Pakistans Chequered History,
1947-2009
Addressing the armed forces on Aug 14, 1947, Quaid-i-Azam
said, Do not forget that the armed forces are the servants of
the people and you do not make national policy; it is we, the
civilians, who decide these issues and it is your duty to carry
out these tasks with which you are Entrusted.
Pakistan's chequered History 1947-09
Tuesday, September 01, 2009

The State of Pakistan was created under the Independence Act of 1947. The Act made the
existing Constituent Assemblies, the dominion legislatures. These Assemblies were allowed to
exercise all the powers which were formerly exercised by the Central Legislature, in addition to the
powers regarding the framing of a new Constitution, prior to which all territories were to be
governed in accordance with the Government of India Act, 1935.

The first session of the first Constituent Assembly of Pakistan was held on 10 August, 1947 at
Sindh Assembly Building Karachi. On 11 August, 1947, Muhammad Ali Jinnah was elected
unanimously as the President of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan and the National Flag was
formally approved by the Assembly.

On 12 August, 1947, a resolution was approved regarding officially addressing Muhammad Ali
Jinnah as "Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah." On the same day, a special committee called the
"Committee on Fundamental Rights of Citizens and Minorities of Pakistan" was appointed to look
into and advise the Assembly on matters relating to fundamental rights of the citizens, particularly
the minorities, with the aim to legislate on these issues appropriately. On 14 August, 1947,
Transfer of Power took place. On 15 August 1947, Quaid-i-Azam was sworn in as the first
Governor General of Pakistan. Jinnah remained in this position till his death, 11 September, 1948.

Quaids vision of Pakistan

After the death of Quaid-iAzam, Pakistan gradually drifted away from the democratic path, rule of
law, tolerance and a liberal society and instead of seeing itself as a beacon light for other states to
follow, as was the vision of Founder of Pakistan, Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, it found itself
embedded in religious fanaticism, corruption, crushing of moral values, human rights, womens
rights, fundamental rights under the worst form of military dictators rule for almost 33 years in a
span of Pakistans chequered history of 62 years. During the military dictatorial rule, state
institutions were crushed, liberals were gagged, and the aspiration to live a decent life of millions
of toiling people has remained a dream. The military autocracy is considered as the black chapter
of Pakistans politics.
Clarifying the role of armed forces in his address to the armed forces on Aug 14, 1947, Quaid-i-
Azam said, Do not forget that the armed forces are the servants of the people and you do not
make national policy; it is we, the civilians, who decide these issues and it is your duty to carry out
these tasks with which you are entrusted.

Setting aside religion from the business of State, Jinnah made his views clear while addressing the
Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, on August 11, 1947, where he said, "You may belong to any
religion or caste or creed - that has nothing to do with the business of the State. Now I think we
should keep that in front of us as our ideal and you will find that in course of time Hindus would
cease to be Hindus and Muslims would cease to be Muslims, not in the religious sense, because
that is the personal faith of each individual, but in the political sense as citizens of the State.

Accession of Princely States

On July 25, 1947, Lord Louis Mountbatten (the last Viceroy of India) in his address to the Chamber
of Princes advised them that in deciding the question of accession, they should take into
consideration communal composition and the geographical location of their states. Nearly all the
states accepted the reality of the situation and opted either for Pakistan or India accordingly. But
there were four states, Junagadh, Hyderabad, Jodhpur and Kashmir, which defied the principle of
partition.

I. Junagadh: The ruler of Junagadh was a Muslim but 80 percent of his subjects were Hindus. On
September 15, 1947, the Nawab acceded to Pakistan, despite the fact that his state did not fall
within the geographical grouping of Pakistan. India protested, stormed in her troops, and forcibly
reversed the Nawab's decision and Junagadh became a part of India.

II. Hyderabad: Hyderabad, the second of the defiant states was the largest and richest in India.
Its population was 85 percent Hindu but the ruler (Nizam) was a Muslim. He was reluctant to
accede either to India or Pakistan but was dismissed by Mountbatten for adopting this course. The
Nizam was forced by the Indian government and Lord Mountbatten to join India. A standstill
agreement was concluded between India and Hyderabad. The Hindu subjects were incited to revolt
against the Nizam's desire to be independent. The whole province suffered turmoil and violence.
Hyderabad filed a compliant with the Security Council of the United Nations. Before the hearing
could be started, Indian troops entered Hyderabad to "restore order", and under the pretext of
"police action" Hyderabad was forced to join India. The Hyderabad army surrendered on
September 17, 1948, and finally Hyderabad was annexed into the Indian Union.

III. Jodhpur: Yet another prince, the Maharaja of Jodhpur, expressed a wish to join Pakistan but
Mountbatten warned him that his subjects were mostly Hindus and his accession to Pakistan would
create problems. As a result Jodhpur, too, acceded to India.

IV. Kashmir: Kashmir, the last of the defiant states, was the reverse of Hyderabad. It had a Hindu
ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, but his subjects were mostly Muslims, accounting to 78 percent of the
total population. The Maharaja was reluctant to join either India or Pakistan. But Lord Mountbatten
urged him to take a decision to join either of the states before August 15, 1947. The Maharaja
asked for more time to consider his decision. In the meantime he asked the Indian and the
Pakistani government to sign a "standstill agreement" with him. Pakistan consented but India
refused.

The local population of Poonch began to press the Maharaja to accede to Pakistan. In August 1947,
they held a massive demonstration to protest against the Maharaja's indecisiveness. The Maharaja
panicked. He asked his Hindu paratroopers to open fire, and within a matter of seconds, several
hundred Muslims were killed. Rising up against this brutal action, a local barrister called Sardar
Muhammad Ibrahim immediately set up the Azad Kashmir government and began to wage
guerrilla warfare against the Maharaja. By October 1947, the war of Kashmir had begun in earnest.
The Pathan tribesmen from the NWFP, wanting to avenge the deaths of their brothers, invaded the
valley. On reaching the valley of Kashmir, they defeated the Maharaja's troops and reached the
gates of Srinagar. The Maharaja sensing his defeat took refuge in Jammu whence he appealed to
India to send troops to halt the onslaught of the tribesmen. India agreed on the condition that
Kashmir would accede to India. On October 26, 1947, the Maharaja acceded to India. Lord
Mountbatten accepted the accession on behalf of India.

On October 27, 1947, India began to airlift her troops to Srinagar, and launched a full-scale attack
on the tribesmen. Pakistan rushed her regular troops into Kashmir and a full-scale war with India
ensued. She took control of Azad Kashmir Army. But the Security Council on August 13, 1948,
called for an immediate ceasefire, the withdrawal of all Pakistani and Indian troops and holding of
plebiscite under United Nations' supervision. Both the Indian and Pakistani governments accepted
the resolution..

In January 1949, the resolution began to be implemented. In July 1949, the ceasefire line was
demarcated. Pakistan's side of Kashmir consisted of some parts of Jammu, Poonch, some areas of
Western Kashmir, Gilgit, and a great chunk of Ladakh territory near the Chinese border in the
North. India kept the valley of Kashmir, Jammu and the remainder of Ladakh territory near the
Tibet border. The cease-fire has remained in existence since 1949. The Kashmir issue still remains
disputed and unresolved.

Pakistan found itself embedded in religious fanaticism,

corruption, crushing of moral values, human rights, womens
rights, fundamental rights under the worst form of military
dictators rule for almost 33 in a span of Pakistans
chequered history of 62 years.
Objectives Resolution
On 7 March, 1949, the Objectives Resolution, was introduced by the first prime minister
Nawabzada Liaquat Ali Khan, and later adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 12 March, 1949.
The Objectives Resolution, which is considered to be the "Magna Carta" of Pakistan's constitutional
history, proclaimed the following principles:
1 Sovereignty belongs to Allah alone but He has delegated it to the State of Pakistan through its
people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him as a sacred trust; 2 The State shall
exercise its powers and authority through the chosen representatives of the people; 3 The
principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice, as enunciated by Islam,
shall be fully observed; 4 Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and
collective spheres in accordance with the teachings of Islam as set out in the Holy Quran and
Sunnah; 5 Adequate provision shall be made for the minorities to freely profess and practice their
religions and develop their cultures;.6 Pakistan shall be a federation; 7 Fundamental rights shall be
guaranteed. 8. Judiciary shall be independent.

Musicial chairs
A game of musical chairs started after the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan in 1951. During the
next seven years, Pakistan witnessed six prime ministers. Khawaja Nazimuddin; Mohammad Ali
Bogra; Chaudhry Mohammad Ali; Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar, and
Feroz Khan Noon.

Maulvi Tamizuddin challenges dissolution

Under Quaid-i-Azam's constitutional framework, executive powers lay with the prime minister.
When Liaquat Ali Khan was assassinated on October 16, 1951, Khawaja Nazimuddin, who was the
governor general at that time, took over as the second prime minister. Ghulam Muhammad, who
had been finance minister since the inception of Pakistan, was elevated to the post of governor
general. It was under Nazimuddin that the second draft of the Basic Principles Committee was
presented to the Constituent Assembly on December 22, 1952. The final draft of the Constitution
was prepared in 1954. However, just before the draft could be placed in the House for approval,
the Assembly was dissolved by Ghulam Muhammad on 24 October,

Maulvi Tamizuddin, President of the Assembly, challenged the dissolution in the Sindh Chief Court,
and won the historical case. The government in return, went to the Federal Court, where the
judgment was given by the then Chief Justice Muhammad Munir, according to which Maulvi
Tamizuddin lost the case. Constitutional history has proved that the superior court judgement
against Maulvi Tamizuddin amounted to stabbing democracy behind its back.

Second Constituent Assembly

The second Constituent Assembly of Pakistan was created on 28 May, 1955 under Governor
General's Order No.12 of 1955. The Electoral College for this Assembly was the provincial
assemblies of respective provinces. The strength of this Assembly was 80 members, half each
from East Pakistan and West Pakistan. One of the major decisions taken by this Assembly was the
establishment of West Pakistan (One Unit), with the aim to create parity between the two wings
(East and West Pakistan). This Assembly also achieved its target by giving the first Constitution to
the nation i.e. the Constitution of Pakistan 1956. The Constitution was enforced with effect from
23 March, 1956.

1956 Constitution
The 1956 Constitution provided for parliamentary form of government with all the executive
powers in the hands of prime minister. President was head of the state and was to be elected by all
members of the national and provincial assemblies. He was to hold office for five years. The
president was to act on the advice of prime minister, except where he was empowered to act in his
discretion. Parliament was unicameral. Legislative powers vested in the parliament, which
consisted of the president and the National Assembly comprising 300 members divided equally
between East and West Pakistan. In addition to these 300 seats, five seats were reserved for
women for each of the two wings, for a period of 10 years: thus bringing the total membership of
the House to 310.

Ayub appointed CMLA

On 5 March, 1956, Major General Sikandar Mirza became the first elected President of Pakistan.
Although, the first general election was scheduled for early 1959, Sikandar Mirza abrogated the
Constitution, dissolved the National and provincial assemblies, and declared Martial Law, on 7
October 1958. He appointed Gen Muhammad Ayub Khan, Commander-in-Chief of the Army, as the
Chief Martial Law Administrator.

During Ayubs era, there was tremendous growth in the

industrialisation sector but unfortunately the economy
growth was lopsided. On the one hand, industrialisation gave
rise to the famous 22 richest families in Pakistan, and on the
other hand, it created a sea of poverty in smaller towns and
villages,
Constitution of 1962
On June 8, 1962, martial law was lifted from Pakistan and the new Constitution was introduced.
The Constitution of 1962 envisaged a federal state with presidential form of government, with
National Assembly at the centre and the provincial assemblies in the provinces. The legislatures,
both at centre and in provinces were unicameral. The federal system had been curtailed by
allowing the provincial governors to be appointed directly by the president. All executive authority
of the Republic of Pakistan, under the Constitution, vested in the office of the president. President
appointed his cabinet members who were directly responsible to him.
The electoral system was made indirect, and the Basic Democrats for both wings were declared
Electoral College for the purpose of electing the Assemblies and the president. Basic democrats
were 80,000 in number (40,000 from each East and West Pakistan). The total membership of the
National Assembly was 156, one half of whom was to be elected from East Pakistan and other half
from West Pakistan. Also three seats were reserved for women from each province. The term of
this Assembly was three years. The norm was established that if the president was from West
Pakistan, the speaker was to be from East Pakistan and vice versa. One of the major
achievements of this Assembly was the passage of Political Parities Act, 1962.

Ayubs industrialization
During the General Ayub Khans era there was tremendous growth in the industrialisation sector
but unfortunately the economy growth was lopsided. On the one hand, industrialisation gave rise
to the famous 22 richest families in Pakistan and on the other hand, it created a sea of poverty in
smaller towns and villages, where 70% of the population lived. The 22 families owned 66% of
industrial capital, and also controlled banking and 97 per cent of insurance.

It resulted in the mass migration of the rural population to the industrial cities. Development took
place only in the urban areas that left behind a huge gap in the development between the cities
and the country-side. The economic gap between West Pakistan and East Pakistan (Bangladesh)
grew wider. East Pakistan was ignored though it provided the golden fibre jute, that helped
boost the countrys economy. Ayubs economic advisers espoused the concept of ``social
inequality of greed'' by pointing out that income inequalities not only contributed to the growth of
the economy but also made possible a real improvement for lower income groups..Yet, the 1960s
era was called the decade of development and economic growth. Pakistan was often cited as a
model of development in the 60s and, Pakistan's economic development efforts were beginning to
be hailed as a rare success story.

Ayubs era for a shorter period was an exceptionally successful period of economic management
because it used institutions effectively to implement economic policy coordination, speed up
economic decision-making and decentralised implementation processes and authority. The basic
model of development was based on strong push in investments especially in water and power
facilitated by the Indus basin treaty with India, relaxation of foreign exchange and investment
controls, and much improved availability of long term industrial credit for the private sector
through PICIC and IDB.

Yahya Khans dark era

On 25 March, 1969, the second martial law was imposed and General Yahya Khan took-over as the
President of Pakistan and Chief Martial Law Administrator. General Yahya's regime made no
attempt to frame a constitution. The expectations were that a new constituent assembly would be
set up by holding a free and fair election. In order to hold the proposed elections. Yahya Khan
promulgated a Legal Framework Order on 30 March 1970 that spelled out the fundamental
principles of the proposed constitution and the structure and composition of the national and
provincial assemblies He later issued a Legal Framework Order (LFO), under which the first ever
general elections were held on 7 December, 1970. This was the first Assembly elected on the adult
franchise and population basis. It consisted of 313 members, 169 from East Pakistan and 144 from
West Pakistan including 13 reserved seats for women (six were from West Pakistan and seven from
East Pakistan). Soon after the elections, due to grave political differences, the province of East
Pakistan seceded from West Pakistan with the military help of India and became a sovereign
country, Bangladesh in 1971.

1973 Constitution
On 20 December, 1971 Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1928-1979) took over as the President of Pakistan as
well as the first civil chief martial law administrator. His greatest achievement is the framing of
1973 Constitution. This Constitution, called the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan
1973, was promulgated on 14 August, 1973.

The 1973 Constitution provides for a parliamentary form of government where the executive
authority of the state vests with the Prime Minister. The President, according to the Constitution, is
at the apex, representing the unity of the Republic.

From 1947 to 1973, the country had a unicameral system of legislature. Under the 1973
Constitution, Pakistan adopted bicameral system at the centre, called The Parliament, composing
the president, the National Assembly and The Senate. Originally, the general seats of the National
Assembly were 200 with additional 10 seats reserved for women, bringing the total strength to
210. The newly created Upper House i.e. the Senate had 63 members. Later in 1985 through a
Presidential Order (PO No. 14 of 1985), seven seats were added to the general seats and ten to
the reserved seats for women in the National Assembly. Ten seats were exclusively reserved for
minorities to be filled through separate electorate system. Thus the total strength of the lower
house reached to 237 members. Similarly the strength of Senate was also increased from 63 to
87.

Under the 1973 Constitution the National Assembly is elected for five years term, unless sooner
dissolved. The seats in National Assembly, unlike the Senate, are allocated to each province and
other units of the federation, on the basis of population. The Constitutional provision of 20 special
seats for women lapsed in 1990, thus decreased the Assembly strength from 237 to 217. Under
the Constitution, elections to the 10 seats reserved for minority were held on separate electorate
basis.

Despite the tenure of the Assembly being five years, as prescribed in the Constitution, ZA.Bhutto,
on 7 January, 1977 announced the holding of elections before time. Consequently, on 10 January,
1977, he advised the President to dissolve the National Assembly. Elections were held on 7 March,
1977. The opposition charged the government with rigging the elections of the National Assembly
and thereafter boycotted the provincial assemblies elections. Since the opposition had not
accepted the National Assembly elections result, they did not take oath.

Bhuttos foreign policy

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto assumed positions of increasing responsibility in Ayub Khans government,
culminating in his appointment as foreign minister in 1963. He charted a foreign policy of non-
aligned neutrality for Pakistan in the 1960s and 1970s. He focused on bilateralism in seeking
relations with the world states. Bilateralism may be termed as the crux of his foreign policy. It was
based on parity between the two states. His foreign was not based on alliances. He believed in
upholding the countrys sovereignty at all cost.
Bhutto strictly resumed implementation of his policy of non-aligned neutrality. He withdrew
Pakistan from the British Commonwealth of Nations and from the Southeast Asia Treaty
Organization, sponsored by the United States. In July 1972 he negotiated the Simla Agreement,
which confirmed a Line of Control dividing Kashmr and prompted the withdrawal of Indian troops
from Pakistani territory. To forge closer ties with the Islamic world, in 1974 Bhutto hosted the
second meeting of the Organization of Islamic States in the historic city of Lahore. He used this
forum to announce Pakistans official recognition of Bangladesh. To bolster Pakistans military
defence capabilities, Bhutto laid the groundwork for a nuclear weapons programme.

He restructured Pakistans political commitments to rely less heavily on the West and instead
achieve non-aligned neutrality. As part of this policy, he forged closer ties with China. Bhutto
pursued a strident anti-India campaign over the disputed territory of Kashmr. He did not moderate
his anti-India stance, even after Ayub Khan signed a peace agreement with India in January 1966
in Tashkent.

Zia tramples democracy

On 5 July, 1977, the third army dictator, the then army chief, Gen Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, took
over and imposed martial law. He trampled democracy, rule of law, and the liberals. Elected prime
minister ZA Bhutto was hanged in his tenure which has been described in the judiciary circles as a
judicial killing. On 24 December 1981, under Presidential Order (PO15 of 1981) a Federal Council
(Majlis-e-Shoora) was constituted by the president. Its members were nominated by the
president. The first session of this Council was held on 11 January, 1982. In this way, limited and
controlled political activities were resumed, as a result of which general elections were later held
for the National and Provincial Assemblies on 25 February, 1985, on non-party basis.

On 2 March 1985, the revival of Constitution Order (PO 14 of 1985) was issued in which a large
number of amendments were made in the Constitution. The first session of the National Assembly
was held 20 March 1985. Muhammad Khan Junejo, was nominated as the prime minister by the
President. He received vote of confidence on 24 March 1985.

Islamisation under Zias tenure

Zia introduced the Zakat, Ushr, Islamic Hadood and Penal Code in the country. The government
invited eminent scholars to compile laws about Islamic financing. The Zakat and Ushr Ordinance to
Islamise the economic system was promulgated on June 20, 1980. It covered only Islamic
organizations, associations and institutions. Zakat was to be deducted from bank accounts of
Muslims at the rate of 2.5 percent annually above the balance of Rs 3,000. Ushr was levied on the
yield of agricultural land in cash or kind at the rate of 10 percent of the agricultural yield, annually.

A Federal Shariah Court was established to decide cases according to the teachings of the Holy
Quran and Sunnah. Appeals against the Lower and High Courts were to be presented before the
Shariah Court for hearing. Zia selected his Majlis-i-Shoora in 1980. It was to be the Islamic
parliament and act as the parliament in place of the National Assembly. Most of the members of
the Shoora were intellectuals, scholars, ulema, journalists, economists and professionals belonging
to different fields of life. Shoora was to act as a board of advisers for the president.

A Shariah Council consisting of ulema was established to look into the constitutional and legal
matters of the State in order to bring them in line with Islamic thought. The media was also
targeted. Television especially was brought under Islamisation campaign, news in Arabic were to
be read on both television and radio, female anchor persons were required to cover their heads,
the Azan was relayed regularly on radio and television to announce time for prayers. In the armed
forces, the status of the religious teachers was raised to that of a Commissioned Officer..

Eighth Constitutional Amendment

On November 14, 1985, the eighth Constitutional Amendment was adopted by the Parliament.
Besides changes in other Articles in the Constitution the significant Article 58(2)(b) was added,
according to which the President acquired discretionary powers to dissolve the National Assembly.
On 29 May, 1988 the Assembly was dissolved by the President by using the power acquired under
Article 58(2)(b).

After the passing of Article 58(2)b, the National Assemblies were dissolved on five occasions
Zia-ul-Haq in 1988, Ghulam Ishaq Khan in 1990, and in 1993, Farooq Leghari in 1996 and in June
2001, Musharraf dissolved parliament and the four provincial legislatures.

However, just before the draft could be placed in the House

for approval Ghulam Muhammad, dissolved the final draft of
the Constitution on 24 October, 1954.
Third democratic era: 1988-1999
From 1988 to 1999, Pakistan was ruled by civilian governments, alternately headed by Benazir
Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif, who were each elected twice and removed from office by the then
presidents Ghulam Ishaq Khan and Farooq Leghari. under Article 58(2)(b).

Benazir rekindles democracy

Today, Benazir is being remembered in Pakistan and in the democratic states of the world as a
martyr for freedom and democracy. Benazirs death came as a shock to the 160 million peope of
Pakistan, who cherish the memory of a lady who gave her life for democracy and rule of law. She
has gone but her huge sarifices, stuggle for a cause to see Pakistan a democratic, prosperous
state lives on in the memories of the toiling millions. There is still a glimmer of hope that
Benazirs vision of seeing Pakistan a welfare will become a reality one day.

The suffering, poor prople see light at the end of the tunnel in the democratic forces of
Pakistan.and deep down, long for their leaders dream to come true. On fatal December 27, 2007,
Ms Bhutto was shot dead at Liaquat Bagh, Rawalpindi. On the importance democracy Benazir said,
It is imperative for all us to fight to save Pakistan by saving democracy. Democracy brings
development and marginalised the anti-people forces. We must save Pakistan, save democracy,
and save the fundamental rights of the People.
Benazir firmly believed that only democracy can resolve the problems of extremism and terrorism.
She even planned the engagement of those forces, who were blamed for her assassination by the
current regime. Now, it will be the PPP's duty to complete her unfinished agenda. She had plans of
an international conference of world leaders for initiating a grand dialogue between the Muslim
world and the West in 2008. That was her greatest dream. Can her wish become a reality? That is
a million dollar question but the optimistic view is yes.

Days before her death, the first woman prime minister of a Muslim country, finalised the
manuscript of her new book Reconciliation: Islam, Democracy and the West. Mark Siegel had
worked with Benazir as a collaborating writer from the West. The book's launch has accelerated the
debate for the reconciliation between Islam and the West through democracy. Thus in all its
likelihood, the book helped in framing of ideas of US President Barack Obama in his historic
address in Cairo this year. Obamas address focused on the Muslim world and he was seeking a
reconciliation between the Muslim world and the West. This is exactly what Benazir stood for. The
debate may give a new life to Ms Bhutto, but keeping that debate alive will be the biggest
challenge for the Pakistani leaders.

Events of the War of Independence (1857)

War of Independence is an important landmark in the history of Sub-Continent. This War was fought
in 1857 by Indians against the British in order to get rid of their domination. It is also given names as
Indian Rebellion, Indian Mutiny as well as Indian Revolt. The main causes of the War were political,
social, economic, military and religious. It was an extreme effort made by Indians, but they failed due
to certain reasons including mutual jealousies, disunity, and lack of central leadership etc.

This war was not spread throughout India but it was limited to few areas mainly Meerut, Delhi, Kanpur,
Lucknow etc. The main event which became the immediate cause of the war was the refusal of the
Sepoys to use the grease covered cartridges (greased with fat of pig and cow) on January 23, 1857.
At the same time, an Indian sepoy killed two British officers at Barrackpore, when he was forced to
use greased cartridges. He was arrested and hanged to death on April 8, 1857. This news spread as
fast as jungle fire.

Meerut
On 6th May, 1857 A.D. 85 out of 90 Indian soldiers at Meerut refused to bite the greased cartridges
with their teeth. These 85 soldiers were court-martialled and imprisoned for 10 years. They were
stripped off their uniforms in the presence of the entire Indian crowd. It was too much of a disgrace
and this incident sent a wave of indignation. On 10th May 1857, the Indian soldiers at Meerut broke
into open revolt. They released their companions and murdered a few European officers. On the night
of 10th May the mutineers marched to Delhi and reached there on 11th May.

Delhi
The revolutionaries reached from Meerut to Delhi on 11th May, 1857 and the small British garrison at
Delhi was not able to resist and consequently fell into their hands within 2 days. The Mughal Emperor,
Bahadur Shah Zafar, was proclaimed Emperor of India. In order to regain Delhi, Sir John Lawrence
sent a strong British force commanded by John Nicholson. After a long siege of four months, the
British recovered Delhi in September 1857 A.D. The Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was
captured, his two sons and a grandson were shot dead before his eyes and he was sent to Rangoon
where he died in the year 1862 A. D.

Kanpur
At Kanpur the struggle for Independence was led by Nana Sahib Dondu Pant (The adopted son of
Peshwa Baji Rao II). A number of British fell into his hands and he showed great kindness to them.
But when he heard about inhuman attitude of Gen. ONeil towards Indians, he became very furious
and killed all the British. General Havelock captured Kanpur after defeating Nana Sahib in a hotly
contested battle on June 17, 1857. Later on Nana Sahib, with the help of Tantya Topi, recaptured
Kanpur in November, 1857 but not for a long time and British defeated them once again in a fierce
war from December 1 to 6, 1857. Nana Sahib fled towards Nepal, where he probably died, while
Tantya Tope migrated to Kalpi.

Lucknow
The struggle for independence at Lucknow was led by Nawab, Wajid Ali Shah. The Chief
Commissioner, Sir Henry Lawrence, sought refuge with 1000 English and 700 Indian soldiers inside
the Residency. The Indians did not make any concession and killed most of the Englishmen, including
Sir Henry Lawrence and the notorious English General ONeil. At last, the Commander-in-Chief
General Collin Campbell, marched towards Lucknow and captured it after a fierce battle in March
1858.

Jhansi and Gwalior

The leader of the revolutionaries in Central India was Rani Laxmi Bai of Jhansi. General Sir Huge
Rose attacked Jhansi in March 1858 but the brave Rani Laxmi Bai kept the British General unnerved
for quite some time. She with the help of Tantya Tope created problems for the British troops. Both
fought many successful battles against the British. A fierce battle was fought between the British and
the revolutionaries under Rani Laxmi Bai and Tantya Tope from June 11 to June 1 8, 1 858 A. D. But
the personal velour of Rani and Tantya Tope could not match the resources at the command of the
British. Tantya Tope was betrayed by the Gwalior Chief Man Singh and fell into the hands of the
British. He was subsequently hanged on April 18, 1859.

Bihar
In Bihar, the Revolt was led by Kunwar Singh, a zamindar of Jagdishpur. Though he was eighty years
old, he played a prominent part in the revolt. He fought the British in Bihar and then joined Nana
Sahibs forces and took part in various encounters with the English in Oudh and Central India. He died
on April 27, 1858, leaving behind a glorious record of valour and bravery.

Conclusion
Most of the European historians have pointed out that it was a revolt of Indian soldiers who were
offended at the use of greased cartridges. In their opinion, the discontented sepoys were incited by
the landlords and the deposed native princes and the people of India were not directly involved in this
rebellion. They further assert that it was not a national war of independence, in as much as the revolt
was confined to a particular region and not to the whole of India; large areas like the Punjab, Sind and
Rajputana remained unaffected. It was admittedly a great and courageous effort by patriotic Indians to
get rid of the foreign domination. It was a glorious landmark in our history in as much as Hindus and
 Muslims fought shoulder to shoulder to win back their lost independence. One cannot but admire the
patriotic spirit of boatmen of Lucknow who refused to carry British soldiers across the river. The
sepoys and the people fought gallantly up to the very end. Though the revolt was unsuccessful, the
spirit of the people remained unshaken. The revolt left an impression on the minds of the Indian
people and thus paved the way for the rise of a strong national movement.

Islamization under Zia (1977-1988)

Posted by: HistoryPak

When Zia-ul-Haq took the power in his hands, there was a popular conception that every government
paid only lip service to Islam and no sincere effort was ever made in this direction; the ruling class had
rather resisted the enforcement of Islam. General Zia was aware of such feelings. So, he directed his
attention to the taking of practical measure. Thus the following few points can be enumerated in this
regard: creation of favorable atmosphere, reforms in information media, ban on obscene adds,
contact with Ulama and Mashaikh, eradication of lawlessness, prayer in congregation, respect for
Ramazan, better facilities for Hajj, reorientation of education policy, making of International Islamic
University Islamabad, enforcement of Hudood ordinance, setting up of Sharia court, sharia bench of
Supreme court, Qazi courts, progress towards Islamic economic system, National language and
national dress, decisions about Qadianis, enforcement of Sharia ordinance 1988. They are further
classified as under:

1. The government of Zia created such an atmosphere where acting upon Islam was
appreciated and opposing Islam was disliked and disapproved. In this regard his personal example
played an important role. He himself acted upon Islamic injunctions, performed Umra annually,
offered prayers regularly five times and his speeches or the lectures he used to deliver reflected his
devotion to Islam.
2. His first major step was that he introduced reforms in media as media played an important
role in creating favorable public opinion for a particular system. The promotion of music and dancing
was prohibited and instead reformatory programs were introduced. Azan was aired at prayers time.
Hajj rites were broadcast live on television and Hajj sermon could also be heard on radio. For some
time T.V programs were stopped altogether during Iftar time to provide calm environment to the
Muslims to pray. In addition to that all obscene adds(advertisements) were banned either on
television or newspaper.
3. To enforce Islam effectively the support of Ulama and Mashaikh was necessary. In this
regard, Zia concerned conventions of Ulama and Mashaikh to express their opinion freely and to
criticize government if it is following the un-Islamic path.
4. The Zia government tried to uphold the sanctity of chastity and privacy. In the beginning law
and order was enforced to eradicate vulgarity and obscenity, but later the pace of these reforms
could not be maintained. Hence, with the passage of time the T.V. censorship got relaxed and with
the setting up of democratic government, terrorists and dacoits got active, and the propaganda of
safety of chadar and chardivary lost its charm and credibility.
5. Arrangements were made for attending the Zuhr prayers, in the government offices and
schools. Nazimin-i-Salat was appointed who used to arrange the managements of the prayers, and
urged the people to offer prayers. In the beginning the high government officers, Headmasters etc,
sued to attend the congregation with punctuality but with the passage of time relaxation crept in and
even Nazimine abandoned their task.
6. To enforce the respect for Ramazan a special ordinance was released, according to which
smoking, drinking, eating publically was prohibited and any one found doing that could be
imprisoned for three months or could be fined for rupees 500. Media broadcasted special programs
during Ramazan. All food markets were used to be shut down during Ramazan.
7. Opportunity was provided to maximum people to perform Hajj. Khuddam-ul-Hujjaj were
appointed for the guidance of Hajjis, their better residence in Saudi Arabia and medical facilities
were given due consideration by the government.
8. To inculcate Islamic thinking in students, general Zia ordered to review all textbooks and
anything repugnant to Islam and to the ideology of Pakistan was deleted. Islamiat and Pakistan
studies were made compulsory and were introduced in all sorts of educational institutions. The
religious institutions were officially patronized and its degrees were recognized by government.
Arabic was introduced as compulsory subject from sixth to eight Class.
9. To do research in fiqh and principles of Sharia and some other disciplines, Islamic
International University was set up in Islamabad.
10. Four punishments were enforced by an ordinance, on 10, February 1979. Mentioned in Quran
as Had. These punishments were cutting of hands for theft, hundred lashes and stoning for death
for adultery and eighty lashes for drinking and for false accusation of adultery. Appeal against these
punishments could only be made in Sharia court. However not even a single culprit was awarded
these punishments.
11. To enforce Islamic criminal law, Sharia court was set up which enjoyed the status of high court
and it comprised of high court judges and some renowned Ulemas. If anyone claims a law to be
repugnant to Islam, after hearing the court can announce it as null and void. However it heard cases
concerning only to Islamic law.
12. The sharia bench of the Supreme Court was the highest court for appeal regarding Islamic
law and in the same court the principles of Islamic Law could be discussed and interpreted.
13. Qazi courts were made to provide simple and speedy decisions, but due to the opposition of
the lawyers, practical steps could not be taken in this direction.
14. To protect people from the injustice of bureaucracy and the government an ombudsman was
appointed in June 1981, who could convey the complaints of the people.
15. Few steps were taken to model the economic system on Islamic lines. For instance, the
enforcement of Zakat and Ushar system. Zakat is annually deducted from saving accounts and GDP
funds when received, on the first Ramazan. Ushar was collected from those Landlords whos yield
exceeded 948 kg of wheat.

Institutions like Industrial Corporation of Pakistan, N.I.T. and House building finance corporation were
made to eradicate usury they were organized on principle of partnership instead of fixed interest. All
banks opened profit and loss sharing accounts and all saving accounts were converted into P.L.S.
accounts.

1. To stop the dominance of western culture Zia ordered all the high officials to wear national
dress president and prime minister also wore national dress on important functions. To promote
national language Urdu, it was said that president and finance minister would address in Urdu. After
few years all education would be in Urdu including the official correspondence, but no effective steps
were taken in this regard.
2. The Qadianies were prohibited from using Muslim names of persons, mosque etc. they were
prohibited for all their practices to be named as Islamic. Under the presidents ordinance if they
wanted to live in Pakistan, they will have to accept their non-Muslim identity.
3. Imposition of Sharia was the main slogan of Zia government. When Zia got differences with
Junejo, in 1988, he dissolved Junejos government and to satisfy the public minds he issued Sharia
ordinance on June 15, 1988. According to it sharia was declared as the supreme law of the country
and sharia courts were authorized to decide whether the laws in force are repugnant to Islam or not.
Ulema were given the rights to appear before the court of law. Mufti was appointed by federal
government to have his opinion on issues relating to sharia. An educational commission was
proposed which was to recommend education system in accordance with the teachings of Islam. To
promote Islamic values media was utilized and Islamic Ideological Council was proposed.
General Zia is a controversial figure in the history of Pakistan. He was opposed by the elite class of
Pakistan, who were dissatisfied with his rapid Islamization of Pakistan. Political Ulema supported Zia
but argued that Islamizing the country was not Zias Job instead he should hold elections and transfer
power to the elected representatives who will then enforce Islam.

Partition of Bengal (1905-1911)

Posted by: HistoryPak

The partition of Bengal was the most important event during the rule of Lord Curzon. It was carried out
mainly for the convenience of administration. Bengal in those days was the biggest province of India
extending over 1, 89, 000 square miles with a population of 80 million. It was comprising of Bengal,
Behar and Orissa and was under the central of one lieutenant Governor. After Lord Curzon took
charge as Governor General of India the discussion over the Partition began due to the following
issues:

1. Vastness of Province: The Province was spread over the area of 1, 89, 000 square miles
with the population of 80 million, which was too vast to be managed by one lieutenant Governor. He
could not make a tour for the whole province due to its vastness once in his tenure.

2. Limited Sources of Communication: The sources of communication in the provinces were

limited due to rivers and forests. The law and order condition of the provinces was also worst due to
insufficient police and in-efficient management. Therefore the need of partition of province was felt
severally.

3. Difference of Language: There was also the difference of Languages and civilization of the
natives of West Bengal and East Bengal. The natives of West Bengal considered themselves superior
in civilization to the resident of East Bengal. The Condition demanded for the division of Provinces.
4. Need of the time: The division of Bengal was the need of the time to develop trade in East
Bengal and to promote the Port of Chittagong, which could be done only by division of the Provinces.

5. Partition: The Partition of Bengal was thus calculated to restore efficiency in the Government
and administration on one hand and encouraged local initiatives for progress and development on the
other. Lord Curzon partitioned Bengal and formed two new provinces of manageable size East and
West Bengal. East Bengal consisted of Dacca, Mamansingh, Assam, Kaula, Rangpur, and Bogra
district, the Dacca was capital of East Bengal constituted a majority MuslimProvince, while the Bihar
and Orissa constituted a separate province to be called as West Bengal with the capital of Calcutta
and become the Hindu Majority provinces.

East Bengal contained a population of eighteen million Muslims and twelve million Hindus. Whereas
West Bengal had a population fifty four million of which 42 million where Hindus and thus was the
Hindu majority province.

Muslims Response

It received a favorable response from the Muslims. It was thought that it would bring the emancipation
of Muslims socially and economically. The Muslims welcomed the Partition of Bengal for the following
reasons:

1. In the majority province of East Bengal the Muslims would be free from Hindu dominance in
economic field. They would get opportunities of services and advancement of agriculture.

2. The city of Dacca, where the Muslims were in majority was the centre of Muslim culture. In
Dacca Muslims had a great chance of success for social and cultural advancement than in Calcutta.

3. The Partition could result in political uplift and securing represent action in the Government.

4. The partition of Bengal relieved the Muslims from competing with Hindus, who were more
advanced in every field of life.

Hindus Response
The Hindus did not accept it, as it dealt a telling blow to their monopolies and exclusive hold on
economic, social, Political life of the whole of Bengal. They called it as a deliberate attempt by British
Government

1. The Partition of Bengal had brightened the possibility of betterment of Muslims; while the
Hindu landlords, capitalists and traders wanted status quo and to continue the exploitation of the
Muslims.

2. Hindu lawyers also reacted to the partition of Bengal because they thought that the new
province would have its separate courts and thus their practice would be affected.

3. Hindu press was not different from that of Hindu advocates. Hindus had their monopoly over
almost whole of the province press. They were afraid that new newspapers would be established
which would decrease their income naturally.

4. The Hindus launched Swadeshi Movement whose sole purpose was to boycott of British
goods.

Annulment of the Partition

When Lord Hardinage assumed charge as Governor General of India Hindus again became active
and sent a representation to him for the annulment of partition of Bengal. He recommended the same
to the British Prime Minister for Indian Affairs. On the occasion of the visiting His Majesty George V to
Indo-Pakistan and holding of Darbar at Delhi on 12th December 1911 the partition of Bengal was
cancelled.

The united Bengal was placed under a Governor and Assam was placed under a Chief
Commissioner. This decision was shattering blow to Muslims. It left them sullen and disillusioned.
Their anger and indignation had widespread repercussions. The Muslims leaders and intelligentsia
condemned the decision as betrayal of worst kind.

Conclusion

The Muslims of India had appreciated the step and started turning in the favour of the British but the
British soon gave in against the mounting pressure of Hindus which helped the Muslims to realize the
importance of standing on their feet and to organize themselves politically.
Simla Deputation (1906)
Posted by: HistoryPak

The Simla deputation proved a landmark in the history of modern India, because for the very first time
the Hindu-Muslim conflict, which stared with the Urdu-Hindi controversy, was lifted to the constitutional
plane. The Indians were not satisfied with the Indian council Act of 1892. Especially, the act failed to
ensure the fair representation of Muslims. So, the Indians were agitating for more power. Due to the
growing political pressure and increasing social unrest, the British Government decided to make
constitutional reforms relating to the electoral bodies. On 20 th July 1906 John Morley the Secretary of
State for Indian affairs, speaking on the Indian budget in the British parliament, announced that the
Government wanted to increase the number of seats for the legislative councils and also their powers.

John Morley announcement created an anxiety among the Muslims of the sub-continent. The
proposed reforms, if implemented, as was demanded by the Congress, would have suppressed the
Muslims more under the Hindu Majority. Muslim leaders were of the view that neither elections nor
nominations are fulfilled the requirements of the Indian Muslims, and that they needed a certain
number of seats in both the central and provincial councils. Their seats should be filled up by votes of
their own community.

The weekly Muslim Patriot penned down this important issue to clarify the assumption that India was
inhabited by one class. It stated that India consists on a heterogeneous mass of different races whose
interests were often different. It although supported the extended representation in the legislature, but
also wished that the extension should be based on the class recognition and each distinct community
should have representatives of its own in proportion to its population.

Now, many Mohammedans drew the attention of Mohsin-ul-Mulk, the secretary of the M.A.O College,
Aligarh, to John Morleys speech. So, Nawab Mohin-ul-Mulk wrote a letter on August 1906, to
Archbold, Principal of the college, in which he expressed his apprehensions about the forthcoming
constitutional changes. He was of the view that if combined election would be held on a more
extended scale, Mohammedans will hardly get a single seat, while Hindus will carry more advantage
because of their majority. He asked Archbold to advise for submit memorial from the Mohammedans
to the Viceroy and to request his permission to accept a deputation for discus the issue of forthcoming
constitutional amendments. Archbold contacted to Viceroys secretary and on 10 th August 1906. He
informed Mohsin-ul-Mulk that the Viceroy was ready to meet the deputation.

After receiving the letter of Archbold, Nawab Sahib started to put together a deputation for this
purpose. A meeting was held in Lakhnow on 16th September 1906, in which an address, prepared by
Sayyid Husain Bilgarami, was finalized by learned Muslim leaders. Finally, a deligation consisting of
35 leaders of Muslim community meet to the viceroy, under the leadership of Sir Aga Khan, in Simla
on 1st October 1906. The deputation was included the members from Bengal, Punjab, U.P., Bombay,
Madras, Sindh, C.P., Deccan, and Delhi. The members of deputation were drawn from the Muslim
elite class, but most of the members of deputation were connected with the Aligarh movement through
the AIMEC. Besides these members, others were associated with different semi-political parties like
Anjuman-i-Islam, National Mohammedan Association etc.

The deputation presented the memorial in front of viceroy, which was consisting of the demands that
rights of separate electorates should be given to the Muslims; Muslims should be given three more
seats in central legislature; quota should be given to the Muslims in civil services; Muslims should be
given representation in universities senates and syndicates; an aid should be given to the Muslims for
the establishment of a Muslin university.

Lord Minto, the Viceroy, assured the Muslim delegation that as long as he is associated with the
administrative affairs if the country, their national rights would be preserved.

Congress made an allegation that the deputation was engineered by the Government to resist the
activities of nationalists. A newspaper, Amrita Bazar Patrika, closed to the Congress, launched the
propaganda that the deputation was the part of British policy of divide and rule. It also stated that the
deputation did not represent the whole of the Muslim community and self-serving British officers were
involved in its formation.

In order to prove the conspiracy theory, Congress leaders had referred to a certain letter written by
Archold to an unknown person of Aligarh. There is not single solid evidence available to prove that the
deputation was the part of British policy.

The deputation was purely representing the demands of the Muslim community. If it had been
launched by the Government then there was no need of Mohsin-ul-Mulk to borrow a sum of four
thousand rupees from King and King Company at the interest rate of 7% to meet the expenses of the
Simla deputation. The company started correspondence, after the death of Mohsin-ul-Mulk, with the
Muslim league for the return of loan and also threatened to get Moshin-ul-Mulks property confiscated.

The Simla deputation was unique, because for the first time Muslims were anxious to take their share
in the political activities as a separate identity. Another purpose of the delegation was to get a silent
permission form the Government to make a political platform for the representation of Muslims, and
also was to take the Government into confidence. The demand of separate electorates, which were
presented through the deputation, was the foundation of all future constitutional amendments for
India. The inevitable consequence of deputation was the partition of Indian and the emergence of
Pakistan.
Separate Electorates
Posted by: HistoryPak

Separate Electorates are that type of elections in which minorities select their own representatives
separately, as opposed to Joint Electorates where people are selected collectively. When minorities
fear that they would not get representation in state affairs and government then they demand
separate electorates. Same was the case with the Indian Muslims. They were very large in number,
but in case of combined elections they would not get due representation. When the British
implemented the system of democracy in India in order to strength their rule, and to involve local
people in government, the Muslims demanded separate electorates .These were not imposed by
British, however were granted on the request of the Muslims.

As all nations in Europe were Christians and there was no concept of a separate nation on the basis
of religion. So they regarded India as a single country inhabited by Indians who were a nation
collectively. But the Muslims and Hindus were conscious about their religious differences and of being
two separate nations. In India, Hindus were in majority so Congress was in favour of combined
elections. In a democratic government every bill or law is passed by a majority of 51% or more and in
this situation the Hindus would get 100% legislative powers and Muslims would get no power to effect
legislation in their own country. More in number than the population of any state in Europe, they would
have no share in government. Thus they would become slaves and serfs having zero percent power
in legislation, politics, and administration of their own country.

When direct elections were introduced to increase the participation of Indians in government affairs, a
deputation of Indian Muslims led by Sir Aga Khan presented an address to Viceroy and Governor
General Lord Minto at Simla on 1st October 1906. They asked for separate representation at all levels
of government, district boards, legislative councils, and municipalities. They mentioned that they were
almost one-fifth and in some areas one-fourth of the whole population. So they must be given
recognition as an important factor of the state machinery. The positions given to the Muslims should
not only depend on their numerical strength, but also on their political importance and contributions as
they had ruled over India for a long time. Under the Act of 1892 in United Province, where Muslims
were fourteen percent of population, they had not secured a single seat by joint franchise. And if by
chance they would get any seats they would have to agree with Hindus, and thus had to go against
their own interests. So, Muslims should be given separate representation for both local bodies and
legislative councils, through separate electorates. Viceroy listened to them and promised them that
their demands would put forward to British Government. With this positive response Muslims
established their own political party named as All India Muslim League in December, 1906.

In 1909 the Morley-Minto Reforms granted separate electorates to Muslims. In these the numerical
strength of legislature councils was increased. 27 out of total 60 members were to be elected and 5
seats were reserved for the Muslims. In provincial government, Muslims were to be represented by
separate electorates. It gave constitutional recognition to Muslims. They would have not only elect
their own representatives, but also had right to vote in general constituencies. Muslims were given
fewer share than their numerical strength, but this was a land mark in the political history of Indian
Muslims.
In 1916 Lucknow Pact was passed with the collaboration of Congress and Muslim League. Congress
conceded to the legitimate rights of Muslims. In this pact the right of separate electorates for Muslims
was recognized. It was declared that Muslims would be given one third central legislature seats. And
in provinces minorities were to have more seats than their numerical strength, this was known as the
Weightage System. According to this system Muslims got more representation than their population in
minority provinces whereas, in Bengal and Punjab their representation was reduced to 50% and 40%
from 56% and 55% respectively. In 1919 the Montague Chelmsford Reforms were introduced. The
demands of Lucknow Pact were accepted. In centre Muslims were given one third seats. These all
rights were denied, and Congress deviated from their own prospective in Nehru Report in 1928.

After many years of constitutional debates, Government of India Act 1935 was passed. And elections
were held in 1937 under this act. Congress won 706 seats out of total 1771 seats. It contested for 58
seats of total 482 Muslim seats and won 26 seats whereas, the newly organized Muslim League won
102 Muslim seats. The remaining seats were won by local parties. In December 1945 elections to
central Legislative Assembly were held. Congress demanded for independence of united India and
opposed partition of India. Congress claimed that it is the only soul representative party of all Indians,
and mentioned the economic problems as real problems of masses otherwise all Indians were a
community. Whereas Quaid-i-Azam announced that Muslims were a separate nation and Muslim
League was their representative party. They would not accept any constitution, in which they were
relegated as a frustrated minority. He said that they were a separate nation and they must have their
own state. Congress made alliance with some split Muslims groups to prove Muslim League wrong.
But the results of elections proved that Muslim League claims and demands were right. In central
Assembly 30 seats were reserved for Muslims and Muslim League won all of them. Contrary to that
Congress even lost some of general seats. In provincial elections Muslim League won 428 out of 492
seats. Only Party of Frontier Gandhi, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, won almost 50%seats in N.W.F.P.

In this journey of almost 40 years, many demands were presented, many pacts were introduced, and
many resolutions were passed. All had their own importance but the right of separate electorates was
a land mark for the Muslims. They all revolved around this demand of separate electorates.
Acceptance of this demand was a sign of recognizing them as a separate nation. They were treated
as a minority before it. Now they had share in government at Central and provincial levels both.
Beyond that these Separate Electorates led them towards separate homeland named as Pakistan.

Establishment of All India Muslim League

Posted by: HistoryPak

After the creation of the Indian national Congress and its time as a representative party for the
people of the Indian sub-continent, there was felt a need to reassess its claims at unbiased
representation. From the very start of its existence the Congress had shown clear its interest to
safeguard the rights of Hindus, alone. Some of the Congress leaders adopted a revolutionary policy to
establish Hindu Raj in the sub-continent under the guise of a national movement.

The prediction of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan Soon proved to be fact that, Hindus and Muslims are two
different nations who have different ideologies. The Muslims of India were greatly disappointed by the
anti-Muslim stance that the Congress seemed to have adopted. The events following the partition of
Bengal and Urdu-Hindu controversy strengthened the desire of the Muslims to organize themselves
politically as separate community. The birth of All India Muslim League at Dacca on 30th December
1906 came as an expression of that desire.

Following are the reasons for the establishment of Muslim league.

1. Indifferent Attitude of the Congress towards Muslims: All India National Congress was a pre-
dominantly Hindu body. Its interests were always at odds ends to those of the Muslims. By 1906,
Muslim leaders were convinced that they must have their own party which may speak for the
community on all important occasions.

2. Educational and Economic Backwardness: Muslims had lagged far behind from the Hindus in
education and economic progress. Educational and economic conditions could only be up graded by
establishing a separate Muslims organization that could represent the wishes of the Muslims.

3. Urdu-Hindi Controversy: The Urdu-Hindu controversy began with the demand of Hindus to replace
Urdu by Hindi as official language in Deva Nagari Script. Sir Anthony Macdonal, the then Governor of
UP ousted Urdu from public offices. Congress clearly sided with Hindi and supported the movement
against Urdu and there was no other political party to support Urdu. Thus, the need of formation of a
Muslim political party was felt severely.

4. The Evolution of Minto Marley Reforms: The turning point came in the summer of 1906 during John
Morleys budget speech, in which he hinted of constitutional reforms. At that time Muslims did not
have a political platform to demand their share. It was reasserted that they wanted a separate political
platform.

5. The Success of Simla Deputation: Minto offered fullest sympathy to the Muslim demands. The
success of Deputation compelled the Muslims to have a separate political association of their own.

6. To Save Muslim Entity: The belief uttered by sir Syed Ahmed Khan that the Muslims were somehow
a separate entity. The Muslims did not believe that Hindus and Muslims formed one nation. They were
different by religion, history, languages and civilization. It became essential for Muslims to establish a
political party of their own.

A resolution to form the All India Muslim League was passed by Nawab Salimullah Khan and was
seconded by Hakim Ajmal Khan, Maulana Muhammad Ali and Moulana Zafar Ali. The resolution was
passed by All India Educational Conference on 30th December 1906. A committee was formed to
prepare its draft constitution. Sir Agha Khan was appointed as President and Syed Hassan Balgrami
was appointed as secretary, while Nawab Mohsim-ul-Mulk and Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk were made joint
secretaries with six Vice- Presidents, a Central Committee with forty Members was also constituted. In
this way Muslim league was established and become the sole representative of Muslims.

Knowing the circumstances which led to the formation of Muslim league was not difficult to make out
what it aimed to. However, the Muslim league laid the following points as its objectives.

1. To create among Muslims the feelings of loyalty towards British Government and to remove
misconception and suspicious.
2. To Safeguard the political rights of the Muslims and to bring them into the notice of the
Government.
3. To prevent among the Muslims, the rise of prejudicial feelings against the other communities of
India.

The first session of all India Muslim league was held at Karachi on 29th December, 1907 and was
presided over by Adamji Peer Bhai.
It was being felt from the beginning that the All India Muslim League would not achieve considerable
success without winning the British Public opinion to its side. Therefore, Syed Ameer Ali organized the
branch of Muslim league at London. The inaugural meeting was held on 6th May 1908, at London
Caxton Hall. It was participated by the Muslim and those British people who favoured their view point.

There come into being a political body which was to play a decisive role in the destiny of the Muslim
peoples of the Indian sub-continent. The day the Muslim delegation won recognition of the demand of
separate electorate, the course of the Muslim freedom struggle was charted. It was the beginning of
the growth of Muslim national consciousness. It farmed visible institutional expression in the form of
Muslim League which after a forty (40) years struggle was to achieve for the Muslims the culmination
of their national aspiration, Muslim League became a mass movement of the Muslims and succeeded
in achieving Pakistan in 1974. Actually the new breed of leadership like Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali
Jinnah was instrumental in its metamorphosis.

After the acceptance of the demand of separate representation in the Minto Morely reforms, it was
common sense to have political party to fight elections for Muslim representation. Whatever may have
been the effects of Muslim league, but it made clear that the interests of Muslims must be regarded
completely separate from those of the Hindus. Any fusion of both the communities in future was not
possible. It steered the ship of Muslim destiny safely through of Political chaos and turmoil to the safer
harbour of Pakistan.

Minto-Morley Reforms (1909)

Posted by: HistoryPak

By 1909, there was seen a great deal of political consciousness amongst the Indians. Similarly,
political parties like Indian National Congress and All Indian Muslim League had emerged. By then,
the British were much influenced and affected by these political parties. As previous reforms and acts
did not meet the political aspirations of all the Indians, the British realized that in order to introduce
new reforms to impoverish the grievances of the Indians they needed to cater to these two political
parties. Besides this, there were also other factors which led to the formation of Minto-Morley
Reforms. In this context, the instance is the victory of Japan in the Russo-Japan War of 1904-5 can be
cited as an example. This was a ray of hope for Indians that India could also become a great power.

On the other hand, the Liberal Party came to power in Britain in 1906, and that changed the political
atmosphere. The Liberal Party did not want to pursue the autocratic policies of the Conservative
Party. Such political changes in Britain and as well as in India, which altered the public opinion in both
countries. Following are the salient features of Minto-Morley Reforms.

Salient Features of Minto-Morley Reforms:

The number of members of legislative council of Governor General and the Governors of various
provinces was increased.
The powers of Members of Legislative were increased. They could now criticize the actions of the
executive, ask questions and even supplementary questions, and express their views by moving
resolutions. Matters of public interest were also discussed in the Legislative Council.
The Indians were included in the councils, where ultimate decisions were made, of the India Secretory
and Viceroy. Before these reforms they were excluded from such councils. In fact, a type of
consultative body was formed.
For the first time, the demand for a separate electorate was accepted. A constitutional recognition of
Separate Electorate was a great achievement for the Muslims. Muslims could now have their own
representative members at the Legislative Councils. They were to be elected by Muslims alone.
The Indians were not satisfied with these reforms. Although strict qualifications of property and
education were imposed on franchise. Consequently, the number of voters was restricted. Moreover,
a system of election was indirect. The members of local bodies were elected by the people who, in
turn, were to elect members of electoral colleges. The members of electoral colleges were to elect
members of Provincial Legislature who, in turn, were to elect members of Imperial Legislature.
In order to win the support of maximum factions of the society, the Government wanted to give special
representation to the loyalist classes. In this context, a special representation was given to landlords,
chambers of commerce and other influential.
The official majority in the Imperial Council was maintained. While the non-official majorities in the
Provincial Council were nullified, as they included nominated members. Though, parliamentary
reforms were introduced, there was no provision of responsibility.
Further, S.P. Sinha, an Indian, was included in the Viceroys Executive Council. However, this act was
bitterly criticized by the Muslims, for they had previously demanded that two Indian members including
one Muslim should be included in the Council. The Government promised to appoint Muslim the next
time. After Sinhas resignation, Sayed Ali Imam was appointed as a Member of the Executive Council.

The Minto-Morley Reforms drew a gloomy picture. Though, this act appeased some of the Indians,
the majority was not satisfied with it. The result was widespread criticism of the Government. As a
matter of fact, the Indian National Congress was divided into two factions i.e. the moderate, which
was led by G.K. Gokhale and the extremist, which was led by B.G. Tilak. The moderate faction
welcomed the Reforms. In the Imperial Legislative Council, Gokhale said, My Lord, I sincerely
believed that you and Lord Morley have saved the country from anarchy and chaos. On other hand,
the extremist faction rejected the act of 1909. They were not in the favor of the Reforms. It was
because of its contradiction to Lord Morleys dispatch dated November 27, 1908. On the contrary, the
All India Muslim League welcomed the council act of 1909. The League passed a resolution, which
offered cooperation with the government for the success of the Reforms, in the Delhi session on 1910.

In spite of all its demerits and flaws, the Reforms contributed and offered space for political
development. The inclusion of the Indians in Councils was a great experience for the Indians. They
became part of Legislative Councils. They could move resolutions, discuss Bills elaborately, and
approved Bills. In this context, the instances are; 24 resolutions were accepted out of 168 in the
Imperial Legislative Council, and 30 non-official amendments were presented in the Indian Factories
Bill and 7 were approved. Further, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, as a private member, also presented a Bill,
Waqf-alal-Aulad, which was passed by the Council. In the constitutional evolution of India, the Act of
1909 was a decided step and opened the door for real politics.

Kanpur Mosque Tragedy (1913)

Posted by: HistoryPak

The U.P Government granted a total of two and half lack rupees to widen the roads of the Kanpur and
to fulfill other welfare works. This scheme also included AB road. The widening of this road became a
serious issue. The real problem was that if it were widened straight, there lay in its way, a Hindu
temple just opposite to the Mosque in the Machli Bazar.

When Hindus heard of this scheme, they forced the Government to halt its progress. Then the only
way left to save the temple was, to turn the road in some other direction, because there was not much
space between the mosque and temple, to widen the road. Hence, there was a threat for the Muslims
that the eastern part of the mosque might have to be demolished which was used for the purpose of
ablution and for baths in order to commence the road.
So on 1st of April 1912, in the Improvement Trust Committee session. The Muslims requested that no
portion of the mosque should be included in the road for the sake of its widening but all was in vain.

On April 1913 Lt. Governor of U.P. Sir James Meston, received a petition through Shahid Husain, from
a group of Muslims of Kanpur upon alienation of any part of the mosque. Eminent Muslim scholars
tried to prove that the targeted portion is the part and parcel of the mosque from the religious point of
view. On 12th of April 1913, a memorial was presented by barrister Shahid Hussain, which was about
protecting the eastern part of the mosque against the expected demolition. On 6th May 1913, James
Meston sent a letter to the memorialists concluding that the washing place is not the part and parcel
of the sacred building and must be removed. The authorities of the mosque will be asked to choose
another site on which a washing place will be built for them by the municipal Board

Then on 20th July 1913 Sir James Meston himself visited Kanpur and inspected the mosque. He had
shown complete disregard for the feelings of the Muslims and the Government abolished the Eastern
part of the mosque. There was an outrage among the Muslims of Kanpur and the Muslim press
strongly protested against it. This action taken by the Government was condemned throughout India.
Tylor, who was a Magistrate of Kanpur was ordered by James Meston to take effective measures to
prevent any breach of peace in connection with the execution of the orders, if he wants extra police let
him say so.

The Muslims then gathered at Idgah on 3rd August. When the meeting was over an angry procession
which was carrying black flags appeared before the mosque and began to place the loose bricks over
the dismantle structure as a symbol of reconstruction. Then to disperse the mob, the police force
opened fire under Taylers orders. The firing continued for 15 minutes and almost 600 cartridges were
used.

By this regard, Muslim Anjumans from all over the India strongly protested against this wicked act of
firing on the Muslims. Anjumans that strongly protested were Anjuman-e-Ziaul Islam, Bombay,
Anjuman-e-Islamia, Amritsar, Anjuman-e-Hadayatul Islam, Islamia, Kohat. Press media also didnt
remain quiescent and Muslim press strongly condemned this perfidious act of Government. The
Zamindar commented the demolition of a part of the Kanpur mosque at the point of the bayonet and
the characterization of the Muslim outcry caused thereby a spectacle so heartrending that has
shaken the faith of Mussalmans in the Governments principle of non-interference in religious
matters.

Similarly, All India Muslim League did not remain quiet on this tragedy. On 31st August and on 19th
September, Council of the AIML had passed two notable resolutions. One, for the appointment of a
committee comprising, both officials and civilians to conduct an impartial inquiry and the other on the
importance of showing gratitude to Sayyid Wazir Hasan and M. Ali for going to England to present the
Muslim case.

Sir James Mestons attitude filled the hearts of Muslims with painful feelings, when after this tragedy
he distributed the merit certificates to those who had taken part in the firing. It showed his hatred for
the Muslims.

Lord Hardinge showed blatant anger at this policy and strategy. Lord Hardinge called this act as a
stupid blunder. He said that it was the example of shortsightedness of Taylor and Meston. Lord
Hardinge felt the pain of the Muslims and visited Kanpur along with Sayyid Ali Imam on 13th to 14th
October. He compromised with the Muslims allowing them to build a new building over the public
road. He also visited the mosque and ordered to release the prisoners and withdrew the cases.

Thus, this tragedy played a significant role in awakening political consciousness among the Indian
Muslims.
 The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms (1919)
Posted by: HistoryPak

Minto-Morley reforms, introduced in 1909, proved unsatisfactory for Indian people. Resultantly,
Indians demanded more representation and called for greater self-government. This could not be
achieved without a formal rapprochement between Congress and Muslim League. The Lucknow Pact
of 1916 removed the sole hurdle in the attainment of self rule by which both, Congress and Muslim
League set aside their mutual differences and showed considerable accommodation to each others
claims.

Meanwhile, the World War I had started and Indians despite their grievances and discontentment with
the British joined the war with over one million soldiers with the hope that after the war British would
be obliged to concede to self rule in recognition of their loyal services. However, as the war dragged
on, Indians became disillusioned as the British did not make any promises regarding self government.
Thus Indians pressed for immediate reforms and it was felt that a civil disobedience movement might
be launched jointly by congress and Muslim league to compel the British to accelerate the reforms.

In view of these circumstances the British felt that something must be done to pacify the Indians. At
that time, Edwin Montague was the Secretary of State for India. In his famous August Declaration
presented before the House of Commons on 20th August 1917, Montague said that in order to satisfy
the local demands, his government was interested in giving more representation to the natives in
India. Lord Chelmsford was sent to India as the new Governor General. He stayed for six months and
held numerous meetings with different government and non-governmental people. Edwin Montague in
collaboration with Lord Chelmsford collected data and made a report about constitutional reforms in
1918. The report was discussed in the House of Common and later it was approved by the
parliament. The Bill was introduced in India in 1919 and became Act of 1919. This Act, commonly
known as Montague-Chelmsford Reforms, introduced the following reforms:

The Council of the Secretary of State was to comprise of eight to twelve people. Three of
them should be Indian, and at least half of them should have spent at least ten years in India.
The Central Legislature was to consist of two houses, Upper House (Council of the State),
and the Lower House (Legislative Assembly). Council of the State was to consist of 60 members,
out of them 35 members would be elected and rest of them would be nominated by the Governor
General. The Legislative Assembly was to consist of 144 members, out of them 103 were to be
elected and 41 to be nominated by the Governor General. The duration of the Upper House was five
and of the Lower House was three years.
Powers were divided between the center and the provinces. The important subjects were
vested with the center and unimportant remained with provinces. The important central subjects
were defense, foreign affairs, custom, and relations with Indian states, currency and railway. On the
contrary, unworthy provincial subjects were local self-government, public health, education etc.
The salary of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs should be paid from British exchequer;
previously, his salary was paid by Indian treasury.
The system of Diarchy or a kind of double government in the Provinces was introduced.
Provincial subjects were divided into two categories Transferred and Reserved. Transferred
subjects which were public health, education, local self-government, and agriculture were under the
control of Minister; likewise all transferred subjects were unimportant. Reserved subjects included
 administration, police, land revenue etc. which were under the control of Governor with the help of
his secretaries. It was indirect control over transferred department by reserved department. Hence,
Governor was the head of transferred and reserved subjects.

Indian Constitutional Act of 1919 was passed to satisfy Indian people. On the contrary, Indian people
opposed it because the Act went against Congress-League pact thus resulting in the Hindu
opposition. Muslims partly accepted the Montague-Chelmsford reforms with certain reservations and
demands regarding the safety of Muslim states. Gandhi categorically rejected this scheme and
congress denounced it as inadequate, unsatisfactory and disappointing. Besides these problems, the
events like Rowlatt act, the Jallianwal Bagh tragedy and Khilafat movement further aggravated the
situation and doomed the reforms to failure. Thus, there erupted violent communal riots and anti-
British agitations become frequent creating a disdain for British rule and Montague Chelmsford also
failed as the two vanguard parties rejected its reforms and considered them to be unsatisfactory. The
only point of the reforms appreciated by the Indian was that after ten years, a commission was to
assess the reforms and to bring further improvement in them.

Lukhnow Pact
Posted by: HistoryPak

Introduction

The Lucknow agreement took a new twist with change in Muslim Leagues political doctrine. The
Quaid-e-Azam inclusion in the Muslim league was a historic event, which gave new direction to
Muslim leagues political struggle. Self-rule for India brought the Muslim league and the Congress
closer to each other. The leaders of the both parties agreed that they should cooperate with each
other to make the British accept their demands. They acknowledged that the objectives can be
achieved if the two major communities of India forget their differences on petty issues and come
closer to each other to see eye to eye on the important national issues. The political vicinity had taken
a happy turn and ground for cherished Hindu Muslim unity had been smoothed.

Lucknow pact is considered as a significant event in the political constitutional history of India. It is
regarded a high water marked of Hindu Muslim unity. It was the first and last pact signed between
Congress and Muslim league.

Factors Behind the Pact

The relations between the British government and Muslims were tensed due to aggressive and
unilateral policies of the British. The annulment of the partition of Bengal in 1911 was a jolt for the
Muslims of India; consequently it shattered their confidence in British and brought Muslims closer to
Hindus against the British. Similarly the Kanpur mosque incident and the British policies in the
international system had caused deep anguish among the Muslims. Thus the Muslims leaderships
decided to change the strategy of the Muslim league after the annulment of Bengal in 1911. In
December 1912, Muslim league change its aim from loyalty to form self-government suitable to India.
However, the league retained the right to modify self-rule in accordance with their needs and
requirements.
Jinnah and the Pact

Jinnah arose as a devoted champion of Hindu Muslim unity, he convinced all India Muslim league to
change their policies for the better of India. Muhammad Ali Jinnah in his early career was a member of
both the Congress and the Muslim league and was well known as a man free of any religious
prejudice, as well as a brilliant advocate and debater. In 1915, mainly due to his efforts, both the
Muslim league and the Congress party had their annual meeting in Bombay. At the end of this
meeting, a committee was formed with the intention to sort the common understanding between the
two communities. The committee prepared a scheme in November, 1916. The scheme was approved
by both the parties in December, 1916 at the respective sessions at Lucknow. Quaid-e-Azam, in his
presidential speech at Lucknow, said Indias real progress can only be achieved by a true
understanding and harmonious relations between the two great communities. With regard to our own
affairs, we can depend upon nobody but ourselves.

Features of the Pact

The congress party agreed to the right to separate electorate for the Muslims first and last time in the
history of subcontinent. The Hindus conceded that the Muslims would have one third representation in
the imperial legislative council. A weightage formula was proposed under which the Muslims would get
less representation than their population in the legislative council in those provinces where they were
in majority but more in provinces where they were in minority. The provincial legislative council will
have fourth fifth as elected members and one fifth as nominated members. The members would be
elected by the people directly for the term of five years. In the major provinces the strength of the
legislative councils would be 125 and in the minor provinces the strength would be 50 and 75. The
Muslims shall be elected through special electorates and their strength in the different provinces shall
be as: Punjab 50%, Bengal 40%, U.P 30%, Bihar 25%, C.P 15%, Madras 15% and Bombay 33 %.

No bill, nor any clause thereof, nor a resolution introduces by a non-official member effecting one or
other community shall be presented in the assembly without approval of the concern group. Provincial
autonomy will be given to the province with maximum powers vested with the provincial council. The
provincial council will have authorized to impose taxes, raise loans, and to vote on budget. All
proposals for raising revenues shall have to be submitted to the provincial council for sanction. There
shall be an executive council in the province headed by the governor whose half of the members
shall Indian national elected by the elected members of the legislative council their term of office shall
be five year. The members of the assemblies shall have the right to present adjournment motion.
Seats were reserved for the Muslims in those provinces in which they were in minority under the
system weightages. Protection shall be given to the Hindus in Muslim majority provinces. In the centre
there shall be and imperial legislative council consisting of 150 members. Four fifth of the members
shall be elected for a term of five years on the basis of direct election. The Muslims shall be given 1/3
seats of the elected members and they will be elected by separate Muslim electorates. The central
Government will be headed by the government will be headed by the Governor General, who would
be assisted by an executive council. Half of the members of the executive council shall be Indians
elected by the elected members of the imperial legislative council.

Importance of the Pact

The Lucknow pact was a great achievement of Hindu and Muslim leaders, who were successful in
offering for the first and the only time, a mutually acceptable solution of the Hindu Muslim problem. It
appeared as a special significance in the history of India. It was the Quaid-e-Azam, who had always
been a staunch supporter of Hindu-Muslim unity. The scheme provided for a substantial step taken
halfway towards the establishment of self-rule in India which was main core of the jointly sponsored
scheme of Lucknow pact. The Congress first time accepted the demand of separate electorate for
Muslims. The pact ensured the protection of political rights of Muslims. Muslim league separate status
was also being accepted. Through the pact the both parties were able to put a joint demand before
the British. Congress got strength in term of political and masses because it had got All India Muslim
League Supports.

It was basically give and take sort of agreement between the both parties. The Muslims had to pay a
big price of loosing majority in Bengal and Punjab to obtain some concessions. Similarly, it carried
great constitutional significance in the future for many developments. The scheme of representation of
Muslim community in the central and provincial legislatures as embodied in the Lucknow pact was
generally followed in the Montague Chelmsford reforms.

Conclusion

The agreement was very outstanding and its dreams were fulfilled the whole political scenario of
Indian subcontinent were different. But, it was impossible to the parties to make a united India. The
Hindus and Muslims are two different nation and they have different culture and civilization. Therefore
the Lucknow Pact failed to make a long lasting cooperation in India among the Muslims and Hindus.

Jalianwala Bagh Massacre (1919)

Posted by: HistoryPak

The Amritsar massacre also known as Jalinawala Bagh Massacre. Where the British Indian army
opened fire on gathering who gathered in Jalinawala Bagh for Bisakhi festival. According to official
source 379 people were killed but according to private source number was much higher.

In 1919 after the Rowlett Act, Indian National Congress started mass movement across the sub-
continent. The peaceful political demonstration in Amritsar quickly transformed into violence. A crowd
that had been proceeding towards the residence of the Deputy Commissioner of Amritsar, to demand
the release of two popular leaders against whom deportation orders had been issued was fired upon
by a military picket. Several banks, government and private property were set on fire. Some foreigners
were killed, railway lines were cut, and telegraph and post were destroyed. Then British governor of
Punjab Sir Michael ODwyer declared martial law in Punjab and instructions were given no gathering
of person, nor procession of any sort will be allowed.

On 13th April 1919 thousands of Indian gathered in the Jalinawala Bagh in the heart of Amritsar. The
occasion was of Bisakhi, a tradition had been established to gather in Amritsar to participate in the
Bisakhi festival. Those coming of the rural areas were unaware of events of Amritsar, as
communications were inadequate and highly underdeveloped in Punjab. The gathering in the Bagh
was violation of order.
The Bagh was bounded on all sides by brick walls and buildings and had a single narrow entrance.
The British Indian army troops marched toward the bagh on vehicles. The vehicle was unable to enter
the park compound due to the narrow entrance. Dyer ordered his men to open fire, and without any
warning to the crowd to disperse, the troops started firing. Sixteen hundred and fifty rounds of
ammunition were spent; nearly 400 people, in the conservative estimate of the authorities themselves,
were killed at the spot. Since there was no exit except for the one already manned by the troops,
people desperately tried to climb the walls of the bagh. Some also jumped into a well inside the
compound to escape the bullets.

A plaque in the monument says that 120 bodies were plucked out of the well. The wounded could not
be moved from where they had fallen, as a curfew had been declared. Dyer reported to his
headquarters that he had been confronted by a revolutionary army, and had been obliged to teach a
moral lesson to the Punjab. Dyer was called to appear before the Hunter Commission, a commission
of inquiry into the massacre that was ordered to convene by Secretary of State for India Edwin
Montagu, in late 1919. In the storm of outrage which followed, Dyer was retired, and placed on the
inactive list. I think it quite possible that I could have dispersed the crowd without firing but they would
have come back again and laughed, and I would have made, what I consider, a fool of myself. He
said he did not stop firing when the crowd began to disperse because he thought it was his duty to
keep firing until the crowd dispersed, and that a little firing would do no good. He confessed he did not
take any steps to attend to the wounded after the firing. Certainly not. It was not my job. Senior
British officers applauded his suppression of another Indian Mutiny. The Conservatives presented him
with a jeweled sword inscribed Savior of the Punjab.

On the other hand In India, the massacre evoked feelings of deep anguish and anger. It catalyzed the
freedom movement in the Punjab against British rule and paved the way for Gandhis Non-
Cooperation Movement against the British in 1920. In 1920 a trust was formed to build a memorial at
the site following a resolution passed by the Indian National Congress. A memorial was built on the
site in 1961. The bullet holes can be seen on the walls and the well into which many people jumped
and drowned attempting to save themselves from the hail of bullets is also a protected monument
inside the bagh. In 1940 an Indian revolutionary, named Udham Singh, who had witnessed the events
in Amritsar and was himself wounded, shot dead Sir Michael ODyer, believed to be the chief planner
of the massacre (Dyer having died years earlier) in London. The action of Singh was generally
condemned, but some, like Amrit Bazaar Patrika, had different views. The common people and
revolutionary circles glorified the action of Udham Singh, and his stance in court was it was my duty,
sacrificed for my motherland. HE was hanged in 1940.Jawaharlal Nehru applauded him in 1952 with
following statement I salute shahed a azam Udham Singh who had kissed the noose so that we may
be free.

Khilafat Movement (1919-1922)

Posted by: HistoryPak

The Khilafat movement was a very important event in the political history of India. The Muslims of
India had a great regard for the Khilafat (Caliphate) which was held by the Ottoman Empire. During
World War I, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) joined the war in favour of Germany. But Turkey and
Germany lost the war and a pact commonly known as Istanbul Accord was concluded between the
Allied Forces on 3rdNovember 1918. According to this Pact the territories of Turkey were to be divided
among France, Greece and Britain.
During the war the Indian Muslims were in a very awkward position, because they had a deep-rooted
devotion to the caliphate. They had profound respect for this holy institution. Therefore, their support
to the British Government was subject to the safeguard and protection of the holy places of Turkey
and on the condition that Turkey will not to be deprived of its territories. But the British Government
could not fulfill both of these promises. The Treaty of Savers 1920 was imposed on Turkey and its
territories like Samarna, Thrace and Anatolia were wrested from it and distributed among European
countries. A wave of anger swept across the Muslin World and the Indian Muslims rose against the
British Government. Muslim leaders like Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, Moulana Muhammad Ali Johar,
Moulana Shoukat Ali and others reacted against the British Government policy and were put behind
the bars.

Thus, Muslims organized a mass movement, which came to be known as Khilafat Movement. The
aims of this movement were

(a) To protect the Holy place of Turkey

(b) To restore the Territories of Turkey

(c) To restore the Ottoman Empire.

In December 1919 both the Khilafat Committee and Congress held their meetings simultaneously at
Amritsar and a delegation was prepared which was sent to England under the leadership of Maulana
Mohammad Ali Johar to see the British Prime Minister, Cabinet Member and Members of Parliament
and to explain the Indian point of view regarding the Khilafat. The delegation visited England in 1920.
The leaders of the delegation addressed the House of Commons and saw the British Prime Minister,
Lloyd George who paid no heed to the delegations demand. The delegation stayed at London for
eight months and won many hearts and sympathies of people in Britain delivering speeches.
However, the delegation returned to India unsuccessful in October 1920.

After the unsuccessful visit to England the leaders of Khilafat Movement realized the fact that British
were not in the mood to help them. Therefore, they realized that a new strategy needed to be adopted
in order to reinvigorate the zest and zeal for freedom among a general populace. With this aim they
decided to launch a movement of Non Co-operation. When the leaders of Khilafat movement
announced the Non Co-operation Movement, the Congress extended its full support to the Khilafat
Movement. The leaders of the two met at Amritsar and resolved to launch a country wide agitation
under the leadership of Mr. Gandhi. The agitation was against the British government. The Jamiat-ul-
Ulama Hind issued a Fatwa ofTark-e-Mawalat. The following points were included in it:

1. Renunciation of all Government titles.

2. Boycott of legislature and court.

3. Withdrawal of students from educational institutions.

4. Resignation from government posts.

5. General civil disobedience.

As a result of this proclamation of fatwa, hundreds of thousands people returned the titles and
stopped sending their children to government schools and colleges. All those highly educated young
men who could have rose to high government positions bade farewell to their bright future and
accepted ordinary jobs in the private sector. The vacuum created in government offices was joyfully
filled in by Hindus, while the Muslim government employees willingly accepted starvation for the sake
of the Muslim cause.

Under the hypnotism of Mr. Gandhi, Muslim ulama had issued a verdict and declared India as Dar-ul-
Harab and the Muslims therefore needed to migrate to some other country or Dar-ul-Salam.
Thousands of families sold out their properties for a tenth of their value and hastily left for Afghanistan,
in August 1920. As many as eighteen thousand people marched towards Afghanistan, which was
unable to bear the influx of the people. Thus, the Afghan authorities closed their frontiers. Eventually
the Muhajarins had to return to their homes. A great number of old man, women and children died on
their way during returning to homes and those who luckily reach alive their former places. They found
themselves homeless and penniless. In fact they faced great difficulties. Even the preachers of
Khilafat Movement realized the fact.

In January 1921, nearly three thousands students of various colleges and schools boycotted their
classes and a number of teachers most of them were Muslims tendered their resignation. The
Movement became so powerful that the Government was obliged to pay attention to the problem. The
British Government invited Seth Jan-Muhammad Chutani, the President of Khilafat conference to visit
London to discuss the issue. A delegation under has leadership visited London and discussed the
sentiment of Muslims but the delegation also returned unsuccessfully.

The Khilafat Movement came to an end when thousands of Indians were put behind the bar. The
leaders in spite of their best efforts could not maintain the Hindu-Muslim Unity. One of the main
reasons which caused a death blow to Khilafat Movement was the indirect announcement of Gandhi
to discontinue the Non Co-operation Movement. Gandhi used an incident of arson on February 1922,
when a violent mob set on fire a police choki at Chora Churi at district Gorakpur, burning twenty one
constables to death as an excuse to call off the non-cooperation movement. It adversely affected the
Khilafat Movement which thought to be integral part of movement. In 1924, Kamal Ataturk set up a
government on democratic basis in Turkey by abolishing Khilafat as a system of government which
served a finishing blow to Khilafat Movement in India and people had lost whatever interest that they
had in the movement.

Failure of the Movement:

1. The abolition of Khilafat by Kamal Ataturk was a serious blow on Khilafat movement in the
sub-continent and he exiled Sultan Abdul Majeed, a helpless Caliph and abolished Khilafat as an
institution, due to this all agitational activities came to an end in the Sub-continent.
2. The Hijrat Movement made the Muslims disillusioned with the Khilafat Movement due to the
declaration of India as Darul-Harab. A large number of Muslims migrated from Sindh and N.W.F.P to
Afghanistan. The Afghan authorities did not allow them to cross the border. After this tragic event
those who had advocated the Hijrat movement come to realize their mistake which resulted in failure
of movement.

3. When Khilafat movement became mature and was reaching its climax. A tragic incident took
place in the village of Chora Churi in which the police opened fire on the procession of local resident.
The agitated mob in counteraction set the police station on fires which in result twenty one police
constables were burnt alive. Due to this incident the Ali brother and other Muslim leader were arrested
and Mr. Gandhi put off the movement. As a consequence the movement lost its intensity.

Conclusion:

The Khilafat movement was started to safeguard the Khilafat in Turkey, an issue which essentially
belonged to the Muslims. By the involvement of Hindus the Movement grew forceful and there was
possibility of meeting the movement with success. The British Government was the common enemy
of the Muslims and Hindus. That is why, both the nations continued united efforts against it. But the
difference between the Hindus and Muslims became even more pronounced and many other events
showed that the opposition of Hindus to British Government was not lasting. When Khilafat Movement
reached at its success, the Hindus especially Mr. Gandhi gave up from movement and leaved the
Muslims alone and caused the failure of Movement.

The Khilafat movement proved that Hindus and Muslims were two different nations as they could not
continue the unity and could not live together. The Khilafat Movement created political consciousness
among the Indian Muslims, which inspired them to constitute another movement for then
Independence. Thus, they started Pakistan Movement.

Hijrat Movement (1920)

Posted by: HistoryPak

Hijrat movement was launched against the aggressive policies of British government and for the
restoration of Ottoman Empire. World War 1 broke out in the year 1914 between Allied forces and
Germany. The Ottoman Empire was very weak and made alliance with Germany. Muslims of the
Indian sub-continent had spiritual attachment with Ottoman Empire and refused to join Britain in their
war against Ottoman Empire. British government promised that they will fight only against Germany
and no harm would be done to the Ottoman Caliphate. When Allied forces defeated German the
promise was broken. In the Treaty of Serves the territory of Ottoman Empire was distributed between
French and Britain and small portion to Turkey. Khilafat Movement was launched for the restoration of
the Ottoman Caliphate, Congress supported the movement and mass mobilization was at its peak.
The British government issued Rowlett Act in 1919, indefinitely extending emergency measures to
control public unrest and root out conspiracies. The British government became more aggressive due
to mass mobilization and arrested Muslims leaders including Ali brothers and Azad. Around thirty
thousand Muslims were detained. In the meanwhile Jallian Bagh incident occurred whose purpose
was to demand the release of Muslims prisoners. Hijrat movement was the result of intolerable
behavior of British government.

When Khilafat movement was at its peak, in the meantime a voice arose from Lucknow declaring the
India sub-continent as Dar-ul-Harb (home of war), urging the Muslims to migrate from their homeland
on the plea of few Ulama of India as a result of their inability to compete against the aggressive steps
of the British, they ought to go somewhere else. Moulana Abdul Kalam Azad, Moulana Abdul Bari
Farangi, Moulana Muhammad Ali and Moulana Abdul Majeed Sindhi issued a Fatwa which declared
migration from India Dar-ul-Harb (home of war) to Dar-ul-Aman (home of peace) desirable for the
Muslims of India after World War I. Nazims were appointed in every big city and a central office was
established in Delhi known as Khuddam-ul-Muhajireen to motivate Muslims for migration. Giving
importance to the announcement of Ulema most of the Muslims decided to migrate to the nearest
Muslim country Afghanistan, which was thought a suitable for their shelter. Muslims of the Indian sub-
continent were unable to spend their life according to teachings of Islam and Islamic culture under
British rule. Hijrat movement was considered such an important virtue that the Muslims were not even
made to hear a minor word in opposition of the movement and it became so dominant that even Non-
cooperation Movement paled before it.

Muslims sold their property and headed for Kabul. A group of 750 Muslims Muhajireen form Sindh set
out for Kabul under the leadership of Barrister Jan Muhammad Junejo. This group of Muslims
received an enthusiastic reception at every train station it passed; this enhanced the vigor for
migration amongst the Muslims of Punjab. The popularity of movement can be determined from the
fact the more than thirty thousand Muslims had left for Kabul in the second week of August 1920. The
movement spread out to the Frontier province and locals became more active to surpass other in this
sacred cause. The movement was undertaken as religious significance. The rural areas of N.W.F.P
province such as Peshawar and Mardan were the worst affected areas. The local Hindus motivated
Muslims for migration and started buying their land and cattle at throw-away price. A land worth of ten
thousand was sold for one hundred and a Bull worth of two hundred was sold for forty rupees only.
The carvans of emigrants who were moving towards Afghanistan via Peshawar and Khyber Pass
were brought up and nourished by the locals. A proper setup was made for their hospitality, donations
from locals and dedicated their time and energy for the help of refuges. A Sarai at Namak Mandi
Peshawar was reserved for the stay and hospitalization of the emigrants. Majority of Muslims leaders
from N.W.F.P were in the favour of Hijrat movement including, Abdul Ghaffar khan, Abbas khan,
Muhammad Akbar khan and Ali Gul khan and they themselves migrated to Afghanistan with common
refuges.

The migration took place at a large scale, a very large number of people majorly from lower class of
society, the common people, the poor people left from India to Afghanistan. The emigrants carried out
their journey on foot and carts because sources of transportation were not that mush developed at
that time. In the beginning the Afghanistan government welcomed Indian Muslims and King Amanullah
ruler of Afghanistan appointed Muhammad Iqbal Shedai as his minister for refuges. Afghan
government later on closed down their frontiers when they found flood of refugees were coming would
be too difficult for them to handle. Even those who have managed to enter successfully were
spending miserable life and disgusted because Afghanistan was a poor country and facing many
internal problems. The refugees came across so many hardships and soon they were force to take a
journey back home. Some of the refugees went to Soviet Union and Europe.

Hijrat movement was an emotional and ill advised movement and it had no potential to have
constructive result. Majority of Ulema and leaders of public opinion did not approve, including
Moulana Ashraf Ali Thanvi, Habib-ur-Rehman, Hakeem Ajmal khan, Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum khan
and Alama Inayatullah khan. Hijrat movement ended in misery for the Muslims because it was
unplanned and was based on the emotions and had not taken into account the realities of
Afghanistan. It was an unwise act of Muslims of Sub-continent lost their lives, home, crops and cattle.
It was act of serious blunder of Muslims not looking into consequences and made them from poor to
poorer. Muslims were at the brink of disaster and facing Hindu opposition because they had nothing in
India now as they sold whatever they had. Sincere and zealous Muslims suffered severe hardships;
however Hijrat movement reinforced the total commitment of Muslims sacrifice for the ideology,
principles and teaching of Islam.

Delhi Proposals (1927)

Posted by: HistoryPak

In order to break the ice and to bridge the gulf between the Muslims League and Congress so that
they could present common demands before the British for the legislation of the new Act, a group of
prominent Muslims, mostly members of the two chambers of the central met at Delhi on March 20,
1927. M.A. Jinnah presided over the session. The proceedings were held in camera and lasted for
almost seven hours. They knew that the greatest constitutional contention between Muslim League
and Congress was the matter of electorate. Congress propagated joint electorates as to them
separate electorates would have weakened the foundations of the Indian nationalism. Whereas
Muslim League out of their insecurity of undermined representation were not ready to let go of their
demand for separate electorate. Jinnah and team realized that they could only convince the Congress
to accept a common agenda if they withdrew the Leagues demand of Separate electorate. They
discussed and tried to chalk out the conditions following which the system of Joint Electorates could
be accepted. After a prolonged discussion it was unanimously resolved that League should accept a
settlement with the Congress on the basis of certain proposals; the concluded agreement came to be
known as Delhi Proposals. Jinnah and company declared that they would withdraw the demand of
Separate Electorates provided the following demands will be accepted by the Congress:

Sind should be separated from Bombay and should be constituted into an independent province.
Reforms should be introduced in the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan on the same
footing as in any other province of India.
Reservation of seats according to the population for different communities in the Punjab and Bengal.
Muslims should be given 1/3rd representation in the Central Legislature.

The relinquishment of the right to separate electorate was an unprecedented concession by the
Muslims and it was a major achievement of Jinnah to have convinced his colleagues to concede this.
It was the first time that the Muslim League had agreed to joint electorates and would not do so ever
again. The Muslim League was, however, divided because of these proposals and prominent Muslim
League leaders, mainly from the Punjab, under the leadership of Sir Muhammad Shafi, decided to
part away for the Jinnah Group.

Nehru Report (1928)

Posted by: HistoryPak

Under the Act of 1919, new reforms were to be introduced in India by the British Government after
every 10 years. For this purpose Simon Commission was sent to India in 1927. Most of the Indian
political parties decided to boycott the Commission on the plea that it lacked Indian representation.
The British decided to throw the ball in the court of Indian Politicians. Lord Birkendhead, Secretary of
State for Indian Affairs, challenged the Indians, If they have any political capability and competence
then they should form a unanimous constitution and present it to us and we will implement it.
Indian political parties accepted the challenge and called an All Parties Conference at Delhi in January
1928. The conference was attended by around hundred delegates from all the important parties
including Indian National Congress, All India Muslim League, National Liberal Federation, Hindu
Mahasabha, Central Sikh League etc. The conference failed to reach a conclusion on the issue of the
rights of minorities. The second round of the All Parties Conference was held in March the same year.
Two sub-committees were formed but the end result was not different from the first session. It was
during the third session of the All Parties Conference held at Bombay in May 1928 that a seven
members committee under the chairmanship of Motilal Nehru to determine the basic features of the
future constitution of India.

Despite many hurdles, the Nehru Committee completed its task and its report, commonly known as
Nehru Report was presented in the fourth session of the All Parties Conference held in August 1928.
The Committee declared that it was useless to ask anything less than complete Swaraj and presented
the following demands:

India should be given Dominion Status with the Parliamentary form of Government.
There should be a bi-cameral legislature consisting of senate and House of Representatives. The
senate will comprise of two hundred members elected for seven years, while the House of
Representatives should consist of five hundred members elected for five years.
Governor-General will act on the advice of executive council. It was to be collectively responsible to
the parliament.
There should be Federal form of Government in India with Residuary powers to be vested in Centre.
There will be no separate electorate for minorities. It claimed since separate electorate awakens
communal sentiments therefore it should be scrapped and joint electorate should be introduced.
System of weightage should not be adopted for any province.
There will be no reserved seats for communities in Punjab and Bengal. However, reservation of
Muslim seats could be possible in the provinces where Muslim population should be at least ten
percent.
Judiciary should be independent from the Executive
There should be 1/4th Muslim Representation at Centre
Sind should be separated from Bombay provided it proves to be financially self sufficient.
Reforms should be introduced in NWFP

The report was not acceptable to Muslims and both the Muslim members of the Committee did not
sign it. Syed Ali Imam, due to bad heath could not attend the meetings of the Committee while Shoaib
Qureshi refused to sign the repot. In the fourth session of the All Parties Conference convened in
December to review the Nehru Report, Jinnah representing the Muslim League presented following
four amendments in the report:

There should be no less than one-third Muslim representation in the Central Legislature.
In event of the adult suffrage not being established, Punjab and Bengal should have seats reserved
for the Muslims on population basis.
The form of the constitution should be Federal with residuary powers vested in the provinces.
Sind should immediately be made a separate province and the reforms should also be introduced in
NWFP and Balochistan at the earliest.

Jinnahs proposals were rejected when put to vote in All Parties Conference. The Congress managed
to get the majority vote in favour of the Report. They asked the Government to make a constitution till
December 31 according to the recommendations of Nehru Report and threatened that otherwise the
party would start a mass movement for the attainment of Swaraj. It was also decided that January 26
would be celebrated as the Independence Day. Jinnah considered it as the parting of the ways and
once the Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity was now convinced that the Hindu mindset in India
was bent upon pushing the Muslim minority to the wall.
Measures taken by Ayub Khan
Posted by: HistoryPak

1: Rehabilitation of peace:- In the absence of any effective governmental authority, the law and
order situation was deteriorating throughout the country. Therefore, the first priority of military
government was to check the criminal activities within the boundaries of the state; special military
cells were established in order to facilitate the masses in case of trouble and to take precautionary
measures against the trouble mongers factors in the society. 2: Price Control:- The next step, which
the military administration took, was the management of price control cells and bodies. During the
times of democratic governments, there was no check over the prices of the daily commodities of life.
Hoarding was very common. These factors were the primary source of inflation. The situation was
aggravated by the excessive profits earned by the retailers. The military government printed price lists
and made sure that no one could earn excessive profits by exploiting the needs of the consumers. 3:
Check on Smuggling:- Identification of economic flaws and their rectification was one of the most
high-pitched priorities of the military government. Smuggling was one of the monstrous issues that
resisted the growth of countrys economy. Chittagong and Karachi Seaports had been used for
smuggling since long. The role played by the politicians in burgeoning with such an evil should not be
neglected. As soon as the military government took over, strict disciplinary actions were initiated
against the smugglers; crackdowns were planned to seize the people involved in such notorious
activities. 4: Settlement of the properties:- Since the independence of country, the issue of the
abandoned properties could not be resolved. However, the issue was settled within a year after
military takeover. 5: Rehabilitation of migrants:- When India was divided, a large number of people
migrated from India to Pakistan. They reached Pakistan in a very poor condition. Quaid and Liaquat
took keen interest in the rehabilitation of the immigrants on priority bases; however, the later rulers did
not consider it important enough to take steps for their resolution. As soon as the military government
was established, the rehabilitation ministry, under the supervision of Gen. Azam Ali, worked so
rigorously that it came up with the settlement of majority of migrants in a very short time. Several
housing societies were established to provide shelter to the migrants, Korangi being one of them.

Allahabad Address (1930)

Posted by: HistoryPak

In this address, Allama Iqbal gave the lucid explanation of the inner feeling of the Muslims of India. He
narrated the basic principles of the Islam and loyalties of the Muslims to their faith. He gave the idea
and concept about a separate homeland in this address because the Muslim were a nation and had a
right that they got the identification and passed their lives in order to the Islamic principles. Due to
these reasons, he expressed his thoughts in this address.
There were many reasons which caused Muslims to think about the separate homeland and
compelled to protect the rights of the Muslim. There was a two branched attack on the Muslim
interests. On the one side, Hindus were creating the restrictions in the way of the Muslim and hurting
the feeling of the Muslim to propose the Nehru report as the ultimate constitution for India. On the
other side, the British government totally ignored the Muslims rights and other facilities were not
being provided to them. They were ignored in every field of life, especially in education and
government.
In that critical condition, Allama Muhammad Iqbal realized that these eccentric problems of the
Muslims in North West India needed to be addressed. In order to solve these problems, Allama Iqbal
pointed a line of action.
In his address, Allama Iqbal explained that Islam was the major and determining factor in the life of
Indian Muslims. He defined the Muslims of India as a nation and recommended there could be no
possibility of peace in India without recognizing them as one. Unless the Muslims are considered as a
nation and their rights are protected, it is impossible to establish peace and order in the land. Because
there are many nations in the land, every nation is distinguished from the other in their customs,
traditions and religion. The difference in the mind, difference in thoughts and religion furthermore,
difference in the customs and tradition make them unable to live together. So in these condition, it is
essential that Muslim have a separate homeland as without a separate homeland they might face
many difficulties for the rest of their life in united India.
As the permanent solution to the Muslim Hindus problem, Iqbal proposed that Punjab, North West
Frontier province, Baluchistan, and Sindh should be converted into one state. He expressed that the
northwestern part of the country should be established to unite as a self-governed unit, within or
without the British Empire.
Islam and Nationalism
In his address, Allama Iqbal explained that Islam was the major formative factor in the life history of
Indian Muslims. It furnished those basic emotions and loyalties, which gradually unify scattered
individuals and groups and finally transform them into a well-defined people, possessing a moral
consciousness of their own.
He defined the Muslims of India as a nation and suggested that there could be no possibility of peace
in the country unless and until they were recognized as a nation. He claimed that the only way for the
Muslims and Hindus to prosper in accordance with their respective cultural values was under a federal
system where Muslim majority units were given the same privileges that were to be given to the Hindu
majority units. In this section, Iqbal addressed the idea the Islam and nationalism. Islam is a way of
life in which the Muslims spend their lives with peace and harmony, it gives the principles to regulate
and organize life and also form the identification of a separate nation within the Muslim psyche. Islam
provides the Muslims with a separate identification and distinguishes them from others because its
customs and traditions are different from other religions and this faith stresses upon monotheism and
acceptance of the Holy Prophets principles.
As far as nationalism is concerned, it can be said that nationalism comes through Islam in Muslims,
Islam provides a different way of life. Although Islam is a religion yet it declares the rules and
regulations about the different aspects of life. On the other hand, Europeans considered Islam as a
private affair and thought that Islam should not guide political conditions. Whereas Iqbal explained
that Islam was not a private matter, the demand of separate homeland was based on Islam as it did
not neglect the common life. Man, says Renan is enslaved neither by his race nor by his religion,
nor by the course of rivers, nor by the direction of mountain ranges. A great aggregation of men, sane
of mind and warm of heart, creates a moral consciousness which is called a nation.
The question of unity
In this section of his speech, Iqbal narrated the principle of unity and whether unity in different nations
was possible or not. According to Iqbals point of view, there are many nations in this sub-continent
and every nation has its own social, political, and religious structure. Without partition, establishment
of peace and order in this land is impossible; nevertheless they can pass their lives with peace. One
reason is that one nation does not accept the customs and traditions of other nations and consider
them lower. This thing expressed that peace and harmony can be established but only after the
division of the Indian sub-continent to facilitate the Muslims to implement their religion.
Muslim Indians within India
The unity of nations is not only territorial as is believed by European countries. India is a continent of
human groups belonging to the different races, speaking different languages, and professing different
religions. Their behavior is not at all determined by a common race consciousness.
Conclusion
As a permanent solution of the problems was that division of continent was essential in the sight of
Iqbal that is why Allama Iqbal presented his ideas in this speech.

Constitution of 1962
Posted by: HistoryPak
 After the military coup of 1958, Ayub Khan waited for some time with the intention of paving public
opinion in his favour. A legislative commission was established under the leadership of Justice
Shahaab-ud-din. The commission forwarded a report on 6th May 1961. Justice Manzoor Qadir
designed and drafted the entire constitution. Ayub Khan with the help of a presidential ordinance
enacted the new constitution on 8th June 1962. It had the following salient features:-

1. It was in written form and had the information about the state institutions and their mutual
relations.
2. The constitution was not passed by the consent of the elected representatives of the people.
It was the creation or brain child of a single person.
3. The constitution was president friendly; making amendments was easy only if supported and
endorsed by the president or it was a very lengthy and difficult job. For making any amendment, the
2/3rd majority of the assembly had to pass the bill and then had to send it to the president. If
president did not take up any objection for thirty days, the amendment was considered valid.
However, the president might disapprove or send back the resolution with certain alterations. In that
case, it was needed to gain the consent of 3/4 th majority of assembly. The president had to give
consent in ten days or had to propagate it for the opinion of Basic Democrats. In that case, the
opinion of the B.DS was considered final.
4. Apparently, it was a federal system of government with East Pakistan and West Pakistan as
its units. The constitution contained the list of only federal authorities, the rest were given to the
federating units. The center had the authority to intervene in the provincial matters if considered
necessary.
5. Unlike previous constitutions, the Indian Act 1935 and constitution of 1956, it was presidential
in its nature with all the executive powers resting with the president. He was the constitution head of
government and state.
6. It was a unicameral system of government with only one house. The members of the National
Assembly were elected by the basic democrats.
7. The judiciary was kept independent to the extent of theory. All the judges of the High courts
had to be selected and appointed by the president with the advice of the chief justice. But president
was not bound to the opinion or wishes of the Chief Justice.
8. The constitution guaranteed the basic human rights for all the citizens of Pakistan without
any discrimination of cast, creed and color.

The constitution of 1962 was a one man show. It was designed for a single man. Apparently it gave
many rights and securities to the people but actually it deprived the people from all kinds of political
rights and their representation in the legislation.

Benazirs First Regime

Posted by: HistoryPak

Benazir Bhutto, the first woman prime minister of a modern Muslim state. Although she inherited her
fathers party, the PPP, and, beneficiary of dynastic politics and of the emotional ties of a large section
of the electorate to her charismatic family has proven to be a mixed political blessing and has led it to
victory, the party won a very narrow plurality in the 1988 elections and was therefore forced to enter
into a coalition with the MQM and several other parties in order to form a government.

Benazir wanted to repeal the Eighth Amendment in order to strengthen her position as prime minister
but soon abandoned the effort. Benazir also faced not only the old problems of the political role of the
military forces, the division of power between the central and provincial governments, and the role of
Islam, but also pressing new ones, including a large budget deficit and growing ethnic violence.

Initially on December 2, Benazir Bhutto formed a coalition government with MQM. To maintain her
power and implement her programs, Benazir would have needed to maneuver successfully between a
powerful president and the military elite and to reach a political accommodation with MQM and Nawaz
Sharif. Instead, she pursued a course of confrontation, including unsuccessful efforts to overthrow
Nawaz in the provincial assembly. In addition, the failure of the PPP to share power and spoils with its
coalition partners caused further alienation, including the withdrawal of the MQM from the government
in October 1989.

Benazir took the office in the crucial decade of Cold war. During her first government, Benazir Bhuttos
foreign policy revolved around Afghanistan, India, and the United States. On the Western front,
Benazir Bhutto also authorized further aggressive military operations in Afghanistan to topple the
fragile communist regime and the Soviet influence in the region. She also wanted friendly relation with
India.

During her first time, Benazir Bhutto established the separate but integrated nuclear testing
programme in the atomic bomb programme, thus establishing a nuclear testing programme where the
authorizations were required by the Prime minister and the military leadership.

Benazir Bhutto launched and supervised the clandestine project, Integrated research programme
(IRP) a missile programme which remained under Benazir Bhuttos watch and successfully ended in
1996. Pakistans first military satellite, Badr-I was also launched under her government through China.
With launching of Badr-I, Pakistan under Benazir Bhutto, became the first Muslim country to have
launch and placed the satellite in Earths orbit. She declared the 1990, an year of space in Pakistan
and conferred national awards to scientists and engineers who took participation in the development
of this satellite.

Midnight Jackal was a political intelligence operation launched under President Ghulam Ishaq Khan
and the Chief of Army Staff General Mirza Aslam Beg, with the objectives to bring the Vote of no
confidence movement in the Parliament by bribing the members of Benazirs own party.Because of
the Semi-presidential system, Benazir needed permission from Khan for imposing new policies, which
Khan vetoed as he seen to moderate or contradict to his point of view. Benazir, through her
legislators, also attempted to shift parliamentary democracy to replace the semi-presidential system,
but Khans constitutional powers always vetoed Benazirs attempts. This brought power struggle
between prime minister and president. The unemployment and labor strikes began to take place
which halted and jammed the economic wheel of the country and Benazir Bhutto was unable to solve
these issues due to in a cold war with the President. In November 1990, after a long political battle,
Khan finally used the Eighth Amendment to dismiss Benazir Bhuttos government following charges of
corruption, nepotism, and despotism. Khan soon called for new elections in 1990 where Bhutto
conceded her defeat.
Congress Ministries (1937-1939)
Posted by: HistoryPak

Even though Muslim League and Congress were against the Government of India Act 1935, yet it was
implemented in the winter of 1937. Now, what lay before them was the task of persuading their
concerned masses to support them in the upcoming elections. But Muslim League, which stood for
separate electorates, was unfortunately divided in several factions owing to personal and ideological
differences. Congress, on the other hand, was raising slogans of joint electorates. Congress also
wanted Hindi to be declared as the official language in the Deva Nagri script, while Muslims were in
favour of Urdu in Persian script to be officially declared as the national language of the Indian sub-
continent.

The result of elections came as a huge shock to both the parties. Congress, who claimed to be
representing 95% of the total Indian population, could not even secure 40% of the seats. It won
almost 750 seats out of 1,771 in 8 out of 11 provinces. Its success was restricted to Hindu-majority
provinces only. As for the results for the Muslim League, they were greatly disappointing. Out of 491
Muslim seats, it could only capture 106 and 26 of them were taken by Congress. Hence, the final
success of the elections was named in the favour of Congress, which gained majority in Bihar, Orissa,
Madras and U.P and other regions.

The Congress didnt set up ministries for about four months demanding British government to not
interfere in its legislative affairs. Discussions between them took place, and at last, the British agreed
without making any formal amendment to the Government of India Act 1935. As a result of which,
Congress ministries were formed in July 1937 but with bitter policy against Muslims: Hindi became the
national language, Congress flag became the national flag, and Bande Matram became the national
anthem. A strict prohibition was laid on cow slaughter and singing of Bande Matram, taken from the
novel of Chandra Chatterji, was started in schools. Construction of new mosques was banned and
Muslims were harassed while they offered prayers.

Twenty-seven months of Congress rule were characterized by rising political Hinduism, which seemed
to be working only for the welfare of Hindu community and revenging the previous 700-year Muslim
rule over them, as stated by some Congress leaders. Educational reforms were introduced that were
purely anti-Muslim in spirit. The purpose of Warda Taleemi Scheme was to displace the idea of two
nation theory from minds of Muslim children, while Vidya Mandar Scheme aimed at promoting Hindu
culture by making Mandar education necessary at elementary level. Muslims were also kept back in
economic circle. They were expelled from government offices and career opportunities were closed
for them. Their trade and agriculture was a target of Hindus harm, and they couldnt appeal justice
which already had Hindu imprints upon it. As a result, and to nobodys surprise but huge dismay,
massive Hindu-Muslim riots took place.

Several reports such as Pirpur Report, Muslim Sufferings under Congress Rule, and The Sharif
Report were issued by Muslims leaders to give word and voice to the injustice and cruelty they were
receiving under Congress reign, and they found expression in newspapers.
When World War II started in 1939, the British were fighting against the Axis Powers. The Viceroy of
India announced Indias involvement without consulting its representative political leaders. Congress
asked for transfer of power in repayment of their cooperation in war, which the British government
denied. As a result, Congress ministries resigned. Thus came to an end the nightmarish rule which
had terrorized Muslim community beyond imagination. Quaid-i-Azam asked the Muslims to observe it
as a Day of Deliverance with peace and without any harmful intent towards any other nation. Prayers
of thanksgiving and gratitude were offered and Muslims took a sigh of relief from the atrocities
committed against them in the two-year Congress rule.

Feroz Khan Noon (1893-1970)

Posted by: HistoryPak

Sir Malik Feroz Khan Noon, the seventh elected Prime Minister of Pakistan was born at Lahore in
1893. He was an important politician during the Freedom Movement and a prominent figure after the
independence of Pakistan and severed on many significant designations. He belonged to the Noon
family which was one of the most influential landowning families of Punjab. He got his early education
from Aitchison College, Lahore. He then went to London for higher education, where he completed his
master degree in 1916. After that he passed the exam of Bar-at-Law.

Upon his return to sub-continent in 1917, he started practicing law at the Lahore High Court. He, then,
entered in politics and was appointed as the Minister of Health and Education in Punjab Provincial
Cabinet. From 1936 to 1941, he served as the High Commissioner for India in London. He was
selected as a member of Viceroys Executive Council in 1941, and remained on that particular post till
1945. During this period of membership, he also held the office of Defense Minister for India from
1942 to 1945. He was the only Indian, at that time who was raised to that prestigious position.

Quaid-i-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah, with a desire to bring unity among Muslim Ummah, sent Feroz
Khan Noon as his special emissary to some countries of the Muslim World in October 1947. Malik
Feroz Khan was the first representative who was sent abroad by the Government of Pakistan after
independence. The purpose behind sending this one man delegation was to introduce Pakistan to
other countries, to explain the reasons behind its creation, to familiarize the Muslim countries with its
internal problems and to get moral and financial support from brother countries. Malik fulfilled the task
assigned to him successfully.

Due to his political and administrative experience, Feroz Khan was appointed as the Governor of East
Pakistan; he, however, was interested in the politics of Punjab. He remained one of the core
contenders for the Chief Minister-ship of Punjab from late fortys to early fiftys. Eventually he was
successful in becoming the Chief Minister of Punjab and served at the position for three years, from
1953 to 1956. Noon remained Chief Minister of Punjab until he became Foreign Minister of Pakistan,
in 1956, in Hussain Shaeed Suharwardys Cabinet.

Feroz Khan Noon had close affiliations with Iskandar Mirza, so he was one of the key organizers of
the Republican Party in Punjab. He was also appointed as its President. Contesting from the platform
of the Republican Party, he was elected as Prime Minister of Pakistan on 16th December 1957.
Although President Iskander Mirza supported Noon in establishing his Ministry, he later he dismissed
Noon, since he posed a hurdle in Iskanders way of obtaining absolute power. Noons tenure as Prime
Minister automatically came to an end when Martial Law was enforced in the country on 7th October
1958. He died on 9th December 1970 in his ancestral village, Nurpur Noon near Bhalwal, Sargodha
District.
Six-Points of Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rehman
Posted by: HistoryPak

Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rehman was the founder of Bangladesh. During the rule of Ayub Khan and Yahya
Khan he played a major role in Pakistan politics as a prominent leader of the Awami League in East
Pakistan. He presented a Six-Point formula in 1966, in collaboration with his party and demanded the
Pakistan government to accept them and to implement them the way they were. The central
government of Pakistan was showing detest for the formula for it would make the centre extremely
weak and make the provinces almost independent. It was demanded by the Awami League that the
new constitution should be based on the Six-Points. Sheikh Mujib and his party showed extreme
rigidity when asked to amend a few points. Though at times he committed that he would compromise,
especially before the elections of 1970, but after every commitment he backed out and stuck to his
Six-Points formula. The Awami League, the most popular party of the East Pakistan, was so
emotional about it that all its members swore an oath to die trying to implement the Six-Point
Program. And it was due to that very formula that, when not accepted by the central government of
Pakistan, the Awami League declared the independence of Bengal.

The Six-Points formula is mentioned here under.

1: There would be a federal parliamentary system based on direct adult franchise and representation
of provinces would be on the basis of population in the federal legislature.

2: The federal government will be restricted only to foreign affairs, defense and currency. And even
regarding foreign affairs, the dealings of economic matters would rest with the provinces.

3: There would either be two different currencies for the two wings or a single one with separate
Federal Reserve systems for each wing.

4: The power of implementation and collection of taxes would lie with the provinces. The federal
government will be given enough shares to fulfill its tasks of foreign affairs and defense.

5: There would be separate accounts of foreign exchange earnings for each wing.

6: The East Pakistan would be given the authority to have a militia or paramilitary force solely under
its provincial government.

Muslims and the Congress

Posted by: HistoryPak

After the War of Independence 1857 the English government had realized that their policy to
rule by force was no longer beneficial in India. Thus, they tried to win the support of the
Indian people. Several promises were made by the government that the Indians will, from
now onward, also be a part of political affairs in their country and that they will no longer be
treated as mere slave/masses but as citizens.

During these circumstances an ex English CSP officer named Alan Octavian Hume came up
with the idea of forming a political party, of the Indians and for the Indians. For that purpose
he met with senior English bureaucrats and with their guidance, along with local Indian
contribution a political party was formed in 1885. It was called the All Indian National
Congress. Its first president was an Indian and Mr. Hume was its first general secretary. On
28th December 1885 the first session of the Congress was held with 72 members among
whom, 58 were Hindus of which only 2 were Muslims. This obvious difference in the ratio of
membership continued throughout the history of the Congresss existence as the only political
party in the Indian sub-continent. For instance in the Congress session held in 1894 there
were 118 Hindu members of Congress and only 20 were Muslims. The difference of
proportion between the two nations representatives can show a great deal of truth about the
intentions of the Congress.

The chief Muslim leaders in India at that time were Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and his Aligarh
comrades who believed that the English government was accusing Muslims to be the real
force behind the mutiny of 1857. According to Sir Syed, Muslims should stay aloof from
all political matters to give the government the impression that they were not concerned with
the politics so that they can save themselves from the governments wrath. Attainment of
modern western education was the focus of the educated sections of Muslim society. The rest
of the Muslim population was either too unaware of the current political affairs because of
their educational backwardness or too afraid for their lives.

Congress on the other hand started to become more and more prejudiced against the Muslims.
Hindus, being in majority in the party started using it to achieve their own ends. The
Congress during all her life in united India kept claiming that it represented all the
communities living in India no matter what their faiths were. But the reality was quite the
opposite. During the last decade of the 19th century Congress and its policies became
excessively biased and violent toward the Muslims. Extremist Hindus like Tilak, Medan
Mohan Malvia, Rash Behari Ghosh and Banerjee became its major leaders who practically
took arms against the Muslims, their faith and practices. Their violent protests against cow
slaughter and division of Bengal are living proofs of Congresss pro-Hindu approach.

In spite of all anti-Muslim activities of the Congress, some Muslim politicians had stuck their
desires with the part because they agreed with the claim of the Congress that all the people
living in India were one nation and Congress planned to keep it that way. Muslim politicians
like Maulana Azad, Maulan Mohammad Ali Johar and even Mohammad Ali Jinnah were also
in favor of united India and they believed that in spite of all the newly emerging Hindu-
Muslim differences there was still the chance of their unity and thats why they remained with
the Congress.

On the Aligarh side, after the death of Sir Syed, his successors like Mohsin-ul-Mulk and
Wiqar-ul-Mulk perceived that the time for Muslim separation from politics was gone and a
new era had begun, that demanded a political party for the Muslims as well. For that reason
in 1906 All India Muslim League was formed which in contrast to the Congress declared
itself to be the representative of the Muslims of India alone who were by all definition a
separate nation. The formation of Muslim League opened new doors for Muslim politicians
who now had an independent platform of their own to work for their own good. Still there
were some Muslims like Jinnah and Johar who believed that the unity of Hindus and Muslims
alone could help figure out the solutions of the problems that India and the Indians were
facing. Thats why Jinnah joined Muslim League as well in 1913 when he was still a member
of the Congress. He tried to become the bridge between the two major political parties of
India at that time and because of his efforts in 1916, the famous Lucknow Pact was finalized
between the two associations which could create a relationship of mutual trust but even that
attempt proved to be futile because of the rigidity of Congress. Their constant claim to be the
only representative party of the Indians and their refusal to accept Muslims as an independent
nation led to the failure of the Lucknow Pact. Similarly the betrayal of the Congress during
the Khilafat Movement, when the intentional of Congress the movement to save the Ottoman
Caliphate failed in India disillusioned the Muslims from Congress even more. Soon Jinnah
also realized the non-conciliatory intentions of the Congress and resigned from its
membership.

With the passage of time Muslim League started becoming a great representative of the
aspirations of the Muslims of India and they started looking towards the League it as their
guardian. So the chances of Congress having the Muslim support as well started to become
bleak. The Congress, however, did not bother about that much and in 1928 the Nehru Report
from the Congress platform distinctly crystallized the anti-Muslim approach of the political
party of the whole of India. These differences of opinion on all matters led to the freedom
movement of Pakistan prior to which during the elections of 1937 Congress won the majority
seats in the legislature and formed government in India.

Those were terrible times for all Indians except Hindus of course, and particularly for
Muslims. Congress during its rule did all in its capacity to work against Muslims and their
representative political party Muslim League. Hindu-Muslim riots were common stories of
the day in which the Muslims were always accused for everything. Cow slaughter was
banned in many regions. Congress party song Banday Mataram was declared the national
anthem of India which branded all Muslims as outsiders and traitors and the song suggested
the elimination of Muslims by all means. The language controversy was given a new life
during that time as well. All these events proved that all Congress wanted was to destroy
Muslims, their heritage and to rule them as masters over slaves. Thats why when Congress
ministries resigned in 1939; Muslims of India celebrated Day of Deliverance on
22nd December. The Congress doings intensified the feelings of freedom of the Muslims and
though Muslims like Maulana Azad and his party Jamiat-ul-Ulema-i-Hind kept themselves on
the Congress side and hailed for a united India the majority of the Indian Muslims followed
Muslim League and finally founded an independent country for themselves called Pakistan in
1947.

Elections of 1970
Posted by: HistoryPak

Chief Martial Law Administrator General Yahya Khan after becoming the President of Pakistan in
1969 announced that very soon the free elections will be held in Pakistan on adult franchise to
establish a democratic government in the country. For that purpose, a three member Election
Commission was formed under the chairmanship of Justice Abdus Sattar as the Chief Election
Commissioner.

The electoral rolls were printed both in Bengali and Urdu for East and West Pakistan respectively.
Initially, the elections were due on 5 October 1970 for the National Assembly and 19 October for the
provincial assemblies. But theses elections were postponed till December of the same year because
of the severe monsoon floods in the eastern wing in August. The new dates announced were 7 and 17
December 1970. Still, elections for nine seats of National Assembly and eighteen for provincial
assemblies were held next year on 17 January 1971 due to cyclone in East Pakistan. The elections
were held on party basis and from 1 January 1970 the political parties were allowed to start
campaigning. A total of twenty-four political parties participated in the elections. There were mainly
two types of parties, religious and secular.

The religious parties included convention Muslim League, Qayyum Muslim League, Pakistan Muslim
League, Pakistan Democratic Party, Jamiat-ul-Ulama-a-Islam, Jamiat-ul-Ulama-a-Pakistan and
Jamiat-a-Islam Party among many others. These religious parties called for the Islamization of the
country. But though having common attitude they were absolutely different from one another and that
is why could not unite on a single platform. The regime of Yahya Khan was supporting the religious
parties for their conservative attitude that was in demand of a strong central government.

The secular and most prominent political parties were two, among many others. They both were
regional, Pakistan Peoples Party of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and Awami League of Sheikh Mujib-ur-
Rehman. Their prime focus was on economic issues. They both got immense public support as
compared to all other parties. Their supporters belonged to all the sections of the society.
Consequently, these two turned into mass movements. Both parties owed their dominant positions
and popularity in the massive political competition to their leaders. Both Bhutto and Mujib were gifted
leaders and possessed extraordinary appeals in their personalities for people of all ages and
professions.

Sheikh Mujib was the cause of ALs supreme popularity of that time in the eastern wing. There was
not one political leader at that time in the East Pakistan that had that much popularity enjoyed by
Mujib. He was a lamp, a mentor for his people. But this popularity, both of Mujib and AL, was
restricted to the East Pakistan and their demands held little appeal for the Pakistanis living in the
western wing. At the time of elections, AL had a very strong base in eastern wing. Since it was a mass
movement and not just a political party, it welcomed all those who showed inclination towards its
program. The most active section of the eastern society for the AL was the Bengali youth. The East
Pakistan Student League played a major role in promoting AL party program to the educational
institutions. It was on the basis of the Six-Points Formula that the AL not only got support from the
east wing Bengalis but also received generous funds from their Bengali brothers living abroad. The AL
pronounced a system abolishing jagirdari, zamindariand sardari system. Similarly, Bhutto of PPP was
also blessed with the same talent as that of Mujib. Like AL, PPP also became popular mainly because
of the popularity of Bhutto. Like AL, PPP was also restricted to its region, mainly West Pakistan
provinces of Sindh and Punjab. The PPP popularized Islamic Socialism in Pakistan. According to it, it
was a modified typed of Socialism with Islamic features to it. The PPP was also a great advocate of
Kashmir cause, unlike AL. This cause brought popularity to PPP by the west Pakistanis, since it was
an emotional topic for them and had little appeal for east Pakistanis. Bhutto and his party promised
economic prosperity to the nation. The slogan of roti, kapra or makan indeed brought commoners
under the PPPs flag.

With the election campaign, the drastic differences between the two leading political parties became
even more obvious and their regional outlook became evident. The Awami League popularized its Six-
Points and promulgated that it was by the dint of eastern wings products that western wing was
prospering but east was not getting its due share. It also advocated that Bengal was in fact a colony
to the west wing of the country. The PPP, on the other hand was emphasizing on economic problems
of the whole country but at the same time it closed down its branch in East Pakistan and thus proved
itself to be the representative of only the Pakistanis of the western side.

It was decided in the Legal Framework Order of 1970 that the National Assembly of Pakistan will
consist of 313 seats with 13 seats reserved for women. Out of these 313, 169 seats were to be for
East Pakistan, 85 for Punjab, 28 for Sindh, 19 for NWFP, 5 for Baluchistan and 7 seats were allotted
to the tribal areas. And regarding the provincial assemblies it was decided that East Pakistan
provincial assembly will have 400 members, Punjab 186, Sindh 62, Baluchistan 21 and NWFP will
have 42 members. The elections were held peacefully and 60 percent registered voters cast their
votes.

The results brought drastic changes in political setup of the country. The religious parties were totally
a failure because the public was less concerned about being dictated by the government to spend
their lives according to the teachings of Islam. The results also confirmed the provincialism of
Pakistan politics. The two major winners were the PPP and the AL. The AL was first great majority
party that secured 160 seats of National Assembly out of which only seven candidates belonged to
the West Pakistan. However, the AL could not win a single provincial assembly seat from any of the
west wing provinces. The PPP won second great majority in the National Assembly. It got 81 seats out
of 130 allotted to the western wing but it did not have a single seat from the East Pakistan. The LFO
 had declared that the National Assembly was responsible for making constitution within 120 days. And
only after the making of the constitution, the transfer of power to the provinces would take place. But
the great differences between the two major parties especially on issue of Six-Points Program were a
great hindrance in that process. Unfortunately these differences were never resolved and the end of
the story was the division of the country into two sovereign states.

All India Mohammedan Educational Conference

Posted by: HistoryPak

As M.A.O College Aligarh, the greatest dream of Sayyid Ahmed khan was achieved and this
achievement turned the tides for future events. Still he realized that college was unable to fulfill
educational problems of Muslims of India. Sayyid Ahmed khan launched All-India Muhammedan
Educational Congress in 1886, later on changed to Conference for Muslims to provide them a forum
through which they could get educational awareness. On contrary to the Confrontational Politics of the
Indian National Congress, he wanted co operational Politics with the British rulers.

All India Muslim Educational Conference (AIMEC), a Non-political organization which brought Muslims
social and political leaders, intellectuals and distinguished people from all of walks of life onto one
platform for educational empowerment of Muslims of India. It transformed the dimensions of Aligarh
Movement and fulfilled the dream of its founder, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan by converting Muhammadan
Anglo Oriental College (M.A.O. College) to Aligarh Muslim University. The Conference also became
championing the cause of Womens education and gave birth to one of the oldest and biggest
womens educational institution, Womens College of Aligarh. This non-political, All India Muslim
Educational Conference which was started for educational empowerment of Muslims of India also
gave birth to largest Muslim political party Muslim League

The AIMEC held it inaugral meeting on December 27,1886 at M.A.O College in the chair Moulvi
Samiullah Khan. It was attended by 161 delegates from all over. The Inaugural session at Aligarh
adopted the following resolutions:

1. Establishment of AIMEC and to hold its annual session in different parts of the country.
2. British Government should only take care of modern and western education. Muslims will take
care of Oriental studies.
3. Promote publications of journals and special attention should be paid for memorization of
Quran (Hifz-e-Quran)
4. The Head Office of Muslim Educational Congress will be at Aligarh.

The main objectives of the Conference were:

To provide a platform for Muslims to get higher education.

To arrange a forum through which religious education should be taught in English medium
schools of Muslims.
 To provide a forum for ullama and religious scholars to encourage diniyat and oriental studies
in the schools of Muslims, and support them to take forward religious tasks.
To provide a forum, through which the declined status of religious institutions should be
improved.

The annual meetings of AIMEC were regularly held every year in different parts of the country. Sir
Syed Ahmed acted as the secretary of the Conference till the time of his death. He himself took care
of regularly publishing of conference proceeding every year.

The holding of meeting every year under conference proved a great success for their required results.
People from all-India gathered and sit together, to talk about their problems, solutions, and
suggestions. This was the first and the only platform for the Muslims where they gathered for their
united cause. The AIMEC conference provided a unique platform.

One branch of conference was anjuman-e-tarraqi-e-urdu, in which many important tracts were
published under the conference like Musilmanon ki ghuzishta taleem, Al-jazia and few articles like
Kutab Khana Sikanderia, Huqooq-uz-Zimmiyan, Muslimanon ki Taraqqi-o-Tanazili kai Asbab.

The AIMEC also provided the platform for Muslims to display their inborn qualities of people like
Moulana Shibli Nomani, Moulana Altaf Hussain Hali, Mohsin-ul-Mulk and Moulvi Nazir Ahmed.They
used their hidden talents through this platform by delivering speeches and poetry to show their desire
for education, passion for self respect and national sympathy. Through this platform greatest
contemporary literacy figures were sharpened like Abdul Kalam Azad.

The conference took the initiative to look after the matters concerning the Indian Muslims generally:

i) Oriental and religious education should be started in Government Schools.

ii) Social issues; to curb Non-Islamic and heinous traditions from the Muslim society.

iii) An extra effort to put for promotion of womens education.

iv) Demands were made to remove derogatory and anti-Islamic contents from History course books.

v) Translation of literary works of different languages into Indian languages.

vi) The need of women education was felt and a proposal to start a women education section in
Muslim Educational Conference was accepted. The idea to start girls schools is all the state capitals
was initiated. Later, girls school at Aligarh was established.

vii) Conference also accepted Theodore proposal regarding education reforms to continue their
struggle and effort regarding education.
As AIMEC was a non political organization, yet anything delivered through platform of conference was
considered collective demand of Muslims. Sayyid Ahmed also delivered his first anti-congress speech
through this platform. The first ever political party of the Muslims in the history of India, The All India
Muslim League was formed on the platform of this conference. AIMEC played very important role in
the life of Muslims to get their rights, education and later on separate state in the shape of Pakistan.

War of 1971 and the Birth of Bangladesh

Posted by: HistoryPak

After the elections of 1970, situation in Pakistan turned into chaos and turmoil. The leaders of the two
leading political parties, Pakistan Peoples Party and the Awami League, having earned popularity in
their own regions, didnt seem to compromise with each other at any cost. Sheikh Mujib-ur-Rehman
continued insisting on his specific Six-Point Program while Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto with his reservations
asked for some amendments. Thus they couldnt get to the bottom of the predicament due to their
inflexibility. President Yahya Khan was himself too incompetent to instigate them to negotiate and co-
operate with each other.

Yahya Khan urged Sheikh Mujib a couple of times to come to West Pakistan, certainly not realizing
the growing discontent of the Bengali public because of their deep-rooted mistrust on their western
brethren. When Yahya Khan saw that Mujib remained unmoved, he himself called on Mujib and
invited him to visit Islamabad. But as again Mujib didnt respond, Yahya goaded Bhutto to leave for
Dacca. Bhutto acceded to his request and had detailed talks with Mujib but both of them couldnt
eliminate the ever-growing gap between the two wings.

In a desperate bid to break the political deadlock, Yahya Khan announced that National Assembly
session will be held in Dacca on 3 March 1971 for seeking the solution of constitutional matters.
Subsequently the elected MNAs of PPP vowed on Quran that they would remain faithful to their
leader. Similarly the MNAs of AL pledged that they would not yield at any cost as far as their Six-Point
Formula was concerned. Forthwith Yahya Khan was disappointed and decided for deferment of the
session that only added fuel to the fire. On 3 March East Pakistan province went on tremendous strike
and mammoth civil disobedience. Thereupon the army was called to curb their civil disobedience. But
the conditions further deteriorated and there was a great massacre due to clashes that occurred to
and fro between the Mukti Bahini and the Pakistan military.

Later, on 6 March, in order to keep the Bengali protestors at peace, Yahya Khan gave another date for
the session but Mujib put forward his demand for immediate lifting of Martial Law and transfer of
power to the elected MNAs. The President once again went to Dacca but their talks again remained
futile. On 23 March while West Pakistan was celebrating the Independence Day, East Pakistan
termed it a Resistance Day all over the roads and streets waving flags of Bangladesh. Even the
elected members of AL who had been invited to meet the President for negotiations arrived in cars
carrying Bangladeshi flags.

At that stage Yahya Khan was suggested by his close associates to go for direct military action to curb
the uprising of the Bengalis once and for all. Accordingly the Operation Searchlight was launched at
midnight on 25 March 1971 under Lieutenant-General Tikka Khan, the newly appointed Martial Law
Administrator and governor of the eastern wing. The army came into swift action and within no time
killed hundreds of protesting students. It also raided police headquarters and East Pakistan Rifles to
ensure peace in the province. These merely brutal acts remained secret for a long time among the
West Pakistanis until report of Hamood-ur-Rehman Commission was partly revealed after several
years. The army assault, however, gave rise to an anticlimax and fuelled nothing but repulsion and
resistance, and the bloodshed that followed further alienated Bengalis. Their desire to be free from the
clutches of their brother colonialists intensified. The migration of seven million Bengalis to India
paved the way for the Indian government to exploit the whole situation and defame Pakistan on
international level. On 17thApril a Bangladeshi government-in-exile to be headed by Mujib was formed
in Calcutta. Mujib was arrested at the orders of the President while his associates who could not be
arrested fled to the government-in-exile.

While Pakistan was being condemned in the world press, Yahya Khan announced amnesty to all the
migrants so that they could return to their homes but even this amnesty couldnt diminish the agitation
and the demonstrations going incessantly against the government. In order to gain favor of the
Bengalis India blocked West Pakistan air connection with the East Pakistan. The Indian government
not only fully supported the revolutionaries but also helped them prepare a Liberation Force well
known as Mukti Bahini whose training camps were formed on Pak-Indian border areas in mid 1971. In
September the total strength of the Mukti Bahini trainees was around 100,000. Mukti Bahini looted
arms depots and police stores to acquire weapons but India remained the major supplier of arms.
Thus to restore order in the East Pakistan became quite difficult.

The activities of Mukti Bahini started with their attacks on key installations of the army in Dacca and
on Chittagong harbor. During July-August they invaded lines of communications, railways and roads
and consequently discontinued the link between the two wings of the country. When the army seemed
to be inadequate to curb the disturbance the government of Pakistan sought help from the local
Bihari, non-Bengali speaking people to fight the Mukti Bahini guerrillas.

The Pakistani government was facing many problems including shortage of goods, inflation mainly
because IMF and the World Bank had ceased to support Pakistans economy and without their aid
and loan it was almost impossible to deal with the clashes. At that crucial time when Pak army was
already too down in the dumps, Indian military intervention followed on 3 rd December 1971and a full
fledged war broke out on the Eastern front of Pakistan. Already from 21 November India had started
direct attacks on Pakistan border regions and a plan was previously devised to occupy Dhaka on 6
December. Mukti Bahini and the public in general fully supported intrusion of the Indian army that was
duly aided by the Indian Air Force.

Worldwide appeals were made for ceasefire but Indian army continued the war that lasted for nearly
two weeks. At length Pakistani commander Lieutenant-General Niazi in East Pakistan had to
surrender on the orders of his superiors along with his 93,000 troops at Dacca on 16 December. As
soon as Mujib was released, he went to Bangladesh where Mukti Bahini was engaged in taking
revenge from the non-Bengali residents.

Indeed, the aftermath was not less than a nightmare. People were drowned in despair and
depression. Pakistan had lost half of her navy, third of army and a quarter of air force besides millions
of casualties. The biggest setback was disintegration of Pakistan with emergence of Bangladesh. In
the remaining West Pakistan people came out on the streets declaring Yahya and his fellows as
traitors and asked for his resignation. Thus Bhutto, President of the PPP was asked to come back
from New York to take over the charge of the country. On 20 December 1971 he assumed the rank of
the President of new Pakistan and Civil Martial Law Administrator.

Nadvatul Ulema
Posted by: HistoryPak

In the second half of the nineteenth century many educational institutions were founded to educate
the Muslims of India and make them equal in all terms with their Hindu fellow countrymen. In this
regard one of the major educational institutions was that of Nadva-tul-Ulama. Two of its predecessors
the Aligarh School and College and Dar-ul-Uloom-i-Deoband were in contrast to each other. Aligarh
emphasized on the modern western education, fruitful for the Muslims of India while Deoband, on the
other hand, devised to make Muslims a progressed nation by enhancing their religious spirit and
knowledge of religion. In those circumstances there was a great need of the emergence of an
institution that could deliver the two types of education at the same time and at one place. Thus for
that purpose Nadva-tul-Ulama was founded in 1894 at Lucknow by Moulvi Abdul Ghaffar, who was
working as the deputy collector for the British government of India.

The objectives of the establishment of the new institution were as under:

1. Remove sectarianism among the ranks of the Muslims

2. Elimination of the prevailing extremist educational ideas and to make them coherent

3. Improvement of the educational syllabus

4. Elimination of social evils

5. Improvement of all aspects of Muslims lives

6. Muslim separation from politics

7. Establishment of a grand educational institution to impart all sorts of education both, religious and
secular

Later this educational movement expanded itself and in 1898 Nadva-tul-Ulama was established and
its regular classes started shortly afterwards. Lots of people put their contributions in Nadvas
establishment and its successful working by providing it with grants. For instance Sir Agha Khan, Amir
of Bahawalpur and Nawab of Bhopal are just a few names to mention in this regard. However, there
were some criticisms as well like the Governor of U.P Anthony MacDonnel, famous for his
contributions in the Urdu-Hindi controversy on the Hindu side, criticized Nadva for being a part of
political activity in the province. But after a few years the government too started patronizing Nadva
and government grants were also issued to it. In 1908 Nadvas grand building started constructing
and the British government of U.P laid its foundations.

Nadva witnessed the peak of its popularity when Maulana Shibli Naumani joined it in 1904. Shibli
along with Moulvi Abdul Haq set the rules and regulations for the Nadva that enhanced its prestige a
lot. Before joining Nadva, Shibli was the faculty member of Aligarh College where he proved himself to
be a great scholar and a successful teacher. But he had his issues with Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and so
he left Aligarh in 1904. Later, as mentioned earlier, he joined Nadva and here again he proved his
caliber. He was made the in charge of Nadva and he made many changes in the syllabus of courses
taught there. He also made English language as a compulsory subject at the school. He was the
editor of the magazine of Nadva and he also established Dar-ul-Musanifin at Azamgarh. But soon
Shibli became unpopular among his staff of Nadva because of his excessive pride and rigidity and he
had to resign but after his resignation Nadva lost its popularity and never it could achieve the status it
used to enjoy during the days of Shibli.
Nadva-tul-Ulama of Lucknow produced famous scholars like Syed Suleiman Nadvi and Maulana Abul
Kalam Azad. It also provided freedom movement of Pakistan with freedom fighters like Suleiman
Nadvi, Abdul Salam Nadvi and Masood Alam Nadvi etc.

Legal Framework Order 1970

Posted by: HistoryPak

Yahya Khan after becoming the Chief Martial Law Administrator in 1969 announced that he would
make it possible that free and fair elections will be conducted in Pakistan and a new constitution will
be made soon. For that reason, he introduced a Legal Framework Order in March 1970 that
determined principles for the future constitution of Pakistan. It also dissolved the One-Unit scheme on
1st July 1970.

The features of the LFO 1970 are mentioned as under:

1: The National Assembly of Pakistan will consist of 313 seats with 13 seats reserved for women. Out
of 313, 169 seats were to be for East Pakistan, 85 for Punjab, 28 for Sindh, 19 for NWFP, 5 for
Baluchistan and 7 seats were allotted to the tribal areas.

2: Each province will have a provincial assembly consisting of elected members. East Pakistan
provincial assembly will have 400 members, Punjab 186, Sindh 62, Baluchistan 21 and NWFP 42.

3: The elections for National Assembly will be held on 5 October 1970 and for provincial assemblies
not later than 22 October.

4: The new constitution of Pakistan will follow these principles:

a: Pakistan will be a Federal Republic and will be known as Islamic Republic of Pakistan

b: The head of the Pakistan state would be a Muslim and the divinity of Islam will be preserved.

c: The principles of democracy will prevail by holding free elections for federal and provincial
legislatures on the basis of adult franchise. Independent judiciary will be made possible along with
fundamental rights for the citizens.

d: All provinces will be given maximum autonomy while the centre will also remain strong.

e: The citizens of the country will be able to participate actively in the affairs of the state and the state
will try to eliminate economic disparities in the society.

f: The constitution of the country will make it possible for the Muslims of Pakistan to live their lives
according to the teachings of Islam. The minorities will be free to follow their own faiths and will be
able to enjoy the benefits of citizenship along with their fellow Pakistanis.

g: The LFO clarified the status of national and provincial assemblies. It stated that the National
Assembly would either be the only legislature provided that federal legislature consisting of one house
or it would be the lower house if federation has two houses. Its tenure would be for the full term in
both cases. The same went for provincial assemblies.

h: Within 120 days of the first meeting of the National Assembly, it would form a constitution bill and if
it fails to do so, it will dissolve.

5: After the elections of the National Assembly, provisions will be made to arrange its meetings.

6: The LFO set broad outlines, structures, conditions and qualifications. Any contesting political party
failing to qualify these conditions would not be able to participate in the elections.

Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam (1884)

Posted by: HistoryPak

The Punjab, which during period of Ghaznavi was known for its educational institutions, became
extremely backward by the end of nineteenth century educationally. This was because in 1849, the
English brought to an end the Sikh rule over the Punjab, annexed it and brought western educational
system and established number of schools, colleges in Lahore. Due to the certain valid reasons the
Muslim did not benefit from these institutions and went on to decline educationally.

In 1883, a Sayyed lady along with her three children converted to Christianity. This accident was a
serious challenge to Muslims. But although she re-embarrassed Islam later, yet the whole incident
was shocking enough to open the eyes of Muslims of the Punjab.

In order to face these kinds of situations, Maulana Qazi Hamid-ud-Din invited a number of public-
spirited persons to a small gathering and set up the Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam in September 1884. In
the beginning of new Anjuman arrange the group of religious orators those who to was villages of the
Punjab in prepared the poisonous propaganda of the Christian missionaries. Some of these
committed and preachers were, Molvi Sayyed Ahmed Ali, Munshi Shams-ud-din, Molana Abdul Majid
Dehlvi, Muhammad Mubarak. They were spread throughout the province and rendered valuable
service and influence of Christian missionaries and to preach and propagate Islamic teaching.

The Anjuman was set up to achieve the following aims and objectives:

1. Providing for the religious and general education for male and female for Muslims students.

2. Protection and propagation of Islamic values against the Christian missionaries and Hindu
revivalists.

3. To counteract the propaganda against Islam through speeches and publications.

Qazi Hameed ud din was elected the first president of Anjumans and Ghulam Ullah Qasuri as the first
secretary. For the fulfillment of its objectives, the Anjuman started its operations from a scratch. Its
workers would take utensils to the houses in which the women would put a hand full of flour daily. In
the first year, the Anjumans income was Rs.754 and the expenditures were Rs.344. Due to the efforts
of the workers, people began participating in the objectives of the Anjuman eagerly heartedly. In the
year 1885, the number of Anjumans members increased from 200 to 600. Another sources of income
for the Anjuman was the money from sales of the books. Molvi Dastgeen wrote a pamphlet in defence
of the Holy Quran and donated it to the Anjuman, similarly Sayyed Muhammad Hussain donated 300
books, which were sold for Rs.975. The rulers of different states also made genius contributions.

The Anjuman started educational activities with primary school in a house with a rent Rs.2.5 monthly.
It gave importance for the establishment of the females schools and opened a few in the first two
years. In 1886, a boys boarding school with accommodation for the students was established. The
school was shifted to the large Havili of Sikander Khan. Gradually and slowly in 1887, it was upgraded
to the middle school.

Taking full advantage of the weakness of the Muslims, Muslims children were converted to Christianity
by Christian missionaries. The Anjuman tried its best to awaken the Muslim community. The Anjuman
also established Dar ul Aman and Dar ul Shafyat, for the helpless Muslims children and needy
widows.

The Anjuman render laudable services, its monthly journal Himayat-i-Islam was started in 1885, it
became a weekly in 1926. On the other hand the large number of books on History, Civilization,
Culture and biography on life of the Holy Prophet (S.A.W) were published by the Anjuman.

Concluding, we can say Anjuman Himayat-i-Islam was really a great institution; its motive was to save
Islam for Muslims community. It tried to provide education for the Muslims of the sub-continent. This
institution had a great impact on the Muslim community. The Anjuman had its own press and
published on religious and literary topics. One important task was producing a correct text of the Holy
Quran.

Dar-ul-Uloom Deoband
Posted by: HistoryPak

Background:

When the Mughals decline started the east India Company emerge as the new political power in India.
An active campaign of Christian missionaries was developing a serious threat to Islam in India and
lastly the western education with the patronage of the government had completely ignored the Islamic
learnings they want to Christianize the whole sub-continent expressing this desire, Mangles, come
over the chairman of the board of the director once stated in the house of commons in 1857,
providence has bestowed upon us the empire of India so that the banner of Christ showed wave
triumphant from one end of India to the other1. The missionaries made every possible effort to spread
Christianity. In case, a region was hit by famine. The orphans were admitted into orphanage where
they were forcibly converted to Christianity. Such incidents were witnessed in the orphanages of
Sikandara during the famine of 18372. These intervention in religious affairs compelled the Muslims to
made a madrasa where the basic of religion to be taught.

Introduction:

The day of Thursday 15th of muharram, A.H 1283 (may 30, 1886) blessed and auspicious day in
Islamic history of India when the prominent Islamic Ulama headed by Maulana Muhammad Qasim
Nanotvi, maulana Rashid ahmed Gangohi and Haji Muhammad Hussain Abid. Basically this idea was
given by Haji Muhammad Hussain Abid, which brought the todays most renowned religious and
academic center in the Islam[i]ic world. In sub continent it is the largest institution for the
dissemination and propagation of Islam and the biggest head spring of education in Islamic sciences,
known as Manqulat to the Muslims according to the Hanafi School of Islamic jurisprudence. At that
time it was simply called the Islamic Arabic Madrasa and soon came to be known throughout the
world as ummul-madaris means the mother of Madrasas.

The seminary was wholly dependent on public contributions mostly in the form of annual pledges, not
on fixed holdings of waqf. The first teacher and the first pupil, in coincidence deemed auspicious,
were both named Mahmud; Maulana Mahmud the teacher and Mahmud Hassan the pupil, who later
to become the school most famous teacher 3. Deoband also participated in local politics and made
Jamiat ulama e hind. Later it was divided into two parts (1) jamiat ulama e hind (2) Jamiat ulama e
Islam . Jamiat ulama e hind led by Sheikh ul hadees of deoband maulana Hassan Ahmed Madani and
some other deobandi scholars had opposed the creation of Pakistan, on the religion basis by the
demand of muslim league although the real reason of their opposition was the desire to Islamize all
India. They saw nothing Islamic in the idea of Pakistan. Interestingly, when inaugurating Pakistans
constituent assembly, Jinnah proclaimed Pakistans secular ideologies, he was voicing the
established the secular ideological position that Muslim league had adhered to throughout its career 4.
Maulana Muhammad Yaqoob was the first principle of this institution that was hired. The man who
made this small Madrasa as a big one, was Maulana Qasim Nanotvi, when he became the part of this
seminary, he instituted modern methods of fixed and carefully curriculum, teaching in classrooms,
exam periods and publishing press. Different faculties recognized as leaders in their fields to share
their lectures. Medium languages were Arabic and Urdu. The faculty instructed the student primarily in
Urdu. The students were also taught books binding, shoe-making, and tailoring etc to earn in practical
life. Maulana Mahmud Hassan graduated from Madrasa, later on he joined the Madrasa for teaching
purposes and then became principal of the Madrasa. He served this institution for twenty three years.
In which he contributed a lot to the institution. In his tenure the foreigners joined Daroo ulom for
studying. The followers of this school of theology often described as followers of the Deobandi school
of thought. In 1893, Daroul Iftah was established under the supervision of
mufti Aziz Ur Rehman to provide religious, social and economical guidance to the Muslims. Its main
work was translation of Quran,one translation was done by Mahmud Hassan.

Pattern of Education

Deobands curriculum is based on 17th century Indo-Islamic syllabus known as Darse nizami. The
core curriculum teaches Islamic law ( Shariah), Islamic jurisprudence( Fiqah), traditional Islamic
spirituality( tasawuf).

The current syllabus consists of four stages, the first three stages can be completed in a total of eight
years, and the final stage is post graduate stage where students specialize in a number of advanced
topics, such as the sciences of hadees, fiqah and so on.

Aims and objectives:

1. Providing comprehensive information to the Muslims about their religion and making
arrangements for teaching of Quraan, Tafseer, Hadees, etc.
2. Invoking the spirit of Islam among the students.
3. Propagation and teaching of Islam.
4. Preserving the freedom of thoughts and knowledge.
5. Establishment of Arabic institution for the propagation of Islam.

Impacts of Darul uloom Deoband:

Many Islamic schools in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, United Kingdom, South Africa and
other parts of the world are theologically linked to Darul uloom Deoband. Deobandi graduates
established many seminaries around the world such as darul uloom sabeel us salam in Hyderabad,
India, Madrasa Inaamia camperdown near Durban in south Africa and three seminaries in Pakistan,
Darul uloom Karachi, jamia ashraifiya Lahore, jaimia zia ul quraan(Almaroof baghwali masjid)
Faisalabad.

Recent development of darul uloom deoband:

Darul uloom has expanded its activities and started new departments during the last decades in view
of great challenge from the Ahmadia movement (Qadyanism). Darul uloom convinced the all India
Tahafuz khatm e Nabuwat conference and established a special department of refute Qadiyanism. It
started sheikh Ul hind academy for publishing books and training students in Urdu journalism. In 1996
the computer department was opened later, internet department also added. It also introduced two
years full time diploma in English language and literature for students wishing to pursue higher
education in universities.

Urdu-Hindi Controversy (1867)

Posted by: HistoryPak

The Urdu language was born in India. India was considered to be a golden sparrow in terms of its
fertile land and man power. Thats why lots of invaders came to occupy it for different purposes. It so
happened that when these different people from different regions of the world came to India they
brought with them, among other things, their language as well. People like Arabs, Persians and Turks
etc. when mingled with the native people they exchanged many words of their languages and thus
with this mingling, a new language emerged which was termed Urdu, meaning the language of the
troops. Since it was formed by the invaders of the Muslim world and emerged during the rule of the
Mughals in India, it was termed as the language of the Muslims and that is why initially it was called
Musalmani.

But there were not only Muslims that spoke or used Urdu but all the communities in India joined hands
for the promulgation and development of that new language. It was not only used as an everyday
language but a large number of literary works appeared in Urdu in all the regions of the sub-continent
primarily Deccan, Lucknow, Maisur, Delhi etc. Thus, almost the whole of India contributed to the
flourishing of Urdu. Due to these combined efforts when in 1837, Persian was replaced by Urdu as the
court and state language, no one objected to that.
With the fall of the Mughal Empire, Hindus, however, started looking at Urdu as the language of the
invaders. The British on the other hand, in their disregard for Muslims adopted the same attitude.
Thus both intentionally started their efforts in order to get rid of the language of the Muslims. In this
regard names of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Raja Shiv Parshad, Lakshman Singh, Haresh Chandra and
Binkam Chatterji etc. among many others are well known. The first effort was made at the start of the
nineteenth century when a new language was formed with the name Hindi in which words of pure
Arabic, Persian and Turkish were removed and replaced by Sanskrit words. In that regard in 1809 a
Hindu wrote a novel in that very Hindi with the title Prem Sagar but since it was not a full fledged
effort, soon that language went into oblivion. However, after the War of Independence 1857 when the
British Crowns wrath fell upon the Muslims, the Hindus considered it to be a ripe moment to get rid of
Urdu and replace it with their own language Hindi.

The combined organized effort started in the second half of the nineteenth century. In 1867 the
Hindus of Banaras presented a request to their government regarding the replacement of Urdu with
Hindi and its Persian script with that of Devnagri script. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan at that demand
remarked that when even the language of a nation is not safe at the hands of other nations in a
region, it would be unwise to continue living with them. So Sir Syed, who was in fact a great advocate
of Hindu-Muslim unity prior to that incident, started focusing on the cause of Muslims alone. His
Scientific Society Gazette presented articles on the importance of Urdu. Similarly, some Muslim
newspapers like Noor-ul-Absar and BanarasGazette also took the responsibility to safeguard their
language.

The anti-Urdu process continued when in 1871 the Lt. Governor of Bengal G. Cambell banned Urdu in
the province at all levels, courts, administration and even schools. This boosted up Hindus in other
regions like NWFP, Punjab, Behar, U.P, Sindh, and Oudh etc. to counter Urdu there. Meetings were
held of the Hindus in which thousands of them signed memorials supporting the cause of elimination
of Urdu. In 1882 during the visit of Hunter Commission, a commission formed by the English
government to analyze the spread of modern English education in India, Hindu organizations again
tried to attack Urdu. They held meetings with its chairman, Dr. Hunter and tried to force him to admit
Urdu as the foreign language and to promulgate Hindi, the native language, for educational purposes.
But in this mission they remained unsuccessful due to the constant efforts of Sir Syed and his
comrads.

The circumstances became even more hard for the Muslims and their language when Anthony
MacDonnel became the governor of UP in 1900. He was a pro-Hindu and thus anti-Muslim. So after
becoming the governor he dismissed Urdu as the official language of UP, which was in fact
considered to be the home of Urdu language. He issued orders and declared Hindi the official
language of the province. Sir Syeds successors at Aligarh, mainly Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk, the then
Secretary of the Aligarh Trust, took action against MacDonnels act. He called for a popular gathering
of the supporters of Urdu at Aligarh and openly condemned governors work. He also founded Urdu
Defense Association and it was decided that the association would take actions against the doings of
the governor. At that MacDonnel got angry and threatened Mohsin-ul-Mulk that if hell continue his
aggression against the doings of the government MacDonnel will see to it that Aligarh would cease to
get government grants. As the grants were necessary for the institution and Mohsin-ul-Mulk could not
part himself from the defense of Urdu, in order to save AligarhCollege he resigned. But since he was
dearly beloved to all of his colleagues and students he was forced to take back his resignation. But
that did not stop him from defending Urdu and continued his efforts. The result of this Muslim
response Urdu too along with Hindi was declared the official language of the province. But Mohsin-ul-
Mulk was not satisfied with this outcome and continued his struggle. When UP got rid of MacDonnel,
he founded another association called Anjuman-e-Tarraqi-e-Urdu to counter all future attempts of the
Hindus and the English against Urdu.

This love and passion for Urdu by the Muslims of India inclined the founders of Pakistan to adopt her
as the national language of the new born country. They believed that it was a sign of the Muslim unity,
the representation of Muslims as an independent nation, among millions of people of India.

Government of India Act 1861

Posted by: HistoryPak

The Indian Councils Act 1861 was introduced because the British Government wanted to involve the
Indian people with the process of law making. This Act was passed on 1st August 1861. Its main
provisions were as under:

1. The Executive Council of the Governor General was extended. It was decided the members of his
council should not be less than 6 and no more than 12 in number. These members were called the
Additional Members of the Executive Council, and were not given any significant power with regards
to legislation.
2. Governor General was empowered to nominate the Additional Members for a period of 2 years and
half of the members must be non-official.
3. It was decided that from now Commander-in-chief would be appointed as an extraordinary member
of the Executive Council.
4. Any bill and regulation passed by the Provincial Council could not become law until and unless
Governors and the Governor General gave their assent for the bill and regulation.
Under this Act the Governor General was empowered to issue ordinances.
5. Limited powers of legislation were given to the Presidencies of Bengal and Madras and the
Governor General was empowered to create similar councils for the provinces of Frontier and the
Punjab.

The biggest drawback of the Act was regarding the selection and the role of the Additional Members.
These members did not take part in the discussions and their role was only advisory. The non-official
members of the Executive Council were not interested in attending the meetings of the Council,
moreover, under this Act they were not bound to attend them either. The Indian members were not
eligible to oppose any bill and most often the bills were passed in one sitting without discussion.

Government of India Act 1858

Posted by: HistoryPak

The War of Independence 1857 was an event of great importance in the history of the Indian sub-
continent. After this war the British policy towards Indians changed drastically, especially as far as
constitutional development was concerned. For the purpose of addressing the grievances of the
Indian population a new Act was introduced in India by the Crown in 1858. The Act was passed by the
British Parliament on 2nd August 1858. The main Provisions of the Act of 1858 were as follows:
1. The rule of British East India Company was abolished and the Government of India was directly
taken over by the Crown with Queen Victoria as the supreme monarch.
2. The Crown was empowered to appoint a Governor-General and the Governors of the Presidencies.
3. The Court of Directors and the Board of Control were abolished and their place was taken over by
the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs and the India Council.
4. Extensive powers were given to the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs and the Indian Council
consisted of 15 members. The Council was made to assist him but only had an advisory role.
5. The people of India were promised their rights by Queen Victoria under this Act.
Complete freedom of religion was ensured and gradual participation in the administration of the
country was also proclaimed.
6. Pardon was given to all the Indians except those who had killed British people.
The Act said that the princes of the states could retain their former status and all agreements with the
princes will be honoured.
7. Doctrine of Lapse was discarded under this Act.

According to this Act the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs was given extensive powers. He was not
answerable to anyone. He could do whatever he wants to do. Neither Parliament nor Indian Council
could bind him for taking any action; both of these institutions were not given the power to put limits
on his extensive powers. Moreover the promises that were made by Queen Victoria were never
fulfilled by her. The Indian people were not given their due rights that were promised to them under
this Act.

Wavell Plan (June 14, 1945)

Posted by: HistoryPak

In October 1943 the British Government decided to replace Lord Linlithgow with Lord Wavell as the
Viceroy of India. Before assuming the charge, Wavell worked as the Chief of Indian army and thus
had quit an understanding of the Indian situation. Right after assuming charge as Viceroy, Wavells
most important task was to present a formula for the solution of the Indian problem which was
acceptable for both the Congress and the Muslim League. After doing his basic homework, in May
1945 he visited London and discussed his suggestions with the British Government. The London talks
resulted in the formulation of a definite plan of action which was officially made public simultaneously
on June 14, 1945 by L.S. Amery, the Secretary of State for India in the House of Commons and by
Wavell in a broadcast speech delivered from Delhi. The plan, commonly known as Wavell Plan
presented the following proposals:

a) If all the Indian political parties would help the British in the war then the British Government would
introduce Constitutional Reforms in India after the war.

b) Viceroys Executive Council would be immediately reconstituted and the number of its members
would be increased.

c) In that Council there would be equal representation of high class Hindus and the Muslims.

d) Other minorities including low-caste Hindus, Shudders and Sikhs would be given representation in
the Council.
e) All the members of the Council, except the Viceroy and the Commander-in-Chief would be Indians.

f) An Indian would be appointed as the member of Foreign Affairs in the Council. However, a British
Commissioner would be appointed to look after the matters relating to the trade.

g) Defence of India was to be in the hands of a British authority till Power was transferred to the Indian
hands

h) Viceroy would convene a meeting of the Indian politician including the leaders of Congress and the
Muslim League so that they could nominate the names of the members of the new Council.

i) If this plan is approved for the Central Government then same type of popular ministries comprising
of the political leaders would be formed in all the provinces.

j) None of the changes suggested will in any way prejudice or prejudge the essential form of the future
permanent Constitution of India

In order to discuss the proposal with the Indian leaders, Wavell summoned a conference in Simla on
June 25, 1945.

Kashmir Dispute
Posted by: HistoryPak

In modern world the peace of the world is hijacked by some issues including Kashmir Issue. The word
community has tried to resolve many such issues but the fate of Kashmir is left to be resolved
mutually by India and Pakistan. Kashmir is located in the north and north east of Pakistan sharing its
borders with Afghanistan, China and India.

In 18th century Kashmir was rolled by Pashtoon empire, In 1819 by Ranjit Singh. In 1846 Kashmir was
seeded by east India Company and was solved to Gulab Singh.

Kashmir was ruled by Hindu Mahrajas from 1846to 1947. in 1947 British India was divided on the
principle t

At Muslim majority regions go to the Pakistan and rest to India. The district Gurdaspur was given to
India which was a Muslim majority region and was the only road link from India to Kashmir Valley. This
produced and armed conflict between Kashmiri Muslims and Maharaja Forces. Pakistani tribals men
from Dir entered to Kashmir to support. Mahraja asked the Indian forces for help. The Maharaja fled to
Jammu Kashmir on 25th October 1947. Maharaja signed a commitment of military accession with
Indian Government for the exchange of military support which was accepted by Mount Batten on the
behalf of British Crown.

The Indian Government and Mountbatten announced that after to restoration of law and order the
issue sho0uld be resolved on the wished of peoples. Jawaharlal Nehru decided that a referendum will
be held under the supervision of U.N, and we want it to be a fair and just reference to the people. But
since till that promise has not fulfilled by Indian Government. War between Indian and Pakistan over
Kashmir started in 1947-48. India brought the Kashmir Issue to the U.N secretary council. The U.N
council passed resolution on 21st April, 1948. The resolution imposed an immediate seize fire and
called on Pakistan to withdraw all the military forces and would have no say in Kashmir politics and
 India would retain a minimum military presence and the issue should be resolved through a
democratic method conducted by U.N.

Both Pakistan and India did not follow the resolution, four other resolutions were passed by U N
revising the term of the resolution of 1948, then proposals was given by UN, which was accepted by
Pakistan but refused by India. Under the term of Simla agreement the ceasefire line was renamed as
line of control in 1972.India claimed the conquered area as apart of its state and line of control as
border, but Pakistan consistently refused to accept line of control as border.

The Kashmiri are fighting for their independence since 1989 against Indian forces .the Indian
government blaming Pakistan involved in Kashmir supporting armed forces against India.

The Kashmir is divided into the hands of Pakistan and India. The people of Indian-Kashmir are
fighting to get their self representation as an independent state, while the part with Pakistan is
enjoying its separate state position.

The Pakistan administrated part has the position of a free state as they have their own president and
administration, but highly influenced by Pakistan. Gilgit Baltistan got the position of 5 th province on the
wishes of the people of Gilgit.

Population distribution

1. 1. Administrated by India:
Name Population Muslims Hindus Buddhist Others

Kashmir Valley 4 million 95% 4% 1%

Jammu 3 million 30% 66% 4%

Ladakh 0.25 million 46% 1% 50% 3%

1. 2. Administrated by Pakistan:
Name Population Muslims Hindus Buddhist Others

Northern areas 1million 99%

Azad Kashmir 2.6 million 100%

Liaquat-Nehru Pact
Posted by: HistoryPak
After the partition of Subcontinent into two independent states: Pakistan and India, communal riots
broke out into the different areas of both countries. Lethal attack on humanity and other conflict and
chaos made two countries as the hotbed of violence. The brutal killing of people left a pernicious
impact on the minorities of two nations. These conflict and chaos led to the migration of a large
number of Muslims from India to Pakistan and maximum number of Hindus and Sikhs departed to
India from Pakistan. But this exodus led no positive impression in alleviating the fear and chaos of
communal riots because large number of Muslims could not migrate and remain in India. Same
occurred in Pakistan as many Hindus and Sikhs did not afford to migrate to India and settled in
Pakistan. Both countries people and governments looked upon their minorities with suspicious
manner as they deemed them to be disloyal with them. With the passing of everyday, instead of
alleviating, the tension of communal riots aggravated. This spread a gruesome wave of fear among
the people of both countries. They envisaged that these riots might lead two countries to a war. This
fear and trepidation compelled the prime minster of Pakistan, Liaquat Ali khan, to take concrete steps
for solution. Thus prime minster issued a statement emphasizing the solution of the problem and he
also proposed his Indian counterpart to hold a meeting in order to find a solution to the problem. The
two prime minsters met at Delhi on 2 April, 1950. They thoroughly discussed the burning issues. This
crucial meeting lasted for six days. They unanimously signed on an agreement which was solely
based on the rights of the minorities. Thus, this pact latter come to known as Liaquat Nehru pact.
Following are the important features of the pact. 1 to lessen the fear of religious minorities. 2 to put an
end the communal riots. 3 to create such an atmosphere that both countries could further solve their
problem. This pact which was the endeavor of the both prime minister mostly including the rights of
the minorities. It was agreed that both government should ensure complete and equal right of
citizenship, security of life and properties to their minorities. In this pertinent pact it was agreed upon
by both prime minister to ensure full fundamental human rights which are including the rights of
freedom of movement, freedom of thoughts and expression and right of religion. This pact also
bestowed the right of representing to both nations minorities. In this pact both the prime minister
showed equal willingness to setup a minoritys commission with the aim of observing and reporting
the implementation of the pact. They vowed to not violate the rules of the pact, but would effort to
reinforce it. This agreement also bears testimony that both minorities were to be headed by
provisional minister and their numbers should be ranked from the Muslims and the Hindus. It also
emphasized that both the states should reserved loyalty of minorities, if they face any problem living in
their country, it could be the prime duty of both the governments to redress their problems without any
delay. To sum up, this pact had undue importance; it was an effort of two governments to put an in
communal riot, which was erupted till after the partition of sub-continent. This pact also known by its
significant feature in which both governments unanimously agreed to guarantee full right to their
minorities and they would be treated as a status of full citizen.

Liaquat Ali Khan

Posted by: HistoryPak

Liaquat Ali khan was born on October11896 in Nausharwan family. He belongs to a wealthy family of
East Punjab. His mother arranged for his lessons in Quran and Ahadith at home. As his family had
deep respect for Sir Syed Ahmad khanhe was admitted in Aligarah Muslim University. He was
graduated from M.A.O collage Aligarah in1918. In1919 after the death of his fatherhe was awarded a
scholarship by British government. In1921 he was awarded the LLM in law and justice .In 1923 after
his return to India he decided to enter politics with the objective of liberating his homeland free from
foreign yoke.

The congress Leadership approached to him and he attended a meeting with Jawaherlal Nehru in
1923.After the meeting Liaquat Ali khan views of United India was changed.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah called him for an annual session of All India Muslim League in May 1924in
Lahorewhere the goals and vision of the party was discussed. Liaquat Ali khan started his
parliamentary career from U.P legislative Assembly in 1926 as an independent candidate. In 1923 he
was elected Deputy President of U.P Legislative Council. He remained the member of the U.P
Legislative Council until 1940when he was elected to the central Legislative Assembly.

Liaquat Ali Khan took active part in legislative affairs .when Muhammad Ali Jinnah returned to Indiahe
started reorganizing the AIML. Liaquat Ali khan was elected as the honorary secretary of the AIML in
April 261936. He held the office till 1947. Liaquat Ali khan was also the member of the Muslim
masses civil defensewhich was formed to keep Muslim safe from the activities of INC and strengthen
the league mission.

Liaquat Ali khan won the central legislative election in 1945-46 in U.P. He was also elected the
chairman of the league central parliamentary Board. The AIML won 87% seats reserved for Muslims
in British India. When British Government asked the League to send five nominees for representation
in term Government. Liaquat Ali Khan was asked to lead the League group in Cabinet, which he
handled brilliantly. By this point the British Government and INC both accepted the idea of Pakistan
and therefore on August 14, 1947 Pakistan came into existence. After independence, Liaquat Ali Khan
was appointed the first prime minister of Pakistan.

Liaquat Ali Khan had to deal a number of difficulties facing Pakistan in its early days. He helped Quaid
in solving the rights and refugee problems. He set an effective administrative system for the country.

In 1949 Soviet Union invited Liaquat Ali Khan, but in 1950 he visited the United State, which was the
time of extensive competition between the two super powers.

During the first days he adopted the Government act of India 1935 to administer the country, finally in
1949 Pakistan made first step towards making constitution and foreign policy. Liaquat Ali Khan
presented the objective resolution which was passed on March 12, 1949. He also established the
basic principle committee for the issue minority partitioning Liaquat/Nero fact reduced the tension
between India and Pakistan.

On October 16, 1951 Liaquat Ali Khan was shot twice in chest during a public meeting of the Muslim
League at company Bagh Rawalpindi. The police immediately shot the assassin, Saad Akbar Babrak.
Liaquat was rushed to Hospital but he succumbed to his injuries. He was officially the title of
Shaheed-i-Millat, but the question of his murder is yet too answered.

Some of the people thinking it may be due to those elements who organize the Rawalpindi
conspiracy, as they were released and was appointed to high official posts in later period by the
Government.

Objectives Resolution
Posted by: HistoryPak

The idea of separate homeland for the Muslims of India was presented in the form of Lahore
resolution in 1940, which was accepted in June 3 rd, 1947 and according to the Indian independence
Act July 18, 1947 the new state of Pakistan came into being on August 14, 1947.

Under the section 8 of the act the Government India act 1935 became the first constitution with some
adaptations. Under the Indian independence act a constitutional assembly was set for drafting the
 constitution of Pakistan and to act as a legislative body tells the new constitution was passed and
enforced.

Liaquat Ali Khan presented the Objectives Resolution in the Constituent Assembly on March 12, 1949.
Following were the main clauses of the resolution:

1. Sovereignty belongs to Allah alone, who would delegate it to the state of Pakistan trough its
people for being exercised within the limits as a sacred Trust.
2. The state shall exercise its power and authority through the choose representatives of the
people.
3. The principle of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice as enunciated by
Islam, shall be fully observed
4. Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective sphere in
accordance with teaching of Islam ad set out in Holy Quran and Sunnah.
5. Adequate provision shall be made for the minorities to freely exercise their religion and
develop their cultures.
6. Pakistan shall be a federation.
7. Fundamental right shall guarantee.
8. Judiciary shall be independent.

Objectives Resolution was constitutional historic frame work provided mechanism to achieve goals for
a better life of the people of Pakistan. The objective resolution had the combine feathers of both
western democracy and Islam.

When the resolution was passed by constitutional assembly Liaquat Ali Khan considered it the most
important occasion in the life of his country.

The Objectives Resolution became a part of constitution of Pakistan in 1985 by 8 th amendment.

Quaid-i-Azam as Governor General

Posted by: HistoryPak

On 15th August 1947, Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah became the 1st Governor
General of Pakistan. He remained Governor General of the country for thirteen months.
During this period, he solved many important national issues. Some of them are mentioned as
under:

Pakistans First Cabinet

As soon as the Quaid-i-Azam took an immediate action and nominated members of the
Federal Cabinet to run the Government affairs smoothly. Liaquat Ali Khan was elected as the
Prime Minister. Other members of the cabinet were also nominated. This first cabinet of
Pakistan took oath on 15th August 1947.

Constitutional Problems
The Act of 1935 was amended and enforced in the country as there was no constitution
available of the newly born state. Thus this great achievement was done under the
administrative leadership of the Quaid-i-Azam.

Establishment of Capital

Karachi was made Capital of Pakistan.

Establishment of Administrative Head Quarters

For the administrative reformation, a committee was set up and Chaudhry Muhammad Ali
was made the Secretary General. Civil Services were re-organized and Civil Services
Academy was constituted. The Secretariat was established. Moreover, Head quarters for
Army, Navy and Air Force were set up. An ammunition factory was also set up.

Attention to Foreign Affairs

Realizing the sensitivity of foreign affairs, Quaid-i-Azam paid his utmost attention to the
Foreign Policy. He developed healthy relations with the neighboring and developed countries
that were the main objective of the Foreign Policy.

Membership of UNO

After independence, Quaid-i-Azam paid immediate attention for acquiring membership of the
United Nations Organization (UNO). On 30th September 1947, Pakistan became the member
of the UNO. This all, was done under the dynamic leadership of Quaid-i-Azam.

Implementation of Education Policy

Education plays an important role in the development of a country. It improves living

standard of a nation and development. Education sector also needed attention at the time of
independence. for this purpose, he held the first Educational Conference in 1947. He wished
that every citizen of Pakistan should serve his nation with honesty and national spirit. he
made nation with honesty and national spirit. He made acquisition of scientific and
technological education compulsory for the students. Quaid-i-Azam did a lot to improve
education policy of the country.

In the Service of Pakistan

Quaid-i-Azam served his country till his death. Despite his bad health, he kept on going
through the important files. He succumbed to deadly disease of consumption.

These were the most important works done by the Quaid as Governor General in a very short
period of 13 months. These achievements of the Quiaid will not be forgotten by the people of
Pakistan.
The Death Of Quaid-i-Azam
Posted by: HistoryPak

11 September 1948:

The Quaids terminal Message It was, thence, with a sensation of supreme satisfaction at the
fulfillment of his goal that Jinnah told Muhammad-Ali-Jinnah the people in his parting content on 14
Revered, 1948: The foundations of your Denote hold been ordered and it is now for you to figure and
flesh as quickly and as excavation as you can.

In accomplishing the duty he had embezzled upon himself on the morrow of Pakistans relationship,
Statesman had worked himself to alteration, but he had, to cite richaptember, 1948. How true was
Baronage Pethick Soldier, the previous Intimate of Say for Bharrd Poet, contributed writer than any
opposite man to Pakistans survival.

He died on 11 September, when he said, Statesman died by the guardianship of an assassin;

Statesman died by his veneration to Pakistan. A man much as Statesman, who had fought for the
implicit of Pakistan, was confine to generate hostile opponent and stir unappeasable state and was
believable to be mostly misunderstood.

But what is most extraordinary some Jinnah is that he was the recipient of few of the large tributes
paying to any one in modern nowadays, any of them alter from those who held a diametrically
conflicting position. The Aga Khan reasoned him the greatest man he ever met, Beverley Nichols,
the author of `Finding on India, called him the most key man in Asia, and Dr. Kailashnath Katju, the
Author Bengal Regulator in 1948, thought of him as an spectacular amount of this century not
exclusive in India, but in the whole world.

Spell Abdul Rahman Azzam Authority, Help Widespread of the Semite Association, titled him one of
the superlative body in the Muhammedan world, the relinquished to Surat Chandra Bose, feature of
the Forrod Coalition travel of the Indian Federal Congress, to sum up succinctly his individualized and
governmental achievements.

Mr Jinnah, he said on his decease in 1948, was large as a attorney, karachi-0041once enthusiastic
as a Congressman, zealous as a human of Muslims, enthusiastic as a class pol and diplomat, and
leading of all as a man of spreading,. Much was Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, the man and
his assignment, such the reach of his accomplishments and achievements.

The Quaids finally Communication:

It was, thus, with a sensation of supreme spirit at the satisfaction of his commission that Solon told the
people in his worst message on 14 Venerable, 1948: The foundations of your Country soul been
arranged and it is now for you to figure and bod as quick and as fortunate as you can. In
accomplishing the duty he had expropriated upon himself on the morrow of Pakistans change,
Statesman had worked himself to modification, but he had, to restate Richard Poet, contributed writer
than any else man to Pakistans survival. He died on 11 Sept, 1948. How apodictic was Peerage
Patrick Lawrence, the sometime Intimate of Nation for India, when he said, Gandhi died by the
keeping of an bravo; Solon died by his devotion to Pakistan.

A man specified as Statesman, who had fought for the inherent rights of his group all through his
animation and who had understood up the somewhat freaky and the mostly misinterpreted crusade of
Pakistan, was sure to generate savage oppositeness and modify stern unfriendliness and was
prospective to be mostly misunderstood. But what is most extraordinary most Statesman is that he
was the receiver of many of the superior tributes remunerative to any one in modern times,
whatsoever of them symmetric from those who held a diametrically opposed viewpoint.

The Aga Khan considered him the superior man he ever met, Beverley Nichols, the communicator of
`Verdict on India, called him the most essential man in Aggregation, and Dr. Kailashnath Katju, the
Westernmost Bengal Governor in 1948, thought of him as an owing figure of this century not
exclusive in Bharat, but in the livelong reality.

While Abdul Rahman Azzam Pasha, Secretaries Mass of the Arabian Association, called him one of
the maximal leaders in the Religionist grouping, the Lordly Mufti of Mandatory advised his demise as
a large going to the full group of Mohammadans. It was, nonetheless, granted to Seurat Chandra
Bose, deceiver of the Fore Alignment airfoil of the Asiatic Mortal Congress, to sum up succinctly his
aim as a human of Muslims, enthusiastic as a concern politico and diplomatist, and greatest of all as a
man of production, By Mr. Jinnahs impermanent inaccurate, the world has unredeemed one of the
largest statesmen and Pakistan its life-giver, Athenian and guide. Such was Quaid-i-Azam
Mohammad Ali Jinnah, the man and his assignment, such the extent of his accomplishments and
achievements.

The death of Quaid had a very bad impact on the people of Pakistan, they thought as their own father
had died and now they had become orphans. They had lost their courage for the building of a great
Pakistan, they were completely hopeless. As they thought the they were unable to make Pakistan
strong without him. The whole nation was filled with tears in their eyes as they have lost their beloved
leader.

Rawalpindi Conspiracy
Posted by: HistoryPak

In 1948 war was fought between India and Pakistan over Kashmir. The war over the territory of
Kashmir had ended in a ceasefire in 1948 that left North western Kashmir in Pakistan hands and the
rest with India.

The ceasefire was deeply resented in the Pakistan Army. Many regarded it as a blunder, which allow
the Indian forces to strengthen their position in Kashmir, and deny Pakistani forces the opportunity to
completely occupy all the territory. The government resisted the urgings of Pakistani commander to
lunch another attack on Indian forces.

The produced frustration and division with in the Army. A conspiracy was lead by military commander
supported by the left wing political parties .They wanted to replace civil government by military
government in 1951.the conspiracy was the first of many subsequent coup attempted against the
elected government in the history of Pakistan.

Eleven military officers and four civilians were involved in the conspiracy.

The main person responsible for the planning the conspiracy was Maj.Gen. Akbar, the chief of general
staff of Pakistan army.

General Tariq was based in Army headquarter in Pindi .civilian conspirators were Faiz Ahmad Faiz
,Sajjad Zaheer ,Naseem Shahnawaz khan, and Muhammad Husain Ata. The military officers involved
in conspiracy were Maj. Gen.Akbar Khan, Air commander M.K Juneju, Major. Gen. Nazir Ahmed,
Brigadier Saddiq Khan, Brigadier M.A Latif Khan, Lt-Col Zia-ud-din, Lt-Col Niaz Mohammed Arbab,
Captain Khizar Hayat, Maj Hassan Khan, Maj Ishaq Khan and Captain Zafarullah Poshni.
The conspiracy was foiled after the Government was informed. Government forces immediately
arrested Major General Akbar Khan and other conspirators. The Army commander in chief General
Mohammad Ayub Khan and the defence secretary General Sikandar Mirza were loyal to the
Government. Ayub Khan ordered to the Army troops to surrender and took control of the Army Head
Quarters, where Major General Akbar Khan was based.

The Government of Liaquat Ali Khan passed the Rawalpindi conspiracy act to set up a special tribunal
to investigate the conspiracy. A trail was held for conspirators.

Major General Akbar Khan was soon rehabilitated in Pakistani political life becoming an advisor to
Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto upon coming to power in 1971, Bhutto appointed him to be chief National security,
Faiz was appointed to the national council for Art.

ONE UNIT
Posted by: HistoryPak

When Pakistan came into existence the geography of Pakistan was completely confusing in a sense
of divisional land. The land of Pakistan was geographically divided into two parts which were known
as East Pakistan (now current Bangladesh) and West Pakistan (Islamic republic of Pakistan). It is
crystal clear that East Pakistan was 1000s kilo meter far from West Pakistan. On the other hand
West Pakistan was itself divided into four provinces. The East Pakistan was considered one province.
It was difficult for east Pakistani to be prosperous with privileges which it had. So there were a lot of
hurdles between east and west. Such as language issue, sharing of powers etc. additionally West
Pakistan was more developed and it had a strong military and bureaucracy.

Nevertheless the rulers of Pakistan tried to solve the issue of disparity which was being faced by East
Pakistan. The then Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra brought the concept of one unit under
discussion. The leaders of the viewed that the disparity and hopelessness of East Pakistan could be
removed by merging all four units of West Pakistan into one unit and the campaign would have other
development projects.

In this way equality east and west would come on the surface. On 30 September a bill was passed in
assembly in the favor of one unit. Further more Lahore was declared the capital of one unit. The land
of West Pakistan controlled by three governors which became under a chief commissioner. Knowing
the fact the one unit first governor was appointed as Mushtaque Ahmed Gurmani and first chief
minister was dr. khan sahib.

The question arises here whether the merging of all West Pakistan provinces was the consent of all
the units of the provinces or not. The answer would be NO because when the campaign of one unit
was initiated, firstly it was opposed by Sind assembly. It is clear as day that the center or federal has
been strong all the time. The then chief minister was dismissed Pirzada Abdul Sattar was dismissed
by Ghulam Muhammad.

After the dismissal of Pirzada, Muhammad Ayub Khuro was installed as the new chief minister of
Sind. The Sind assembly started supporting one unit campaign. Sad to as that Ayub Khuro was
dismissed in the case of corruption PRODA (public and representative officer disqualified act) under
the Act 1949, the government could start legal proceedings against ministers and members of the
assembly on the charges of misconduct or corruption. But after three years he was appointed as chief
minister. After few months again he was dismissed. But in 1954 PRODA was lifted and Mr. Khuro was
again made the chief minister of Sindh. Besides Sind and West Pakistan, East Pakistan was fully
against one unit campaign because they had threat of demographic change. But passing through
great hurdles one unit came into existence.

The fact cannot be denied that merging of the provinces created further troubles and tribulations. The
circumstances of one unit could not bring prosperity and development in the country. Due to that the
West Pakistan legislature passed a bill in October recommending the dissolution of one unit. This led
to the downfall of Suhrwardys cabinet. The central government dismissed the ministries in Punjab,
Sind and NWFP. One unit continued until general Yahya khan dissolved it on July 1 st 1970.

To conclude, one unit created more problems internally in West Pakistan. With one unit of West
Pakistan neither the disparity of East Pakistan was removed nor was any other issue was resolved.

CHAUDHRY MUHAMMAD ALI

Posted by: HistoryPak

Chaudhry Muhammad Ali was born on July 15, 1905 at Jalandhar. He received his early education
from Primary school Nahangal Anbia which was later upgrade d to Middle School. He passed his
middle examination from the same school. On the basis of his best performance in the middle
examination he won the scholarship. There are many personalities who belonged to Jalandar such as
ex-defence minister Sardar Suran Singh, Chaudhry Rehmat Ali, Hafeez Jalandhri, Sheikh Anwar-u-
Haq and Chaudhry Yaqoob Ali ex-chief Justices of Pakistan but among them Chaudhry Muhammad
Ali had a unique and conspicuous personality. In the opinion of Worlds renowed Readers Digest the
extraordinary personality of Muhammad Ali helped in overcoming the financial difficulties and adopted
such measures which saved the newly born nation.

His father was impressed by Ali Garh movement so he endeavoured to impart modern education to
his son. Due to his personal attention he received up-to-date education and sound training. In 1925 he
graduated from Islamia College. He attained his MSc degree in 1927 from the university of Punjab.
During these years he learnt a lot from the company of Allama Muhammad Iqbal,. His interest with
Iqbals poetry could be judged by the fact that he copied the whole edition Ramozee-Be-Khudi in his
own handwriting. He was very active in literary activities, he along with his friends setup a mascent
science society too. He was also well aware of the political developments of the Muslim community.
He was active in muslim students politics and used to participate in the processions of Anjuman-i-
Hamyat-ul-Islam regularly. He had special attachment with Muslim League Annual session of Muslim,
League was held in Lahore in 1922 and he participated in organizing the session as a volunteer. He
was impressed by the thought provoking address of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. But he took part in active
politics only when Allama Iqbal contested the election for Punjab Assembly seat in 1926. After that he
joined the Indian Audit and Accounts service in 1928 and was deputed as Accountant General to
Bahawalpur state in 1932. It is worth mentioning that he was first Indian to be appointed on this rank
in the state of Bahawalpur. He was sent there as a Financial Expert in the capacity of Accountant
General as the financial system of the said state was out dated. There was huge expenditure and no
proper accounting records. This put the state under heavy dept of the central Government of India. He
devoted his attention to improve the situation. This resulted in dwindling expenditures and escalating
incomes. This healthy situation prodded the state to pay back the depts to the Government of India.
Seeing his performance in the state of Bahawalpur the Government of India inducted him in the
department of finance and commerce in 1936 and then he was appointed under secretary in the
Federal Government. Next year he was the first ever Indian to be appointed as Secretary to Central
Finance Ministry. With the beginning of second World War, he was appointed deputy and later joined
as financial advisor in the department of Military Finance. In 1943 he was appointed Additional
Finance Advisor in the Department of War and Communication and was promoted as Financial
Advisor in 1945 being the second ever Indian to reach that slot. In 1942 he traveled to war fronts in
the Middle East and was awarded the title of O.B.E. In 1945 he was sent as member of Haidry
Mission to England and awarded the title of C.I.E in 1946. It was in those days that the prescient eye
of Quaid-i-Azam recognized that vital role of Chaudhry Muhammad Ali could play in the establishment
of the state of Pakistan and thereafter his trust and faith in him continued. It was his extraordinary
ability which won praise even from Quaid-i-Azam. During his service years though he remained aloof
from active politics, but due to his community consciousness he was fully aware of trends in Muslim
Politics. He presented his service as non-official advisor in the cabinet of Muslim League. In those
days the government presented its annual budget which was prepared by Liaquat Ali Khan with the
help of Chaudhry Muhammad Ali. This was a poor mans budget. In the preparation of this budget he
had played an important role.

In those days Steering Committee was the caretaker of government of India, he was also the member
of this committee from Muslims side. It worked very hard from June to August 1947 to arrange and
finalize the issue of division and partition. Chaudhry Muhammad Ali and H.M Patels services deserve
a special mention regarding the importance of task. Both of them laboured to divide the heritage of
their four hundred million country masses. This was a great effort on their part as the task of division
was very critical and required special skills and care to handle it. Both of them were with their salt. So
due to their efforts the Steering Committee was successful in making consensus upon a whole range
of divergent issues.

Upon establishment of Pakistan he became Secretary General of the new government and played a
key role in its organization. Finance Minister Ghulam Muhammad prepared budget with special
assistance of Chaudry Muhammad Ali as he was principal collaborater of Finance Minister in financial
affairs. He enjoyed full confidence of Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan. Ayub Khan mentions in his auto
biography that Liaqat Ali Khan was under the considerable influence of Chaudhry Muhammad Ali.
He efficiently managed the administrative affairs inspite of the meager resources. His services in the
field of administration were appreciated by the last viceroy of India Lord Mountbatten.

He served as Revenue Minister for four years in the cabinet of Khawaja Nazim-udin. During this
period he paid all his attention to improve the revenue resources. He tried to utilize the countrys
resources in an organized manner. He discourged borrowings Industrial Development Corporation
was established due to his efforts in 1952. The aim of establishing this was to encourage
industrialization and it achieved its set targets within short span of time.

He presented a budget in 1953 suggesting new taxes. His economic policies were appreciated by
both national and international press. New York |Times wrote that few greatest Finance Minister came
from relatively poorer countries for-instance A.R Tylor, Camallutt and Chaudhry Muhammad Ali of
Pakistan. The Parliamentary Party of Muslim League elected him as a Parliamentary leader and he
became the Prime Minister of Pakistan in 1955 when first constituent Assembly was dissolved by
Governor General and Second Constituent Assembly was elected. He was the strong supporter of
one unit scheme. He considered this scheme very important for the economic development of country.
He said on 15 September 1955 in the Assembly

The general discussion on this bill has been remarkable for its length and even more remarkable for
its irrelevance. The country has viewed with increasing concern the rate at which are proceeding. We
have taken three weeks and more for the general consideration of this bill.
In the same speech he gave his opinion about constitution making. However the establishment of
West Pakistan Bill was passed on September 30, 1955. But Hussain Shaheed Surawary and Sardar
Abdul Rashid from N.W.F.P criticized this scheme bitterly.

After the establishment of one unit there was an important task before chaudhry Muhammad Ali to
frame the constitution for the country as early as possible. Draft of the constitution was prepared in
December 1955.He adopted different ways for passing the constitution. He persuaded the members
of United Front on the issue of division of power between centre and provinces. He convinced them to
accept more powers for centre which included the control over finance, defence and interprovincial
trade, communication, international trade and immigration.

He had promised with the nation that by the end of February constitution will be approved by the
Constituent Assembly and will be promulgated. Inspite of all obstacles, he tried his best to keep his
words. It was remarkable achievement that after the struggle of eight long years, constitution was
finally approved by sincere efforts of Prime Minister and some of his trusted lieutenants. It was
promulgated on 23rd March.

It had been cherished desire of Choudhry Muhammad Ali to get the constitution approved from the
Assembly with unanimous consensus, but his desire could not be fulfilled. However his efforts were
highly appreciated in press and media. The constitution of 1956 declared itself Islamic, Parliamentary
and federal in character. But due to some reasons he left his post.

During his rule dependency on external borrowings was reduced considerably. A new Programme of
National Credit scheme was introduced to keep the supply of money smooth. He was a great
economist and played a vital role in the economic development of the country. But during his reign he
had little chance to implement it although he laid the foundation of a economic structure of Pakistan.
Announcement of the first five years plan was one of the most important achievement of his
government. The main objectives of this plan were to increase the gross national product of the
country. Textile industry was flourished during his reign. In this way foreign exchange was saved.

So it is concluded that in larger prespective he succeeded in achieving some notable tasks which
were not undertaken by previous reigns. But he was a poor politician who failed to control his own
party. His greatest blunder was the selection of Dr. Khan Sahib as Chief Minister of the unified
provinces of West Pakistan despite the opposition of Muslim League. Dr. Khan Sahib was an old
Congress man who had opposed the creation of Pakistan. However he enjoyed the support of the
President Iskander Mirza.

After the resignation Chaudhry Muhammad Ali did not remain quiet. He protest against the dictator
ship of Ayub Khan. He toured East and West Pakistan in connection with moulding the public opinion
against him. His basic purpose was to unite the democratic forces against dictatorship. His first
success was in 1964 in the shape of coalition of five parties namely combined opposition parties. The
manifesto of this combined opposition was also prepared by him. He had been working for the
restoration of democracy for quite along time. But his health began to down day by day so in 1969
due to ill-health be retired from active politics. But he kept on expressing his opinion on the national
and constitutional issues through his writing. He also wrote a book in his life namely Emergence of
Pakistan. He died on first December 1980.

THE CONSTITUTION OF 1973

Posted by: HistoryPak

The constitution of Pakistan 1973 was enforced on 14th Aug 1973. It consists of 280 articles and 7
schedules with Objective Resolution forming the preamble of the constitution beside 20 amendments
which have been made since then. It is regarded as the landmark accomplishment of Bhuttos era as
it was a unanimous act of the parliament with complete consensus of all the political parties. However,
many twists and turns have been witnessed ever since its enforcement but still it is the supreme law
of land and the sacrosanct instrument which reigns supreme in governance of the state.

The constitution 1956 and 1962 failed to provide the aspired political stability to the country. Both
proved short lived and were replaced with the martial laws in the country. But the subsequent years
after imposition of martial law were highly tumultuous costing Pakistan its eastern wing. The leftover
country was first governed by a unique proposition of civilian Chief Martial administrator till the interim
constitution was adopted by the national assembly. The assembly constituted a committee headed by
Hafiz_ud_Din Pirzada to formulate the permanent constitution for Pakistan. The committee did its
work in shortest possible time and the national assembly adopted the constitution on 10 th April
unanimously.

The constitution declared Pakistan an Islamic republic laying down condition for head of state and
head of the government to be Muslims. However, 8th amendment has made the Objective Resolution
a substantial part of the constitution by incorporating it as article 2A according to which all laws made
in Pakistan should be in accordance with the injunctions of Quran and Sunnah. Its Islamic character is
further reinforced by accepting the sovereignty of Almighty Allah, Islam to be the state religion and by
promising the Muslims to enable them to order their lives in accordance with the fundamental
principles of Islam. It also provides a long list of fundamental rights as well directive principles of state
policy. Besides, the constitution envisages a federation of Pakistan and affords a parliamentary form
of government leaving president with only ceremonious functions. The federal legislature is bicameral
i.e. senate the upper house and national assembly the lower house. Moreover, the constitution
provides an independent judiciary, provincial autonomy to the federating units, a council of common
interests, a council of Islamic ideology etc.

The subsequent voyage of the constitution however was not smooth. It has been suspended or held
in abeyance twice. Amendments made by military dictators have changed spirit of original constitution.
So far, 20 amendments have been made most of which have been brought about not for the fulfillment
of compulsions and needs of changing times but to accomplish the selfish ends. This experimentation
has achieved nothing but instability in the country that has blocked the process of establishing and
strengthening the democratic system in Pakistan.

The Interim Constitution of 1972

Posted by: HistoryPak
The interim constitution was that provisional document adopted by the national assembly on 17 th April
and enforced on 21th April 1972 which provided the guideline for running the administration of the
country till 14th Aug 1972 when the permanent constitution of 1973 became operational. The
emergency declared by Yahya Khan continued and Bhutto entered into the corridors of power riding
on the horse of martial law. However, the political opposition could not let him behave dictatorially and
tried to rein in his authority. So, a presidential order, National Assembly (Short Session) Order 1972,
that authorized the assembly to draft the interim constitution before the permanent one.

The interim constitution provided for a presidential form of government. The president was required to
be a Muslim of at least 40 years who was also the supreme commander of armed forces. The
president elected for 5 years was assisted by a council of ministers each of which was required to be
member of the national assembly. It means the constitution afforded a presidential system with a
blend of parliamentary system as it made the cabinet or the council of ministers responsible to the
parliament. Moreover, office of the vice-president was also given. A unicameral legislature empowered
to legislate on all matters or subjects included in the federal and the concurrent lists.

Similarly, in the provinces a unicameral legislature was provided. The assemblies elected in 1970s
election were to constitute the provincial assemblies under the interim constitution. They were
empowered to legislate on subjects written in the provincial legislative list and the concurrent list.
Moreover, parliamentary system was introduced at provincial levels. Governor was the head of
provincial executive aided by a council of ministers headed by the chief minister. The council was
collectively responsible to the provincial assembly.

As for the Martial law, it was lifted with enforcement of the interim constitution but some specified
martial law regulations and orders were deemed to have become Acts. The power for amending the
constitution however vested in the president who was empowered to make such necessary adaptation
required to put it into effective operation.

The day, the interim constitution was adopted by the national assembly a committee for drafting for
drafting the permanent constitution was also constituted. Abdul Hafiz Pirzada was the chairman of this
committee. Irrespective of all given difficulties, the permanent constitution was adopted by the
assembly and replaced the interim constitution on 14th Aug 1973.

Simla Accord
Posted by: HistoryPak

A devastating defeat in 1971 which led to separation of more than half of a countrys population and
split of large proportion of land which was East Pakistan or East Bengal from West Pakistan, it was a
time when Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto came to power after the so called popular elections. More than 90,000
of Pakistani troops were captured by India and up to 20,000 of civilians. Pakistan was not at all in the
position of bargain and many things had to be settled in that summit. Indra Gandhi prime minister of
India invited Bhutto government to prepare for a summit which was to be held in place called Simla.

Bhutto left for Simla on 28th June 1972 accompanied with her Harvard return daughter Benazir Bhutto
to negotiate post-war arrangements between India and Pakistan. Talks begin on various issues such
as returning of POWs (prisoners of War), recognition of Bangladesh, Kashmir issue, and withdrawal of
forces from international borders. Bhutto came to a relatively stronger position after having a weak
position in the beginning. On 2nd July talks went on and after so much exertion and negotiation Bhutto
managed to get India return all Pakistani territory, and restored trade and communication between
each other. He converted a cease fire line in Kashmir into LOC (Line of Control). The only issue on
which he was not able to get India on agreement was returning of 90,000 troops which were
eventually returned by India in 1974 because they could not afford their burden. Simla Accord
includes in in one of the Bhuttos biggest achievements, this was a time when Bhuttos diplomatic
skills were tested the most and he was able to negotiate very well. The success of Simla summited
can be estimated that it got unanimous approval of National Assembly after Bhuttos return to
Pakistan.

Nationalization under Bhutto

Posted by: HistoryPak

Nationalization is the term used when the government takes the control of anything that was ownned
private previously. Nationalization was the policy that was implemented by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. Bhutto
according to his promise restored the economic order that was badly shaken by the war, attracted
towards it.

In the Ayub regime wealth was concentrated in few hands that led to a visible class difference in the
society. It created hatred for the upper class among the masses Bhutto tried to overcome the situation
by Nationalization.

The party had programed in their manifesto to nationalize the industries gradually. After two months of
Bhuttos resuming office, under the Economic Reforms order that was passed in January 1972, the
government took over 32 industries from the private sector. The industries were put under to basic
categories 1) Iron and steel industries 2) Basic Metal industries 3) Heavy Engineering industries 4)
Heavy Electrical Industries 5) Assembly and Manufacture of Motor vehicles 6) Tractor Plant Assembly
and Manufactures 7) Heavy and Basic chemicals 8) Petrol chemical industries 9) Cement industries
10) Electricity, gas and oil refining.

It was first step towards the policy of nationalization in September 1973, 26 vegetable ghee units were
nationalized.

Banks were also nationalized in 1974. They were in placed the hands of government on the financing
of Banks.

In 1976 the 300 small units of cotton ginning, rice husking, flour milling were also taken in control. The
exports and imports were also taken under the control of government through trading corporation.
They wanted to ensure the distribution of wealth and the prosperity of lay man. However the policy of
nationalization started by Bhutto had many defects. It caused a great damage to the private sector.
Investment in the private sector was almost finished. After the military coup in 1988 Chief Marshal
Law administrator denationalized the industries.

Jinnah-Gandhi Talks And The Causes For Their

Failure.
Posted by: HistoryPak

Introduction:
By the autumn of the year 1944 the situation in British India had reached to a critical level.
The Second World War was raging full tilt in most parts of the world. India was itself in
real peril of an invasion by imperialist Japan. By that time the war had caused a debilitating
strain on Great Britains resources and her financial reserves were all but depleted. Indian
natives belonging to all communities and groups viewed the unfolding historical drama with
increasing anxiety that arose from their feelings of uncertainty for their future. Fate had
placed their imperial masters in the very discomfiting position of asking their subjects for
help in routing another imperial adversary. However, time and circumstances could not allow
an indulgent reflection on this historical irony for the colonial subjects of India. Especially for
the Indian leaders time was of the essence as here was an opportunity to strike while the
iron was hot. But just as England needed the Indians, so the Indians needed England,
which despite its indisposition was nevertheless the only empire left which could bring some
semblance of order to the global upheaval that threatened to lead to total destruction. Now
this equilibrium of need allowed for negotiations between Indian politicians and the British as
to the future of India. By this time Indian leaders throughout the political spectrum were
demanding complete self-rule. Indian society was fast agitating against the patronizing and
condescending hegemony of their colonial masters and ached to break free from the
shackles of foreign subjugation. But the fate of India could not be decided by one
community or social group alone. India was home to the worlds most diverse ethnic,
linguistic and religious population. Indeed it was the British who had united this land through
a long and usually violent process of consolidation. In the century since the complete
conquest of India by England, nationalist feelings had started to take shape among the
natives which was encouraged by the British for very pragmatic reasons. The territorial
consolidation of India however favoured some more than others. In the new colonial India,
Hindus found themselves in the enviable position of being the community having the biggest
strength in sheer numbers. In contrast Muslim nationalism arose from feelings of shared loss
and fall from grace they enjoyed as the ruling culture in the lands now occupied by the
British. Thus two distinct nationalist currents dominated the intellectual climate in India and
both were simultaneously shaping the consciousness of Hindu and Muslim communities.

Now that India seemed to be slipping fast from the grasp of the British Raj, the leaders of
both Hindu and Muslim communities, each of which by that time had clear visions of the
aspirations and goals of their respective constituencies, needed to find a common-ground so
that freedom from colonial rule could finally be achieved. To clarify the picture let us
examine the positions of the parties that held the keys to Indias destiny. There were three
prime stake-holders in the political landscape of India. These were the principal parties that
had the most to gain or lose from the critical decisions that would shape the course of
Indias history. A brief summary of their position and concerns is outlined below.

His Majestys Government (H.M.G):

Besieged on all fronts and running fast towards bankruptcy, the British position in India was
further complicated by growing resentment among the native population. Lord Wavell, the
viceroy in India, in a letter to the Secretary of State for India, summarized the British
position in this way With a lost and hostile India, we are likely to be reduced in the east
to the position of commercial bag-man.[1] He went on to write The Congress and the
League are the dominant parties in Hindu and Muslim India, and will remain so We
cannot by-pass them, and shall be compelled in the end to negotiate with them along with
representatives of the less important parties.[1]

Indian National Congress (I.N.C):

Nothing brings a moment to its crisis quite the same way as a world war. The I.N.C was
host to the largest and most diverse array of politicians compared to any other political party
in India. It was the party most uniquely and favourable placed to carry through and benefit
from the great British plan of granting gradual self-rule to Indians. But the War had led to
what seemed like an abortion of the political process as the government had tightened its
grip on India and was not ready to suffer any dissent. This had caused a reaction from the
I.N.C and the party had called for civil disobedience and non-cooperation with the British in
its war efforts. This in turn provoked the government to arrest the I.N.C leadership. M. K
Gandhi was among those arrested but he was later released due to his frail health. Once
out of prison Gandhiji started to work actively towards a negotiated final settlement about the
future of India with all political stake-holders in the Indian polity. This included the British
government and the Muslim League which was the erstwhile chief antagonist to Gandhijis
I.N.C.

All-India Muslim League (A.I.M.L):

The A.I.M.L was the party claiming to be the sole representative of Muslim interests in India.
In 1940 it had passed a resolution which unequivocally demanded self-determination for the
Muslim majority provinces of India. Its aim was independence from both the prevailing British
rule and also the seemingly imminent Hindu majority dominance of India after the departure
of the British. It considered the Muslims of India to be not a minority but in fact a nation
within a nation which was waging a struggle for its right to a nation of its own. M. A.
Jinnah was the undisputed leader of A.I.M.L and since the party had garnered massive
grassroots support thorough intense political mobilization, Jinnah emerged as the Quaid-e-
Azam of the Indian Muslims.[2]

C.R Formula:
If the Muslims really want to go, well, let them go and take all that belongs to them.[3]
These were the words of Chakravorti Rajagopalachari, the seasoned Madrassi chief minister
who was the first top-tier Congress leader to publicly declare the inevitability of partition.[4]
But being the first, Rajagopalachari was also quite alone in seeking a compromise with
A.I.M.L over the final settlement. These views and others, like his advocacy of cooperation
with the British in its war efforts, had made him unpopular in the I.N.C. To bridge the gap
in the Indian polity and present a unified front to gain independence from the British, Rajaji
was prepared to contemplate partition of India and in keeping with this; he presented his
formula for an agreement between Congress and the Muslim League. This formula called on
both parties to accept points which could then help them formulate a plan for independence.
The Rajaji formula consisted of the following points.

i. The League was to endorse the Indian demand for independence and to co-operate with
the Congress in formation of Provisional Interim Government for a transitional period.

ii. At the end of the War, a commission would be appointed to demarcate the districts
having a Muslim population in absolute majority and in those areas plebiscite to be
conducted on all inhabitants (including the non-Muslims) on basis of adult suffrage.

iii. All parties would be allowed to express their stance on the partition and their views
before the plebiscite.

iv. In the event of separation, a mutual agreement would be entered into for safeguarding
essential matters such as defence, communication and commerce and for other essential
services.

v. The transfer of population, if any would be absolutely on a voluntary basis.

vi. The terms of the binding will be applicable only in case of full transfer of power by
Britain to Government of India.[5]
After his release Gandhi proposed talks with Jinnah on his two-nation theory and negotiating
on issue of partition. The C.R Formula acted as the basis for the negotiations. Gandhi and
Jinnah met in September 1944 to ease the deadlock. Gandhi placed the CR formula as his
proposal to Jinnah. Both leaders deliberated at length and in hair-splitting detail their
respective positions and possibilities of finding any common ground. In the end though, the
talks broke down and no solution to the Hindu-Muslim question could be formulated. These
negotiations shed great light on the political climate in India and the correspondence
between Jinnah and Gandhi, which was exchanged in the duration of the talks remains an
invaluable resource for those who wish to understand what the state of affairs were at the
time.

An ocean between you and me M.K Gandhi.

By 1944 Gandhi and Jinnah had reached the status of icons in the minds of the people
that they led. They were the leaders of leaders. Gandhi was not just Gandhi; he was Mahatamaji.
Similarly, Jinnah was the Quaid e Azam of Muslims. Both were trusted almost absolutely by
their followers but both carried the baggage of mistrust of each other. Gandhiji was a
populist whereas Jinnah was the quintessential constitutionalist.[6]

Gandhi was a publicly religious man promoting a secular agenda. Jinnah was a stoic
pragmatist and kept his religion to himself, but yet here he was, spearheading a movement
based on a religious conception of nationhood. They were poles apart. So much was admitted
by Gandhi when they met for talks. The talks took place nevertheless because circumstances
dictated the usefulness of a compromise. In the correspondence that accompanied these
talks, Gandhi and Jinnah come across as political gladiators with each one attempting to
expose the mental and political weakness of the other.

Fire and Water:

To be fair to Gandhi, his task was much harder. He had taken upon himself to persuade
and convert to his thinking someone whos intellectual individualism and sharpness of focus
had become legendary in Indian politics. But this is not meant to take anything away from
Jinnah himself. Here was a man who had seen the limits of appeasement to Congress and
to the British. The Muslims enjoyed neither strength of arms nor any real demographic
advantage in a united India. By electing to lead them, Jinnah had put in his lot with the
political underdog. Gandhi could afford to appear generous and flexible. Jinnah on the other
hand was convinced that complete independence of Muslim majority zones of India in the
north-west and east was the only way to deliver Muslims from what he feared was Hindu-
Raj and its resultant reaction in the shape of civil war in India. And so, the summit that had
captured the expectations of so many in India and the whole world, failed to reach mutually
acceptable terms. In the end, opposites could not be reconciled.
Reasons for failure:
Jinnah differed with Gandhi on all points of the C.R Formula. But more significant was the
fact that from the outset Jinnah was doubtful of Gandhis sincerity. When both leaders had
understood each others intentions they became aware of how antithetical their stances were.
Gandhi, though he was presenting the Rajaji formula, himself expressed dissatisfaction with
Rajajis prescription. Gandhi was a politician sans portfolio at that time. He was not an office
bearer of I.N.C. His assertion was that he was, in spite of his non-official status, an
influential leader of Indians and could carry through implementation of any agreement
reached between him and Quaid-e-Azam. Never one to mince words, Jinnah openly
expressed his discomfort with this arrangement. Jinnah was the President of A.I.M.L and in
that capacity his decisions shaped his partys policies. This policy was founded on the
Muslim Leagues Resolution of 1940 which called for granting of total independence and
secession of Muslim majority zones of India. Acceptance of any idea conflicting with this
policy would have led to an abortion of the only course of action that Indias Muslim leaders
had resolved to pursue. Lord Wavells assessment of the failure of talks presents another
point of view. In his letter to Leopold Amery, the Secretary of State for India, the Viceroy
wrote Jinnah wants Pakistan first and independence afterwards, while Gandhi wants
independence first with some kind of self-determination for Muslims to be granted by a
provisional Government which would be predominantly Hindu.[7] Throughout his negotiations
with Jinnah, Gandhi continued to view the Muslim question as a communal issue. This was
reflected in the formulas point which called upon adult franchise of all inhabitants in Muslim
majority areas. Had Gandhi believed in the Two-Nation theory then he would have viewed
this as unnecessary. But just to extract political mileage and pressure Jinnah into accepting
his terms, Gandhi pretended to sympathise with the Leagues demands as declared in the
Lahore Resolution. As Jinnah said later, In one breath Mr. Gandhi agrees to the principle of
division and in the next he makes proposals which go to destroy the very foundations on
which the division is claimed by Muslim India.[8] Naturally Jinnah viewed Gandhis overture
as a trap.[9] Gandhi offered nothing but vague assurances and these too were offered
without conviction.
Aftermath:
The Jinnah-Gandhi Talks ended by reinforcing the deadlock that existed between I.N.C and
the League. The British government now felt that it was entitled to dictate its terms to a
divided Indian polity. Lord Wavell in a letter to Prime Minister Churchill wrote so much
saying I think the failure of the Gandhi-Jinnah talks has created a favourable moment for a
move by H.M.G.[10]

Ibrahim Lodhi
Posted by: HistoryPak

After the death of Sikandar Shah, his eldest son Ibrahim was put on the throne on 21st November
1517 with the unanimous consent of the Afghan Nobles and he took up the title of Ibrahim Shah. He
was intelligent, courageous and brave. He had some reputation for piety and orthodoxy. Like his
father he was interested in music. As a man, he was generous and kind, but as a ruler he had many
shortcomings which were heightened by the adverse circumstances in which he was placed. A faction
of the nobility advocated a partition of the kingdom and set up his younger brother Jalal Khan on the
throne of Jaunpur. But soon Jalal Khan was assassinated by his brothers men.

He had a certain amount of vanity and he demanded more implicit obedience than was customary
among the Afghans. His treatment of the nobility was on the whole tactless and indiscreet. His policy
was calculated to provoke opposition and rebellion. He lacked qualities of generalship and seldom
took the field himself. Soon disputes between the king and the Afghan nobles, which were simmering
throughout the Lodhi period, became acute and Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of the Punjab and
the kings uncle, invited Babur, the ruler of Kabul, to invade India. After early incursions confined to the
north-west and the Punjab, Babur met Ibrahim on 21 st April, 1526 in the first battle of Panipat, and, by
defeating him and capturing Dehli and Agra, laid the foundation of Mughal rule. This was also the end
of Lodhi dynasty with the death of Ibrahim Lodhi at the battlefield of Panipat.

Aurangzeb Alamgir
Posted by: HistoryPak

Aurangzeb had proved himself a capable commander and administrator as a prince. He was certainly
a successful military strategist and practical statesmen than his brothers who contended against him
for the throne that gave him success against all of them.

Aurangzeb, the third son of Shah Jahan, was born on 21 October 1618, at Dohad, on the frontier of
Gujarat and Rajputana. He was younger than Dara Shikoh and Shuja, but in competence and
character he easily excelled them. He was industrious, far seeing and thorough. He had distinguished
himself as an able administrator. During the long years that he spent in the Deccan and other
provinces of the Empire. He was a fearless soldier and a skilful general and in his dealing with men he
was cool and cautious. Even as a prince, Auranzeb was known for his devotion to Muslim religion and
observance of Islamic injunctions. Auranzeb referred in some of his letters written to Shah Jahan
during the war of succession that he was acting for the sake of the true faith and the peace of the
realm. As soon as he was secure on the throne, he started the introduction of reforms which would
make his domain a proper Muslim State. After his coronation he issued orders which were calculated
to please the orthodox. In the economic sphere he showed a determined opposition to all illegal
exactions and all the taxes which were not authorized by Islamic law. Immediately after his coronation,
he abolished inland transport duty ( rahdari ) amounting to 10% of the value of goods and the octori
( Pandari) on all articles of food and drink brought for the sale into the cities. These measures gave
relief to the people and were popular.

Aurangzeb took early to tighten up the administration, a period of strong government began.
Everywhere the provincial viceroys began to assert imperial prestige. Energetic Subedars extended
the boundaries of the empire to Assam. Local notables found out that disobedience of orders would
be tolerated no longer. The border tribes were taught that no violation of the imperial frontier would
unpunished.

Revolts of the Jats

The first organized revolt of the Hindus against the policy of religious persecution was that of the Jats.
The local Muslim officers at Mathura, Abdul Nabi was destroying temples of the Hindus and
disrespecting their women. In 1661 A.D, he destroyed a Hindus temple and raised a Mosque on its
ruins. The Jats under their leader Gokal revolted against this, in 1669 A.D, they killed Abdul Nabi. He
defeated some small Muslim forces which were sent against him. He was however defeated and killed
at the battle of Tilpat. The Jats were punished severely.

North-West Policy

Though a champion of Muslim orthodoxy, Aurangzeb had to wage wars with equally fanatic Muslim
tribes of the North Western Frontier region. These people had always been a serious problem and a
great headache for the rulers of India. The fanatic and unruly tribes of this region never tried to make
themselves a nation. They were divided into different tribes and were never gathered themselves
under one leader. They had always followed robbery as their profession. The Mughal Emperor found it
difficult to conquer and tamed the tribesmen by force and consequently they bribed them in order to
maintain peace to keep the routes in the frontier open to peaceful traffic. Aurangzeb paid the borders
chiefs six lakhs of rupees annually, but the policy of bribing the frontier chiefs did not always
 succeeded, for fresh leaders arose among the tribesmen and they often restored to plundering the
Mughal territory. In short, the Mughal Government was very much tired of the activities of these
tribesmen in this region.

The first rebellion of the Yousaf Zai (1667 )

The first rebellion was brought about by the Yousaf Zais tribe. They made a pretender, entitled
Muhammad Shah, as the king of the clan. He crossed the river Indus and invaded the Mughals. It was
a great threat to the authority of Aurangzeb. He issued orders to check the further advance of the
Yousaf Zais. Ultimately they were pushed back.

Aurangzebs religious policy

The ideal of Aurangzeb was the creation of Muslim theocracy and extinction of all other religions. He
restored Islam to its original position as the religion of the court and the country. As a great puritan
ruler he adopted the following measures:

1. He removed the Kalima from the coins, abolished the celebration of the Persian new Year
Day he also appointed Muhtasibs in all the important cities to enforce the Quranic law.
2. He banned music and disallowed musical parties, he also dismissed the court musicians who
had been employed by his ancestors.
3. Aurangzeb stopped the practice of the weighing of his body against gold, silver and other
commodities.
4. He stopped the custom of Jharoka Darshan, it deprived the people of an opportunity to get
their wrongs redressed directly from the emperor.
5. He forbade the courtiers to use to Hindu mode of saluting one another and instead
advocated the use of the words, Assalam- Alekum (Peace be upon you)
6. He also dismissed the royal astronomers and astrologers.
7. Drinking was forbidden, and the kotwal was ordered to cut one hand and one foot of all those
whi used this liquor.
8. He forbade women for visiting the shrines of the holy men.
9. Prostitution was banned; the prostitutes were given the option to either of getting married or
leaving the Mughal Empire.

Aurangzeb was a having multi dimensional personality. As a soldier, and a scholar, as a statesman
and a sovereign he stands unsurpassed in the galaxy of stars of the Mughal Empire. He maintained
himself on the sale proceeds of the caps and copies of the holy Quran.

Syed Ahmad Barelvi

Posted by: HistoryPak

Syed Ahmad Barelvi was born on 29th of November 1786 in Rai Barelley in India. He was also known
as Syed Ahmad Shaheed. When Syed Ahmad was born it was the time when the Muslims of India
were facing downfall by the hands of the British, Sikhs, and Hindus after such a glorious past. He
launched his struggle against the enemies of Islam which were becoming fatal threat to the survival of
Islam. His main struggle was against the Sikhs of the Punjab who were becoming biggest hindrance
in the way of survival of Islam in Punjab and North Frontier regions of India. His main aim was to
establish a Muslim state in Peshawar region but his dream could not materialized after his martyrdom
in Balakot region in a battle against Sikhs. He was the initiator of famous Jihad movement or
Mujahedeen Movement against Sikhs. He was a follower of Shah Abdul Aziz son of great Muslim
reformist Shah Walliullah.

Syed Ahmad Berelvi spent his child hood in his home town and at 18 he went to Delhi College for
further education. He was the founder of a revolutionary Islamic movement called Tahriq-i-
Muhhamdiyah and he was named as Amir-al-Muminin by his followers. He stayed at Delhi for his
necessary education and then in 1812 he joined the army of Nawab Ameer Khan Tonak of Northern
India in order to take part in Jihad against the British. In 1821 he went to Mecca to perform Hajj where
he received a spiritual experience and met many Islamic scholars, Ulemma, and thinkers, he stayed
there for 2 years. He came back with many new ideas and knowledge about the Islamic movements
going on in all over the world. On 6th August 1823 he came back to India after that he devoted himself
for the religious and social reformation of the Muslims of India. He strived to revive the glory of Islam
and wanted to implement Sharia rather than clinging to Sufism. He denied and refused to support
Bida (innovation) and supported Tauhid.

After that he went to Peshawar in 1826 from where his actual journey of struggle starts. Syed Ahmad
and his one thousand followers made Charsadda their base champ in late December they clashed
with Sikh army at Akora but no result could be deduced. He faced lots of challenges in his struggle
such as he could not gather or united local element into an organized shape. In 1829 due to his local
influence he obtained the agreement of Khans and general public to administer their localities
according to Sharia law. In 1830 he started collecting Usher (the crop tax 10% of the total production)
many khans became reluctant to pay this tax. This thing agitated the chiefs who formed an alliance to
undermine Syed Ahmads power. That alliance was defeated by Syed Ahmad and he formally
occupied Peshawar, unfortunately his rule in Peshawar could not last for more than few months
because internal uprising started in Peshawar which shattered his power and he had to take refuge in
the hills of Balakot. Where he had to fight the Sikh army and he received martyrdom in 1831 in
Balakot.

Sikandar Lodhi
Posted by: HistoryPak

Bahlol Lodhi was succeeded by his son Nizam Khan who took up the title of Sikandar Shah. There
was some hesitation on part of the nobles to accept Sikandar Shah as their ruler as his mother was
the daughter of a goldsmith and her son was more of a plebeian than a prince. However this
hesitation was overcome and he became the king.

Sikandar Lodhi consolidated the gains made during his fathers reign. Soon after his succession he
quelled a serious rebellion in Jaunpur, where the Hindu Zamindars had assembled an army of
100,000 horse and foot. The rebels opposed the advance of royal army but they were defeated with
great slaughter and dispersed. Sikandar once again reinstated his brother Barbak Shah and retired
towards Oudh.

Sikandar Shah transferred his capital from Delhi to Sikandria, a suberb of Agra, the Sultan wanted to
have more effective control over the fief-holders of Etawah, Biyana, Koil, Gawalior and Dholpur. The
new city of Agra was founded in 1504 and very soon a beautiful town came into existence. The Sultan
also transferred his residence from Delhi to Agra.

Sikandar Shah had to spend a lot of time in fighting but he managed to find some time to look after
the administration. He weakened the various chiefs and thereby strengthens his own position. He
insisted on the auditing of the accounts of the Afghan Nobles even at the risk of their displeasure. The
Sultan encouraged agriculture and abolished corn duties. Traders and merchants were helped in
every way to do their work in peace and security. Under the orders of Sultan lists of poor people were
prepared every year and they were given Raation for six months. Prisoners were released on certain
days in a year.

Sikandar Lodhi was a very striking figure of medieval India. He gave a new orientation to Afghan polity
in India and considerably raised the stature and dignity of the office of Sultan. Sikandar Lodhi was an
able administrator. There was the peace and prosperity in the country. The common man got justice.
The judicial system was efficiently organized under Mian Bhua. He patronized men of letters, artists
and poets etc. Unfortunately he was narrow-minded and fanatical in religious matters and injured the
feelings of his Hindu subjects.

Mansabdari System
Posted by: HistoryPak

Mansab is an Arabic word which means a post, an officer a rank, or status. Therefore, Mansabdar
means an officer or the holder of the rank, status, and post. Before Akbar, there was no division of civil
and military functions of the state. The soldiers had to fight in war and also perform duty of police in
the state. They were required to perform civil and military services / duties at the same time.

Akbar introduced a new system for regulating imperial services which was called Mansabdari system.
It was introduced in 1570 A. D. All the gazette imperial officers of the state were styled as
Mansabdars. They were classified into (66) grades, from the rank of (10) to ten thousands (10,000)
constituted. The (10) was the lowest rank and the ten thousand (10,000) was the highest. The
Mansabdars belonged to both Civil and Military department. Officers were Liable to transfer. They
were rather, transferred from the civil to military service and vice versa. The soldiers recruited by
centre were called Dakhili and by Mansabdass were called Ahadi.
Working of the Mansabdari System

1) Maintenance of Troops:-

The Mansabdars were required to to maintain a fix number of troops and other equipments such as;
horses, elephants, camels, mules, carfts, etc. Thus the zat and sawar ranks were introduced. zat
indicate the number of the troops which a mansabdar was expected to maintain, while sawar indicate
the actual number of horses under the command of a mansabdar. For example; A mansabdar holding
(1000, zat(troops)) and (500,sawar) used to be hold the rank of 1000 or yak hazari (morah). There
were 3 classes of mansabdars:

i) Ist Class: those who had equal zat (soldiess) and sawar.

ii) 2nd Class: those who had full zat but haf sawar.

iii) 3rd class: those who had full zat but less than haf sawar.

Apart from their salary, the Mansabdars were paid the cost of their establishment of the elephants,
horses and camels. The Mansabdars were allowed to recruit their own troops from their races. At the
time of enlisting the descriptive rolls of the troops were recorded & the horses were branded. In this
regard the practice of Dag & Hulia was introduced. Each horse bore two marks; one of govt. mark on
the right high. Every year or sometimes after 3 years inspection of troops was carried out.

2) No Distinction between civil and Military Services was accepted. The revenue personnel or a
judicial officer was recruited as Mansabdar. All imperial officers, except the Qazis and the sardas
were enrolled as member of the mansabdari system.

3. Organization of Ranks of the Mansabdass :- The lowest of the Mansabdar was(10) and the highest
was(1000). The ranks above (5,000) were reserved for imperial princes. Mansabs of (8000) and
above were reserved for the members of the Royal family. The Mansabdars were sub-divided into the
following three grades:

i) From 20 to 400, called, mansabdars

ii) From 500 to 2500 called umra

iii) From 3,000 & above called umra-i-Akbar

4. Appointments, Dismissals and promotions of Mansabdars: There were no such rules to regulate
appointments, promotions and dismissals of the mansabdar. The Emperor was authorized to appoint
anyone as Mansabdar and at any rank. The promotion depends upon the pleasure of the Emperor.
Thus it represents that it was a highly centralized system. The King was all in all.

5. Salaries of Mansabdars:
The Mansabdars were paid according to their ranks. They were paid a good amount of money.
Sometimes, they were also paid in jagirs. They were not supposed to accumulate their salaries and
wealth. After the death of a mansabdar, all his jagirs and wealth was confiscated. As a result,
Mansabders used to spend lavishly in badings like girls, drinks, parties .In short, they had no option
but to spoil their earning.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The mansabdari system was an improvement over the systems of tribal chieftainship and feudalism; it
was a progressive and systematic method adopted by Akbar to re-organize his army within the fold of
despotic monarchy. Although many mansabdars were allowed to recruit soldiers on tribal or religious
considerations, they were also made to know that they owed unconditional allegiance to the central
government.

Single men approaching the court in the hope of obtaining employment in the army, were obliged first
to seek a patron. These men generally attached themselves to chiefs from their own race; Mughals
became the followers of Mughals, Persians of Persians, and so on. This led to a certain homogeneity
of military traits and the development of tactics particularly suited to the military prowess of individual
groups. Certain groups began to be identified with certain qualities-Rajput and Pathan soldiers were
considered most valuable for their martial prowess and fidelity, for instance.

As a result of the mansabdari system, the emperor had no longer to depend exclusively on the
mercenaries of the feudal chieftains. The mansabdari system put an end to the jagirdari system within
the territories under the direct control of the imperial government. No portion of a mansab was
hereditary, and a mansabdars children had to begin afresh. All appointments, promotions,
suspensions and dismissal of the mansabdars rested entirely with the emperor. Every mansabdar was
thus held personally responsible to the monarch; this factor eliminated chances of disaffection and
revolts by the military officers and may be said to be a major achievement of mansabdari system.
Nevertheless, the mansabdari system suffered from many disadvantages as well. The -system did not
give birth to an army of national character since two-thirds of the mansabdars were either foreigners
or descendants of foreign immigrants.

In spite of Akbars rather secular policy in the matter of recruitment, Hindus formed barely nine per
cent of the aggregate strength of the imperial cadre. The states failure to recruit all the soldiers under
the supervision of a central or imperial agency was to cost it dearly. Since mansabdars were free to
recruit their soldiers as they pleased, they preferred to enroll men of their own tribe, race, religion or
region. While this led to homogenization of military tactics, it also divided the imperial army into many
heterogeneous units. There were no uniform rules for the systematic training of the soldiers, nor for
the conduct of regular drill or physical exercise to keep them fit. No uniform standard was fixed for
arming the soldiers; as a result, there was considerable variation in the weapons borne by them. The
standard of efficiency also varied from contingent to contingent.

Furthermore, as soldiers were recruited by a mansabdar for his own contingent, they regarded him as
the real employer and patron, and tended to display more loyalty to their immediate military
commander than the emperor. A mansabdar always ommanded the same troops for life and transfers
f the soldiers from one contingent to another were not known. As the soldiers received their salaries
and allowances from the mansabdars, the latter could cheat the state if they wanted to. A dishonest
mansabdar could, for instance, recruit less than the specified number of troops as indicated by his
swar rank and get the salaries paid to the fictitious men, or alternatively, get fictitious payrolls
prepared in the name of non-existent person, in collaboration with the corrupt staff of the army
establishment or the finance department.

The high-ranking mansabdars, like the amirs and amir-ul-umara, were the most highly paid officers of
the state. As the Mughal Empire was in a formative stage, it was involved in a process of continuous
conquests and annexations. Thus the military officers were often in a position to appropriate for them
a substantial part of the booty. Even if Akbar did come to know of the misconduct of his senior officers
in this regard, he could not take action against each one of them.

Shah Jehan
Posted by: HistoryPak

Shah Jahan was one of the four sons of Jahangir.His original name was Khurram, born on January,
1592, at Lahore from a Hindu mother, daughter of Raja Udai Singh of Mewar. He was brought up
under the care of Akbars childless wife Ruquiah Begum. While very young, he could be pointed out to
be the successor of the Mughal throne after the death of Jahangir. Prince Khurram was liked by his
father. It was on account of his bravery and sense of responsibility that he was put in charge of many
expeditions by his father.

Shah Jahan ascended the throne at Agra on 4th February 1628 with the title of Abu_l_Muzaffar
Shahab-ud Din Muhammad Sahib Kiran_i- Sani. However his accession to the throne was not all
smooth and he had to pass through a conflict for succession. Soon after the death of Jahangir in
1627, Nur Jahan put forward the claims of Shehryar to the throne and proclaimed him as king in
Lahore. On the other hand, Asaf Khan (Father in Law of Shah Jahan ) took up the cause of Shah
Jahan. He sent a message to Shah Jahan to hurry up to Delhi. In the meanwhile, Asaf Khan also
moved against Shahryar and defeated him in a battle near Lahore. He took him prisoner and blinded
him. Thus when Shah Jahan reached Agra, all his political rivals had been eliminated. He ascended
the throne of Agra.

Soon after his accession, Shah Jahan had to encounter alot of disturbance and rebellions. The first
such rebellion was led by Jahjar Singh, who started increasing his strength by raising forces,
acquiring munitions of war and strengthening the forts. Shah Jahan ordered Muhabat Khan to
suppress the rebellion. Forces were sent by Shah Jahan from all sides of the country. Hemmed by
forces from all sides, Jahjar Singh thought it expedient that he should surrender. He was pardoned on
the condition that he should surrender a part of his jagir and proceed to serve the Mughal in Deccan.

Rebellion of khan Jahan Lodhi

Another serious challenge to the authority of Shah Jahan was posed by Khan Jahan Lodhi, an able
and turbulent officer. Soon after Jahangirs death, he joined hands with Nur Jahan to advance the
 claims of Shahryar to the throne. When Shah Jahan ascended the throne, Khan Jahan Lodhi was
forced to make a humble submission to Shah Jahan. Shah Jahan pardoned him and allowed him to
retain the Governorship of Deccan.

Apart from the rebellions, Shah Jahan had to encounter, in the beginning of his reign a serious
challenge in the shape of serious famine. This famine from 1630-32 effected Gujrat, Khandesh and
Deccan took a heavy toll of life. Soon, on the heels of famine, followed pestilence which further
aggravated the sufferings of the people. Shah Jahan tried to allevate the sufferings of the people by
remitting one- third of the land revenue, State kitchins were opened and food was distributed free of
charge to the poor and needy.

The Imperial Mughals, particularly, from Akbar to Shah Jahan( 1556_ 1657 )gave a long era of peace
and prosperity to the people of India for a century. During this period, the name and fame of the
mighty Mughal monarchs of the greatest empire in Asia attracted a stream of foreign visitors from all
over the world. They were dazzled by the wealth, magnificence and grandeur of the Mughal
emperors and their nobility.

His period of rule is frequently referred to as the Golden Age of the Mughal India due to the following
reasons;

1. The Mughal Empire under Shah Jahan enjoyed maximum peace and order. The country was
very little disturbed and he was able to maintain perfect law and order. The Rajputs were faithful and
the Shia states of the Deccan had accepted the over lordship of the Delhi emperor.
2. The extent of Shah Jahans empire was, extended from Sindh in the West to Assam in the
East and from Afghanistan to Goa in the Deccan.
3. Under the rule of Shah Jahan, the Mughal Empire reached its highest pitch of greatness and
glory. Since there was peace and prosperity in the country, the provinces brought much revenue.
The land was fertile, and the royal income from land revenue alone amounting to 45 crores of
rupees annually, it was so great that after all his vast expenses, he left a treasure of 24 millionin
cions, besides gold, silver and jewels.
4. Shah Jahan maintained his ancestral tradition of personally administering justice. He was
very strict in punishing the oppressors and dispensing even handed justice. The grievances of the
people were removed and justice done to all. Thus he was a just ruler.
5. Shah Jahans buildings represent the climax in the evolution of the Mughal architecture in the
country and it is especially in the domain of architecture that is reign properly be called as the
Golden Age in the history of India. The red fort with its white marble palaces and Jamia Masjid at
delhi, the Moti Masjid, Diwan_i-khas, Diwan_i_ Am some other buildings, the Agra fort and the
famous Taj Mahal. In view of the above buildings, Shah Jahan is rightly called the Prince of
Builders

The spirit of tolerance and the liberal policy pursueded by Akbar by virtue of which he win over the
hearts of the Hindus who formed the bulk of population in India, were unfortunately disappeared under
Shah Jahan. In the early years of his reign he issued a royal edict to the effect to pull down all the
newly built temples in his empire and it is said that in pursuance of this edict as much as 72 temples in
the province of Allahabad alone were pulled down. He revived the pilgrim tax on the Hindus and also
checked the conversion of Muslims to other faiths, rather he encouraged the conversion of the Hindus
to Islam, he forbade the intermarriages between Hindus and Muslims and Hindu husbands of Muslim
women were forced to embrace Islam. Thus we see that Shah Jahan signalized his reign by those
unwise acts of intolerance which were copied by his sons and which eventually led to ruin of the
empire.

Tipu Sultan
Posted by: HistoryPak

Tipu Sultan was born on 10th December 1750 in Devanhalli. Being the eldest son of Haider
Ali, Tipu sultan succeeded after his father who was the ruler of independent state of Mysore
in India. He was brave and well trained in military skills since his child hood; he assisted his
father in many battles. Tipu was very intelligent and intellectual person got passion for books
and had almost 2000 books in his personal library. Since Haider Ali died of cancer in war of
Chittur on 7th December 1782, after that Tipu Sultan came to the throne at age of 32. He
worked for the welfare of his subjects and strived really hard for the betterment of and
consolidation of his empire. Naturally he inherited the struggle against the British who were
starting to influence and take over the control of India at that time. Tipu sultan continued the
struggle of his father which he started against the British; he came to the throne at very
crucial time. He fought British very skillfully they were never able to defeat Tipu as long as
they fought without intrigues, conspiracies, and deceitfulness. He was gaining strength and
making allies vigorously this thing irritated British who then started to approach his allies and
tried to buy them to be on their side. This thing worked and the only reason Tipu Sultan got
defeated was due to the infidelity of his loyal supporters and officials. He secured help of
French, who were the main competition for British in order to politically colonize India; he
sought support of Amir of Afghanistan and Sultan of Turkey. On the other hand British made
alliance Marathas and Nizam of Hyderabad.

In 1783 British planned to attack Mysore after attacking and capturing Bednur and
Mangalore first, Tipu was in Chittur that he hurried towards Bednur and recovered Bednur
after defeating British forces there in 1783. Then he defeated British at Mangalore and laid a
siege to the ford. After treaty of Versailles between French and the British, the French
retreated from the conflict leaving Tipu alone and ally less but he continued war. Once again
British tried to attack Mysore but remained unsuccessful and on 29thJanuary 1784 peace
treaty was made between British and Tipu in order to prepare them. So, second Anglo-
Mysore war ended with Tipu as a victor which made Marathas jealous and they made an
alliance with Nizam and invaded Mysore in 1786 even they failed to get victory in April 1787
peace was made between the Peshwa and Tipu Sultan. Third Anglo-Mysore war started in
1790 in which British made an alliance with Marathas and Nizam this alliance defeated Tipu
at his capital Seringapatam where he signed a humiliating treaty on 22nd of March 1972.
Fourth Anglo-Mysore war proved to be the end of Tipu Sultans rule this battle started when
Tipu Sultan again took help from the French and stared to revitalize his forces which were
considered as violation of treaty and made British attack Mysore in 1798. Due to
treacherousness of his officials and unavailability of proper French support inflicted
annihilating defeat upon Tipu and his forces. He died martyred while fighting in May 1799 in
the gateway of Seringapatam. He was given proper burial ceremony by the company officials.
Tipu Sultan was an enlightened ruler treated his Hindu subjects with open mind. He
introduced new warfare technologies and new ways of agricultural production. His Grand
rule although blotched with continuous battles is still a symbol of glory, dignity and prestige.

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Cabinet Mission Plan (1946)

Posted by: HistoryPak

Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Secretary of State for India on February 19, 1946, announced in Parliament
that a special mission consisting of three Cabinet ministers, in association with the Viceroy, would
proceed to India, in order to hold discussions with the Indian leaders. The three Cabinet ministers
would be Pethick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander. Cripps told the press conference
on landing at Karachi on March 23 that the purpose of the mission was to get machinery set up for
framing the constitutional structure in which the Indians will have full control of their destiny and the
formation of a new interim government. The Mission arrived in Delhi on March 24 and left on June
29.
Jinnah faced extreme difficulties in the three-month-long grueling negotiations with the Cabinet
Mission. The first of these was the continued delicate state of his health. At a critical stage of the
negotiations, he went down with bronchitis and ran temperature for ten days. But he never gave up
the fight and battled till the end of the negotiations. Secondly, the Congress was still much stronger
than the Muslim League as a party. They have the best organized in fact the only well organized
political machine; and they command almost unlimited financial support they can always raise mob
passion and mob support and could undoubtedly bring about a very serious revolt against British
rule. Mountbattens Report on the Last Viceroyalty. Thirdly, The Congress had several powerful
spokesmen, while for the League Jinnah had to carry the entire burden of advocacy single-handedly.
Fourthly, the Mission was biased heavily in favor of the Congress. Secretary of State Pethick-
Lawrence and Cripps, the sharpest brains among them, made no secret of their personal friendship
for the Congress leaders. Wavell was much perturbed by Pethick-Lawrences and Crippss private
contacts with the Congress leaders and the deference they showed to Gandhi. Finally, Jinnah
suffered from the disadvantage that it was the Muslim League, a minority party, which alone
demanded Pakistan. The Congress, the smaller minorities and the British Government including the
comparatively fair-minded Wavell with whom the final decision lay, were all strongly opposed to the
partition of British India.

Quaid-i-Azam the constitutionalist took appropriate steps to strengthen his hand as the spokesman of
the Muslim League. He convened a meeting of the Muslim League Working Committee at Delhi (4-6
April 1946) which passed a resolution that the President alone should meet the Cabinet Delegation
and the Viceroy. This was immediately followed by an All India Muslim Legislators Convention. Nearly
500 members of the Provincial and Central Legislatures who had recently been elected on the Muslim
League ticket from all parts of India attended it. It was the first gathering of its kind in the history of
Indian politics and was called by some the Muslim Constituent Assembly. In his presidential address,
Jinnah said that the Convention would lay down once and for all in equivocal terms what we stand
for.

A resolution passed unanimously by the Convention (the Delhi Resolution) stated that no formula
devised by the British Government for transferring power to the peoples of India would be acceptable
to the Muslim nations unless it conformed to the following principles:
1. Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan in the North-West of India, namely Pakistan, zones
where the Muslims are in a dominant majority, be constituted into a sovereign independent State
and that an unequivocal undertaking be given to implement the establishment of Pakistan without
delay.
2. The two separate constitution-making bodies be set up by the people of Pakistan and
Hindustan for the purpose of framing their respective Constitutions.
3. That the acceptance of the Muslim League demand of Pakistan and its implementation
without delay are the sine qua non for Muslim League cooperation and participation in the formation
of an Interim Government at the Center.
4. That any attempt to impose a Constitution on a united-India basis or to force any interim
arrangement at the Center contrary to the Muslim League demand will leave the Muslims no
alternative but to resist any such imposition by all possible means for their survival and national
existence.

This impressive show of strength, staged in the very city where the members of the Cabinet Mission
were quartered, demonstrated to the Mission and to all the others that the 100 million Muslims of India
were solidly behind the demand for Pakistan and further that the Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah
was their undisputed supreme leader.

The Mission began their talks by first informing themselves of the views of the different leaders and
parties. When they found the view-points of the League and the Congress irreconcilable, they gave a
chance to the parties to come to an agreement between themselves. This included a Conference at
Simla (5-12 May), popularly known as the Second Simla Conference, to which the Congress and the
League were each asked to nominate four delegates for discussions with one another as well as with
the Mission. When it became clear that the parties would not be able to reach a concord, the Mission
on May 16, 1946, put forward their own proposals in the form of a Statement.

Azad, the president of the Congress, conferred with the Mission on April 3 and stated that the picture
that the Congress had of the form of government in future was that of a Federal Government with fully
autonomous provinces with residuary powers vested in the units. Gandhi met the Mission later on the
same day. He called Jinnahs Pakistan a sin which he, Gandhi, would not commit.

At the outset of his interview with the Mission on April 4 the Quaid was asked to give his reason why
he thought Pakistan a must for the future of India.He replied that never in long history these was any
Government of India in the sense of a single government. He went on to explain the irreconcilable
social and cultural differences between the Hindus and the Muslims and argued, You cannot make a
nation unless there are essential uniting forces. How are you to put 100 million Muslims together with
250 million people whose way of life is so different? No government can ever work on such a basis
and if this is forced upon India it must lead us on to disaster.

The Second Simla Conference having failed to produce an agreed solution, on May 16, the Mission
issued its own statement. The Cabinet Mission broadcast its plan worldwide from New Delhi on
Thursday night, May 16, 1946. It was a last hope for a single Indian union to emerge peacefully in the
wake of the British raj. The statement reviewed the fully independent sovereign state of Pakistan
option, rejecting it for various reasons, among which were that it would not solve the communal
minority problem but only raise more such problems. The basic form of the constitution
recommended was a three-tier scheme with a minimal central union at the top for only foreign affairs,
defense and communication, and Provinces at the bottom, which should be free to form Groups with
executive and legislatures, with each group being empowered to determine the Provincial subjects
to be taken in common. After ten years any Province could, by simple majority vote, call for a
reconsideration of the terms of the constitution. Details of the new constitution were to be worked out
by an assembly representing as broad based and accurate a cross section of the population of India
as possible. An elaborate method of assuring representation of all the communities in power structure
was outlined with due consideration given to the representation of states as well as provinces.
The Quaid replied on the 19th , asking the Viceroy if the proposals were final or whether they were
subject to change or modification, and he also sought some other clarification. The Viceroy promptly
furnished the necessary explanations. It seemed as if the Quaid would accept the Viceroys
proposals. The Congress Working Committee met in Delhi on June 25 and by a resolution rejected
the proposals, as Congressmen can never give up the national character of the Congress or accept
an artificial and unjust party, or agree to the veto of a communal group. Azad sent a copy of the
resolution to the Viceroy and in his covering letter protested against the non-inclusion of a Muslim-
Congressman from the Congress quota.

After the Congress stand had become known, the Working Committee of the Muslim League resolved
to join the Interim Government, in accordance with the statement of the Viceroy dated 16th June. The
interpretation of the Quaid-i-Azam was that if the Congress rejected the proposals, the League
accepted them, or vice versa,the Viceroy would go ahead and form the interim Government without
including the representatives of the party that decided to stand out. But the interpretation of the
Viceroy and the Cabinet Mission was different from that of the Quaid-i-Azam.

It became clear that the protracted negotiations carried out for about three months by the Cabinet
Mission did not materialize in a League-Congress understanding, or in the formation of an interim
Government. Towards the end of June, the Cabinet Mission left for England, their task unfulfilled. It
had, however not been a complete failure. It was clear to the Indians that the acceptance of the
demand for Pakistan would be an integral part of any future settlement of the Indian problem. In the
meantime the League and the Congress were getting ready for elections to the Constituent Assembly.

Din-i-Ilahi
Posted by: HistoryPak

The Sur dynasty ruled India from 1540 to 1555. It was founded by Sher Shah Suri, original name
Farid, who was the son of an afghan landlord, Hasan Khan Suri. The total number of the rulers
remained seven, and among those seven kings only one ruled effectively, Sher Khan or Sher Shah
Suri. Although Sher Shah ruled only five years, he remained so much successful in his reforms that
even Mughals and the British followed his policies. At a very young age, Sher Shah left his home as a
result of his stepmothers mistreatment. He was a talented administrator. When Babur defeated
Ibrahim Lodhi and assumed the kingship of India, Sher Shah joined Babur and impressed him with his
intelligence. Babur appointed him as the governor of Bihar. After the death of Babur when the
Muhghal government became unstable, Sher Shah took advantage of the situation and became
independent.

Sher Shah defeated Humayun in the Battle of Chausa (June 26, 1539) and again in the Battle of
Bilgram(May 17, 1540). Humayun, son of Babur, lost hope and left India and went to Persia. Sher
Shah occupied the throne of Delhi for not more than five years, but his reign proved to be a landmark
in the Sub-continent. He formulated a sound imperial administration that was inspired by the Safavid
regime in Iran. Sher Shah employed a powerful army, which is said to have comprised of 150,000
horses, 250,000 foot-soldiers and 5,000 elephants. He personally inspected, appointed and paid the
soldiers, thus making him the focus of loyalty and subduing the jealousies between clans and tribes.
To prevent fraud, he revived the tradition of branding horses, introduced first by Alauddin Khalji. The
principal reforms for which Sher Shah is remembered are those connected with revenue
administration. He set up a revenue collection system based on the measurement of land. Justice was
provided to the common man. Numerous civil works were carried out during his short reign; planting
of trees, wells and building of Sarai (inns) for travelers was done. Roads were laid; it was under his
rule that the Grand Trunk road from Delhi to Kabul was built. The currency was also changed to finely
minted silver coins called Dam.

During his lifetime, Sher Shah commissioned the construction of tombs for his father, Hasan Khan
Suri and for himself. A third one was begun for his son Islam, but remained unfinished due to the
dynastys fall. Sher Shah died in 1545 by a gunpowder explosion and left his kingdom to his two sons
and grandsons. Unfortunately, his successors were incompetent and succumbed to old Afghan
rivalries. This resulted in the downfall of the Suri Dynasty.

The Sur dynasty held control of nearly all the Mughal territories, between what is now Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan to the Bengals in the east in what is now Bangladesh. The Mughals
retreated west to Persia, while most of what is now eastern Afghanistan, all of Pakistan and
northern India formed the Suri Empire. During the almost 15 year rule of the Sur dynasty, the region of
the Indian subcontinentwitnessed much economic development and administrative reforms. A
systematized relationship was created between the people and the ruler, minimizing corruption and
the oppression of the public. Their rule came to an end by a defeat that led to restoration of
the Mughal Empire. Today, the Sur are part of the Pashtun tribal system and belong to the sub-groups
of the Ghilzais.

Nooruddin Jahangir
Posted by: HistoryPak

Jahangir was the son of many prayers. Akbar wanted a heir to succeed him, he not only prayed to
God but also begged of the blessings of saints to have a son. All previous children of the emperor
having died in their infancy, ultimately, a son was born in August, 1569, and he was named
Muhammad Saleem. It was as a result of the blessings of the famous Sheikh Saleem Chishti that he
was blessed with a son and named him after the saint Muhammad Sultan Saleem, but Akbar used to
call Saleem by nick name of Sheikho Baba.

The child was brought up with utmost care and affection. Akbar paid full attention to the education of
Saleem and placed him under the guardianship of the best scholars and tutors of the age.Saleem
learnt Turki, Hindi, Geography, arithmetics and other important sciences from his teachers.

Saleem was married to Man Bai at the age of 15, apart from that Saleem kept some eight hundred
women in his harem. Saleem developed great love for wine and other sensual pleasures at an early
age. This was not liked by Akbar and he tried to mend the young prince but without much success.

The lose character of Saleem was a cause of great concern to Akbar but the young prince was not
willing to pay any heed to Akbars advice. In 1599, when Akbar left for the Deccan expedition, he
directed Saleem to attack Rana Amar Singh of Mewar. Instead of complying with the directions of
 Akbar, Saleem utilized the occasion to raise a banner of revolt. Saleem had declared his
independence and set up court at Allahabad. Akbar rushed back to Agra and crushed the revolt.

Jahangir succeeded to the throne on November,1605,on the eight day of Akbars death. Soon after
accession to the throne Jahangir proceeded to issue a proclaimation of his policy in the shape of
twelve rules of conduct ( Dastur_ul- Amal ). These rules or instructions were as follow.

1. Prohibition of Cesses ( Zakat )

2. Regulations about Highway Robbery and Theft
3. Free Inheritance of Property of Deceased persons
4. Prohibition of Wine and all kinds of Intoxicating Liquors
5. Prohibition of the Taking Possession of the Houses and cutting the Noses and Ears of the
criminals.
6. Prohibition of Ghasbi
7. Building of Hospitals and Appointment of Physicians to attend the Sick
8. Prohibiting Slaughter of Animals
9. Respect paid to Sunday
10. General Confirmation of Mnsabs and Jagirs
11. Confirmation of aima Lands
12. Amnesty for all Prisoners

It was, an important event of Jahangirs reign, his marriage with Nur Jahan, which left a deep impact
on the course of history of his reign. He bestowed on her the title of Nur Mahal ( light of the harem )
which was subsequently changed into Nur Jahan Begum ( Light of the World ). Once installed as
empress the influence continued on the administration. She was a brave and shrewd lady and came
to exercise tremendous influence on Jahangir during the period from 1611 to 1627.

Two Sides of his character.

(A) Bright side of his character.

Jahangir possessed a very amiable personality. He always showed great respect to his mother and
other elders of his family. Though he rebelled against his father, yet he showed very much repentant
over his folly. He always cherished the memory of Akbar and used to pay his homage to the departed
soul.

Jahangir was highly educated man.He had aquired sufficient knowledge of Arabic, Hindi and Persian
languages. His own memoirs called Tuzak_i_ Jahangiri is a proof of his excellent composition. He was
very much interested in the fine arts like music,architecture, painting and others.
Jahangir had a great passion for justice, allowing all men to approach him with complaints which he
himself heard. With a view to make him accessible to all the seekers of justice, he caused gold chain
with bells to be hung between the Shah Burj an the Agra fort and a post on the road near the bank of
the river Jumna so as to enable the suitors to ring the bell of justice.

(B) Dark Side of His Character.

Jahangir had many good qualities in his character, but he had certain shortcomings too which
eclipsed the good qualities in him. He was a notorious drunkard but punished other drunkards very
severely. He had formed such a strong habit of wine that wine failed to intoxicate him. Thus he
became more and more engrossed in pleasure and ease, till he became a figure head in the State,
and real powers being thus enjoyed by Nur Jahan, he never interfered with the work of Nur Jahan.

The health of Jahangir was completely shattered on account of excessive drinking. He was trying to
restore it by visiting Kashmir and Kabul. On his way from Kabul to Kashmir he returned to Lahore on
account of severe cold and died on the way in October 1627, probably in the vicinity of Murree and
Abbottabad, according to one account , his body was brought to Lahore and was ultimately interred in
the tomb near Shahdara, Lahore.

Hyder Ali
Posted by: HistoryPak

Haider Ali was born in 1727 in Ajmer Rajasthan. His father was an ordinary soldier of
Mysore army named Fateh Muhammad. Haider Ali was the father of famous Tipu Sultan
known as Tiger of Mysore. He had two wives first wife died after that Tipu was brought up
by his second wife named Fatima. He belonged to a foreigner family and from the rank of an
ordinary soldier he became the ruler of the Indian state Mysore. He begins his career as a
soldier like his other family members but due to his professional skills he excelled in army
ranks. He became a strong commander in chief of Mysore army fought with many dissidents.
After the scuttling situation in Mysore state the king of state made him commander in chief to
handle the deteriorating condition in the state. He organized the army, trained the soldiers on
European model, established peace in state, and directed the finances. After that he had to
fight internal opposition which he squashed and by pensioning king forcefully he became the
undisputed ruler of the Mysore state in 1761. He consolidated his position and turned his
efforts towards conquest, he captured Bednur, Sirra, and territories of Malabar. His whole
career he had to fight Marathas and the British. Due to his increasing influence Marathas
became insecure and launched many fights against him eventually in 1765 he was defeated
by Marathas and had to pay indemnity of 28 lakhs. British and Nizam also felt uneasy
because of his increasing power and initiated several conflicts with Haider Ali on different
occasions. In order to counter the British he sought help of French and also helped French in
the Carnatic Wars.
In 1766 Madhav Rao the Marathan Peshwa convinced Nizam of Hyderabad to make an
offensive alliance against Haider Ali. British also helped the Nizam before that Marathan
forces already occupied Sirra which was Haider Alis territory after the he concluded peace
by giving 33 lakhs by receiving back his occupied territories. First Anglo-Mysore war was
won by Haider Ali in 1769 in which he dictated his own terms towards the British in order to
conclude peace. Unfortunately he could not sustain his victories due to internal conflicts. In
1770 Marathas attacked Mysore and British did not help Haider in order not to displease
Marathas. So he was defeated on 5th of March 1771 near Bangalore. In 1779 the Marathas,
Nizam, and Haider Ali buried all their differences and decided to fight against the British in
order to throw them out from southern part if India. The war started it inflicted many wounds
on British power and Haider Ali and his allies won many battles against them. Unfortunately
Haider Ali died of cancer in the midst of Chittur war in 1782. He was succeeded by his eldest
son Tipu Sultan who carried on his campaign and also died without accomplishing his
fathers aspired dream; which was to throw British out of their territories. Haider Ali
possessed inherent leadership and administrative qualities; he was a skilled soldier with extra
ordinary qualities. Due to his vigor and hard work he made the small and meager state of
Mysore a powerful and an influential state.

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Cabinet Mission (1946)

Posted by: HistoryPak

After the failure of British efforts to establish peace consensual constitutional adjustment and the
results of general elections, which created deadlock between Muslim League and Congress, British
government sent a special mission of Cabinet ministers in India. This mission gave the plan to resolve
the deadlock which is known as Cabinet Mission Plan. The main purpose of the mission was setting
up a constitutional frame work and Executive council with the help of Indian parties. Lord Pethick
Lawrence, the Secretary of State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps, the President of the Board of Trade
and A.V. Alexander, the First Lord of the Admiralty were the members of this mission.

The mission held talks with the representatives of the Indian National Congress and All India Muslim
League for two weeks. On one side Congress was eager that the task of constitution making should
be given to the constituent assembly. It also believed that best solution of all problems lay in federal
form of government. It demanded that the matters of defence, foreign affairs and communication
should be dealt by federal government. Moreover Congress did not want to discuss about the idea
about Pakistan. On the other hand Muslim League leaders were saying that Hindus and Muslims had
communal differences and they also raise the voice for the partition of India. After an extensive
discussion with Congress and Muslim League the Cabinet Mission gave its own proposal on May 14
1946.

According to their own proposed plan their would be union of India comprising British India and the
Indian states that would deal with defence, foreign affairs and communication. All residuary power
would belong to provinces and the provinces should be divided in to three sections. There would also
be an interim government with the support of all political parties.
The Muslim league accepted the plan initially Congress had accepted the plan though it rejected the
interim government. According to the plan government should be given to Muslim League because it
had accepted the interim government but Viceroy did not give it to Muslim League. In the meantime
Nehru said that Congress had accepted the constituent assembly by changing the Cabinet plan. In
these circumstances Muslim League quit itself from the plan and Viceroy invited Congress to made
interim government although it had initially rejected it. However Viceroy soon realised that it will give
no fruit without Muslim League so he invited Muslim League as well.

Bahadur Shah Zafar

Posted by: HistoryPak

Bahadur Shah II, better known as Bahadur Shah Zafar in history was the last Mughal Emperor who
remained at helm from 1837 to 1857. He was born on October 24, 1775 and was the son of Akbar
shah II. He was over sixty when he ascended to the throne of Delhi. He was a very good poet and a
calligrapher as well as a Sufi. After the war of independence of 1857, he was exiled to Rangoon in
1858 where he died in 1862 at the age of 87.

Bahadur Shah was not the favourite son of his father who was also opposed to his succession as the
emperor. Akbar Shah was very much under the influence of his wife Mumtaz Begum who pressed him
to make Mirza Jahangir as his heir successor. But fortunately things happened in such a way that
road was prepared for the succession of Zafar. Prince Janangir was exiled by the company as he
attacked the English resident at the Red Fort. This paved the way for the emperorship of Bahadur
Shah Zafar. But it was not the easy times because the authority of the emperor had been confined to
the Red Fort only. The British were the predominant military and the political force. They used to
provide pension to the Emperor that was the only source of his livelihood. The company had even
overtaken the right to issue coins and there was a mere illusion of the Mughal rule over India and
nothing else.

Bahadur Shah himself was quite uninterested in the statecraft. He had no imperial interest. His only
interest was poetry. He himself was a great poet who wrote four diwans. Zafar was his poetic
surname. His court was the home of large number of great Urdu poets of the time. In fact the Urdu
poetry flourished during this period because the patronization it received from the emperor himself.

The story of Bahadur Shah Zafar remains incomplete without the description of his wife Zeenat Mahal.
He married Zeenat Mahal in 1840 who gave birth to his favouite son Mir Jawan Bakht. She had great
influence upon the emperor who handed over all his powers to his beloved wife. She became the de
facto ruler of India. Her greatest desire was to make his son the next emperor of India but the English
law of primogeniture was the main hurdle in this regard. Even during the war of independence she
prevented his son to come into contact with the rebels knowing the fact that the uprising would be
suppressed easily and after that she would make her son the ruler. But the British wanted to end
monarchy. Therefore, she was also exiled to Rangoon along with her son where she died in 1886.
The most significant event taking place during his reign was the uprising of 1857. The people of India
made a concerted effort to liberate their country the foreign occupation. The uprising sprung from
Meerut where sepoy revolted and marched towards Delhi. They declared Bahadur Shah Zafar as the
emperor of India who also accepted their allegiance. The emperor nominated his son Mirza Mughal as
the commander in chief of the armed forces. The situation was highly chaotic but ultimately the revolt
was suppressed by the British. Bahadur Shah Zafar took refuge in the Humayuns tomb from where
he was apprehended by Major William Hudson. The very next day his sons Mirza Mughal, Mirza
Khizzer Sultan and grandson Mirza Abu Bakar were executed. Bahadur Shah himself was exiled to
Rangoon where he died in 1862 at the age of 87. This marked the end of the Mughal rule in India.

Elections of 1945-46
Posted by: HistoryPak

The 1945-46 elections were, by far, the most critical at all levels in the annals of the history of Indian
sub-continent. The first Simla Conference had broken down on 14th July 1945 on the controversial
issue of the representative culture of the All India Muslim League (AIML). Also, once World War II was
over the new government in Britain took control. The new government gave some new instructions to
the Viceroy of India. So, on 21st August 1945 the Viceroy Lord Wavell announced that elections to the
central and provincial legislatures would be held in the coming winter. As for the first phase it was
decided that election to the central legislative assembly would be held to be followed by the election to
the provincial assemblies.

The Muslim League announced that it would fight the elections on the two clear-cut issues
Pakistan is the national demand of the Muslims of India and the Muslim League is their sole
representative organization. Soon after the announcement regarding the general election the Muslim
league started preparation to contest them. The Leagues position in 1945 was entirely different from
what it had been at the time of the previous election held in1937.It was now well established as a
mass organization with branches in every provinces, districts, tehsils and villages. To cope with the
finance of the election Quaid-i-Azam asked the Muslims in his characteristic style give us the silver
bullets and we will finish the job.

For Jinnah and the Muslim League election campaign was urgent and also extraordinarily hectic and
brisk. He suffered bouts of serious illness at the time. However, Quaid-i-Azam did not slacken his
pace and in a mere 24 weeks, between mid-July and end of December 1945 addressed thousands
and had talks with hundreds, as he himself stated. During this short period he spoke at more than
twenty-six gatherings across the provinces of Bombay, Sindh, Baluchistan and the Frontier, gave out
thirty-two press statements and interviews, met several delegations and received and answered a
great deal of political correspondence. In this endeavor, Jinnah was helped by a team of highly
committed deputies. He had formed the All India Muslim League Committee of Action in December
1943 and later the Central Parliamentary Board whose proceedings are also printed in this volume.
These small bodies of dedicated office-holders selected Muslim League candidates, settled
differences and appeals over the award of League tickets, distributed funds, coordinated elections
work from their Delhi head office and travelled and supervised election activity all over India. In this
they were supported admirably by the All India and Provincial Muslim Students Federations whose
members, especially at Aligarh, set examples of selflessness, sacrifice and dedication.

Elections for the Central Legislature were held in December 1945. Though the franchise was limited,
the turnover was extra ordinary. Leagues performance was even more impressive as it managed to
win all the 30 seats reserved for the Muslims. The results of the provincial election held in early 1946
were not different. Congress won most of the non-Muslim seats while Muslim League captured
approximately 95 percent of the Muslim seats. On the other hand League celebrated January 11,
1946 as the Day of victory and declared that the election results were enough to prove that Muslim
League under the leadership of Quaid-i-Azam was the sole representative of the Muslims of the
region.

All said and done, it was the last variable made Pakistan possible. Indeed, the massive electoral
verdict in Pakistans favour during 1945-46 was the most important development between 1940 and
1947 between the adoption of the Lahore Resolution and the emergence of Pakistan. By all
standards, this verdict represented the most critical step in the establishment of Pakistan. It was clear
to the Congress that the Muslim League was the authoritative representative of an overwhelming
majority of the Muslims in India, but it neither accepted it openly nor challenged its position.

For both the Congress and the League, the prime issue in the 1945-46 elections was the creation of
Pakistan as opposed to the idea of Akhand Hindustan. Hence, the elections represented a
referendum of sorts, as suggested by Gandhi, to ascertain the declared and established will of
Muslims on the nationhood and separation issues. Once that will was given in Pakistans favour, its
emergence (in some form or another) could no longer be resisted or delayed.

Muhammad Shah
Posted by: HistoryPak

Muhammad Shah was a weak and incompetent ruler and quite unable to cope with the forces of
disorder and rebellion. Various governors became independent and powerful to be controlled by him.
Multan became independent under the Langahs, and Bahlol Lodhi, the governor of Sirhind, extended
his influence over eastern and central Punjab. The nobles also threw off the allegiance to the tottering
empire of Delhi. The Sayyid ruler tried to placate Bahlol by styling him as his son and conferring on
him the title of Khan-I Khanan, but the relations between the two were uncertain, as Bahlol aimed at
the throne of Delhi. Muhammad Shah died in 1445 A.D. He was succeeded by his son Ala-ud-Din-
Alam Shah.

Sur Dynasty
Posted by: HistoryPak

The Sur dynasty ruled India from 1540 to 1555. It was founded by Sher Shah Suri, original
name Farid, who was the son of an afghan landlord, Hasan Khan Suri. The total number of
the rulers remained seven, and among those seven kings only one ruled effectively, Sher
Khan or Sher Shah Suri. Although Sher Shah ruled only five years, he remained so much
successful in his reforms that even Mughals and the British followed his policies. At a very
young age, Sher Shah left his home as a result of his stepmothers mistreatment. He was a
talented administrator. When Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi and assumed the kingship of
India, Sher Shah joined Babur and impressed him with his intelligence. Babur appointed him
as the governor of Bihar. After the death of Babur when the Muhghal government became
unstable, Sher Shah took advantage of the situation and became independent.
Sher Shah defeated Humayun in the Battle of Chausa (June 26, 1539) and again in the Battle
of Bilgram(May 17, 1540). Humayun, son of Babur, lost hope and left India and went to
Persia. Sher Shah occupied the throne of Delhi for not more than five years, but his reign
proved to be a landmark in the Sub-continent. He formulated a sound imperial administration
that was inspired by the Safavid regime in Iran. Sher Shah employed a powerful army, which
is said to have comprised of 150,000 horses, 250,000 foot-soldiers and 5,000 elephants. He
personally inspected, appointed and paid the soldiers, thus making him the focus of loyalty
and subduing the jealousies between clans and tribes. To prevent fraud, he revived the
tradition of branding horses, introduced first by Alauddin Khalji. The principal reforms for
which Sher Shah is remembered are those connected with revenue administration. He set up a
revenue collection system based on the measurement of land. Justice was provided to the
common man. Numerous civil works were carried out during his short reign; planting of
trees, wells and building of Sarai (inns) for travelers was done. Roads were laid; it was under
his rule that the Grand Trunk road from Delhi to Kabul was built. The currency was also
changed to finely minted silver coins called Dam.

During his lifetime, Sher Shah commissioned the construction of tombs for his father, Hasan
Khan Suri and for himself. A third one was begun for his son Islam, but remained unfinished
due to the dynastys fall. Sher Shah died in 1545 by a gunpowder explosion and left his
kingdom to his two sons and grandsons. Unfortunately, his successors were incompetent and
succumbed to old Afghan rivalries. This resulted in the downfall of the Suri Dynasty.

The Sur dynasty held control of nearly all the Mughal territories, between what is
now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan to the Bengals in the east in what is now Bangladesh.
The Mughals retreated west to Persia, while most of what is now eastern Afghanistan, all of
Pakistan and northern India formed the Suri Empire. During the almost 15 year rule of the
Sur dynasty, the region of the Indian subcontinentwitnessed much economic development and
administrative reforms. A systematized relationship was created between the people and the
ruler, minimizing corruption and the oppression of the public. Their rule came to an end by a
defeat that led to restoration of the Mughal Empire. Today, the Sur are part of the Pashtun
tribal system and belong to the sub-groups of the Ghilzais.

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Jalaluddin Akbar
Posted by: HistoryPak

Akbar, the great was one of the most eminent rulers of Indian history. He was one of the two greatest
and of course the most controversial personality along with Aurangzeb. Both are variously held
responsible for the downfall of the Mughal Empire.
Akbar came to the throne in 1556 after the sudden death of his father, Humayun. The news of
Humayuns death was kept secret for 17 days. When he came to power he was a child of hardly 14.
The first aim of Akbar was to bring all India under one ruler and to accomplish this task in a great
measure by enlisting in its favor several races which he desired to bring within his fold.

Hemu, Commander of Adil Shah occupied Agra and Delhi and Tardi Beg, Mughal Commander fled
away. For this he was awarded death punishment and Bairam Khan became Commander of the
Mughal Army.

Second Battle of Panipat

Hemu occupied Delhi and Agra. He proclaimed himself king under the title of Vikrama Jit. When the
news of the fall of Delhi and Agra reached Akbar, he ordered an immediate march towards Sirhind. At
Sirhind Tardi Beg joined with remnant of his forces. In the mean time Hemu was setting his troops in
order, and when he heard of the arrival of Akbar at Sirhind, he marched from Delhi, sending his
artillery in advance to Panipat. From Sirhind Akbar moved towards Panipat, on November 5, 1556, the
fight began at the battle field of Panipat.

Hemu succeeded in overthrowing the right and left wing of the Mughal forces and was attempting to
crush the centre by his elephants, but suddenly an arrow pierced through his eyes which made him
unconscious. On seeing their leader fall, the army of Hemu fled away and the Mughals came out
victorious.

The second Battle of Panipat proved to be of far- reaching importance. The Mughals gained a
decisive victory over the Afghans.

Akbars Rajput Policy

Akbar probably was the first Muslim ruler of India who adopted liberal policy of conciliation toward
Rajputs and his other non Muslim subjects. The Rajput chiefs not only offered submission to the
Mughal Emperor but fought for him along with

Mughal soldiers in the expansion of the Mughal Empire as well as in the subjugation of the Rajput
rulers and rebels. He secured Rajput friendship by matrimonial alliances with them as well as by
granting posts of trust and responsibility to the Hindus within the civil and military administration. Apart
from that the first step towards the friendship with them was that he removed the religious restrictions
imposed by the Delhi Sultans over the Hindus. Akbar abolished the pilgrim tax imposed on the Hindus
and also remitted jizya or the poll tax on the non Muslims.
The Promulgation of Din-i-Illahi

The third or the final stage in the evolution of his religious views was reached in 1582 when he
promulgated a new religion, the Din_i_llahi or Divine Religion. He opened the Ibadat Khana to the
people of different faiths towards the end of the year 1578. Although discussions in the Ibadat Khana
continued on, yet Akbar arranged private meetings with the scholars and holly men of different faiths.
He lose faith in Sunni orthodoxy, then he turned to Shia scholars, but yet he got no mental satisfaction
from Shia faith, then he turned to Sufism but in vain. Now he attempted to see consolation in other
religions by freely mixing with Hindus Sanyasis, Christian missionaries, Zoroastrian priests and Hindu
philosophers. After long enquiries about all the religions he came to the conclusion that there were
sensible men in all religions. So he decided to establish a common religion which was acceptable to
all the faiths, by including all the good points taken from all the religions, investigated by him. The
basic principles of the new religious faith were:

(a) The principle of toleration.

(b) Grant of liberty of conscience and worship to all.

(c) Removal of all distinctions between the two communities.

The effects of toleration pursueded toward the Hindus endeared the latter to him so strongly that they
became so loyal and faithful supporters in all the matters of the state. The danger from the Rajputs
and Hindus was also over now. They were later on used by him as a valuable weapon against his
enemies the Uzbeks and other rebellious officers.

In 1556 when Akbar came to power, he had no territory, but when he died in 1605, he left a very long
powerful and consolidated empire.

Akbar as an Administrator

Akbar was not only the founder of the Mughal Empire in India, but he was also a great administrator.
He laid the foundation of a splendid system of administration which continued for a period of two
centuries. Salient features of his administration were as follow:

The Central Ministers:

For their assistance in the administration of the country, the Mughal Emperors had appointed
ministers under them. The following ministers had been appointed.

(a) The Prime Minister ( vakil )

(b) The Finance Minister ( diwan or Wazir )

Provincial Government
Akbar had divided his empire into well- defined provinces in which he set up a well established and
uniform system of administration. In each of such province or suba there was a Governor, styled as
Sipah Salar, Commander_in_chief, the Diwan, a Bakhshi, a Faujdar, a kotwal, the Qazi, the Sadar, the
Amil, the Bitikchi, the Potdar and other officers of the revenue department.

Aprt from that Akbar established an efficient Mansabdari system in 1570, to regulate the Imperial
services. All the gazzetted Imperial officers of the state were styled as Mansabdars. To begin with
they were classified into sixty-six grades, from the mansab of ten to ten thousands. Thus it was Akbar
who organized the mansabs of his Imperial officers in a very systematic form that it became
associated with his name.

Choudhry Rahmat Ali (1895-1951)

Posted by: HistoryPak

Choudhry Rahmat Ali was one of the earliest advocates of the creation of the state of Pakistan.
Rahmat Ali a Pakistani Muslim nationalist is generally recognized as the creator of the name
Pakistan for a separate Muslim, homeland in South Asia and is known as the founder of the Pakistan
National Movement. Ali was born in November 1895 into a Gujjar Muslim family in a District of Indian
Punjab. From his early childhood, Rahmat Ali showed signs of great promise as a student. After
completing his schooling, he joined the Islamia College of Lahore, after his graduation in 1918; he
initially taught at Aitcheson College Lahore and later joined Punjab University in order to study law.
However In 1930 he moved to England to join Emmanuel College Cambridge, in 1931. He obtained a
BA degree in 1933 and MA in 1940 from the University of Cambridge. In 1943, he was called to the
Bar, Middle Temple Inn, London. Rahmat Ali finished education in England, obtaining MA and LLB
with honors from the universities of Cambridge and Dublin.

Ali was passionately dedicated to the cause of separate Muslim homeland for South Asian Muslims
and believed that the Muslims of India had to reform politically in order to become a viable,
independent community. He was inspired by Islamic history, particularly the example of the Prophet
Muhammad and his success in bringing various Arab tribes together during the founding period of
Islam. He believed that in order to survive the increasingly hostile India, Indian Muslims should unite
on the same lines. He was deeply influenced by the writings and philosophy of Allama Muhammad
Iqbal as well. Alis writings, in addition to those of Muhammad Iqbal and others were major catalysts
for the formation of Pakistan.

It was during the years 1930 through 1933, that he established the Pakistan National Movement, with
its headquarter at Cambridge. Until 1947, he continued publishing various booklets about his vision
for South Asia. On January 28, 1933, he issued his first memorable pamphlet Now or Never; Are we
to live or perish forever? The pamphlet gave reasons for the establishment of Pakistan as a separate
nation coining the word Pakistan for the first time.

The famous 1933 pamphlet, also known as the Pakistan Declaration, started with a famous
statement:
At this solemn hour in the history of India, when British and Indian statesmen are laying the
foundations of a Federal Constitution for that land, we address this appeal to you, in the name of our
common heritage, on behalf of our thirty million Muslim brethren who live in PAKISTAN by which we
mean the five Northern units of India, Viz: Punjab, North-West Frontier Province (Afghan Province),
Kashmir, Sind and Baluchistan.

Choudhry Rahmat Ali propagated the Scheme of Pakistan with a missionary zeal since its inception in
1933. He coined the word Pakistan, and published various booklets about his vision for South Asia.
While making these endeavors he had expected people would have to fight to create Pakistan, but he
never imagined the horrors of the communal rioting and mass murder which took place. He was
shattered by the events associated with Partition in 1947 and 1948. Moreover he was also dissatisfied
with the distribution of areas among the two countries which was far smaller than the one he
suggested and dreamed of, and considered it a major reason for the disturbances.

Regarding the creation of the name Pakistan there are several accounts, according to one account
Ali moved to a now famous house in Cambridge in 1932, on 3 Humberstone Road. It was in one of
the rooms of this house that he is said to have written the word Pakistan for the first time. According
to a friend, Abdul Kareem Jabbar, the name came up when Ali was walking along the banks of the
Thames in 1932 with his friends Pir Ahsan-ud-din and Khwaja Abdul Rahim. According to Alis
secretary Miss Frost, he came up with the idea while riding on the top of a London bus. Alis
biographer, K.K.Aziz writes that Rahmat Ali alone drafted this declaration (in which the word Pakistan
was used for the first time), but in order to make it representative he began to look around for people
who would sign it along with him. This search did not prove easy, for so firm was the grip of Muslim
Indian Nationalism on our young intellectuals at English universities that it took me (Rahmat Ali) more
than a month to find three young men in London who offered to support and sign it . Later on, his
political opponents used the name of these signatories and other friends of Ali, as creator of word
Pakistan.

Ali is known for his steadfast dedication to the idea of Pakistan. After its formation in 1947, he argued
on its behalf at the United Nation over the issue of Kashmir. and the rights of Muslim minority of India.

While Choudhry Rahmat Ali was a leading figure for the conception of Pakistan, he lived most of his
adult life in England. He had been voicing his dissatisfaction with the creation of Pakistan ever since
his arrival in Lahore on April 6, 1948. He was unhappy over a Smaller Pakistan than the one he had
conceived in his 1933 pamphlet Now Or Never.

After the creation of Pakistan he returned to Pakistan in April 1948, planning to stay in this country, but
he was ordered by the then Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan to leave the country. His belongings were
confiscated, and he left empty-handed for England in October 1948. He died in February 1951 and
was buried on 20 February at Newmarket Road Cemetery Cambridge UK. Emmanuel Colleges
Master, who had been Rahmat Alis Tutor, himself arranged the burial in Cambridge on 20 February
1951.

Sher Shah Suri

Posted by: HistoryPak

Sher Shah was one of the greatest administrator and rulers of the medieval India. The original name
of Sher Shah, the lion king, was Farid. He was the grand son of Ibrahim Sur and the son of Hussain.
His grandfather came to Indiain search of employment in the time of Bahlol Lodhi and joined services
in the Punjab. Farid is said to have been born in the Punjab in 1472. After Farids birth, both his
grandfather and father entered in the services of Jamal Khan in the Punjab. When Jamal khan was
transferred to Jaunpur in the time of Sikandar Lodh, he granted the jagir of Sahsaran, kawnpur Tanda
to Hassan in bihar. When grew up, his step brothers challenged his right to the whole of the Jagir.
Farid refused to share the jagir with his brothersand took up services under Bahar Shah LOdhi, ruler
of South Bihar. When he was in this helpless condition, Sher Khan joined the Mughal services in
1527. When Babur attacked Bihar, Sher khan rendered him very valuable services, as a reward , jagir
was given to him. Sher Khan spent his time in mughal administrationand military organization. Thus
he had studied the weaknesses of Mughal politico_military machine and economic system with insight
and in depth.

On the other hand, Sultan Mahmud, the king of the Bengal, could not tolerate his defeat in the Battle
of Shurajgarh and he wanted to wash off his slur. He entered into an alliance with the Potuguess of
Chinsura and invaded Sher khan., but he was defeated n this battle,encouraged by these victories,
Sher khan proceeded further and besieged the famous forte of Gaur. It was from the Forte of Gaur
that the king of Bengalapproached Humayun for help. Humayun was then, busy against Bahadur
Shah of ujrat, pleasures and merry making and in the meantime Sher Khan had already occupied not
only the whole of Bengal but also the most famous fort of Rohtasgarh.

When Mahmood Lodhi was defeated in the battle of Ghagra in 1529, Mahmood again wanted to try
his luck in 1530. He felt that time was ripe for his strength.cvHumayun, after his succession to the
throne, did not take great interest in the affairs of a distant place like Bihar. Mahmood Lodhi got the
help of all the Afghan chiefs. Many months were spent in preparation. In the battle of Dourah, in
August,1532, the Afghans were defeatedand mahmood fled. After this success Humayun besieged
the fort of Chunar which belonged to Sher Khan. However Humayun made peace with Sher khan and
he was allowed to continue in possession of Chunar on the condition that he was to send a contingent
of 300 troops for service in Mughal army.

When Sher khan occupied Bengal, at that time Humayun was busy with Bahadur Shah,he did not
realize the magnitude of danger from the Afghan leader. Sher khan proceeded to Bengal , but there
Humayun committed a fatal mistake, he wasted full six months in reducing the occupation of the fort
of Chunar which was not so important achievement.Sher khan took full advantage of Humayuns
blunder, and managed to carry the families of his afghan nobles and the whole of the treasure to
Ruhtas which he had occupied in 1538. Then he returned with his forces to meet the advanced army
of Humayun.

Humayun in his maech towards Agra crossed the river Gangaat Monghyr and encamped himself at
Chausa. Sher Khan reached this place to measure his strength with Humayun. Humayun now
realized that he was in a great difficulty. He sent his agents for peace to be concluded between the
Afghans and the Mughals but negotiations failed. Then all of sudden Sher Khan fell upon the
unprepared Mughal forces. Humayun could no time to organize his forcesagainst Sher Khan. The
result was that Humayun received a crushing defeat at Chausa. Humayun plunged into the river
Ganga on horsebackand was about to drowned when he was saved by a water- carrier, Nizam, whom
he seated on his throne for two days at agra in recognition of his services to the emperor.
 Humayun was defeated by Sher khan in the battles of Chausa and in the battle of Kanauj and was
forsed to fled away from the battle field. Sher Shah pursued Humayun out of the punjaband the throne
of delhi passed nto the hands of the hands of the Afghans. The mughal Emperor was reduced to the
position of a helpless fugitive.

Sher Khan was an ambitious person. He wanted to turn out the Mughals from India and
establishedthe Afghan rule once again. His Indian emperor was broadly based upon the peoples will.
Sher khan was wise enough to realized that if he wanted to be secure on the throne and leve a
permanent name in history, he must win the loyalty and affection of his peopleand eccord equal
treatment to them irrespective of creed or religion. Although a strict Sunni,he was well- disposed
towards other sects and religions. Though his government was a military despotism, yet he had real
care for the welfare of all his people. The hindus were granted Waqfs for the encouragement of their
education. Hindus were recruited in every department of te government.

In his Central Government there were four departments as discussed below:

1. 1. Diwan_ I _ Wizarat.
2. 2. Diwan_ I_ Ariz.
3. 3. diwan_ i_ Risalat or Diwan_ i_ MUhtasib.
4. 4. Diwan _i Insha.

Provincial Administration

1. Subha or Iqta
2. Sarkars
3. Parganas
4. Village

The main sources of income of the state were land revenue

Sher shah showed brilliant capacity as an organizer, both in military in civil affairs. By dint of
indefatigable industry and personal attention to the smallest details of administration. He restored law
and order through out Hindustan in the short space of five years. He was something more than the
capable leader of a horde of fierce Afghans.

Nadir Shahs Invasion

Posted by: HistoryPak
Nadir Shahs invasion of India left the most tumultuous and destructive mark on the Mughal history of
India. He invaded India in 1739. Nadir Shah known for his brutal and inhumane behavior inflicted
irretrievable damage to Mughal rule. This invasion is marked as one of the colossal calamities of the
period. The power of Mughals was declining at that time and the central power had no control over far
flung provinces, which made foreign invasions easy for the enemies of Mughal rulers. Nadir shah
became ruler of Persia when Shah Tahmasp last ruler of Safwid dynasty died in 1736. Since Nadir
Shah belonged to Afshar tribe of Khusrasan laid the foundation of Afsharid dynasty when his rule as a
king started in Persia. Before Nadir Shah got ascended to the thrown he captured and influenced
many regions near to Mughal and Safwid sphere of influence. The diplomatic relations between
Mughal and Safwid empires started deteriorating at the time Nadir Shah got ascended to the throne.
Mughal emperor stopped exchange of ambassadors with Persian court which was considered as a
great insult by Nadir Shah.

After Nadir Shahs accession to the throne he abandoned his conquests of Turks and Russians and
got interested in Mughal provinces of Qandahar and Kabul. On 24 th of March 1738 he recovered
Qandahar, and then he advanced towards Ghazni and Kabul. Muhammad Shah was ruling Delhi
when Nadir shah started advancing towards India; Mughal administration was very meager and
languid at that time. Another event which compelled Nadir Shah to invade India was that emperor of
India refused to return the fugitives who took refuge in Mughal Empire. All of these things were
considered as insults so in order to take revenge from Mughal authorities first of all he attacked
Lahore by crossing Indus River at point of Attock. After capturing Lahore he started to advance
towards Delhi which was the centre of Mughal power at that time.

The purpose of Nadir shahs invasion is composed of two dimensional aspects first is to take revenge
of insults inflicted by Mughals and second because of his ambitions, he was told about the wealth of
India which excited him and made him to attack India. On 16 th February 1739 he reached Sarhind
whereas in a response to his invasions Muhammad shah reached Karnal with 80,000 army men. He
was first offered an indemnity of 20 million rupees but the internal enemies of Mughal government told
Nadir Shah not to accept this amount because it was very low. After that he denied and battle of
Karnal was fought between Nadir Shah and Mughal forces.

Battle took place on 24th of February 1739 it lasted only for three hours because of weak Mughal
forces which were not able to stand against massive force of Nadir Shahs army. After defeating
Mughals convincingly on 12th of March 1739 he entered Delhi. He was warmly welcomed by
Muhammad Shah who was allowed to retain throne by consent of Nadir shah. At that time conflict
arose between Persian soldiers and citizens of Delhi, this was the time when the news of death of
Nadir shah also broke out. This thing caused death of many Persian soldiers and when Nadir shah
saw bodies of Persian soldiers he ordered full massacre of Delhi, which was then known as notorious
Qatal-e-am. He killed 20,000 to 30,000 citizens (men, women, and children) of Delhi in about 6 hours.
Whole city was destroyed and made ruin by Persian army; it was a demonstration of brutality and
most inhumane treatment ever witnessed by the history of India. Similarly Delhi was looted and
plundered by Nadir shah and his army at that level that after Nadir shahs invasion and sack of Delhi
left Mughal Empire so weak and meager that Mughals were not able to regain their strength and fight
against other enemies.

Battle of Plassey
Posted by: HistoryPak

The battle of Plassey was the most important and decisive battle fought between the British east India
Company and Nawab of Bengal Siraj-ud-Daula that took place on June 23, 1757. The battle marks
the inception of the English rule in India. The companys forces under the command of Robert Clive
won a landslide victory over young Nawabs forces establishing a permanent sway over Bengal that
expanded over entire Indian sub-continent in next hundred years. It was preceded by Nawabs taking
possession of Calcutta in 1756 and the notorious Black Hole incident. The battle was fought during
the Seven Years War and was a mirror image of the European colonial rivalry that was manifested in
French sending help to Nawab against the company. Whatever, the numerical superiority of the
Bengali forces fell short of the well organized and better equipped companys forces. The companys
position was further succored by the hacked conspiracies with the nobility. Ultimate result was the
execution of Siraj-ud-Daula and installation of Mir Jafar as puppet Nawab.

Alivardi khan having made Bengal an independent state in 1741 adopted the policy of strict neutrality
towards the Europeans, both English and French. He did not want to play in their hands as they had
been using their proxies in the southern India to grind their axes. But the friction between the
company and the Nawab was always there over the collection of duties and the level of freedom in
trade enjoyed by the company. Alivardi khan died in 1756 and was succeeded by his 19 year old
adopted grandson Siraj-ud-Daula. The young Nawab was quite suspicious of the Europeans. That is
why he ordered both French and the English to stop adding additional fortifications. The British
refused to abide by the orders that led Siraj-ud-Daula to occupy the British factory at Cossimbazar
and also Calcutta. There also took place the incident of Black Hole that stirred the British
consciousness. The council at Madras sent an expeditionary force under Robert Clive to restore
Calcutta that was recaptured on January 2, 1757.

Clive desired to dislodge Nawab and replace him with a puppet because only then the English
interests could be secured; Nawabs position was quite vulnerable owing to the prevalent politics of
conspiracies and intrigues at the court. His commander in chief Mir Jafar was not happy with him. One
of his aunts Ghaseti Begum was also looking for opportunity to get rid of him. Clive found the
environment conducive, so conspired with the estranged nobility. He concluded an agreement with Mir
Jafar promising him the post of Nawab to him in return for his help against Siraj-ud-Daula. He was a
brother in law of Alivardi khan. Other people who were involved in the conspiracy were Rai Durlab,
Nawabs treasurer and Jagatseth, the richest banker of Bengal. Omichand was the person who
brokered this deal. Mir Jafar promised 175 lacs rupees and also physical support to Robert Clive.

Having made all these arrangements, Clive sent a letter to the Nawab alleging violation of the terms of
the treaty of Alinagar by providing refuge to the French. He also declared his intention to march on
Murshidabad, the capital of Bengal. The declaration of war was made on June 14. Nawab had also
become aware of the conspiracy. He, therefore, attacked on Mir Jafars palace and obtained his vow
not to join the English camp in the battlefield. He then ordered the army to move towards Plassey that
reached there on June 21 after some delay. The British also reached Plassey with 32000 soldiers to
encounter the huge army of Nawab comprising of 50000 men. Mir Jafar who was commanding 16000
men remained altogether detached and did n. French had also sent a small contingent of artillerymen
but the French artillery proved useless before the English artillery. Despite all these adverse
conditions Nawab fought bravely and was slowly inching towards victory when the sudden death of
Mir Mardan reversed the trend. It proved fatal for his campaign. Mir Jafar also withdrew from his
camp. Upon this Siraj-ud-Daula acting upon the advice of Rai Durlabh retreated to Murshidabad. But
he was caught on the way by Miran, the son of Mir Jafar who executed him. After this, Clive in
accordance with the previous agreement offered the throne of Bengal to Mir Jafar. He pleased the
company by paying a sum of 50 lac rupees alongwith ceding to it 24 Parganas. The war and the
associated results sealed the French fate from Bengal. It proved to be a decisive battle marking the
initiation of British rule in India from next 2 centuries.

Nadir Shah
Posted by: HistoryPak

Nadir shah also named as Nadir Quli was born in 1688 in Khusrasan (Afghanistan). He ruled Persia
as shah of Iran; he was brought up in Turkoman tribe. He laid foundation of Afsharid Dynasty after
becoming king of Persia. From his childhood he was brave, ambitious, and competitive kind of a
person. Nadir shah was a military genius and sagacious ruler, he was known as a last Asian military
conqueror. Before becoming king he was a chief military commander who used to provide military
power to Safwid Dynasty which was ruling Persia at that time. When the government of ruling dynasty
in Persia got weak nadir shah took full advantage of it and exterminated opposition in Iran and
became king of Persia in 1736 when last ruler of Safwid dynasty shah Tahmasp died in 1736. He
united the Persian Empire and made many conquests in order to increase the sphere of his empire.
He ruled Persia for eleven years. Nadir Shah was fascinated by the people like Gengis Khan and
Timur he adopted military ambitions like them and he was notoriously famous for his cruelty which he
used to inflict upon his conquered subjects. His numerous campaigns added up and made great
empire for him. He conquered Afghanistan, Isfahan, and launched expedition on Ottoman Empire. On
8th March 1736 Nadir Shah was proclaimed Shah of Iran, where he wanted to support Sunni Islam.
The main highlight in Nadir Shahs whole carrier was invasion of India. He invaded India in 1739 and
took over Mughal dynasty which was ruling India at that time. It was a great opportunity for he him, he
looted and plundered wealth of India and used that wealth in consolidating his empire. He inflicted
great atrocities upon Indian natives this example is unprecedented in Indian history. When Nadir Shah
attacked India he left his campaigns of Central Asian and Ottoman Empires, but after Indian campaign
he resumed his campaigns of these regions in 1740s. Nadir Shah in order to consolidate his empire
united his army but was not able to sustain the economy of his Empire. With the passage of time his
atrocities and cruelties escalated, and his empire went through many rebellions and revolts. In spite of
the fact he crushed those revolts ruthlessly, this effort of his went in vain because he was not able to
sustain his empire in the end. In 1747 he went to Khusrasan to eliminate dissidents over there, his
officers there (who were really insecure due to his brutal behavior) were afraid that he is going to
execute them as well. So, they plotted against him to kill him. On 19 th June 1747 he was killed in
Fattah bad at Khusrasan. He was succeeded by his nephew Ali Quli named Adil Shah he was
involved in Nadir Shahs assassination. After his death his empire fell into anarchy, many independent
provinces were formed and Persian Empire was taken over by Zand dynasty. Nadir Shah possesses
an important position in history as a heroic figure.

Quit India Movement (1942)

Posted by: HistoryPak

The Quit India Movement was a civil disobedience movement launched in India in August 1942 in
response to Mohandas Gandhis call for immediate independence. The All-India Congress Committee
proclaimed a mass protest demanding what Gandhi called an orderly British withdrawal from India.
The call for determined, but passive resistance appears in his call to Do or Die, issued on 8 August at
the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay.

The British were prepared to act. Almost the entire Indian National Congress leadership, and not just
at the national level, was imprisoned without trial within hours after Gandhis speech at least 60,000.
Most spent the rest of the war in prison and out of contact with the masses. The British had the
support of the Viceroys Council (which had a majority of Indians), of the Muslims, the Communist
Party, the princely states, the Imperial and state police, the Indian Army, and the Indian Civil Service.
Many Indian businessmen were profiting from heavy wartime spending and did not support Quit India.
Many militant students paid more attention to Subhas Chandra Bose, who was in exile and supporting
the Axis. The only outside support came from the Americans, as President Franklin D. Roosevelt
pressured Prime Minister Winston Churchill to give in to Indian demands. The Quit India campaign
was effectively crushed. The British refused to grant immediate independence, saying it could happen
only after the war ended. In 1939 Indian nationalists were angry that the British Governor-General of
India, Lord Linlithgow, had without consultation with them brought India into the war.

At the outbreak of war, the Congress Party had passed a resolution during the Wardha meeting of the
working-committee in September 1939, conditionally supporting the fight against fascism, but was
rebuffed when they asked for independence in return. Gandhi had not supported this initiative, as he
could not reconcile an endorsement for war (he was a committed believer in non-violent resistance to
tyranny, used in the Indian Independence Movement and proposed even against Adolf Hitler, Benito
Mussolini, and Hideki Tojo). However, at the height of the Battle of Britain, Gandhi had stated his
support for the fight against racism and of the British war effort, stating he did not seek to raise a free
India from the ashes of Britain. However, opinions remained divided.

After the onset of the war, only a group led by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose took any decisive action.
Bose organized the Indian National Army with the help of the Japanese, and, soliciting help from the
Axis Powers conducted a guerrilla war against the British authorities. The purpose of the mission was
to negotiate with the Indian National Congress a deal to obtain total co-operation during the war, in
return of progressive devolution and distribution of power from the crown and the Viceroy to elected
Indian legislature. The talks failed, having failed to address the key demand of a timetable of self-
government and of definition of the powers to be relinquished, and essentially portraying an offer of
limited dominion-status that was wholly unacceptable to the Indian movement.

The Congress Working Committee meeting at Wardha (14th July, 1942) passed a resolution
demanding complete independence from the British government. The draft proposed massive civil
disobedience if the British did not accede to the demands. However, it proved to be controversial
within the party. A prominent Congress national leader Chakravarti Rajgopalachari quit the Congress
over this decision, and so did some local and regional level organizers. Jawaharlal Nehru and
Maulana Azad were apprehensive and critical of the call, but backed it and stuck with Gandhis
leadership till the end. On August 8, 1942 the Quit India Resolution was passed at the Bombay
session of the All India Congress Committee (AICC). In his Quit India speech that day at Gowalia
Tank, Bombay, and Gandhi told Indians to follow non-violent civil disobedience. He told the masses to
act as an independent nation. His call found support among a large amount of Indians.

The Congress had little success in rallying other political forces under a single flag and program.
Smaller parties like the Hindu Mahasabha opposed the call. The Communist Party of India strongly
opposed the Quit India movement and supported the war effort because of the need to assist the
Soviet Union, despite support for Quit India by many industrial workers. In response the British lifted
the ban on the party. The movement had less support in the princely states, as the princes were
strongly opposed and funded the opposition.

Muslim leaders opposed Quit India. Muhammad Ali Jinnahs opposition to the call led to large
numbers of Muslims cooperating with the British, and enlisting in the army. The Muslim League
gained large numbers of new members. Congress members resigned from provincial legislatures,
enabling the League to take control in Sind, Bengal and Northwest Frontier. Although at the national
level the ability to galvanize rebellion was limited, the movement is notable for regional success
especially at Satara, Talcher, and Midnapore. In Tamluk and Contai subdivisions of Midnapore, the
local populace was successful in establishing parallel governments, which continued to function, until
Gandhi personally requested the leaders to disband in 1944. A minor uprising took place in Ballia, now
the easternmost district of Uttar Pradesh. People overthrew the district administration, broke open the
jail, released the arrested Congress leaders and established their own independent rule. It took weeks
before the British could reestablish their writ in the district. Of special importance in Saurashtra (in
western Gujarat) was the role of the regions baharvatiya tradition (i.e. going outside the law) which
abetted the sabotage activities of the movement there. In rural west Bengal, the Quit India Movement
was fueled by peasants resentment against the new war taxes and the forced rice exports. There was
open resistance to the point of rebellion in 1942 until the great famine of 1943 suspended the
movement.

One of the achievements of the movement was to keep the Congress party united through all the
trials and tribulations that followed. The British, already alarmed by the advance of the Japanese army
to the India-Burma border, responded by imprisoning Gandhi. All the members of the Partys Working
Committee (national leadership) were imprisoned as well. Due to the arrest of major leaders, a young
and till then relatively unknown Aruna Asaf Ali presided over the AICC session on August 9 and
hoisted the flag; later the Congress party was banned. These actions only created sympathy for the
cause among the population. Despite lack of direct leadership, large protests and demonstrations
were held all over the country. Workers remained absent en masse and strikes were called. Not all
demonstrations were peaceful, at some places bombs exploded, government buildings were set on
fire, electricity was cut and transport and communication lines were severed.

The British swiftly responded with mass detentions. Over 100,000 arrests were made, mass fines
were levied and demonstrators were subjected to public flogging. Hundreds of resisters and innocent
people were killed in police and army shootings. Many national leaders went underground and
continued their struggle by broadcasting messages over clandestine radio stations, distributing
pamphlets and establishing parallel governments. The British sense of crisis was strong enough that a
battleship was specifically set aside to take Gandhi and the Congress leaders out of India, possibly to
South Africa or Yemen but ultimately did not take that step out of fear of intensifying the revolt

The Quit India movement, more than anything, united the Indian people against British rule. Although
most demonstrations had been suppressed by 1944, upon his release in 1944 Gandhi continued his
resistance and went on a 21-day fast. By the end of the Second World War, Britains place in the
world had changed dramatically and the demand for independence could no longer be ignored.

Society under Mughals

Posted by: HistoryPak

The Mughal society was like a pyramid on the top of which was the emperor and the nobility followed
by the middle class whom was a very minute population and the last and most heavily concentrated
was the poor class. The emperor though not belonging to the local community enjoyed the power of a
despot with an unparallel status among the others. Followed by the Mughal king was the class of
nobility who were the bearers of most important jobs of the state and usually they monopolized the
important ranks for themselves. The nobility was the most beneficiary class of the state. They enjoyed
privileges and led an extravagant life. Their dresses and food was the most expensive one and not
only the officials but their families and the relatives also used to exploit the resources of the state for
their mean. The nobility remained in control to some extent by the earlier emperors but with the
passage of time as the interest of the rulers tilted towards their personal affairs rather than the state
matters then the nobility became more extravagant.

The middle class consisted of the professionals and the traders and the merchants. They were the
skilful class which was able to lead a successful if not luxurious life. They had good relations with the
emperor and nobility and belonged to the indigenous population of the state. The lowest and the most
deprived class of the social pyramid was the poor class. This section comprised of the major section
of the population and was present in masses. This class was socially marginalised and had very
scarce facilities of life. They had inadequate food and clothing. They were assigned with petty jobs
which acquired heavy physical work with long work hours and very little wage. They were the
peasants and used to remain financially deprived.

The Mughal rulers used to patronise education and many educational institutions were established
India though it was merely confined to the royal court but the children of the middle class were also
able to acquire knowledge. The educational institutes were also able to educate the girls of royal
families and the middle class.

The Indian society under the Mughal rule used to live a moderate life and was not very extravagant as
in the context of middle class. As Hindus were in heavy majority so the traditions like satti and
jouhar were in vogue. The culture of child marriage, dowry and prohibition of second marriage was so
strong that even the Muslims living in India were influenced by these trends. Jala-ud-din Akbar did
make an attempt to bring social reforms in the society by synthesising good things of all existing
religions of that time but the masses were reluctant to follow this reform better known as din-i-illahi.
Aurangzeb also brought social reform in the state but it was based upon Sunni orthodoxy and
targeted masses belonging to other religions.

The Mughals brought with themselves the Persian culture and Persian culture which was not known
to the Indians. In the reign of Akbar many works were being done in Persian language such as Ain-i-
akbari etc. the Persian literature after Akbar continued under Jahangir. The Hindi poetry also
flourished during the Mughal rule during the reign of Jahangir and shah Jehan. However it was
discouraged extremely in the rule of Aurangzeb. Music being the important feature of the religion of
Hindus was given a lot of patronage by the Mughal rulers.

The Mughals also kept slaves which were taken from the locals or bought from the slave traders. This
trend of slavery was inherited by the sultans of Delhi sultanate. The local population did not have a
direct communication with the Mughal emperor and throughout the rule of Muslims in India; the
masses recognised the ruler as the despot and the revenue collector. The society however got much
influenced by new trends of arts and literature and religion. The Mughal architecture was a synthesis
of local art with the foreign trends. The rulers also adopted the local Indian art of dance and music in
their courts and the indigenous artisans were also very encouraged.

It may be observed that the Indian society under the Mughals was divided on the bases of religion and
wealth but the local people did share some common traditions. The Mughals left a great impact on the
society in terms of art, literature, food and dressing. With the advent of the Europeans in the sub-
continent, whole society suffered a great set back in terms of economy as they were deprived of their
former jobs. But the Europeans also adopted the Mughal administrative structure with some
amendments hence it can be concluded that the Mughals left a great impact on the Indian land.

Cripps Mission (1942)

Posted by: HistoryPak
 The British were alarmed at the successive victories of Japan during 1940s. When Burma was
turned into a battle field and the war reached the Indian boarders, the British started feeling
more concerned about the future of India. Situation in the country was further complicated as
the Congress wanted to take advantage of the situation by accelerating their efforts in their
struggle for independence. Moreover the differences between the Congress and the Muslim
League were widening fast and visibly there was no chance to bring both the parties on a
common agenda. In these circumstances, the British Government sent a mission to India in
1942 under Sir Stafford Cripps, the Lord Privy Seal, in order to achieve Hindu-Muslim
consensus on some constitutional arrangement and to convince the Indians to postpone their
struggle till the end of the Second World War.
Cripps arrived in Delhi on March 22, 1942 and had series of meetings with the leading Indian
politicians including Jawaharlal Nehru, Abul Kalam Azad, Quaid-i-Azam, Sir Sikandar Hayat
Khan, A. K. Fazlul Haq, Dr. Ambedkar, V.D. Savarkar and Tej Bhadur Sappru etc. In the
meetings Cripps tried to plead his case before these political leaders and tried to convince
them to accept his following proposals:

1. During the course of the war, the British would retain their hold on India.
Once the war finished, India would be granted dominion status with complete
external and internal autonomy. It would however, be associated with the
United Kingdom and other Dominions by a common allegiance to the Crown.
2. At the end of the war, a Constituent Assembly would be set up with the
power to frame the future constitution of India. The members of the assembly
were to be elected on the basis of proportional representation by the provincial
assemblies. Princely States would also be given representation in the
Constituent Assembly.
3. The provinces not agreeing to the new constitution would have the right to
keep itself out of the proposed Union. Such provinces would also be entitled to
create their own separate Union. The British government would also invite them
to join the commonwealth.
4. During the war an interim government comprising of different parties of
India would be constituted. However, defence and external affairs would be the
sole responsibility of the viceroy.

Quaid-i-Azam considered these proposals as unsatisfactory and was of the view that the
acceptance of the Cripps proposals would take the Muslims to the gallows. He said that the
proposals have aroused our deepest anxieties and grave apprehensions, specially with
reference to Pakistan Scheme which is a matter of life and death for Muslim India. We will,
therefore, endeavour that the principle of Pakistan which finds only veiled recognition in the
Document should be conceded in unequivocal terms. The Quaid, however, was happy to
know that in the Cripps proposals, at least the British Government had agreed in principle to
the Muslim Leagues demand of the partition of India. Yet, Quaid-i-Azam wanted the British
Government and Cripps to thoroughly amend the proposals to make them acceptable for the
Muslim League.

Actually Quaid-i-Azam and other Muslim League leaders were convinced that Cripps was a
traditional supporter of Congress and thus could not present an objective solution to the
problem. On the arrival of Cripps, Quaid-i-Azam made it clear that he was a friend of
Congress and would only support the Congress interests. Congress leaders themselves
accepted that Cripps was their man. On his first visit to India, Cripps in fact attended the
meetings of the Congress Working Committee. He also visited Gandhi and was so much
impressed by him that he wore white khadi suit. He openly ridiculed the Muslim Leagues
demand for Pakistan when he said, we cannot deny 25 carore Hindus desire of United India
only because 9 carore Muslims oppose it. In fact the proposals Cripps presented were
mainly consisted of the ideas which were discussed in a meeting between Nehru and Cripps
in 1938.

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Battle of Panipat
Posted by: HistoryPak

It was on this scene that the Mughal or Turkish chief Babur appeared in the year 1517. He was trying
to recover in one direction what he had lost in others. Babuls dynasty is entitled Mughal or Mongol
but it should in fact be thought of as Turkish, which language they spoke. Turk and Mongol had been
intermixed in the ebb and flow of Central Asian intertribal warfare. Babur was fifth in descent from the
great Taimur. His fathers kingdom was reduced to the small principality of Farghana in Badakshan.

Babur suceeded as a boy of eleven in 1494 but soon found himself threatened by the Uzbeg chief
Shaibani Khan. He was soon a fugitive and spent years between 1494 and 1513 trying to maintain
himself in Farghana and recover Samarkand.

In 1504, in one of the turns of north-western politics, he gained control of Kabul and Kandahar.
Gradually he merged these two districts with Badakshan and formed a personal kingdom which for
him was a compensation for the loss of Samarkhand. But his over ambitious attitude made him look
towards India as a southern expansion of his fledgling empire.

During his frequent raids to India he had noticed the wealth and prosperity there. He had also noticed
the disunity and disaffection which prevailed in the region. It was a easy prey for a fugitive like him.
But the real invitation came when the Afgan governor of Punjab disillusioned my Ibrahim Lodhis
pretensions invited him to invade India and replace Ibrahim Lodhi.

Babur took his cue with the two invasions of 1523-24 and 1525-26 leading up to the battle of Panipat
on 21 April 1526.

Battle of Panipat (1526, 1556, 1761), three military engagements, important in the history of
northernIndia, fought at Panipat, a level plain suitable for cavalry movements, about 50 miles (80 km)
north ofDelhi. The first battle (April 21, 1526) was between theMughal chief Bbur, then ruler of Kabul,
and Sultan Ibrhm Lod of Delhi. Although the sultans army outnumbered the Mughals, it was
unused to the wheeling tactics of the cavalry and suffered from deep divisions. Ibrhm was killed, and
his army was defeated. This marked the beginning of theMughal empire in India.

Battle Forces and Tactics

Baburs Mughal forces consisted of between 13,000 and 15,000 men, mostly horse cavalry. His secret
weapon was 20 to 24 pieces of field artillery, a relatively recent innovation in warfare.

Arrayed against the Mughals were Ibrahim Lodis 30,000 to 40,000 soldiers, plus tens of thousands of
camp followers. Lodis primary weapon of shock and awe was his troop of war elephants numbering
anywhere from 100 to 1,000 trained and battle-hardened pachyderms, according to different sources.
Ibrahim Lodi was no tactician his army simply marched out in a disorganized block, relying on sheer
numbers and the aforementioned elephants to overwhelm the enemy. Babur, however, employed two
tactics unfamiliar to Lodi, which turned the tide of the battle.

The first was tulughma, dividing a smaller force into forward left, rear left, forward right, rear right, and
center divisions. The highly mobile right and left divisions peeled out and surrounded the larger
enemy force, driving them towards the center. At the center, Babur arrayed his cannons. The second
tactical innovation was Baburs use of carts, called araba. His artillery forces were shielded behind a
row of carts which were tide together with leather ropes, to prevent the enemy from getting between
them and attacking the artillerymen. This tactic was borrowed from the Ottoman Turks.

The Battle of Panipat

After conquering the Punjab region (which today is divided between northern India and Pakistan),
Babur drove on toward Delhi. Early on the morning of April 21, 1526, his army met the Delhi sultans
at Panipat, now in Haryana State, about 90 kilometers north of Delhi.

Using his tulughma formation, Babur trapped the Lodi army in a pincher motion. He then used his
cannons to great effect; the Delhi war elephants had never heard such a loud and terrible noise, and
the spooked animals turned around and ran through their own lines, crushing Lodis soldiers as they
ran. Despite these advantages, the battle was a close contest given the Delhi Sultanates
overwhelming numerical superiority.

As the bloody encounter dragged on toward midday, however, more and more of Lodis soldiers
defected to Baburs side. Finally, the tyrannical sultan of Delhi was abandoned by his surviving
officers, and left to die on the battlefield from his wounds. The Mughal upstart from Kabul had
prevailed.

The Aftermath of the Battle

According to the Baburnama, Emperor Baburs autobiography, the Mughals killed 15,000 to 16,000 of
the Delhi soldiers. Other local accounts put the total losses at closer to 40,000 or 50,000. Of Baburs
own troops, some 4,000 were killed in the battle. There is no record of the elephants fate.

The First Battle of Panipat is a crucial turning point in the history of India. Although it would take time
for Babur and his successors to consolidate control over the country, the defeat of the Delhi Sultanate
was a major step towards the establishment of the Mughal Empire, which would rule India until it was
defeated in turn by the British Raj in 1868.

The Mughal path to empire was not smooth. Indeed, Baburs son Humayan lost the entire kingdom
during his reign, but was able to regain some territory before his death. The empire was truly solidified
by Baburs grandson, Akbar the Great; later successors included the ruthless Aurangzeb and Shah
Jahan, the creator of the Taj Mahal.

Nasiruddin Humayun
Posted by: HistoryPak

Humayun the Fortunate was the eldest son of Babur.He had three brothers, kamran,askari and
Hindal. He was born in Kabul in March 1508. He was the son of Mahim Begum who was probablya
Shia.Young Humayun learnt Turki,Arabic and Persian. On account of his careless habits, he did not
acquire the exactness of a scholar. In his early youth, he was associated by his father with the
government of the country. He was appointed the governor of Badakhshan at the age of 20. On the
eve of the Battle of Panipat 1526 he was sent against Hamid Khan who was defeated near Hissar
Firoza. He also participated in the Battle of Kanwaha. He was given the fief of Hissar Firoza, in 1526.
after the death of Babur. An attempt was made to place Mahdi Khwaja ( Brother _in_law of Babur ) on
the throne of agra. He was an experienced and competent administrator. On the other hand,
Humayun had not shown any outstanding traits of greatness. Inspite of that Humayun successfully
placed himself on the throne of Agra on 30thDecember, 1530.

The throne inherited by Humayun was not a bed of roses.Babur had practically got no time to
consolidate his position and authority.He inherited an ill organized empire , empty treasure , a
kingdom divided into fiefs and a heterogeneous army,which was not dependable. It was a mixed body
of adventyres. Some of them were Uzbeks and Mughals, other Indians, Afghans, Persians and
Chaghtais. In addition of his claims of his three brothers, Humayun had to deal with many Khans and
nobles. They were busy in intrigues against the new emperor and many of them did not consider the
kingdom of Delhi and agra beyond the scope of of their ambitions.humayun had innumerable rivals.
The Afghans were defeated in the battle of Panipat (1526) and the Battle of Ghagra (1529) but they
were not completely crushed, neutralized or pacified. Moreover, they had not forgotten the days when
they were the rulers of the country and aspired to restore their rule.

Humayun made a mistake of real politics in showing kindness to his brothers. In accordance with the
wishes of his father, he gave Sambhal to Askari, and Alwar to Hindal. As regards Kamran, he gave
him the provinces of Kabul and Qandahar. Inspite of this,Kamran was not satisfied. He attacked
Punjab nd brought the whole of the Punjab under his control. Humayun did not fight with Kamran and
gave the Province of the Punjab to him. This possession of vital military importance gave Kamran
control over the high road between Delhi and Punjab.It was a suicide attempt by Humayun. He was
deprived of the source from which he could have recruited his new army. He was left only with the
empire which was newly conquered and over which his hold was not secure.

Humayun was faced with many difficulties but he could have overcome them if he had possessed tact
and stronger will-power. Unfortunately, he did not possess such a character. He was not a man of
moment. He failed to measure upto the task before him.

After his defeat at Kanuj at the hands of Sher shah ,Humayun crossed the river Ganga and reached
Agra persistently persuaded by Sher Shah.

After having managed to collect his treasure,he straightaway reached Delhi, But found that he could
not retain even Delhi on account of the uncertainty of any solid help from any quarter.

At Lahore Humayun collected all his brothers and relatives and requested them for help. Kamran was
the last person prepared to help him Mirza Haider Daghlat, cousin of Babur advised humayun to retire
towards Kashmir for some time and then organized his forces to attack Sher Shah.In the meantime
the Mghals heard that Sher Shah had already crossed the Beas and was coming to Lahore. At last
Humayun decided to proceed towards Sindh.

Passing through great hardships during his journey along the river Sindh,Humayun reached Rohri.
Humayun approached the ruler of Bhakhar, Shah Hussain Arghun for help to recover Hindustan, but n
vain.Then he besieged Thatta, the capital of the ruler of Sindh,but he was not successful due to the
intrigues,thus he had to leave Sindh soon.
 Humayun stayed with the Shah of Persiafor a long time as his honourable guest,after a long
negotiations a treaty was concluded between the two,according to which the Shah promised to give
Humayun 14,000 strong forces to to enable him to conquer Kabul and Kandhar,in return Humayun
promised to give Kandhar to the Shah, propagating Shiasim in his new kingdom and to confirm shia
faith. Thus Humayun left Persia with 14,000 strong Persian army to conquer Kabul and Kandhar.
Humayun laid siege to kandhar, defeated Askari and occupied kandhar . He put Kandhar incharge of
Bairam Khan, his faithfull ally who was with him throughout his exile.Humayun proceeded to take
Kabul. Kamran put up resistence but ultimately he too was defeated.

Humayun had recovered the throne of Delhi after an interval of about 15 years, but he was not
destined to enjoy the fruits of his victories for a long time. He died on 26 th January 1556, by an
accidental fall from the roof of his library and fractured his head. Speedy arrangements were made to
call Prince Akbar from the Punja. For some days the news of his death was kept secret. At last, an
announcement was made regarding Akbars accession to the delhi throne.

The name of Humayun implies fortunate but he proved to be one of the most unlucky monarchs who
ever sat upon the throne of Delhi. Along with the empire, he inherited many difficulties for which he did
not owe any personal responsibility. Humyun was a thorough gentleman. He was an ideal son,
husband, father and brother. In spite of the acts of disloyalty and treachery on the part of his brother,
and nobles and others, he forgave them again and again. But this virtue to a fault was the undoing of
his career.

Shah Waliullah
Posted by: HistoryPak

Shah Walliullah was a great Muslim reformist of 18 th century in India. He

was a brilliant thinker and scholar with critical insight of political scenario of
that time. He worked for the betterment and true education of Muslims on right
Islamic norms. At that time in the Muslims after ruing India magnificently were
going to lose power. The decline of Muslim rule in India had already begun and
Muslims were being exploited at every facet of life. In order to bring Muslims of
India on right path and help them Shah Walliullah worked really hard. He was
born on 21st February 1703 in Delhi and he died in 1762. His father was a
famous religious personality at that time his name was Abdur Rahim he was a
famous educationist who was running a Madrasah called Madrasah i-
Rahimiyah. Shah Walliullah got his early education under his well educated
father who taught him well and he was also enrolled in Naqshbandiyya Sufi
order to enrich his spiritual insight. Soon he got permission to teach at fathers
Madrasah, where he continued teaching for next 12 years. In 1730 he got a
chance to go to Mecca where he performed pilgrimage and got lucky to get
education from the leading Muslim scholars of that time. It was a time when a
new thought got roots in his mind that the position and predicament of Muslims
at home was overwhelming. That it was a time for Muslims of India to adopt
 true spirit of Islam, this is because of their religious decline Muslims of India
were facing decline in social, political, and economic aspects as well. So he
decided to take a lead and started working to show Muslims actual spirit of
Islam in rational manner. He contributed literary fields as well like; in 1738 he
translated Quran into Persian despite of opposition he faced by orthodox
Ulemma. He worked to bring together Shiites and Sunnis and Ulemma and
Sufis. He proposed ways like Ijtihad in Islam and denounced blind Taqlid. He
believed in grooming of Muslims as a society and educated them to live up as a
society in which economic and social justice would prevail. He educated
Muslims of India to emancipate Muslim society from economic injustices and
social biases. He wrote almost 50 books on various subjects he trained a group
of Ulemma to spread the true knowledge of Islam. He opened many branches of
his school in Delhi to spread his school of thought. His versatility was his main
asset; he worked on every prospected field which could raise the standard of
Muslims as a nation or individual entity. He laid the foundations of all political,
religious, and intellectual movements which would initiate in Indian sub-
continent by Muslims in future. He was an authentic theologian and scholar of
Islam; he had great understanding of Quran and Hadith. He also gave many
economic theories which gave reasons which became the cause of decline of
Muslims. Politically Shah Walliullah was a vibrant personality. He ran an
indigenous political movement of its kind in India. He tried to unite Muslims as a
single entity. His main political agenda was a retain Mughal Empire; he became
the cause to invite Ahmad Shah Abdali to India in order to fight Marathas who
were undermining Mughal rule at that time. Thought his efforts to maintain
Muslim rule in India did not capitalize but it would provide an insight for future
political, intellectual and religious movements in India.
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Maulana Mohammad Ali Johar (1878-1931)

Posted by: HistoryPak

Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar also known as Mohammad Ali was among the passionate fighters of
independence who struggled against the British Colonial Powers. He was born in 1878 in Rampur,
India. He belonged to the Yousaf Zai clan of the Rohillatribe to a wealthy and enlightened family of
Pathans. He was one of the legendry Ali Brothers other then Shaukat Ali and Zulfiqar Ali. Despite the
early death of his father, the efforts, determination and sacrifice by his farsighted mother, Abadi Bano
Begum, enabled him and his brothers to get good education. Their mother mortgaged almost all her
landed property and sent them to the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh, Both of the Ali
Brothers graduated from this College. Mohammad Ali showed exceptional brilliance throughout his
College career and stood first in the B.A. examination of the Allahabad University, later in 1898,
Mohammad Ali proceeded to Lincoln College, Oxford, for further studies where he got honors degree
in Modern History and devoted himself more to the study of history of Islam.

After his return to India, he took charge as education director for the Rampur state, and later for
almost a decade served in the Baroda civil service. He possessed remarkable brilliance as a writer
and orator, He wrote articles in various newspapers like The Times, The Observer and The
Manchester Guardian as well as other major English and Indian newspapers, in both English and
Urdu. He was man of a versatile genius and played a great part in the endeavors against the British
colonial rule. He was a great orator and still greater Journalist. He became firm opponents of British
rule under the combined shock of the Balkan wars and Kanpur Mosque incident in 1913. His
relentless determination and ardor in the cause of Indias freedom, and his persistence in pursuing the
goal most dear to him won him the respect and affection of his numerous countrymen. He launched
his famous weekly The Comrade, in English, from Calcutta, on January 14, 1911, written and edited
by one man and produced on expensive paper, The Comrade quickly gained circulation and influence.
After twenty months the paper moved to Delhi the then new capital of British Empire. Later in 1913 he
started publishing an Urdu-language daily Hamdard as well. Mohammad Ali worked hard to expand
the Aligarh Muslim University, then known as the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College, and was one
of the co-founders of the Jamia Millia Islamia in 1920, which was later moved to Delhi.

Jauhar was among the founders of All India Muslim League and attended first meeting in Dhaka in
1906. He served as its president in 1918 and remained active in the League till 1928. Being a zealous
Muslim and passionate believer of caliphate he played active role in Khilafat movement. He
represented the Muslim delegation that travelled to England in 1919 to persuade the British
government to influence the Turkish Mustafa Kamal not to depose the Sultan of Turkey, who was the
Caliph of Islam. British rejection of their demands resulted in the formation of the Khilafat committee
which directed Muslims all over India to protest and boycott the government. In 1921, Ali formed a
broad coalition with Muslim nationalists like Shaukat Ali, Hakim Ajmal Khan, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari
and Indian nationalist leader Mahatama Gandhi, who enlisted the support of the Indian National
Congress and many thousands of Hindus, who joined the Muslims in a demonstration of unity. He
wholeheartedly supported Gandhis call for a national civil resistance movement, and inspired many
hundreds of protests and strikes all over India. He was arrested by British authorities and imprisoned
for two years for what was termed as a seditious speech at the meeting of the Khilafat Conference.
He was the sixth Muslim to become the President of Indian National Congress in 1923. Mohammed
Alis elevation to the Congress president ship helped to legitimize his position in nationalist circles but
within months he began to drift away from congress. This had a great deal to do with deteriorating
Hindu-Muslim relations and the Congress inclination towards the communal forces of Hindu
Mahasabha. Mohammad Alis anxieties were heightened by the growing fissures in the Hindu-Muslim
alliance in Bengal and Punjab and the rapid progress of the Arya Samaj, the Hindu Mahasabha, and
the shuddhi and sangathan. The publication of the Nehru report in August 1928 proved the last nail in
the coffin of Hindu Muslim unity. Mohammad Ali Jauhar, in league with some others, disrupted a
meeting which was tilted in favor of the Nehru report. Mohammad Ali Jauhar accused Motilal Nehru
for killing non-cooperation and deplored Gandhis endorsement of the Nehru Report. Mohammad Ali
opposed the Nehru Reports rejection of separate electorates for Muslims, and supported the
Fourteen Points of Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the League.

Mohammed Ali pleaded Muslims to send a separate delegation in 1930s London Round Table
Conference to represent Muslims. His appeal symbolized the collapse of the old alliance on which
Gandhi had built the non-cooperation movement and clearly showed that only Muslim League spoke
for the Indian Muslims. Although seriously ill he joined the delegation, led by the Aga Khan, with the
firm conviction that critical collaboration with the British at the Round Table Conference would bring
greater political benefits. His speech at the Round Table Conference, which turned out to be his last
sermon, appeared to be the last wish of dying man, I want to go back to my country, Mohammed Ali
declared, with the substance of freedom in my hand. Otherwise I will not go back to a slave country. I
would even prefer to die in a foreign country so long as it is a free country, and if you do not give me
freedom in India you will have to give me a grave here. Mohammed Ali, a chronic patient of diabetes,
died soon after the conference in London, on January 4, 1931 in London and was buried in Jerusalem
in the court-yard of Masjid-ul-Aqsa, the second holiest mosque of Islam.

Muhammad Ghuri
Posted by: HistoryPak

Sultan Shahab -ud -din Muhammad also known as, Muizzuddin Muhammad Bin Sam, was born in
1162. He was the younger brother of Ghiasuddin and son of Sultan Bahaudin Suri of Ghure. After
Mahmud of Ghazni the next invader in India was Muhammad Ghori. He belonged to the Ghorid
dynasty which replaced the Ghaznavids in Afghanistan. After the death of Mahmood Ghaznovi, he
was the first Turkish who invaded India; after a long period of 150 years. He laid the foundation for
Muslim rule in India and his slave Qutb -ud -din Aibak became the founder of the first Turkish rule in
India.

He remained loyal to his elder brother Ghiyas-ud-din and helped him in his invasions until his death in
1202 AD. At that time at the west of Afghanistan there was strong empires so Muhammad Ghuri
turned his attention toward East. Shahab-ud-din Ghori`s first invasions were on the Muslim states of
Multan and the fortress of Ouch. In 1181, he attacked on Lahore and successfully ended the
Ghaznavids Empire, bringing the remaining territory under his control. He fought the first battle of
Tarain in 1191 against Raja Prithviraj Chauhan; the most powerful raja of India. In the second battle of
Tarain, in 1192 Ghuri defeated raja Prithviraj and the victory paved the way for Ghori to push Muslim
rule further in India. The other Rajas were not much strong to defend their rule against Ghuris strong
military and power. With in a period of one year Ghuri get control of northern parts of India and
marched to Delhi. The Kingdom of Ajmer was t given over to Gol, on condition that he would send
regular tributes to the Ghurids.

After the death of Ghiys-ud-din he established the rule of the Ghuri dynasty in Afghanistan. Due to
heavy taxes they became quite unpopular among their local people. This forced Muhammad Ghori to
search out new sources of income and diverts the attention of Ghori towards the invasion of India,
which was the richest neighboring country.

In 1206, Ghauri had to travel to Lahore to crush a revolt. On his way back to Ghazni, his caravan
rested at Damik in Jhelum district of Punjab province in modern-day Pakistan. He was assassinated
while offering his evening prayers by a small band of Hindu Khokars.The murderer killed him so
brutally that there were 22 wounds on his body. As per his wishes, Ghauri was buried where he fell.

In 1173 AD Shahab-ud-Din Ghuri finally brought an end of Ghaznavid Empire and established their
dynastic rule. He had no son to succeed him as a ruler but had Turkish slaves. After his assassination,
his Empire was divided amongst his slaves. In 1206 his most famous slave Qutb-ud-Din Aibek
established Sultanat of Delhi and became Sultan. In 1210 AD Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha became the ruler
of Multan. Tajuddin Yildoz became the ruler of Gazni.

Feroze Shah Tughluq

Posted by: HistoryPak

Firuz Tughlaq is the third influential king of Tughlaq dynasty. He was the son of Rajjab the youngest
brother of Giyathud-ud-Tughlaq and had special attention of his uncle in states matter. On
Muhammad Bin Tughlaqs death the nobles and religious leaders approached his cousin Feroz to
accept the crown. In person Feruz was a religious disposition. He tried to run his government
according to Islamic Law. The study of Islamic Law was encouraged during his rule and many books
on the subject were compiled. He attempted to enforce the law against the unorthodox sects like
Ismaili Shiah and the non-Muslims as well. For the first time Jiziah was levied on the Brahmans, who
had remained exempt from the tax. On appeal, the king reduced the amount to be levied from 10
tankas to 50 jitals but maintained the tax as a legal formality.

Feruz Tughlaq learned the lesson from his cousin and didnt try to indulge in military expeditions. He
decided not to reconquer areas that had broken away. He asserted his authority over only such areas,
which could be easily administered from the centre and therefore made no attempt to re-assert his
authority over South India and Deccan. Rather he preferred to develop his kingdom internally. He
introduced many reforms to the country and raised the level of peace and happiness among his
people. He had seen the fate of Muhammad Tughlaq and was anxious to win the favour of powerful
religious leaders and orthodox Muslim nobility.

He concentrated his energies on public welfare in order to encourage agriculture, he initiated

extensive irrigation schemes and dug five canals to distribute nthe water if Sutlej and Jhelum over a
large area. One of the canals dug by him continues to be used up to the present day. Among his other
measures were the setting up of employment and marriage bureaus. The greatest monuments of
Ferozs rule are buildings and towns founded by him. He is credited with the erection of 200 large and
small towns, 40 mosques, 30 collages, 30 reservoirs, 50 dams, 100 hospitals, 100 public baths and
150 bridges. He also took steps to secure translations of number of Sanskrit books which he found
during his conquest to Kangra (1361).

Firuz tried his best to undo the evil effects of his predecessors rule. He released the persons unfairly
imprisoned by Muhammad Tughlaq. He paid indemnities to the relatives of the persons unjustly put to
death, and restored those estates which had been unlawfully confiscated. He also took steps to
facilitate the payment of land revenue. Firuz imposed only four taxes including Kharaj (land tax),
Khumus (1/5 of booty) Jizya (tax on Hindus for providing them safety in a Muslim state) and Zakat (2,
1/2% of the income of the Muslim). He imposed irrigation tax on the peasants who used the water of
the canals constructed by the state as 1/10 of their products (usher). He abolished nearly 24 taxes.
Instead of wasting resources of the country upon military campaigns he devoted all his energies in
developing its wealth. People were naturally happy during his reign.

Although there was hardly any rebellion in the country, the reign was inglorious from the military point
of view. Firuz died in 790/1388, at the ripe age of eighty three, esteemed by his subjects, but he was
unable to stop the breakup of the empire which had commenced during the later years of his
predecessors rule, and after his death the pace of disintegration became quicker. There were
rebellions in the outlying parts of the empire and the weakness of kingdom invited foreign invasion
and in 1398 Taimur entered India and sacked Multan, Delhi and other important cities in the
northwest.

Zaheeruddin Babar
Posted by: HistoryPak
Zaheer ud din Muhammad Babur is known as founder of the Mughal dynasty which ruled
Indian Empire for almost one hundred and fifty years and won many laurels in various
domains of life. Zaheer_ud Din Muhammad Babur, surnamed Babur was born in 1483 to
Omer Shaikh Mirza ( Fifth in male descendant from Taimur ) and Kutlak Nigar Khanum ( in
the 15th degree from Chingiz khan ) thus he was connected with both families of Taimur and
Chingiz Khan ,thus he had in him the blood of the two great conquerors of Central Asia, the
ferocity of the Mongol, and the courage and capacity of the Turks.

Two persons who moulded his personality were ,his family teacher, Sheikh Majid and his
own grand mother ,Ahsan Daulat Begum . He learnt Turki, Persian and poetry from his tutor
and the art of administration from his grand mother in his childhood.

At the early age of 12, his father, Sultan Omer Sheikh Mirza died and Babur became king of
Farghana . At the time of the accession, he was surrounded on all sides by his enemies. His
uncles and cousins took advantage of his youth and inexperience and attacked him on right
and left. With the help of his experienced and wise grandmother, Ahsan Daulat Khanum , he
hurriedly went through his coronation ceremony and put his house in order. Then he
addressed himself to the task of saving his county from the foreign invaders. First of all he
sent a message to his paternal uncle, Ahmed Mirza , to put Farghana under Babur ,but the
offer was rejected and it led to war, which resulted Ahmed Mirzas retreat to Samarqand .
Baburs maternal uncle Mahmud khan also got disheartened by the stiff resistance put up by
the besieged at Akhsi and retired to his country . Farghana was thus saved.

The city of Samarqand was the capital of Amir Timur for a long time. The town was the
heart of Central Asia, politically, commercially, and above all culturally. There was a great
yearning in Baburs heart to sit on his ancestors throne in his capital. When his paternal
uncle Ahmed Mirza, died in July, 1494, and a civil war broke out among his sons. In this civil
war, Babur found an opportunity of conquering Samarqand, but his attempt failed. Next year,
he made a second attempt, which was successful. He sat on his ancestors throne and his lifes
ambition was realized. But he was forced to abandon his capital after a hundred days rule. He
felt ill in Samerqand and the news of his illness reached Farghana where a rebellion broke out
against him. When he recovered, he proceeded towards Farghana to suppress the rebellion,
but he was disappointed to find that Andijan, his capital, had already passed into the hands of
the rebels. He then returned to Samarqand but was disappointed to find that city also had
been captured by his enemies.

Baburs Wanderings

Babur, wandered for two years because he had no territory except a small hilly distract of
Khokand. The number of his followers had reduced to the point that he had to turn his reins
from Hissar to seek the hospitality of Sultan Ahmed, the great Khan of the Mongols. On his
way he decided to take a chance at Samarqand where great discontent prevailed against the
Uzbek conqueror. One dark night his supporters managed to smuggle him and his followers
into Samarqand. He was hailed by the people who rose up in arms against the Uzbeks. It was
resulted a defeat of the Shaibani Khan. Baburs joy knew no bounds. He celebrated his
success by marrying one daughter of each of his two uncles who had ruled at Samarqand.

Burning with revenge, Shaibani Khan reorganized his forces for a final showdown. Babur
moved out of Samarqand in 1501. A well contested battle was fought at Saripul, in which
Babur was discomfited. Samarqand was so vigorously besieged that the inhabitants of the
town began to starve. Losing all hopes of saving the town, Babur sued for peace and
surrendered the city of Samarqand. In 1503, Babur and his maternal uncles made a second
bid to conquer Farghana but were not succeeded.

First battle of Panipat (1526)

Babur in order to set out for the conquest of India, first of all, he had to deal with Daulat
Khan who had turned out Ala-ud-Din from Lahore. After defeating him, Babur advanced to
Delhi. Ibrahim Lodhi came out of Delhi to give battle to Babur. The opposing armies met on
the historic plains of Pani Pat. Babur had certain advantages,he sent out 4 to 5 thousands of
his men to make a mighty attack on the Afghan camp which failed in its object. When the
Afghan army came near Babur and noticed Baburs front line defense, they hesitated and thus
lost the advantage of a shock charges. Babur took the advantage of the enemys hesitation and
directed his men to take up the offensive. Thus the superior general ship and strategy of
Babur won the day. Ibrahim Lodhi was killed fighting bravely.

Battle of Kanwaha

The victory of Panipat did not make Babur the ruler of India. He met a strong foe in Rana
Sanga of Mewar, who had a desire to occupy the throne of Delhi himself. Such a formidable
foe had to be disposed of if Babur was to have an unchallengeable position. In 1527,Rana
Sanga advanced with a large army, Babur also advanced to Fateh Pur Sikri. the advance-
guard of Babur was defeated by the Rajputs. His followers got dishearted.At this time Babur
demonstrated his qualities of leadership. He decided to capitalise on the religious fervor of
his army and ordered the breaking of the cups of wine. He repented of his past sins and
promised to give up wine for the rest of his life. The appeal and motivation had the desired
effect. He started the attack with heavy artillery fire. after an obstinate battle the Rajputs were
defeated.

Death of Babur, 1530

The circumstances leading to the death of Babur in December,1530, were such that when his
son Humayun, fell sick and it was declared that there was no possibility of his survival. It
was at this time that Babur is said to have walked three times round the bed of Humayun and
prayed to God to transfer the illness of his son to him. it is stated that from that time onward
Humayun began to recover and condition of Babur went from bad to worse and ultimately he
breathed his last. At the time of his death Babur was hardly 48 years of age.

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Ghiyasuddin Tughluq
Posted by: HistoryPak

Ghiyath-ud-din Tughlaq was the founder of Tughlaq Dynasty. His father Malik Tughlaq was a
Turkish slave of Ghiyath-ud-din Balban and his mother was a Jat lady of Punjab. Their son
distinguished himself in the service of the Sultans of Delhi, and for his brilliant and victorious
campaigns against Mongols earned the title of Ghazi Malik. He was appointed as the
Governor of Dipalpur by Ala-ud-din Khilji. The low-caste usurper Khusrau Khan had
completely extinguished the family of Ala-ud-din Khilji, so the nobles called upon Ghazi
Malik to ascend the throne. This he did under the title of Ghiyath-ud-din Tughlaq Shah, and
became the first ruler of Tughlaq dynasty.

Ghiyath-ud-din was an experienced administrator. He proved a firm and wise ruler. He

reestablished the military might of the Delhi Sultanate and subdued the rebellious rulers. Not
only the revolt of Bengal dealt with, the kingdoms of Warangal and Madura annexed and
Ghiyath-ud-din also conquered Tirhut on the borders of Nepal and most part of South Asia
and annexed the territories of all those rulers who had defeated by him and hence became the
master of more extensive empire than that of Ala-ud-din Khilji.

About Ghiyath-ud-din as an administrator, a modern Historian says:

The administration of Ghiyath-ud-din was based upon the principles of justice and
moderation. The land revenue was organized and the Sultan took great care to prevent abuses.
Cultivators were treated well and officials were severely punished for their misconduct. The
departments of Justice and Police worked efficiently, and the greatest security prevailed in the
remotest parts of the empire.

He attempted to improve the finances of the state and for this purpose he established the
system of taxes. Barani tells that the king believed that people should be taxed so that they
are not blinded with wealth and so become discontented and rebellious; nor, on the other
hand, be so reduced to poverty and destitution as to be unable to pursue their daily bread. He
improved the means of communication and conditions of roads, bridges and canals.

Giyath-ud-din faced twin sided challenges both internal and external. The administration
system was completely destroyed by the incapable successors of Ala-ud-din Khilji. The
usurper Khusrau Khan emptied the state treasury completely by lavish expenditures on
friends and nobles to obtain their support and had granted expensive gifts to them. When
Ghiyas-ud-din assended the throne he felt the need to take those gifts back to reorganize the
state treasury. This created a sense of disliking and enimity between the Sultan and the sufi
saint Nizam-ud-din Auliya. Hadrat Nizam-ud-din Auliya received five lakh tankas from
Khusrau, but when he was asked to refund the money, he replied that it had already been
spent for the relief of the poor in his monastery. Ghiyath-ud-din did not pursue the matter but
it was the beginning of an unpleasant relationship between the king and the Sheikh.

Ghiyath-ud-din died in 1325 as a result of the falling of a pavilion hastily constructed by his
son at Afghanpur (near Delhi) to receive him before his ceremonial entry into the capital on
return from his successful campaign in Bengal. There are conflicting accounts on whether
this was an accident or a conspiracy by his son to usurp power, so it remains a bit of a
mystery. After his death his son Muhammad bin Tughlaq proclaimed himself the Sultan.

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Mughal Art and Architecture

Posted by: HistoryPak

Art means the expression of skill whereas architecture means the art of building generally structures.
Both expressions represent the aesthetic side of human beings. There is a gradual evolution in the
aesthetic sense of humans with respect to the evolution of science and technology. Lets have a
glance over the mughal art and architecture and how it evolved. The Delhi Sultans had built their
empire under the shadow of a disaster and in the result of their forceful assertion and plundering
nature no evidence of their love for art and architecture is found throughout India besides Qutub
Minar. The mughals had enough time to rule and they were able to deploy the resources of India in
order to build such buildings and monuments which would help glorifying their rule over India. The
mughal art and architecture was an amalgamation of Indian, Persian, Central Asian and European
skills and designs.

The first mughal emperor Babur kept a poor opinion about the people and art of India but he did built
many buildings in Agra, Sikri, Biyana and Dholpur and he also built mosques at Panipat and Sambhal.
Humayun was on a very shaky throne but he was able to build a mosque at Fatehbad and a palace at
Delhi called Deen-Panah which lacked stability and durability. Akbar took a great interest in art and
architecture as he was also the great patron of artisans and artists. His palaces are mainly found at
Fatepur and Sikri. Tomb of Humayun was also built during the reign of Akbar under the supervision of
his stepmother Haji Begum who designed it in a totally Persian style. There is a tomb in the center
being enclosed by the garden. The use of marble has greatly enhanced its beauty. Akbar also
respected the Sufism so he built many buildings in the honor of Salim Chishti. The other famous
buildings are Jama masjid and the Buland Darwaza. Buland Darwaza, constructed in 1602 to
commemorate the Deccan conquests of Akbar is the highest gateway in India. The Jama masjid
completed in 1571 represents the glory of Fatehpur. Some other buildings which were designed and
constructed under the supervision of Akbar were the forts of Agra and Lahore, two gateways known
as the Delhi Gate or the Elephant Gate and the Amarsingh Gate were also built. The red stone was
used to build about 5000 buildings within the enclosure of the gateways. Some other buildings and
forts constructed under the supervision of the emperor were the fort of Attock, mosque at Merta and
his own tomb at Sikandra. The use of red stone represented a Hindu tradition of construction in the
buildings.

Akbar was very interested in the painting as it was an important element of royal court. He patronized
the painting by creating a separate department under the control of Khawaja Abdus Samad who was
a Persian artist. In the school of painting, painters from different parts of world were welcomed. The
colours were selected very keenly and the details were observed. During the reign of Akbar,
theChingiznamah, the Ramayana, Kalyadaman, Zafarnamah, Naldaman and Razmanamah were
being illustrated. After Akbar, Jahangir also showed a greater interest in painting. Farrukh beg,
Mohammad Nadir and Mohammad Murad were the distinguished painters at the court of Jahangir.
The flowers, birds and natural objects were preferred to be worth painting and the Mughal School of
miniature was also developed. The pigments mostly used were blue, golden, red, green and silvery
white.

Shah Jehan is famous for his great love for architecture. Taj Mahal, Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas and
Sheesh Mahal in the fort of Delhi, Agra and Lahore, the Jamia Masjid Delhi, the Moti Masjid,
Jahangirs tomb and Shalimar Gardens are few of the important buildings constructed under Shah
Jehan. The mosques are very simple from inside but quite magnificent from outside with large
gateways and the main prayer hall with the Quranic inscriptions. The Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas and
the Moti Masjid are the examples of highly beautified constructive designs; the amalgamation of
different artistic works and the balanced proportion of different elements like stones and marble make
them worth watching. The peak of beautified construction is observed on the Taj Mahal which
represents the emperors love for his wife Arjumand Bano in 1630. It took about twenty two years for
its construction with an expenditure of about four billion rupees by 22, ooo laborers. It represents
Persian influence with a European touch. Its white marble was imported from Makrana and red stone
from China. After Shah Jehan the trend of construction greatly declined.

As regards the painting, Shah Jehan did not encourage it much. His palace however is decorated
beautifully by the painters of that time. Dara Shikoh also had great interest in the painting but he
became the prey to his brother for the acquisition of the throne. Aurangzeb also did not encourage the
painting. He diminished the paintings present at the palace of Akbar. However it can be seen that art
and architecture were the salient features of the Mughal Empire.

It is worth mentioning that mughals were the great builders. The Persian influence was the dominating
feature of the art as the rulers themselves were from those lands. It is not wrong to say that art had
seen a revolution under the mughals who wanted to transform stone into an emblem of their glory.
 The forts and the monuments represent the personal ideals of the rulers who wanted the upcoming
generations to remember them and glorify their rule. So the existing mughal buildings represent a past
generation and its ideals.

Syed Ameer Ali (1849-1928)

Posted by: HistoryPak

Syed Ameer Ali was born on 6th April 1849 at a Bengali village called Chansura. He was the youngest
son of his parents. His father was in favor of modern English education and so, Ameer Ali was sent to
Hugli College. He passed his Bachelors from Calcutta University in the year 1867 and also received
his law degree. In 1869 he joined law profession and won a scholarship for England. Later on his
return to India Ameer Ali joined the Calcutta High Court. In 1882 he became a member of the Imperial
Legislative Council. In 1890 he became a high court judge and in 1904 after his retirement he went to
England where his family resided. His wife was the sister-in-law of Lord Dufferin and so he had
contacts in English politics. He was the first Indian who was nominated a member of Privy Council to
which he remained a member till his death on 3rd August 1928.

Along with his political efforts and achievements Ameer Ali is famous for his literary works. He was the
author of two famous works one of which is the History of Saracens published in 1889 that tells the
story of the rise and fall of Saracens. The other work is the Spirit of Islam published in 1891. He also
wrote articles mainly countering anti-Muslim articles of a Christian.

But Ameer Ali is mainly known as a political figure. During the days of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan when he
was strongly against the Muslim participation in politics Ameer Ali founded a political organization in
the year 1878 called National Mohammadan Association at Calcutta. It was later renamed as Central
Mohammadan Association when lots of its branches started working all over India. Earlier in 1877 he
had discussed the importance of politics in the lives of the Indian Muslims with Sir Syed. He told Sir
Syed that the survival of the Muslims as an independent nation in India would not be possible without
the establishment and working of their own political organization. That was the major aim of the
establishment of Central Mohammadan Association. The rest of the objectives were as under

1. Political training of the Muslims

2. Safeguarding Muslim interests
3. Creation of good feelings among the followers of different faiths in India

After the foundation of that organization, Syed Ameer Ali toured the far flung areas of India and spread
the objectives of his party. The most important achievement of that Association was the formation of a
memorandum that was submitted to the government of India in 1852. In this memorandum the causes
of the Muslim backwardness in India were mentioned that included the exclusion of Muslims from the
government jobs, the damage of their educational systems, the elimination of Muslim Law, the
discrimination between Hindus and Muslims in all the spheres of life etc. In this memorandum, these
demands were put forth for the amelioration of Muslim population of India.
1. Efforts should be made to diminish educational backwardness of the Muslims.
2. The re-implementation of Persian script replacing Devnagri
3. Appointment of Muslim judges to legislate in the light of Mohammadan law

In May 1908, Syed Ameer Ali founded the London branch of All India Muslim League and in a
deputation in 1909 led by Syed Ameer Ali to Lord Morely, the then Secretary of State for India, was
convinced to grant Muslims separate electorates. In 1920s, during the course of Khilafat Movement,
Syed Ameer Ali presented the emotional point of view of the Indian Muslims to the British government.

Ameer Ali is also famous for his social works. He founded a Medical Aid Fund for the Indian Women.
With the help of this fund DufferinHospital for the Indian women was founded in Calcutta. He also
founded Red Crescent Society to help provide medical facilities to the Arab Muslims during the Balkan
wars and 1stWorld War. He died in the year 1928.

Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk (1837-1907)

Posted by: HistoryPak

Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk was born on 9th December 1837 in the town of Etawah, a part of United
Provinces. He was the son of Syed Mir Zaamin Ali. He got his early education in and around Etawah.
He was given the education of Persian and Arabic. He participated in Aligarh and he was also
included in those people who were founder of All India Muslim League. In 1867, he topped in the
Provincial Civil Service examination. He was elected for Deputy Collector in U.P. He proceeded to
Hyderabad into the service of the Nizam in 1874. Due to his twenty years service he got titles of Munir
Nawaz Jang and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Daula by the Nizam of Hyderabad.

Mohsin-ul-Mulk met Sir Syed Ahmad Khan when he was posted as Tahsildar in Etawah. He became a
strong supporter of Sir Syed Ahmad Khans vision and the Aligarh Movement. In 1864 he became
member of the Scientific Society. In order to support Sir Syed vision and Aligarh Movement he started
writing articles in Tahzeebul Akhlaq. His collection of published articles in Tahzeebul Akhlaq was
Taqleed-e-Amal, Kitabul Muhabbat-o-Shauq Makaateeb, and Aayat-o-Bayyant. On formation of The
Committee of the Supporter of the Advancement, Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk became companion and
started collecting donation for the newly formed committee. He got retirement in 1893 from the State
of Hyderabad and served in Aligarh for propagating the massage of the Aligarh Movement. In 1894,
the 9th session of Muslim Educational Conference was held at Aligarh, and he proposed a resolution
for the support of Nadwat-ul-Ulama which was newly formed in Lucknow. On the death of Sir Syed, in
1899 he was appointed as the Secretary of the Muslim Educational Conference.

After Syed Mahmud, Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk became the Secretary of the College Trust. In his days
the college was passing through the most critical period of administrative instability. Mohsin-ul-Mulk
was a highly capable man. He, like Sir Syed, worked day and night to put the college on stable
footing. He was able to collect the amount of 6 lac rupees to fulfill the condition imposed by the
Government. He tried his best to restore the image of the college which had been badly tarnished
during Syed Mahmuds time as the Secretary. Mohsin-ul-Mulk also endeavored sincerely for the
promotion of Urdu literature. During his time the student were divided into two groups. Nawab Mohsin-
ul-Mulk, with his wisdom and administrative qualities successfully handle the situation and amicably
settled the issue between the two groups.

Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk became Secretary of All India Muslim League in 1906. He and his brother
Viqar-ul-Mulk were asked to draft the constitution for the Muslim League.Mohsin-ul-Mulk rose his pen
in defense Urdu in collaboration with Urdu Defense Association during Hindi-Urdu which was arose in
United Provinces. He died in Simla on 16th October 1907.

Muhammad Bin Qasim

Posted by: HistoryPak

Muhammad bin Qasim was born around 695 AD. He belonged to the Saqqafi tribe; that had originated
from Taif in Arabia. He grew up in the care of his mother; he soon became a great asset to his uncle
Muhammad Ibn Yusuf, the governor of Yemen. His judgment, potential and skills left many other
officers and forced the ruler to appoint him in the state department. He was also a close relative of
Hajjaj bin Yousuf, because of the influence of Hajjaj, the young Muhammad bin Qasim was appointed
the governor of Persia while in his teens, and he crushed the rebellion in that region. There is also a
popular tradition that presents him as the son-in-law of Hajjaj bin Yousuf. He conquered the Sindh and
Punjab regions along the Indus River for the Umayyad Caliphate.

There are both long and short term causes for the conquest of india. Arabs had trade with India and
Eastern Asia. The trade was carried through sea rout; the rout was unsafe due to the plunder of the
Pirates of Sindh. The Arab rebels also get refuge in Sindh. Thus the Umayyad wanted to consolidate
their rule and also to secure the trade rout. During Hajjajs governorship, the Mids of Debal (Pirates)
plundered the gifts of Ceylons ruler to Hijjaj and attacked on ships of Arab that were carrying the
orphans and widows of Muslim soldiers who died in Sri Lanka. Thus providing the Umayyad Caliphate
the legitimate cause, that enabled them to gain a foothold in the Makran, and Sindh regions.

The Umayyad caliphate ordered Muhammad Bin Qasim to attack over Sindh. He led 6,000 Syrian
cavalry and at the borders of Sindh he was joined by an advance guard and six thousand camel riders
and with five catapults (Manjaniks). Muhammad Bin Qasim first captured Debal, from where the Arab
army marched along the Indus. At Rohri he was met by Dahirs forces. Dahir died in the battle, his
forces were defeated and Muhammad bin Qasim took control of Sind. Mohammad Bin Qasim entered
Daibul in 712 AD. As a result of his efforts, he succeeded in capturing Daibul. He continued his
Victorious Progress in succession, Nirun, fortress (called Sikka), Brahmanabad, Alor, Multan and
Gujrat. After the conquest of Multan, he carried his arms to the borders of Kigdom of Kashmir, but his
dismissal stopped the further advance. Now Muslims were the masters of whole Sindh and a part of
Punjab up to the borders of Kashmir in the north. After the conquest, he adopted a conciliatory policy,
asking for acceptance of Muslim rule by the natives in return for non-interference in their religious and
cultural practices. He also established peace with a strong taxation system. In return he provided the
guaranty of security of life and property for the natives. Hajjaj died in 714. When Walid Bin Abdul
Malik died, his younger brother Suleman succeeded as the Caliph. He was a bitter enemy of Hajjajs
family. He recalled Mohammad Bin Qasim from Sindh, who obeyed the orders as the duty of a
general. When he came back, he was put to death on 18 th of July, 715AD at the age of twenty.
Alauddin Khilji
Posted by: HistoryPak

Alauddin Khalji was the nephew and son- in- law of Jalaluddin Khalji. After the downfall of the Malik
Chajju and after being appointed the governor of Karah near Allahabad, he won over the confidence
of the Sultan by handing over a large amount of booty to him which he had collected in the expedition
of Malwa in 1292. He had won great reputation as a soldier. In 1296, after a treacherous murder of his
uncle Jalaluddin Firoz Khalji, he proceeded to Delhi to acquire the throne. There, the widow of Firoz
had set up one of her sons Qadir Khan on the throne. But Alauddin was very clever for her. He won
over a large number of ministers and nobles to his side with the help of gold and money. So he
silenced all murmurs of disapproval and discontent by stopping the mouths of people with gold. The
army was also won over by lavish distribution of wealth and presents. The cruel measures he adopted
to secure his ill- gotten throne showed clearly that Alauddin was a heartless tyrant. He had no regard
for justice. But in spite of his vices it must be said that he was brave soldier and a vigorous ruler.

Alauddin was not only a great military leader but a great administrator. He crushed the power of
nobility to bring about peace in the country. He confiscated their excess amount of money and
property and put a ban on their social gatherings and prohibited them to use wine. He did not allow
the Ulemas to interfere in the political affairs of the State. He is also credited to have introduced
various reforms on the land revenue and military departments. His control of the markets is regarded
as one of the marvels of medieval statesmanship. There prevailed complete peace and tranquility
during his reign. Alauddin was a great patron of learning. Amir Khusrau was patronized by him.

He largely extended the frontiers of the Muslim dominions in India and effectively checked the
Mongols in roads. Alauddin was a great military general. He dreamt to become another Alexander.
Sultan maintained a strong army and punished the Mongols so terribly that they dared not to attack
India again. He conquered most of Hindu states in the North and over- ran whole of the South. All his
military exploits were crowned with success. Alauddin treatment of Hindus was very severe. They
were forced to pay land revenue at a higher rate. They were also required to pay several unjustified
taxes. They were taxed so heavily that no Hindu could afford to ride a horse or wear fine clothes and
carry arms. Besides, for administrative success, he kept a strict eye on the movements of his officials
and people. So for this purpose he organized an efficient spy system. They were kept at the provincial
headquarters, in markets and in all the units of the army. This system kept the nobles in terror and
Sultan remained well- informed about the all good and bad things. Although, Alauddin was quite
illiterate but he had great administrative and organizing qualities. He laid the foundation of highly
organized administrative machinery through his reforms.

Mughal Administration
Posted by: HistoryPak

The Mughal administration was quite different from those of their predecessors i.e. the sultans. The
Mughal emperors bore the title Padshah meaning the emperor. This was evident that they wanted to
practice an unanswerable authority over their subjects. Jalal-ud-din Akbar declared himself as an
arbiter while Aurangzeb Alamgir acted as an strong orthodox Muslim ruler. The Mughal administration
was basically divided into three types which are as following:
1. The central administration

2. The military administration

3. The revenue administration

In the central administration the emperor was the head of the state having unlimited power of
formulating laws, he was the Chief Executive and the military commander. The emperor was the final
despot and his law or order was the final rather he was considered as the shadow of God on earth as
in the case of Jala-ud-din Akbar. Though the emperor enjoyed unlimited powers and authority yet he
used to take into consideration the advices given by the court officials or nobility which had great
influence over the state politics. The Mughals were quite sensible in terms of using the loyalties of
their nobility unlike the sultans mostly came under the influence of their nobility and usually lost their
power into their hands.

Under the emperor were the ministers who were appointed for different state tasks and assisted the
ruler. Each state department had its minister who was further the head of junior ministers and
assistants. There was the prime minister who was responsible for the overall state running. Then
there was a Mir Bukhshi who was the in charge of the military. He was supposed to function for the
recruitment, maintaining huliya, branding of the horses and supplies to the army. Then there was a
minister called Sadar-us-Sudur who was responsible for religious matters. Chief Qazi was another
main minister who was the highest judicial authority in the state. For keeping a moral status of the
society and to prevent social evils like drinking and gambling there was a minister called the Muhtasib.
For the fulfillment of the personal needs of the ruler and the royal family there was Khan-e-Saman. In
the provincial administration, the state was divided into some provinces with the head of the province
called the Nizam or the Subedar. The Subedar, the Diwan, the Sadar, the Qazi, the Qotawal and the
Waqiya Navis were the important officers in every province. The Subedar had full authority over the
province as the emperor had over the state, he had a Mansab and a bigger Jagir, kept a large army at
his deposal and was accountable for the maintenance of law and order in the province. Then there
was a provincial minister called the Nizam who managed the finances, the Bakhshi was responsible
for the organization of the royal army. The Waqiya Navis was the head of the spy system. The
Kotawal was a keeper of peace in the province, for the maintenance of religious harmony there were
the Qazi and the Sadr.

For a convenience in administration the provinces were being divided into several Sarkars or districts
which had the Foujdar (military officer), the Amal Guzar (finance minister), the Bitikchi (assistant of the
Amal Guzar), the Khazandar (treasurer) of the district. The districts were further divided into
Parghanas. The important officials were the finance minister, the treasurer, the village Patwaries and
the clerks. The city administration was run by a Kotwal, whereas the village was administered by the
local villagers.

The Military administration or the Mansabdari system was the backbone of the Mughal Empire which
started in its crude form from Zahir-ud-din Babur till its refined form in the reign of Akbar. The Mughal
army was divided into three types. The first category was of the Mansabdars and their soldiers. Each
Mansabdar kept his own army according to his rank and managed the recruitment, training and
salaries of the soldiers. The second category was of the Ahadi soldiers and they were the soldiers of
the ruler. The third type was of the Dakhili soldiers who were being appointed by the ruler himself but
were put under the charge of the Mansabdars. The Mughal army was divided into infantry, the cavalry,
the war elephants and the navy. Akbar is known for his most efficient Mansabdari system. It was
encountered by many defects in the later Mughal era due to inefficiency of the later rulers and the
corruption of the officials.

The finance administration was heavily concentrated upon the collection of the revenues which were
basically the loot of the war, the trade taxes, the annual tributes and the land revenues. The largest
source of income was in fact the land revenue which was initiated by Babur and strengthened by
Akbar. The taxes were being imposed on the land owners according to the type of lands they
possessed and they were supposed to pay in cash. Bamboos were used instead of ropes to measure
the land. The government kept an annual account of the quantity and quality of land and the revenue
was not fixed every year. The cultivators were facilitated for the better production. This system ran
very efficiently under Akbar who had even abolished the Jizya from the non-Muslims. The spirit was
lost among the later Mughals who were more concerned with the personal luxury rather than state
prosperity.

The Mughal administration was a very new experience for the locals of India who had never
undergone such system before. The emperors were very enthusiastic about introducing new policies
in their kingdom. Akbar is said to be a great emperor among the Mughals who had focused on every
state institution including the defence, finance, religion and the society. His policies were carried out
by his son but the later Mughals were not so enthusiastic as their ancestor and yet their power
continued to decline and ultimately the Europeans were able to grab power from Mughals and they
also carried out the same state policies of Mughals but with certain modification.

Causes of the War of Independence

Posted by: HistoryPak

The majority of the Indian nationals fought bravely against the rule of the foreigner but failed in their
bold attempts to overthrow the British Raj. The causes of this failure are many but the important ones
are discussed as below.

The foremost cause was the sudden start of the war in confusion, without any preparation or proper
planning. Secondly since there was an extreme lack of communication and coordination among
various groups of freedom fighters who started their uprising according to their own wishes, it became
easy for the English troops to curb the revolt of different areas on by one.

Thirdly there was no experienced leader among them to lead the Indian soldiers. They had declared
Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, their leader but instead of warfare he was devoted to poetry
and was too old and incompetent to lead the revolutionaries. The British troops, on the other hand,
were endowed with extremely competent generals like Edwards and Lawrence.

Fourthly, English troops were modern and strikingly advanced not only in warfare but also in new
ways of swift and speedy communication. They did not have to cross long roads and grounds to
deliver a message or order but could simply wire it with a few minutes. The Indians on the other hand
were devoid of such means. Thats why they utterly fell behind and got defeated.

Fifthly, the English had full command on waters due to their advanced navy they got enforcement from
their Crimean fronts to counter Indian aggression without any delay. Being equipped with modern
weapons especially Enfield rifles they could hunt down Indians who were still fighting with their sticks,
swords and daggers to fight their highly powerful opponents.

The economic conditions of Indian troops also entailed an obvious cause of their defeat. On the one
hand the war started out of awkwardness, mismanagement and lack of planning and even the
emperor was practically penniless who was asking for loans from Delhi landlords but they were
determined to save their money, not their freedom. The British troops, on the other hand, had been
wealthy because the prosperous regions of India were totally under their control.

Another major reason was the treachery of Sikhs who had been grudgingly fighting against Muslims
for a long time. The East India Company took advantage of their feeling of antipathy and aroused
them towards their own countrymen. Sikh states like Patiyala and Jind helped the English troops in
crushing the native disturbance in Punjab. In the North-West Frontier Province there were certain
feudal lords like the Wali of Swat displayed their allegiance to the alien rulers. Even in the Indian army
there were some traitors like Moulvi Rajab Ali and Mirza Elahi Baksh who were honored and awarded
with affluence for providing information to he Crown about whereabouts of the Indian Emperor.

Causes of the failure of the War of

Independence
Posted by: HistoryPak

There were many causes of the War of Independence of 1857. They can be divided into political,
religious, military, economic and social causes. The East India Company was aiming to annex all the
states of India like Avadh, Tanjore, Jhansi, Satara, etc. Thats why they introduced systems like
Doctrine of Lapse by which Indian states could be taken over by the Company in case there was no
male heir to the throne of the state. This provoked the rulers like Nana Sahib, the adopted son of
Peshwa and Lakshmi Bai, the Rani of Jhansi. The Company also declared that after the death of the
then Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, his family had to move out of the Red Fort and his
successors were also forbidden to use the title of emperor. All these attempts alienated both Hindu
and Muslim Indians who realized that the White men were intending to devour their lands.

The people of India at that time were highly concerned about their religion and religious rites. For
them the most sacred thing was their faith. But when they realized that the Company was promoting
Christianity in their land they became furious. In fact the Christian missionaries all over India were
being patronized by the British government and in 1855 the priests like E. Edmund professed that the
whole of India should be under one religion, i.e., Christianity. Similarly the introduction of some social
laws added fuel to fire. For instance, the English government banned Satti (Hindu practice of burning
the widow along with the dead body of her husband), and allowed the widows to remarry. Such
legislations badly hurt the feelings of Hindus. In the military setup they introduced some regulations
that injured religious sentiments of the Indians. For example, under the military rules the Indian
soldiers were forbidden to have beards or wear turbans or put tilaks on their foreheads. These
regulations made Indians realize that their faiths were in jeopardy.
Whenever the English annexed any state of India into their domain they dismantled its army and
disemployed the local soldiers. Thus after having been enslaved the second shock the local soldiers
had to bear was unemployment that made them despise the foreign invader. Besides, the English
invariably maintained discrimination between their soldiers and the Indian soldiers in respect of
salaries and fringe benefits with the result that the disheartened soldiers made up their minds to fight
against the English.

There were economic causes as well. During the rule of the Mughals, not only the Muslims but also
the Hindus would be appointed on all important positions but by the English the Muslims and the
Hindus both were deemed as untrustworthy and consequently all the higher posts were held by the
White men. The natives were either turned jobless or appointed on lower levels of the state
departments. The East India Company that was eager to amass wealth out of the trade considered
India no more than a field of producing raw materials for the industries of England. The subsidiary
system with additional taxes even on uncultivated lands added fuel to the fire and economically
devastated the common Indians.

In addition to these reasons there was an immediate cause that coerced the Indians to go for war. In
the words of Lord Canning, Lawrence and Syed Ahmed Khan it was, indeed, the most significant
cause. For a new Enfield rifle introduced in the early period of 1857 the cartridges were covered with
some animal fat that was supposed to be either of cow or a boar. Before using these cartridges they
were to be cut by teeth. Since the cows were sacred for the Hindus and pigs were haram for the
Muslims both of them refused to carry such rifles. But their English officers used force that offended
the Hindus and Muslims alike and thus all these causes instigated the war in India to which we call the
War of Independence 1857.

Aftermath of the War of Independence

Posted by: HistoryPak

The Indians suffered a disappointing and discouraging defeat while a glorious victory for the White
men prolonged their rule. For the subjugated Indians repercussions were rather more severe. The
Mughal rule came to an end with the dethroning of the last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar. He
was arrested during the course of the war and sent to Rangoon, Burma where he was sentenced to
life imprisonment. His family members including twenty-four princes were nastily executed by the
soldiers of the East India Company. The second upshot was windup of the control and command of
the East Indian Company in India. The British Charter of 1852 stated that the government of India was
entrusted to the Company by the English crown. And since the war had left the impression that the
Company was no longer capable of keeping it safe, the government of India was personally taken
over by the Queen of England who would appoint a Viceroy in India to represent the crown. The
Board of Directors and the Board of Control of the Company were dissolved and instead a council of
fifteen members was appointed with Secretary of State for India as its head.

Another point the crown had realized was the obvious mistrust between the Company and the local
landlords. The unlawful and corrupt activities of the Company in capturing all the land of India and its
resources had enraged the lords of India who collaborated with the revolutionaries. Thus contrary to
the policy of the East India Company the crown tried to develop a relationship of trust and confidence
with the Indian masses. It was assured that England was no longer interested in capturing the Indian
land anymore and that in the future all the agreements singed with the Indian lords would be duly
acknowledged. The heirless rulers were also given free hand to adopt males as their successors. The
motive was to eventually gain their trust and support.
The crown believed that primarily the Muslims had initiated the revolt against the British rule. For that
reason they put all the blame on the Indian Muslims and took most of the revenge from them. Most of
the Muslims in the government services were dismissed. Except the betrayers all the Muslims were
ruthlessly looted and killed. The aim was to divest the Muslim community of their political rights. The
Muslims in repulsion also utterly disgusted the British and rejected not only the White people but also
all the new things that were introduced by them. In the long run that proved to be a devastating trend
that made the Muslims absolutely depressing, desolate and dismal community mainly because they
kept themselves quite aloof from the modern education and thus remained awkwardly uneducated
and unfortunately backward. The Hindus on the other hand joined hands with the new government
and became well-educated and prosperous. This also caused a permanent rift in the Hindu-Muslim
unity since the Muslims thought that although Hindus fought with them but it was only the Muslims
who were paying the price. Eventually the second half of the nineteenth century India witnessed the
rise of nationalism giving rise to two-nation theory that ultimately resulted in the partition of India and
creation of Pakistan.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898)

Posted by: HistoryPak

Allama Iqbal believed that, The real greatness of the man (Sir Syed) consists in the fact that he was
the first Indian Muslim who felt the need of a fresh orientation of Islam and worked for it. While in the
words of Jawaharlal Nehru, Sir Saiyad was an ardent reformer and he wanted to reconcile modern
scientific thought with religion by rationalistic interpretations and not by attacking basic belief. He was
anxious to push new education. He was in no way communally separatist. Repeatedly he emphasized
that religious differences should have no political and national significance.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was born on Oct 17, 1817 in Delhi, belonged to a family which held prominent
positions in the reign of Mughal emperors and he, himself, was bestowed with the title of Jawad-ul-
Daula and Arif-e-Jang by Bahadur Shah Zafar II. But he soon realized the crumbling position of the
Mughals and their deviancy from religion, and hence kept at distance from them.

He initiated his practical career by joining East India Company in 1937 as serestadar, managing court
affairs and record-keeping. His educational reforms started when he laid the foundation of a madrassa
(Muradabad Panchayaity Madrassah) in Muradabad in 1859, which was one of the first religious
academies to incorporate scientific knowledge along with the religious one. Here Hindu and Muslim
students were taught Urdu, Persian and Arabic along with English. T he school was run from Hindu
and Muslim funding.

After a brief interval of four years, he established another English High school based on the rules of
religion in Ghazipur in 1963. His marvelous achievement , while he was posted at Aligarh was the
establishment of MAO (Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental) High School in 1875, which was inaugurated by
William Muir. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan wanted to upgrade its level to a college, and to attain this end, he
speeded up fund-raising. Ultimately, his vision proved fruitful, and the viceroy of India Lord Litton
elevated it to the level of a college on Jan 8, 1877.
Religious education along with modern learning was uncompromisingly essential. Students of it were
encouraged to take part in healthy discussions avoiding sectarian issues. But this college was unable
to impart knowledge to millions of Muslims scattered around the sub-continent; many of whom were
those who were unaware of its existence even. The aim of Sir Syed was not merely restricted to
establishing a college at Aligarh but at spreading a network of Muslim managed educational
institutions throughout the length and breadth of the country. He established Muhammadan
Educational Conference in 1886. Its importance surpassed all other institutions previously
established. Great figures such as Maulana Shibli Naumani, Maulana Hali, Maulana Nazeer Ahmad,
Nawab Muhsin-ul-Mulk, and others beautified the intellectual atmosphere of this institution and stirred
up a flare of enthusiasm among many Muslims.

Sir Syed himself remained active in politics, yet he advised Muslims to keep away from it. He knew
the educational backwardness of Muslims and their unawareness of political current. He also urged
upon Muslims to remain at distance from Congress, because in his justified opinion, it was a party that
was solely devoted to the cause of Hindus and detrimental to Muslims and their ideologies. This
paved way for the establishment of Muslims League later in 1906.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was a man of versatile personality. He rendered memorable contributions in the
field of writings. Beginning at the age of 23, he started his career as an author writing religious texts.
He was the first Muslim to produce a commentary on the Bible in which he tried to show that Islam
was very close to Christianity in certain aspects. His other valuable tracts such as Loyal
Muhammadans of India, Tabyin-ul-Kalam and A Series of Essays on the Life of Muhammad (SAW)
and Subjects Subsidiary Therein proved to be a milestone in bridging the difference between the
British and the Muslims. Some religious works of him that deserve mention are Ahkam Tuam Ahl-
Kitab, Al-Dua Wal Istajaba, Al-Nazar Fi Baz Masail Imam Al-Ghazzali, Tafsir-a-Samawat, Tahrir fi
Usul al-Tafsir, Tarjama fawaid al-afkar fi amal al-farjar, along with such miscellaneous works as On
the Use of the Sector (Urdu), Syed-ul-Akbar, Qaul-i-Matin dar Ibtal-i-Harkat i Zamin, Tashil fi Jar-a-
Saqil, Ik Nadan Khuda Parast aur Dana dunyadar Ki Kahani, Kalamat-ul-Haqq.

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan breathed his last on March 27, 1898. He is buried right along the Sir Syed
Masjid inside Aligarh University. His funeral was attended not only by thousands of Muslims but British
officials as well. He revived the dormant consciousness of Muslims and through his educational and
social reforms, he went down in Muslim history as arguably the most influential Indian politician of
19th century.

After his death, his Muslims and English friends started raising money to fulfill Sir Syeds dream of
making the MAO college in a Muslim university. People loved him, because in his life he was like a
shady tree to them and after his death they remembered him and showed their love for him by making
efforts for raising the status of the college to the university, which came finally in 1920.

Sir Aga Khan III (1877-1957)

Posted by: HistoryPak

Sir Sultan Muhammad shah, Aga Khan the Third was the spiritual leader of Shia Islamic Muslims. He
was born in Karachi 1877. Under the supervision of his mother he got his religious and oriental
education which was necessary for him to become a spiritual leader. He also attended Eton and
Cambridge University. In 1885 at the age of eight he succeeded his father as Imam of Shia Ismaili
Muslim. He travelled to different areas of the world to receive homage of his followers. He was
recognized for his public services from the German Emperor. He was member of Indian Legislative
Council from 1902-1904. In 1904, he became the president of All Indian Muslim League. He
suggested a separate electorate for Muslim in a meeting with Viceroy Lord Rippon. From 1906-1912
he became the President of Muslim League. He tried to create fair relations between Hindus and
Muslims.

In 1911 he raised 3 million rupees for the Aligarh Muslim University. In 1921 he was appointed as a
Vice Chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University. From 1928-29 he was president of All Parties of Muslim
Conference. From 1930-33 he was chairman of the British Indian delegation to the Round Table
Conference. In 1934 he was a member of the Privy Council. He was the first Asian who was elected
as the president of League Nation in 1937. Queen Victoria made him a Knight of the Indian Empire.
During his Imamat he did significant development for the Ismaili community. He helped greatly in
economic and social development in South Asia and in East Africa. In Ismaili community they mark
their Imams Jubilees for symbolic declaration of ties that link the Ismaili Imam and his followers. The
Jubliee does not have any religious importance.

When Aga Khan the Third was 72 years of age his community celebrated his Golden, Platinum, and
Diamond Jubilee to show their affection. They weighed their Imam in gold and diamond than use it for
the development of the institutions in Asia and Africa. Many institutions were developed in India and
later in Pakistan. Diamond Jubilee schools were established for girls in Northern Areas of what is now
Pakistan. Scholarship programme were established during the time of Golden Jubilee. Different social
and economic welfare institutions were developed in East Africa. Aga Khan the Third also introduced
the organizations which regulate their own Ismaili affairs. In 1905, he regulated the first Ismaili
constitutions for the social governance of community in East Africa. Different rules were set out in
constitution such as marriage, divorce, inheritance and mutual cooperation with other communities.

A number of books were written by him. Two of these were very important namely India in Transition
and World enough and Time. He had 4 wives. First he married on 2nd November 1896 in Poona, in
India with his cousin Shahzadi Begum. His second marriage was held on 1898, with Cleope Teresa
Magliano who was a dancer. He third time married on 7th December 1924 in France. His third wife did
not accept Islam and he divorced her in 1943. His last marriage was held on 9th October 1944 in
Switzerland, with Yvomme. She accepted Islam and her name changed and she was called Umm
Habiba.

Aga Khan III died on 11th July 1957 and is buried in at the Mausoleum of Aga Khan on the Nile in
Aswan, Egypt.

Lahore Resolution (1940)

Posted by: HistoryPak

With the introduction of political reforms in India by the British, the Muslims realized that they would
become a permanent minority in a democratic system and it would never be possible for them to
protect their fundamental rights. They only constituted one fourth of the total Indian population and
were much lesser in number than the majority Hindu community. In order to protect their political,
social and religious rights they first demanded for separate electorates. However, due to the political
developments that took place in the country they realized that even the right of separate electorates
would not be enough and they had to search for some other long term solution.

Muhammad Iqbal, the poet philosopher in his famous Allahbad address made it clear that Islam has
its own social and economic system and in order to implement it a political entity was required. When
Jinnah came back to India in order to reorganize Muslim League and to make it a political party of the
Muslim masses, he got the opportunity to interact with Iqbal. Iqbal through his letters tried to persuade
Jinnah that the only solution available was a separate state for the Indian Muslims where they could
spend their lives according to the teachings of Holy Quran and Sunnah of the Prophet (SAW). Though
Jinnah was convinced by late 1930s, but being a realist he was not ready to announce the new plan
until he was confident that the vast majority of the Muslims were behind him. Overwhelming support
from the Muslim masses for his call to celebrate Day of Deliverance on December 22, 1939 was
actually a vote of confidence given by the Muslim Community in the leadership of Jinnah, whom they
by then had started considering as their Quaid-i-Azam.

Organization
With the clarity of mind and backing of the Muslim community behind him, Quaid-i-Azam called for the
27th annual session of All India Muslim League to be held from March 22 to 24, 1940 at Lahore. Sir
Shah Nawaz Khan of Mamdot was made the head of the reception committee and Main Bashir
Ahmad was nominated as secretary of the session. Prominent leaders including Chaudhry
Khaliquzzam, Nawab Muhammad Ismail Khan, Nawab Bahadur Yar Jang, A.K. Fazlul Haq, Sardar
Abdur Rab Nishtar, Abdullah haroon, Qazi Muhammad Isa, I.I. Chundrigar, Sardar Aurangzeb Khan,
Khawaja Nazimuddin, Abdul Hashim and Malik Barkat Ali etc. attended the session.

Khaksar Tragedy
Due to the Khaksar Tragedy that took place on March 19, Sir Sikandar Hayat and others tried to
persuade Jinnah to postpone the session but the determined Quaid was not ready for it. In order to
participate in the session, he reached Lahore by train on March 21. He went straight to Mayo Hospital
to see the wounded Khaksars. By doing so he managed to handle well the issue of Khaksar
disturbances. On his arrival Jinnah told the print media that the All India Muslim League will make
historic decision in the upcoming session.

Quaid-i-Azams Address
The venue of the session was Minto Park near Badshahi Masjid and Lahore Fort. The inaugural
session was planned at around three in the afternoon on March 22. People started coming from the
morning and by the afternoon the park was jam packed. According to a rough estimate around
100,000 attended the public meeting. In the beginning of the session, the welcome address was
presented by the Nawab of Mamdot. This was followed by the historical speech of Quaid-i-Azam
Muhammad Ali Jinnah.

The Quaid in his two hours presidential address in English narrated the events that took place in the
past few months and concluded, Hindus and the Muslims belong to two different religious
philosophies, social customs and literature. They neither inter-marry nor inter-dine together, and,
indeed, they belong to two different civilizations that are based mainly on conflicting ideas and
conceptions. Their concepts on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and Muslims
derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes and
different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other, and likewise, their victories and
defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority
and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that
may be so built up for the government of such a state. He further claimed, Mussalmans are a nation
according to any definition of a nationhood. We wish our people to develop to the fullest spiritual,
cultural, economic, social and political life in a way that we think best and in consonance with our own
ideals and according to the genius of our people.

During his speech the Quaid quoted the letter written by Lala Lajpat Rai in 1924 to C.R. Das in which
he clearly mentioned that the Hindus and the Muslims were two separate and distict nationas which
could never be merged into a single nation. When Malik Barkat Ali claimed that Lala Lajpat Rai was a
Nationalist Hindu leader, Quaid responded, No Hindu can be a nationalist. Every Hindu is a Hindu
first and last.

The Resolution
On March 23, A.K. Fazul Haq, the Chief Minister of Bengal, moved the historical Lahore Resolution.
The Resolution consisted of five paragraphs and each paragraph was only one sentence long.
Although clumsily worded, it delivered a clear message. The resolution declared:

While approving and endorsing the action taken by the Council and the Working Committee of the
All-India Muslim League, as indicated in their resolutions dated the 27th of August, 17th and 18th of
September and 22nd of October, 1939, and 3rd of February 1940, on the constitutional issue, this
session of the All-India Muslim League emphatically reiterates that the scheme of Federation
embodied in the Government of India Act, 1935 is totally unsuited to, and unworkable in the peculiar
conditions of this country and is altogether unacceptable to Muslim India.

It further records its emphatic view that while the declaration dated the 18th of October, 1939, made
by the Viceroy on behalf of His Majestys Government is reassuring in so far as it declares that the
policy and plan on which the Government of India Act, 1935 is based will be reconsidered in
consultation with the various parties, interests and communities in India, Muslim India will not be
satisfied unless the whole constitutional plan is reconsidered de novo and that no revised plan would
be acceptable to the Muslims unless it is framed with their approval and consent.

Resolved that it is the considered view of this session of the All-India Muslim League that no
constitutional plan would be workable in this country or acceptable to Muslims unless it is designed on
the following basic principle, namely, that geographically contiguous units are demarcated into regions
which should be so constituted, with such territorial readjustments as may be necessary, that the
areas in which the Muslims are numerically in a majority, as in the North-Western and Eastern Zones
of India, should be grouped to constitute Independent States in which the constituent units shall be
autonomous and sovereign.

That adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards should be specifically provided in the constitution
for minorities in these units and in these regions for the protection of their religious, cultural,
economic, political, administrative and other rights and interests in consultation with them; and in
other parts of India where Mussalmans are in a minority, adequate, effective and mandatory
safeguard shall be specially provided in the constitution for them and other minorities for the
protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights and interests
in consultation with them.

This session further authorizes the Working Committee to frame a scheme of constitution in
accordance with these basic principles, providing for the assumption finally by the respective regions
of all powers such as defence, external affairs, communications, customs and such other matters as
may be necessary.

Besides many others, the Resolution was seconded by Chaudhary Khaliquzzam from UP, Maulana
Zafar Ali Khan from Punjab, Sardar Aurangzeb from the N. W. F. P, Sir Abdullah Haroon from Sindh,
and Qazi Muhammad Esa from Baluchistan. Those who seconded the resolution, in their speeches
declared the occasion as a historic one. The Resolution was eventually passed on the last day of the
moot, i.e. March 24.

Controversies
The name Pakistan was not used in the resolution and the official name of the resolution was Lahore
Resolution. It was the Hindu newspapers including Partap, Bande Matram, Milap, Tribune etc., who
ironically coined the name Pakistan Resolution. However, the idea was appreciated by the Muslim
masses and the Resolution is more known as Pakistan Resolution. Secondly, the Government and
people of Pakistan wrongly celebrate March 23 as a national day in Pakistan. The actual day when
the resolution was passed was March 24. It was only presented on March 23. Lastly, it the word
states and not state was mentioned in the Resolution. It means that the authors of the Resolution
were foreseeing two separate states in the north-western and eastern zones of India. But if one has a
good look at the developments that followed, he or she would come to the conclusion that either the
word states was included as a mistake or the League leadership soon had a second thought to their
idea. A Resolution passed at the 1941 Madras session of the League stated, Everyone should clearly
understand that we are striving for one independent and sovereign Muslim State. In all the speeches
that Quaid delivered, he also used the word an independent homeland or an independent Muslim
state.

Hindu Reaction
The Hindu reaction was, of course, quick, bitter and malicious. They called the Pakistan demand
anti-national. They characterized it as vivisection; above all, they denounced it as imperialist
inspired to obstruct Indias march to freedom. In denouncing the demand outright, they, however,
missed the central fact of the Indian political situation; the astonishingly tremendous response of the
Pakistan demand had elicited from the Muslim masses. They also failed to take cognizance of the fact
that a hundred million Muslims were now supremely conscious of their distinct nationhood and were
prepared to stake everything to actualize their self-perceived destiny the creation of an independent
Muslim state in the sub-continent.

British Reaction
The British were equally hostile to the Muslim demand for at least two important reasons. First, they
had long considered themselves as the architects of the unity of India and of an Indian nation.
Second, they had long regarded the super-imposed unity under tax Britannica as their greatest
achievement and lasting contribution in history. And the Pakistan demand threatened to undo these
presumed achievements on which the British had long prided. However, despite the Hindu
denunciation and the British alarm, the course of Muslim, indeed Indian, politics was from now on
firmly set towards Pakistan.
 Conclusion
The All India Muslim League Resolution of March 1940, commonly known as the Pakistan Resolution,
is undoubtedly the most important event that changed the course of Indian history and left deep marks
on the world history. With the passage of this Resolution, the Muslims of the sub-continent changed
their demand from Separate Electorates to a Separate State. This Resolution rejected the idea of
a United India and the creation of an independent Muslim state was set as their ultimate goal. It gave
new energy and courage to the Muslims of the region who gathered around Quaid-i-Azam from the
platform of the Muslim League to struggle for their freedom. The dynamic leadership of the Quaid and
the commitment and devotion of the followers made it possible for them to achieve an independent
state within seven years of their struggle, and that too when the odds were against them.

Constitution of 1956
Posted by: HistoryPak

After assuming charge as Prime Minister, Chaudhary Muhammad Ali and his team worked
hard to formulate a constitution. The committee, which was assigned the task to frame the
Constitution, presented the draft Bill in the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan on January 9,
1956. The bill was opposed by the Bengali autonomists. Bhashai, the leader of Awami
League in East Pakistan, even used the threat of secession to press for autonomy and his party
staged a walkout from the Assembly on February 29, when the Assembly adopted the
Constitution. Later on, Awami League boycotted the official ceremonies celebrating the
inauguration of the Constitution. However, in spite of their opposition, the Constitution was
adopted and was enforced on March 23, 1956. With this Pakistans status as a dominion
ended and the country was declared an Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Constituent Assembly
became interim National Assembly and Governor-General Iskander Mirza sworn in as the
first President of Pakistan.

The Constitution of 1956 consisted of 234 articles, divided into 13 parts and 6 schedules.
Following were the chief characteristics of the Constitution:

1. Pakistan was declared as an Islamic Republic and it was made mandatory

that only a Muslim could become the President of the country. President would
set up an Organization for Islamic Research. Good relations with the Muslim
countries became the main objective of the Foreign Policy. Objectives
Resolution and Quaids declaration that Pakistan would be a democratic state
based on Islamic principles of social justice were made the preamble of the
Constitution. Steps were to be taken to enable the Muslims individually and
collectively to order their lives in accordance with the teaching of Quran and
Sunnah and to implement Islamic moral standards. The sectarian
interpretations among the Muslims were to get due regard. Measures were to
be taken to properly organize zakat, waqfs, and mosques. However, one clause
relating to the elimination of riba, which was the part of the draft was
eventually dropped.
2. The constitution provided for the federal form of government with three
lists of subjects: federal, provincial and concurrent. The federal list consisted of
33 items, provincial of 94 items and concurrent list of 19 items. The federal
legislation was to get precedence over provincial legislation regarding
concurrent list. In case of a conflict between federal and provincial
governments, or between the provincial governments, Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court was to act as a mediator. Federal government exercised wider
control in provincial matters in case of emergency.
3. Though the constitution provided for the Parliamentary form of
Government, yet it declared that the executive authority of the Federation
would be in the president.
4. Any Muslim citizen of Pakistan, who was at least forty years old, could be
elected as the President of Pakistan for the term of five years. No one was
entitled to hold this office for more than two tenures. 3/4 th members of the
Assembly could impeach the president.
5. President could appoint from amongst the MNAs a Prime Minister who had
to take the vote of confidence from the house in two months. The Prime
Minister had to inform the president about all the decisions of the cabinet.
6. Ministers could be taken from outside the National Assembly but they were
to get themselves elected within six months.
7. President had the power to summon, prorogue, and dissolve the Assembly
on the advice of the cabinet. No bill imposing taxes or involving expenditure
could be moved without his consent. He had partial veto power. He could give
or withhold his assent to a bill passed by the Assembly.
8. Prime Minister and his cabinet were to aid and advise the president. The
president was required to follow the advice of the cabinet except where he was
empowered to act in his own discretion.
9. The Constitution entitled for a Unicameral Legislature. The National
Assembly was to consist of 300 members. Age limit of a candidate for a seat in
National Assembly was 25 years.
10. Principle of parity was accommodated in the Constitution. West Pakistan
was treated as one unit and seats were divided equally between the two wings
of the country. National Assembly was to meet at least twice a year. Minimum
of one session should be held at Dhaka.
11. Members of the Assembly were to be elected on the basis of Direct
Elections conducted on the basis of Adult Franchise. However, for the first ten
years five additional seats were reserved for women from each wing. Every
citizen, who was more than 21 years in age was considered as an adult.
12. The provincial structure was similar to that of the center. There were 300
members in both provincial assemblies. Ten additional seats were reserved for
women. Punjab was given 40% seats in the West Pakistan Assembly.
13. It was a Written Constitution.
14. It was a Flexible Constitution and two third members of the Assembly
could bring amendment in the constitution.
15. Fundamental Rights were made justiciable. However, the President had
power to suspend the fundamental rights in case of emergency.
16. Elaborate provisions were made for the higher judiciary to ensure its
independence.
17. Urdu and Bengali were declared as the state languages. However, for the
first twenty years English was to continue as an official language. After ten
 years, the president was to appoint a commission to make recommendations
for the replacement of English.

The constitution was never practically implemented as no elections were held. It was
eventually abrogated on October 7, 1958 when Martial Law was enforced.

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Ghaisuddin Balban
Posted by: HistoryPak

Balban was an Ilbari Turk. His original name was Bahauddin. In his youth he was imprisoned and sold
as a slave in Baghdad by the Mogols. Then Iltutmish purchased him from his master in 1233. He
enjoyed high posts during Iltutmish and Razias reign, but he proved treacherous and played an
important role to depose Razia from the throne. Bahram Shah and Masud Shah also gave him
enormous importance. Then vazir Abu bakr appointed him Amir- i- Hajib and from that position he got
the opportunity to consolidate his position among the forty (the Turkish nobles).

Balban was one of the greatest Sultans of Delhi. A great warrior, administrator and statesman, he
established an absolute monarchy and consolidated the Turkish rule in northern India. He did not
resort to the fresh conquests but kept a firm hold over the territories heritage of his illustrious master,
Iltutmish. Balban protected the Sultanate from internal disorder and external danger from the
Mongols. He restored perfect law and order within his dominion and crushed the insubordinate
officials and anti- social elements with an iron hand. He not only propounded the theory of divine
rights of kingship but also possessed a high sense of the sovereigns duty. He was extremely
conscious and hardworking man. He administered even- handed justice to the public and showed no
mercy even to his kith and kin if found guilty. His punishments were rather excessive and cruel which
struck terror in the hearts of the people. A strong disciplinarian, Balban demanded abject submission
and loyalty from the nobility in the administrative affairs. Balban had been a member of the group of
the forty and participated in their struggle against the Sultan for power. Thus he was also responsible
for breaking the power of the Sultan. Now after coming to power, he was of the view that the dignity of
the Sultan and safety of his family could be possible only by breaking the power of the forty.

Even during the reign of Nasiruddin, when he worked as Naib, he tried to break up the power of the
forty. When he himself became the Sultan he again used every mean to achieve this aim. By the time
Balban ascended the throne; most of his nobles had either died or were destroyed by Balban. The
rest who remained alive, were now killed or deprived of their power. He promoted junior Turkish
officers to higher posts so that they could be loyal to him. Similarly a strong army was a necessity for
a strong monarchy. Balban realized its necessity to make his despotism effective, to safeguard his
empire from the invasion of the Mongols and to quell rebellions. He increased the number of officers
and soldiers of his army, paid them handsome salaries took personal interest in their training. Balban
also instructed to have an inquiry about the lands and jagirs which were given to different people by
previous Sultans in return of their military services and came to know that many of them were kept by
those old men, widows and orphans who performed no services to the State, and arranged cash
pensions for them. Even the land and jagirs of those who were serving for the State, were handed
over to the care of State officers and arrangements were made for cash payments to them. But later,
on the plea of lower class, Balban cancelled his orders about the aged, the widows and the orphans
and thus, a useful measure was dropped. The administration of Balban was half military and half civil.
All his officers were supposed to perform both administrative and military duties. Balban himself kept
a control over the entire administration. There was no post of Naib during his reign and the position of
wazir too had become insignificant. Therefore, Balban owed his success largely due to an efficient
organization of his spy- system. The spies used to watch the activities of his governors, military and
civil officers and even that of his own sons. Although, Balban was stern and uncompromising but his
authority was just, enlightened and tolerant. Balbans achievement entitled him to a high place among
the Sultans of Delhi.

Shamsuddin Iltutmism
Posted by: HistoryPak

Shamsuddin Iltutmish was a slave of Qutbuddin Aibak. Due to the good education and wide
knowledge of the Islamic world, which he acquired during the early days of his adversity, he quickly
rose to be the amir- i- shikar and son in law of his master within a decade. In 1206, he held the charge
of Badaun as one of the most trusted lieutenants of Aibak. He was manumitted by Aibak long before
the latter received such formal manumission, himself. It was done in 1205- 1206 at the instance of
Mohammad Ghori who was deeply impressed by the performance of Iltutmish in the campaign against
the Khokhars. Iltutmish was not only a soldier but also a man of creative tastes. Often engaged in
warfare and happily extended his patronage to the pious and learned. He was further endowed with
laudable qualities; he was handsome, intelligent, sagacious and of excellent disposition and manners.
He was also just, benevolent, impartial and a zealous warrior.

The hereditary succession of Aram Shah was refused by the Turkish nobility of Delhi, as he was an
incompetent and unpopular ruler. Iltutmish was invited from Badaun to assume the leadership of
Sultanate. Aram Shah refused to abdicate but was defeated and deposed by Iltutmish in 1211.
Iltutmish was the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate. He made Delhi his seat of governance in
preference to Lahore and proved to be a strong and capable ruler who enjoyed a long reign of twenty-
six years. When Iltutmish ascended the throne, the country was full of rivals and hostile chiefs, and
the rebellious nobles and the vanquished Rajas and Ranas were threatening the existence of the
Sultanate of Delhi. The situation was better handled by Iltutmish and his foresight energy and military
skill, proved himself equal to the situation. He suppressed the rebellious nobles with an iron
hand,crushed the power of the rivals like Yildiz and Qabacha and recovered the lost provinces. He
secured the Sultanate of Delhi diplomatically from the Mongol invasion by warding off their invasion.
He not only saved the empire and rescued his people from danger, but also added the provinces of
Malwa and Sind to the dominions of has master. In consideration of his contribution to the growth of
Muslim rule in India, Iltutmish may rightly be called the real founder of the Sultanate of Delhi. The
contribution of Iltutmish to the monetary system of the Sultanate was very great. It was he who
introduced the Silver Tanka and the Copper Jital, the two basic coins of the Sultanate period. Besides,
he was a builder as well as a conqueror and an administrator, and left monuments both at Delhi and
Ajmer displaying his taste in architecture. Iltutmish was a pious Muslim. However, he was intolerant
towards the Shias. His treatment of Hindus was also not enlightened. He continued to persecute
them. In short, his reign was thus a perpetual series of efforts towards the expansion of an originally
small territory. In 1235, Iltutmish made an attempt to bring the Khokhars under his subjugation, but the
Khokhars showed no signs of appeasement. Exhausted by continuous warfare, Iltutmish fell sick,
returned to Delhi and breathed his last in April, 1236. He was buried in the magnificent tomb which he
had got constructed for himself in Delhi.
Nasiruddin Mahmood
Posted by: HistoryPak

Nasiruddin Mahmud was the posthumous child of the eldest son of Iltutmish named Shahzada
Nasiruddin. Due to the intense love for eldest son, Iltutmish gave same name to his eldest son to his
grandson. Iltutmish wanted the young baby to be considered his son and not grandson for dynastic
reasons. So we should not be surprised at the fact he was called the son of Iltutmish all his life.
Nasiruddin was a young lad of seventeen at the time of accession to the throne. He had no ambition
to become a king but was rushed to the capital disguised as a woman along with his mother and was
placed on the throne by the conspirators, who had killed Masud Shah. Balban was one of the patrons
of Nasiruddin.

Nasiruddin was an educated and intelligent man of gentle and pious nature. He was devoted to his
faith and lived a virtuous life. He had never more than four living wives and no concubines. He kept
himself busy with religious activities. He was also a good calligraphist, as a past time, he used to write
copies of the Quran which gave currency to the popular belief that he made his living by selling his
scripts alone. He adopted an attitude of complete self surrender towards the man in power and played
a role of puppet in their hands. Rather it would be more appropriate to say that Nasiruddin was the
constitutional Chief Executive of the Turkish oligarchy. That is why he became more acceptable to all
the nobles who were left free to settle the matters of state between themselves. As for as the
independent status of Nasiruiddin is concerned, Isami tells us that sultan expressed no opinion
without their (Shamsi nobles) permission. He did not move his hands or feet except at their orders. He
stares clearly that Ulugh Khan (Balban) served the king and controlled all his affairs. The king lived in
the palace and Ulugh Khan governed the empire.

Qutbuddin Aibak
Posted by: HistoryPak

Qutbuddin Aibak is known in history as the founder of the slave dynasty and it is believed that the
dynasty derives its name from Qutbuddin who was originally a slave. But it is also true that before
accession, Qutbuddin had received the letter of manumission from his master (Mohammad Ghori) and
came to accession as an independent ruler. When Mohammad Ghori died in 1206 A.D., he left no
male heir to succeed him. So it was the desire of Mohammad Ghori, that Qutbuddin succeeded him
and his formal accession took place on 24th June, 1206.

He was endowed with many laudable qualities of heart and soul, and surpassed his contemporaries
both in East and West in his liberality, beneficence and gallantry. He was well acquainted with the
principles of civil administration and was an expert in military affairs. He was a great warrior and a
man of infinite courage. He rose to the position of power and glory by the sheer dint of merit and
effort. Before coming to power, he proved so faithful to his master, that he was appointed a
commander of a section of the army of his master. He rendered many valuable services to his master
during his Indian expeditions. In order to strengthen his own position, Qutbuddin entered into
matrimonial alliances with important personalities. He himself married the daughter of Tajuddin Yildiz.
He married his sister to Nasiruddin Qabacha. To Iltutmish he married his daughter.

After coming to power, Qutbuddin had to face many challenges, in order to keep his position intact.
Turkish officers could not be trusted as they were all jealoused of his power. The Rajputs were also a
huge threat, who were defeated and the sovereignty of North India was snatched away from their
hands by the Turks, so they were fighting against the Turks at different places. The distant provinces
whish were captured by Turks, were not under complete control of Qutbuddin, as was the case with
Bengal. Qutbuddin faced all these difficulties with determination. He first strengthened his position in
Delhi and Lahore and then the most of Turkish nobles were persuaded to accept his subordination.
He stubbornly refused to accept the over lordship of Yildis, turned him out of Punjab and saved his
infant kingdom from the politics of Central Asia. Thus, both by diplomacy and force, he succeeded in
maintaining separate and independent status of the Delhi Sultanate. Qutbuddin could not pursue the
policy of extension of his kingdom. He could not pay due attention even towards the Rajputs who
succeeded in recovering some of their territories from the Turks. Mostly he remained busy in
defending his independent position. That is why he remained mostly at Lahore instead of Delhi. He
got very little time as an independent ruler. While playing Chaughan (horse polo), he fell from his
horse and soon died in 1210 A.D. he was buried at Lahore and a simple monument was raised over
his grave.

Cabinet of Talents (1954-55)

Posted by: HistoryPak

Before the dissolution of the constituent assembly Ghulam Muhammad instructed Muhammad Ali
Bogra, the prime minister to form a cabinet for the benefit of the parliament. Hastily a ten-member
cabinet was put together on 24th October 1954 which included five members of previous cabnient
three as ministers Chaudhry Muhammad Ali, Dr A.M Malik and Ghiyyasuddin Pathan, two as
ministers of state Sardar Amir Azam Khan and Murtaza Raza Chadhry. The new members of this
cabinet were M.A. Isphani from the Muslim league, Mir Ghulam Ali Talpur, PML Vice President, Dr
Khan Sahib, Major General Skindar Mirza, General Ayub khan commander in chief of army.

Later on five more ministers were added to this Cabinet, Habib Ibrahim Rahimtoola, Sayyed Abid
Hussain, and Sardar Mumtaz Ali both from Muslim league, Shrawardy and Hussain Sarkar. Bogra
described it as the cabinet of talents which, in the nonexistence of an elected legislature, was
responsible to people. Although he was the figurative head of the cabinet, but had no authority over it.
This Cabinet of Talents can be viewed as the beginning of military taking over civilian responsibility, as
is clear from the appointment of Mirza as Minister of Defense and his time as Interior Minister. Sikaner
Mirza became so important, that he provided strategy and policies of the cabinet. His main task was
to facilitate the cabinet in constitution making. For this purpose, he greatly employed the note that
Ayub khan had drafted in London and presented in USA to closed military audience as the basis for
constitution building. The cabinet first adopted the One Unit Plan, which sought amalgamation of the
provinces and princely state of Pakistan into one province. The cabinet used influential and coercive
methods to eliminate any hurdles in its way to implementing the One Unit Plan.

The cabinet wanted official authorization from all the legislative bodies wherever they existed. Mshtaq
Ahmad Gurmani was appointed as the Governor of Punjab to convince the MPAs to agree to the One
Unit Plan. The NWFP assembly accepted the plan, even though Pir of Manki Shrif with five other
members opposed and boycotted the plan. In Sindh all political forces earlier combined and form a
body known as the Security of Sindh. And on 23rd October 1954 74 out of 109 MPAs issued a signed
 statement against the idea of One Unit. In the wake of this event, the Cabinet of Talent replaced
Sattar Pirzada with Ayub Khuhro, as Chief Minister and after one month Sindh Assembly also agreed
to the One Unit scheme. Mir of Khairpur state agreed with the plan and Amir of Bhawalpur also gave
his consent after dissolution of the ministry. Khan of Qalat, president of Balochistan States Union was
coerced into a merger document on the behalf of states for the administration of West Pakistan.

The Governor General established a council on 16th December 1954. Gurmani was made the
chairman of this council which comprised of Governor and Chief Ministers of Units. It set up
committees to settle the of organization, staffing, integration of services. The cabinet engaged Sir Ivor
Jenning, a British expert to prepare a draft constitution on the basis of the American Presidential
System, with a Vice President and President who were assigned wide executive and financial powers.
This draft was adopted by the Cabinet of Talents as the countrys constitution and the Council of
Administration finalized its report. However, the higher courts halted constitution making by an
executive decree.

Fourteen Points of Quaid-i-Azam

Posted by: Khyzar Kapoor

In order to counter the proposals made in the Nehru Report, Jinnah presented his proposal in the form
of Fourteen Points, insisting that no scheme for the future constitution of the government of India will
be satisfactory to the Muslims until and unless stipulations were made to safe guard their interests.
The following points were presented by the Quaid to defend the rights of the Muslims of the sub-
continent:

1. The form of the future constitution should be federal, with the residuary powers to be vested
in the provinces.
2. A uniform measure of autonomy shall be granted to all provinces.
3. All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the definite
principle of adequate and effective representation of minorities in every province without reducing
the majority in any province to a minority or even equality.
4. In the Central Legislature, Muslim representation shall not be less than one third.
5. Representation of communal groups shall continue to be by separate electorates: provided
that it shall be open to any community, at any time, to abandon its separate electorate in favor of
joint electorate.
6. Any territorial redistribution that might at any time be necessary shall not in anyway affect the
Muslim majority in the Punjab, Bengal and the NWFP.
7. Full religious liberty i.e. liberty of belief, worship, and observance, propaganda, association,
and education, shall be guaranteed to all communities.
8. No bill or resolution or any part thereof shall be passed in any legislature or any other elected
body if three fourths of the members of any community in that particular body oppose such a bill,
resolution or part thereof on the ground that it would be injurious to that community or in the
alternative, such other method is devised as may be found feasible practicable to deal with such
cases.
9. Sind should be separated from the Bombay Presidency.
10. Reforms should be introduced in the NWFP and Balochistan on the same footing as in other
provinces.
11. Provision should be made in the Constitution giving Muslims an adequate share along with
the other Indians in all the services of the State and in local self-governing bodies, having due
regard to the requirements of efficiency.
12. The Constitution should embody adequate safeguards for the protection of Muslim culture
and for the protection and promotion of Muslim education, language, religion and personal laws and
Muslim charitable institutions and for their due share in the grants-in-aid given by the State and by
local self-governing bodies.
13. No cabinet, either Central or Provincial, should be formed without there being a proportion of
at least one-third Muslim ministers.
14. No change shall be made in the Constitution by the Central Legislature except with the
concurrence of the States constituting the Indian Federation.

Muslim League made it clear that no constitutional solution will be acceptable to them unless and until
it en cooperates the fourteen points.

Round Table Conference

Posted by: Khyzar Kapoor

The three Round Table Conferences of 193032 were a series of conferences to formulate future
constitution of India in the light of suggestions given by the Indian Leaders. In Indian Act 1919, it was
said that new reforms will be introduced in Indian Act 1929. So they started planning for 1929 Act. In
1927 British Government appointed a commission to draft coming constitution which is called Simon
Commission. There was no representative of Indians in this Commission thats why all the parties
decided to boycott of this commission except Shafi League. There was great resentment among
Indians because they were waiting for last ten years. Congress wanted a clear declaration from British
Government that the main aim of these conferences would be to draft a scheme for Dominion Status
to India. On 19 June, 1930 British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald summoned the Indian Leader
to attend these conferences. On 13 March, 1930 Gandhi decided to celebrate Independence Day and
started Civil Disobedience Movement for complete independence of India. However, Muslim leaders
stayed away from the movement because Hindus were exploiting the Muslim demand for their own
rights. Muhammad Ali Jinnah had already given a proposal to British Prime Minister to settle down
this issue in London. Gandhi had given ultimatum for the approval of Nehru Report. In this scenario,
when the first Round Table Conference started M.K Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru were in the jail.
Muhammad Ali Jauhar in April 1930 declared, The aim of the movement was not to work for Indian
independence but to make Muslims slave of Hindu Maha Sabah. Along with sixteen British
members, there were fifty-seven representatives from all Indian states and all parties except Indian
National Congress. Muslim Leaders: Quaid-e-Azam, Sir Agha Khan, Muhammad Ali Jauhur, .Maulvi
Fazl Haq and Sir Muhammad Shafi Hindu Mahasabha: B. S. Moonje and M.R. Jayakar Liberals: Tej
Bahadur Sapru, C. Y. Chintamani and Srinivasa Sastri Sikh: Sardar Ujjal Singh Depressed
Classes: B. R. Ambedkar Princely states: Akbar Hydari (Dewan of Hyderabad), Mirza Ismail (Diwan of
Mysore), Kailas Narain Haksar of Gwalior, Maharaja Bhupinder Singh of Patiala, Maharaja Sayajirao
Gaekwad III of Baroda, Maharaja Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir, Maharaja Ganga Singh of
Bikaner, Nawab Hamidullah Khan of Bhopal, K.S. Ranjitsinhji of Nawanagar, MaharajaJai Singh
Prabhakar of Alwar and the rulers of Indore, Rewa, Dholpur, Koriya, Sangli and Sarila. After lengthy
debate, it was decided that federal form of government will be established for India. The Central
Executive would be responsible to Federal Legislature. Provinces will be given autonomy in their own
affairs and Sindh will be considered a separate province with a responsible government. Two sub-
committees were also appointed one will work out the detail of Federal form of government and the
other one will sort out the problems of minorities. Both communities failed to reach any logical
conclusion. On January 19, 1931, the first round table conference was officially finished. Lord Irwin
decided that in the absence of Congress leaders the future of India could not be decided. On January
25, 1931, M.K Gandhi and his colleagues were released from jail and Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed.
The Second Round Table Conference, lasted 7 September 1931 to 1st December 1931, made more
controversies for British Government. Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar has died before that
conference. To resolve the issues of federal and minorities, Gandhi appointed himself the member of
both committees. In the absence of other representatives, he remained fail to resolve the issues. He
presented already rejected Nehru Report to resolve the communal problem. Separate electorate for
Untouchables in the award forced Gandhi to start fast unto death. On August 16, 1932, the British
Government decided to give its famous Communal Award. In this Award, principle of Wieghtage was
applied (Muslim lost majority in Punjab, Sikh got advantage in Punjab, Europeans got advantage
in Bengal because of principle of Wieghtage). Sindh was awarded the status of separate province.
Finally, Communal Award declared untouchables as a minority in India and thus the Hindus
depressed classes were given a number of special seats. At that All India Muslim League was divided
into two factions, both expressed their dissatisfaction on that Award. At last Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad
Ali Jinnah decided to accept this award till alternative solution. The Hindu press considered it against
the fundamental principle of nationalism for India. In the third Round Table Conference, November 17,
1932 to November 24, 1932, the Congress, and Labour Party did not take part. It was decided to
setup a federal legislature in India consisting of elected representatives of the British India and of the
representatives of the state to be nominated by respective ruler. To sum up, we can say that the first
Conference did not gain success because of the absence of the Congress, the Hindu representative
and the second Conference remained fail because of the presence of the Congress which even
enhanced the level of hostility between the Hindu and the Muslims and the communal award proved
even final blow to the relations of the two communities of Indian subcontinent. As result of these
conferences British Government issued a White Paper based on the recommendations which was
handed over to Select Committee. On July 4, 1935 a new constitution of India came into being which
was approved by both of the Houses of the Parliament.