College of Engineering, Pune

Engineering Mathematics I
Note 16

SEQUENCES

Definition of a Sequence
A sequence is a very intuitively clear concept. Even in real life, we not only talk of
sequences of numbers, but we also talk of a sequence of events or a sequence of shots
in a film. In some card games certain sequences of cards win the game. Many popular
puzzles give you the first few terms of a sequence and ask you to find the next. The
central idea behind all these instances is that the objects in question (e.g. the events,
the shots or the cards) have to appear in a certain order. That is why we talk of, say,
the fifth term of a sequence. So, formally, given a sequence we get a function defined on
the set of positive integers, whose value at 1 is the first term of the sequence, the value
at 2 is the second term of the sequence, and, in general the value at n is the n-th term
of the sequence.
So, formally, a sequence is a function from IN, the set of postive integers. Sometimes,
it is convenient to include 0 in the domain and then we talk of the zero-th term of the
sequence, even though it is really the first term when we write down the terms of the
sequence. Note that this definition presupposes that the function, say f (n) is defined
for every positive integer n. This is often not the case for sequences we encounter in
real life. They are defined only for the first few (say, 10 or 12) integers. Such sequences
are called finite sequences (of lengths 10 or 12 etc.) and they are ususally studeied
under a different name, viz. permutations (of length 10 or 12 etc.) with (possibly)
repeated entries. Problems of counting all such sequences of a given type are important
in combinatorial mathematics.
We restrict ourselves only to (infinite) sequences, i.e. functions defined on the entire
set IN (and sometimes on the larger set IN {0}). If f is a sequence, then its value
at a particular m IN is called the m-th term of the sequence. However, unlike for
functions of a continuous variable, it is generally not denoted by f (m) but by some
symbol such as am , bm , xm etc. So we often denote sequences by symbols like {an }n1
(or {an }n0 if we want to include the zero-th term). Sometimes a vectorial notation such
as ~a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .) is used.
There are three standard ways of specifying a sequence. The most complete one is
to express the n-th term, say an , explicitly as an expression in n such as n2 , sin n, 2n , n!
n+1
. The second method is to list down a few initial terms from and leave it to the
3n + 7

1
reader to guess the formula for the general term an . For example, if the first few terms
of the sequence are

1, 3, 7, 15, 31, . . . (1)

the most logical guess is that an = 2n 1. Strictly speaking, many other formulas are
valid, but usually there is one that stands out unequivocally. This method is imperfect,
but has the advantage that the actual values of the first few terms often reveal the
behaviour of the sequence more forcefully than a cold formula can. In fact, even when
a sequence is specified by the first method, i.e. by giving an explicit formula for an , it
is often a good idea to write its first few terms to really understand the sequence.
As with functions of a continuous variable, sequences can also be described graph-
ically. We plot the points (n, an ) for a few values of n. Often, the segments joining a
point (n, an ) to (n, 0) on the x-axis (or the n-axis if you prefer) are also drawn to give
a more visual idea of the magnitudes of the terms. Such graphs are called histographs
and are commonly used, for example, in exhibiting the annual levels of production or
the temperature of a patient taken at regular time intervals.

Recursively Defined Sequences

The methods given above to specify a sequence, viz. either giving an explicit formula
or listing a few sample values or drawing graphs are available for any functions, not just
for sequences. But there is one more method, called recursion which is unique to
sequences. In this method, a sequence, say {an } is specified by listing the first few terms
and then expressing the general term an not directly in terms of n, but in terms of the
previous few terms of the sequence. Such an expression for an is called a recurrence
relation for the sequence {an }. The values of the first few terms are called initial
values. As a simple example, consider the recurrence relation

an = 3an1 (2)

with the initial condition a1 = 5. From these we determine, successively, a2 = 15, a3 =

45, a4 = 135, . . .. As these values form a G.P., we guess that the general term of the
sequence is given by

an = 5 3n1 (3)

Of course, this guess has to be verified by induction. But that is easy to do. Similarly
one can show that the sequence bn = n! can be defined recursively by the recurrence
relation

bn = nbn1 (4)

2
with the initial condition b1 = 1. Historically the first and the most famous example of
a recurrence relation is the Fibonacci relation

Fn = Fn1 + Fn2 (5)

with the initial conditions F0 = 1, F1 = 1. Note that unlike in (2) and (4), in (5), the
n-th term of the sequence depends on not just one but two preceding terms. It is easy
to calculate the second and the subsequent terms of the sequence one by one as

F2 = 1, F3 = 2, F4 = 3, F5 = 5, F6 = 8, F7 = 13, . . . (6)

But it is not easy to guess a formula for the general term Fn from these few values. This
formula is given by
" !n !n #
1 1+ 5 1 5
Fn = (7)
5 2 2

It is not difficult to verify (13) by induction on n. But that is not quite the same as
arriving at it. In technical terms we say that (7) is the solution of the recurrence relation
(5).
The problem of solving recurrence relations is extremely interesting. But we shall
not go into it here. The reason we mention this method of specifying a sequence is that
many sequences arise naturally in this manner. Some process is carried out iteratively,
i.e. repeatedly. The outcome at the end of each iteration depends on that of the previous
iterations and this gives rise to a recursively defined sequence. A common example is
the total at the end of the n-th year on a given principal amount at a given rate of
interest compounded annually. If the principal is P and the rate of interest is p.c.p.a.
then the total Pn at the end of the n-th year is given by
100 +
Pn = Pn1 (8)
100
for n 1 with the initial condition P0 = P . This is analogous to (2) and predictably,
the solution is Pn = P0 ( 104+
100
)n , a fact we learn early in schools.

The Water and the Milk Problem

Lest it appear that all recurrence relations of order 2 (i.e. those where the n-th term
depends only on one preceding term, viz. the (n 1)-th) can be solved by inspection, we
give here an example, where this is not quite the case. The example is also important
because it has a natural analogue in differential equations. Moreover, it also provides a
motivation for the concept of the limit of a sequence, which we shall study formally in
the next note.

3
 Suppose two glasses contain 100 cc. each of milk and water respectively. Suppose
5 cc. of the liquid in the first glass is poured to that in the second, the mixture is stirred
and 5 cc. of it is transferred back to the first glass. Each such two way transfer will be
called a dilution. Now let an be the percentage (by volume) of water in the first glass
after n dilutions. We set a0 = 0 because to start with there is no water in the first glass.
100
By a direct calculation, one can show that a1 = . Similarly, we can calculate a2 , a3
21
etc. But it is not easy to guess a formula for the general term an . However, using simple
arithmetic it is not hard to write down a recurrence relation for the sequence {an }. It
comes out to be
100 19
an = + an1 (9)
21 21
We can get a formula for an if we can solve this. To do so, we first write equations
similar to (14) for an1 , an2 , . . . , and finally for a1 . That is,
100 19

an = + an1



21 21







100 19



an1 = + an2

21 21



..
. (10)

100 19


a2 = + a1

21 21









100

a1 =



21
 2
19 19
If we now multiply the first equation by 1, the second by 21
, the third by 21
, . . . , and
 n1
the last one by 1921
and add, we see that all the terms except an on the left hand
side cancel, giving
2 n1
100 100 19 100 19 100 19
 
an = + + + ... +
21 21 21 21 21 21 21
which, using the formula for the sum of a geometric progression and a little simplification,
gives
n 
19
 
an = 50 1 (11)
21
which tallies with the values of a0 and a1 that we already know.
In the present problem, the iteration consisted of a transfer of liquids. But iteration
is a common feature of many other processes. As an important example, when we are
unable to find the exact answer, say A, to some problem, we construct a sequence,

4
say {an } of approximations to A. The first approximation is calculated by hand (or
sometimes chosen suitably). But each subsequent approximation an is obtained by
refining the preceding approximation an1 . The exact answer A is often the limit of
this sequence {an } as n tends to infinity. If we are able to calculate this limit, then we
have the exact answer to our problem. Otherwise we settle for an for large n as a very
good approximation to A. Indeed this is one of the reasons why limits of sequences are
so important.

Limit in the water-and-milk problem

Without going into the formal definition of the limit of a sequence here, let us cal-
culate the limit of the sequence (11) above in the water and milk problem. The fraction
19
is less than 1 and so its successive powers will be smaller and smaller. We shall prove
21  n
19
later that 0 as n . This fact, along with some elementary properties of
21
limits implies

lim an = 50
n
(12)

This means that if we go on mixing the liquids then after a large number of transfers,
the percentage of water in the first glass will be very close to 50. This is intuitively
obvious too. (Why?)
We evaluated n
lim an using the explicit formula (11) for an . It is interesting that we
could have also evaluated the limit directly from the recurrence relation (9), bypassing
(11), i.e. without solving the recurrence relation. Indeed, denote this limit by L. Then
L is also the limit of an1 as n tends to infinity. So, if we take the limits of both the
sides of (9) we get an equation for L, viz.
100 19
L= + L (13)
21 21
solving which we get L = 50. But there is a catch. We are implicitly assuming here
that the limit n
lim an exists. In other words, what we have shown is that if at all this
limit exists then it must be 50. It may happen for some sequences that the limit does
not exist and still a recurrence relation for the sequence gives a false value for it. As a
simple example, suppose {bn } is defined recursively by

bn = bn1 (14)

with the initial condition b1 = 1. The terms of this sequence are alternately 1 and 1.
So this sequence is not convergent. Still, if we blindly let n tend to on both the sides
of (19), we get a false value 0 for the limit.

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 So, our alternate derivation of (12) will be logically correct only if we have some
way of showing that the limit lim an exists. It may seem paradoxical that we have
n
to prove the existence of something without evaluating it. But this happens frequently
in mathematics. In the present case, we use the theorem that every monotonically
increasing sequence which is bounded above is convergent, i.e. has a limit. t is intuitively
obvious that the sequence {an } constructed above is monotonically increasing, because
with every dilution, more water comes into the first glass. However, for a rigorous proof,
100 19
we have to prove that + an1 an1 , which reduces to proving that an1 50.
21 21
So, it is convenient here to use induction to prove simultaneously that an > an1 and
an 50 for every n. When this is done, the theorem quoted above guarantees the
existence of the limit.

Completeness of Real Numbers

The theorem used above, viz. that every monotonically increasing sequence which
is bounded above has a limit is an expression of one of the most important properties
of the real numbers, called their completeness. A similar result is not true for the
system of rational numbers as can be shown by simple examples. A classic example is
the sequence an = (1 + n1 )n . By a direct comparison of consecutive terms, it is not hard
to show that this sequence is monotonically increasing. Further it is also easy to show
that every term of it is less than 3. So, the sequence has a limit, popularly denoted by e.
But e is not a rational number even though it is the limit of a sequence all whose terms
are rational. (Proving that e is not rational is not easy. An example where a sequence

of rational numbers converges to 2 will be given in the exercises.)
There are many other formulations of completeness. Many basic concepts in math-
ematics such as derivatives, slopes, curvature, arc lengths, integrals, areas and volumes
are defined as some kinds of limits. If the existence of limits is not assured, it would be
pointless to study these concepts. So, completeness is, by far, the most important prop-
erty of the real number system from a theoretical point of view. Not surprisingly, the
proof of every non-trivial theorem of calculus requires completeness directly or indirectly.
Even theorems such as the Intermediate Value Property for continuous functions require
completeness crucially. Similarly, when we talk of the maximum or the minimum of a
function over an interval we often take it for granted that they exist. But their existence
often requires completeness. However, we shall generally skip such proofs. They are
studied in a branch of mathematics called analysis. Suffice it to say here that if we fig-
uratively think of the concept of a limit as the very heart of calculus, then completeness
is what makes the heart tick!

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 Exercises

1. Define an to be the n-th digit of the decimal expansion of a real number x. De-
termine this sequence when x = 23/50, 1/7, . Prove that {an } is a recurring
sequence if and only if x is rational. (Here recurring means that the terms repeat
in cycles after some stage. Do not confuse it with a recursively defined sequence.)

2. Verify that (7) is indeed the solution of the Fibonacci relation (5).

3. Generalise the milk and water problem as follows. Without loss of generality, take
the volume transferred every time as one unit. Initially suppose the first glass has
x units of milk and the second glass has y units of water. Of course, we assume
that x > 1. (In the original problem, the unit is 5 cc and so x = y = 20.)
Let bn be the number of units of water in the first glass at the end of the n-th
exchange, with b0 = 0. Prove that
y
bn bn1 =
y+1
(x 1)y
where = . Find n
lim bn both with and without solving this recurrence
x(y + 1)
relation.

4. The transfer of liquids in the last problem is discrete, i.e. suddenly one unit is
transferred in a moment. Suppose, instead, that liquids are transferred continu-
ously by two pumps, one of them transferring the liquid in the first container to
the second and the second pump doing the opposite, at equal uniform rates, which
we take to be one unit of volume per unit of time. Note that unlike in the discrete
transfer, in the continuous transfer the volumes of the liquids in both the glasses
remain constant, viz. x and y respectively throughout.
Let t denote time (measured in suitable units) and V = V (t) be the volume of
dV
water in the first glass at time t. Then is the rate at which V changes. The
dt
initial condition is V (0) = 0.

(a) Show that

dV
+ V = 1
dt
x+y
where = .
xy
(b) Solve the differential equation above by separating the variables to express V
as a function of t and find lim V (t). Do you get the expected answer?
t

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 p p + 2q
5. Let x = and y = , where p and q are positive integers.
q p+q

Prove that : (i) x2 can never be 2

(ii) if x2 > 2 then y 2 < 2.
(iii) if x2 < 2 then y 2 > 2.

3p + 4q
6. Let x, y be as in the last exercise and let z = .
2p + 3q

Prove that (i) if x2 < 2 then z 2 < 2 and x < z

and (ii) if x2 > 2 then z 2 > 2 and z < x.

[Hint : z is obtained from y exactly the same way y is obtained from x.]
pn
7. Define a sequence {an } of rational numbers recursively by
qn
pn = pn1 + 2qn1
and qn = pn1 + qn1
3 7 17
starting from p1 = q1 = 1. The first few terms of the sequence are 1, , , , . . ..
2 5 12

(i) For every n prove that p2n 2qn2 = (1)n . Hence show that an 2 as
n . Thus we get a sequence of rationals which converges to an irrational

number, viz. 2.
(ii) Using the last two exercises show that the subsequence {a2n+1 } is monoton-
ically increasing while the subsequence {a2n } is monotonically decreasing.
This shows that a monotonically increasing, bounded sequence of rationals
need not be convergent in the set of rational numbers. Thus, the rational
number system is incomplete.

(iii) Find a rational number which agrees with 2 upto five places of decimals.