Guide To Material Selection

GUIDELINE
Guideline Material Selection Doc Number:

Title:
Guideline Process Group Issuing
Owner: Authority:
MATERIAL SELECTION
B1 Issued for Review

Rev Changes Approved Date
UNCONTROLLED COPY IF PRINTED Page 1 of 57

" 2009. All Rights Reserved. For Internal Use Only."
Material Selection
Doc Number: Revision: Approval Date:

3 24 Jul 2009
1.0 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 4

2.0 ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................................................................... 4
3.0 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SELECTION ..................................................................................... 5
3.1 Unalloyed Steels ........................................................................................................................... 6
3.2 Low-alloyed Steels........................................................................................................................ 6
3.3 Alloyed Steels ............................................................................................................................... 6
3.4 Nickel Alloys .................................................................................................................................. 7
3.5 Copper Alloys ................................................................................................................................ 7
3.6 Aluminum Alloys........................................................................................................................... 7
3.7 Titanium Alloys ............................................................................................................................. 8
3.8 Table of most commonly encountered materials ...................................................................... 9
4.0 SET-UP FOR MATERIALS SELECTION REPORTS ............................................................................ 13
5.0 MATERIAL DETERIORATION MECHANISMS ..................................................................................... 14
5.1 Overview of Corrosive Media in a Process Plant .................................................................... 14
5.2 Sulfidation or Sulfidic Corrosion .............................................................................................. 16
5.3 High temperature H2S/H2 CORROSION..................................................................................... 17
5.4 Naphthenic Acid Corrosion ....................................................................................................... 17
5.5 High Temperature Hydrogen Attack ......................................................................................... 18
5.6 Polythonic Acid Stress Corrosion Cracking ............................................................................ 19
5.7 Wet H2S Damage ......................................................................................................................... 19
5.8 Erosion-Corrosion by Ammonium Salts .................................................................................. 21
5.9 Cyanides in Sour Water.............................................................................................................. 22
5.10 Alkaline Stress Corrosion Cracking (ASCC) ............................................................................ 23
5.11 Ammonia Stress Corrosion Cracking of Copper Alloys ......................................................... 23
5.12 Cracking by Anhydrous Ammonia ............................................................................................ 24
5.13 Amine Corrosion ......................................................................................................................... 24
5.14 Caustic Corrosion ....................................................................................................................... 24
5.15 Potassium Hydroxide Corrosion ............................................................................................... 25
5.16 Methanol Induced Stress Corrosion of Titanium .................................................................... 25
5.17 CO2 Corrosion in an Aqueous Phase ....................................................................................... 26
5.18 Mercury Embrittlement ............................................................................................................... 28
5.19 Erosion ......................................................................................................................................... 28
5.20 CO / CO2 Stress Corrosion......................................................................................................... 28
5.21 Combined Effect of OF CO / CO2 / H2S ..................................................................................... 28
5.22 Chloride Corrosion ..................................................................................................................... 29
5.23 Seawater Corrosion .................................................................................................................... 29
5.24 Organic Acid Corrosion ............................................................................................................. 31
5.25 Sulfuric Acid Corrosion.............................................................................................................. 31
5.26 Hydrochloric Acid Corrosion ..................................................................................................... 32
5.27 Phosphoric Acid Corrosion ....................................................................................................... 33
5.28 Nitric Acid Corrosion .................................................................................................................. 33
5.29 Molten Sulphur ............................................................................................................................ 33
5.30 Atmospheric Corrosion .............................................................................................................. 33
5.31 Corrosion Under Insulation ....................................................................................................... 34
5.32 Liquid Metal Enbrittlement ......................................................................................................... 34
5.33 Low Temperature Fracture ........................................................................................................ 35
5.34 Elevated Temperature Creep ..................................................................................................... 35
5.35 Temper Enbrittlement ................................................................................................................. 36
5.36 Fatigue ......................................................................................................................................... 36
5.37 High Temperature Oxidation ..................................................................................................... 37
5.38 Carburization ............................................................................................................................... 37
5.39 Metal Dusting .............................................................................................................................. 37
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5.40 Fuel Ash Corrosion ..................................................................................................................... 38

5.41 Failure of Dissimilar Metal Joints .............................................................................................. 38
6.0 DESCRIPTION FOR MAIN EQUIPMENT .............................................................................................. 38
7.0 DESCRIPTION FOR PIPING, INSTRUMENTATION ............................................................................. 40
7.1 Piping Materials .......................................................................................................................... 40
7.2 Specific Requirements for Instrumentation ............................................................................. 40
8.0 OTHER PROCESS DESIGN AND ENGINEERING STANDARDS ....................................................... 41
9.0 ADDITIONAL SERVICE REQUIREMENTS ........................................................................................... 41
9.1 Typical Sour Service Requirements ......................................................................................... 41
9.2 Typical Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC) Requirements ...................................................... 42
9.3 Typical Requirements for Clad Material: .................................................................................. 42
9.4 Typical Requirements for High Strength Steels in Steam Service ........................................ 43
9.5 Typical Fabrication Requirements for Deaerators .................................................................. 43
9.6 Typical Design Requirements for Sulphuric Acid Service ..................................................... 44
9.7 Typical PSA System Requirements .......................................................................................... 44
9.8 Typical p91 Requirements ......................................................................................................... 45
10.0 LGN PROJECT ENGINEERING SPECIFICATIONS ............................................................................. 50
11.0 HISTORY...................................................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
12.0 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 50
13.0 TERMINOLOGY ...................................................................................................................................... 50
14.0 EXHIBITS ................................................................................................................................................ 50

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
This standard presents an overview of corrosion mechanisms, material degradation phenomena and material
guidelines as generally encountered in oil and gas producing facilities, refineries and (petro) chemical plants.
It is not intended to be complete, or give all applicable requirements, and shall be used with care.
For every new job and newly prepared materials selection report, the project specifics shall be carefully
studied, before parts from this standard are incorporated.
The purpose of this document is to have a quick start, prevent repeating work and, most important, to get a
consistent approach through all projects.
2.0 ABBREVIATIONS
The following abbreviations will be used:
ASCC Alkaline stress corrosion cracking
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
CA Corrosion Allowance
CE Carbon equivalent
CI Cast Iron
CRA Corrosion Resistant Alloy
CS Carbon Steel / Cast Steel
CUI Corrosion under Insulation
DEA Di-ethanol amine
DIPA Di-isopropyl amine
EN EuroNorm
EPDM Ethylene-propylene-diene monomer rubber
FEPM Fluorocarbon ethylene propylene monomer elastomer
FFKM Perfluoroelastomer (Tetrafluoroethylene)
FKM Fluoroelastomer
GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding
GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
HAZ Heat Affected Zone
HIC Hydrogen Induced Cracking
HTHA High Temperature Hydrogen Attack

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IIR Isobutene-isoprene rubber (Butyl)

LME Liquid Metal Embrittlement
LNG Liquefied natural gas
LPG Liquefied petroleum gas
MDEA Methyl-di-ethanol amine
MEA Mono-ethanol amine
NAC Naphthenic Acid Corrosion
NACE National Association of Corrosion Engineers
NDT Non Destructive Testing
PASCC Polythionic Acid Stress Corrosion Cracking
PRE Pitting Resistance Equivalent
PTFE Poly-tetra-fluor ethylene
PWHT Post weld heat treatment
SAW Submerged Arc Welding
SCC Stress Corrosion Cracking
SMAW Shielded Metal Arc Welding
SOHIC Stress Oriented Hydrogen Induced Cracking
SS Stainless Steel
SSC Sulfide Stress Cracking
TAN Total Acid Number
UNS Unified numbering system
UT Ultrasonic Testing
3.0 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SELECTION

The material selection for process units in general is determined by:
a. Pressure of the system.
b. Temperature.
c. Process Medium.
These operating data are given on the "process flow diagrams" and the "material balance" prepared by the
Process Department.
Besides these data also the mechanical design conditions (as per MDDs) have to be checked before a
material can be selected.
Main materials used in the hydrocarbon processing industry are:
Unalloyed steels.
Low-alloyed steels.
Stainless steels.
Nickel alloys.

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Copper alloys.
Aluminum alloys.
Titanium alloys.
Plastics.
Cladded steel.
In addition to economic reasons, the selection of a material is determined by its properties, which are:
Mechanical properties, as hardness, yield strength, tensile strength, impact strength, creep and
fatigue properties.
Chemical or corrosion properties, as resistance to general corrosion, pitting, crevice corrosion, stress
corrosion, erosion corrosion, and corrosion fatigue.
Fabrication properties, as weldability, necessity of heat treating and necessity of non-destructive
testing.
Physical properties, as melting point, density, thermal expansion, electrical resistance, specific heat
and heat transfer coefficient.
Materials are normally selected according to ASTM or EN standards.
3.1 Unalloyed Steels

Unalloyed steels (mild steel or carbon steel) are mostly applied due to the good weldability, the
material strength, and its relatively cheap price.
3.2 Low-alloyed Steels

For specific applications at elevated temperature, low-alloyed steels are applied. Their alloying
content generally is below 5wt%. They have increased high temperature strength, resistance to
creep, and resistance to oxidation. They have decreased weldability, and usually a post weld heat
treatment for release of internal stresses is required.
Low-alloyed steels are also applied for increased corrosion resistance in for example sulphur
containing hydrocarbons.
3.3 Alloyed Steels

Most commonly applied are the stainless steels with a chromium content above 12wt%. The two
main classes of stainless steel are the 12%Cr ferritic or martensitic steels (AISI 400 series) and the
type 18-8 austenitic stainless steels (AISI 300 series). 12%Cr steels are cheaper and stronger than
the austenitic stainless steels, however they are less corrosion resistant and more difficult to weld.
3.3.1 AISI 400 Series Stainless Steels

Wrought 12%Cr steels are mainly applied for internal parts, e.g. column trays, and should
not be applied for pressure retaining components, such as pressure vessel shells. Where
welding is considered, low carbon grades SS 405 or SS 410S should be considered.
Cast 12%Cr steels are used for rotating equipment, valves, etc. Where welding is
considered, the weldable low carbon 13Cr-4Ni grade CA6NM (UNS J91540) is preferred
above the high carbon 12Cr grade CA15 (UNS J91150).
3.3.2 AISI 300 Series Stainless Steels

Austenitic stainless steels are widely applied in the (petro)chemical industry where corrosive
conditions are a concern. Austenitic stainless steels can also be applied for high
temperatures (e.g. furnace coils) up to about 800C and at very low temperatures (e.g.
ethylene refrigerant systems) down to about -200C.

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Austenitic stainless steels may be subject to chloride stress corrosion cracking above 65C.
In this case, solid SS should be prevented, and instead a SS internal clad or weld overlaid
construction shall be considered.
For welded equipment and piping, typically the low carbon L grades, or the chemically
stabilized grades (e.g. SS 321, 347), are specified, unless the upper design temperature
restricts the use of L grade materials.
For high temperature applications, above 450C, it may be required to apply a high carbon
H grade for sufficient strength properties.
3.3.3 Duplex Stainless Steels

An additional type of stainless steel, is duplex (ferritic / austenitic) stainless steel. The 50:50
ferrite-austenite structure gives improved corrosion and abrasion resistance together with
an improved strength. Duplex SS (e.g. type 2205 or 2507) are typically used in areas where
a higher resistance against chlorides is required. Alternatively, duplex SS can be applied
when a higher strength is required than the AISI 300 SS have.
For optimum properties the ferrite level shall be determined to be within 40-60% for the base
metal, and 35-70 wt% for the weld metal and HAZ. Furthermore, the material should be
essentially free of intermetallic phases.
3.3.4 Precipitation-Hardening
These alloys generally contain Cr and less than 8% Ni, with other elements in small
amounts. As the name implies, they are hardenable by heat treatment. PH stainless steel
develop very high strength through a low-temperature heat treatment. The aging treatment
produces hard, intermetallic precipitates and simultaneously tempers the martensite. The
austenitic alloys must be thermally treated to transform austenite to martensite before
precipitation hardening can be accomplished. Typical applications include shafts, high-
pressure pumps, fasteners and springs.
3.4 Nickel Alloys

Nickel alloys are mainly applied when an increased corrosion resistance is required, and/or creep
resistance (at high temperature) is required. Nickel alloys are resistant against strong inorganic and
organic acids, alkalis, seawater, etc. There are specific types of nickel alloys for oxidizing media and
for reducing media. Most types of nickel alloys contain Ni+Cr, or Ni+Cr+Mo.
3.5 Copper Alloys

Copper alloys are normally applied for their good corrosion resistance, their good castability, and
their excellent heat transfer properties (exchangers). They are commonly applied for water services,
like brackish or seawater service. Copper alloys have a high chloride induced corrosion resistance,
however are sensitive to ammonia containing media.
Commonly applied types of copper alloys are brasses (Cu-Zn), bronzes (Cu-Al or Cu-Sn), and
copper-nickel alloys (Cu/Ni 70-30, Cu/Ni 90-10).
3.6 Aluminum Alloys

Aluminum alloys are less commonly applied, mainly due to their low strength. Common applications
are for silos and hoppers, for protective sheeting (due to their good atmospheric corrosion properties
and low weight) and at very low temperatures (e.g. cold boxes).

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3.7 Titanium Alloys

Titanium alloys, and in a lower extent zirconium alloys, are only applied when excellent corrosion
resistance is required. The major disadvantage is their high costs.
Titanium alloys are mainly applied for heat exchanger tubes, for example in seawater service.
Titanium has better resistance against oxidizing media, zirconium to reducing media.
When there are no specific requirements, the plates, tubes, sheets, etc can be made of unalloyed Ti
grade 1 or 2. For cladded plates, Ti grade 1 is normally preferred, since it is easier to form.
For specific requirements, like high temperature water service (>80C) or increased under-deposit
or crevice corrosion resistance, alloyed Ti grade 12 or 7 may be required instead.

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3.8 Table of most commonly encountered materials
Name UNS /other Wst. nr Brand name(s) Composition Remark

UNALLOYED STEELS
CS P265GH 1.0425 A285 Gr B General application
CS P355NH 1.0565 A516 gr 70
LTCS P275NL1 1.0488 A516 gr 60
LOW-ALLOYED STEELS
C-0.5Mo 0.5% Mo High T strength
1Cr-0.5Mo T12 or P12 1%Cr, Improved creep
0.5%Mo resistance
1.25Cr-0.5Mo T11 or P11 1.25%Cr, Hot hydrogen
0.5%Mo resistance
2.25Cr-1Mo T22 or P22 2.25%Cr, Hot hydrogen
1%Mo resistance
3.5 Ni 1.5637 3.5% Ni Low temperature
applications
ALLOYED STEELS
5Cr-0.5Mo T5 or P5 Sulphur corrosion
resist.
9Cr-1Mo T9 or P9 9%Cr-1%Mo For heater coils
9Cr-1Mo-V T91 or P91 SHP steam piping
9Ni 1.5662 Low temperature
spheres
FERRITIC/MARTENSITIC STAINLESS STEELS
SS 405 UNS S40500 1.4002 13%Cr For column trays
SS 410S UNS S41008 1.4006 12%Cr For column trays
SS 415 UNS S41500 1.4313 13%Cr-4%Ni Castings, valves
SS 430 UNS S43000 1.4016 11%Cr
AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS
SS 304 UNS S30400 1.4301 18%Cr-8%Ni Cryogenic service
SS 304L UNS S30403 1.4306 18%Cr-8%Ni Corrosive service
SS 316L UNS S31603 1.4404 16%Cr-10%Ni- Corrosive service,
2%Mo acids
SS 321 UNS S32100 1.4541 18%Cr-10%Ni, High temperature
Ti corrosive
hydrocarbons

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SS 347 UNS S34700 1.4550 18%Cr-10%Ni, High temperature
Nb/Cb corrosive
hydrocarbons
SS 310S UNS S31008 1.4842 25%Cr-21%Ni High temperature
service
SS 904L UNS N08904 1.4539 Uranus B6 20%Cr-23%Ni- For organic acids
Sandvik 2RK65 4.5%Mo
254SMO UNS S31254 1.4547 Polarit 778 20%Cr-18%Ni- For seawater service
6%Mo-Cu
6Mo UNS N08367 Al-6XN 20%Cr-24%Ni- For seawater service
6%Mo
25-6Mo UNS N08926 1.4529 1925hMo, 20%Cr-25%Ni- For seawater service,
UNS N08925 Incoloy 25-6Mo 6%Mo-1%Cu caustic and acids
DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS

SS 329 UNS S32900 1.4460 28%Cr-
4.5%Ni-
1.5%Mo
Duplex 2205 UNS S31803 1.4462 SAF 2205 22%Cr-5%Ni- For sweet, high
Uranus 45N+ 3%Mo pressure, chloride
containing media
Duplex UNS S32550 1.4507 Ferralium 255 25%Cr- For resistance to
alloy 255 Uranus 52N 5.5%Ni- chlorides and SCC
3%Mo-2%Cu
Superduplex UNS S32750 1.4410 SAF 2507 25%Cr-7%Ni- For seawater service
2507 4%Mo without crevices
Superduplex UNS S32760 1.4469 Zeron 100 25%Cr-7%Ni- For seawater service
1.4501 3%Mo-Cu-W without crevices
NICKEL ALLOYS
Alloy 20 UNS N08020 2.4660 Carpenter 20 32%Ni-20%Cr- For sulfuric acid, etc.
Nicrofer 3620 2.5%Mo-
3.5%Cu
Alloy 28 UNS N08028 1.4563 Sanicro 28 30%Ni-27%Cr-
Nicrofer 3127LC 3.5%Mo-Cu
Alloy 59 UNS N06059 2.4605 59%Ni-22%Cr- Resistant to mineral

15%Mo acids, chloride
resistant
Alloy 600 UNS N06600 2.4816 Inconel 600, 72%Ni-15%Cr- High temperature
NiCr15Fe 8%Fe oxidation

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Alloy 625 UNS N06625 2.4856 Inconel 625 62%Ni-21%Cr- Highly resistant to
9%Mo- oxidizing acids and
3.5%Nb ClSCC
Alloy 800 UNS N08800 1.4876 Incoloy 800 30%Ni-20%Cr- Resistance to HT
40%Fe oxidation and
carburization
Alloy 800H UNS N08810 1.4958 Incoloy 800H 30%Ni-20%Cr- High creep-rupture
40%Fe strength
Alloy 825 UNS N08825 2.4858 Incoloy 825, 38%Ni-21%Cr- Resistant to acids,
NiCr21Mo 3%Mo pitting
Sanicro 41
Alloy G-3 UNS N06985 2.4619 Hastelloy G-3 45%Ni-21%Cr- For phosphoric and
19%Fe-7%Mo sulfuric acid service
Alloy C-276 UNS N10276 2.4819 Hastelloy C-276 57%Ni-15%Cr- Resistant to strong
15%Mo-5%Fe acids, oxidizers, and
ClSCC
Alloy C-22 UNS N06022 2.4602 Hastelloy C-22 57%Ni-21%Cr- Resistant to strong
13%Mo- acids, oxidizers, and
2.5%Fe ClSCC
Alloy B-2 UNS N10665 Hastelloy B-2 68%Ni-32%Mo Resistant to reducing
acids
Alloy 400 UNS N04400 2.4360 Monel 400 65%Ni- For resistance to HCl,
30%Cu-2%Fe salts and seawater
COPPER ALLOYS
CuNi 70/30 UNS C71500 2.0882 Cunifer 30 69%Cu- Heat exchanger tubes,
CuNi30Mn1Fe 30%Ni-1%Fe Seawater pipe
CuNi 90/10 UNS C70600 2.0872 Cunifer 10 89%Cu- Heat exchanger tubes,
CuNi10Fe 10%Ni-1%Fe Seawater pipe
Adm. Brass UNS C44300 71%Cu- Heat exchanger tubes
28%Zn-1%Sn
Alum-Brass UNS C68700 77%Cu- Heat exchanger tubes
20%Zn-2%Al
Bronze UNS C93700 85%Cu, Valves, pumps, fittings
10%Sn,
10%Pb
Si. Bronze UNS C87200 Silicon bronze >89%Cu, Valves, pumps, fittings
4%Si
Al. Bronze UNS C61400 2.0932 CuAl8Fe 91%Cu-7%Al- Seawater service
2%Fe

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Ni-Al Bronze UNS C63000 2.0966 82%Cu- Seawater service,
Cast: UNS 2.0975 10%Al-5%Ni- Seawater pumps
C95800 3%Fe
Gun metal UNS C90500 Tin bronze 88%Cu- valves

10%Sn-2%Zn
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Al 99.5 UNS A91050 3.0255 Al 1050A Min. 99.5%Al Silos, hoppers,
container
Al-Mg2.7-Mn UNS A95454 3.3537 Al 5454, 96.4%Al, Silos, vessels,
ISO AlMg3Mn 2.7%Mg, sheeting
0.5%Mn
Al-Mn1-Cu UNS A93003 3.0517 Al 3003, 98.7%Al, Cold boxes,
ISO AlMn1Cu 1%Mn, exchangers
0.1%Cu
Al-Mg4.5-Mn UNS A95083 3.3547 Al 5083 94.9%Al, Cold boxes,
4.5%Mg, cryogenics
0.5%Mn
Al-Mg5 UNS A95056 3.3355 Al 5056A 94.8%Al, Protective sheeting,
5%Mg, vessels, marine
0.1%Mn
Al-Mg1-SiCu UNS A96061 3.3211 Al 6061 98%Al, 1%Mg, Corrosion resistance,
ISO AlMg1SiCu 0.6%Si, marine corrosion
0.2%Cu
TITANIUM ALLOYS
Ti grade 1 UNS R50250 3.7025 Timetal 35A Pure titanium Clad steel in marine
ind.
Ti grade 2 UNS R50400 3.7035 Timetal 50A Pure titanium Offshore, marine
Ti grade 3 UNS R50550 3.7055 Timetal 65A Pure titanium Offshore, marine
Ti grade 5 Timetal 6-4 Ti-6%Al-4%V High strength
Ti grade 7 UNS R52400 3.7235 Timetal 50A Pd Ti-0.2%Pd Marine, crevice
corrosion
Ti grade 11 UNS R52250 3.7225 Ti-0.2%Pd Marine, crevice
corrosion
Ti grade 12 UNS R53400 3.7105 Timetal code 12 Ti-0.3Mo-0.8Ni Marine, crevice
corrosion
In the table below, relative material costs can be determined.

In the appendices, also cost ratio examples of a complex small size piping system can be viewed.
Material Cost Factor Material Cost Factor

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Carbon steel 1.0 Clad alloy 600 7.0

1Cr-Mo 1.3 CS, Teflon lined 7.8
2Cr-1Mo 1.7 Superduplex SS 7.9
5Cr-Mo 1.9 6Mo Superaustenitic SS 8.0
Clad SS 304(L) 2.1 Clad nickel, clad 825 8.0
9Cr-1Mo 2.6 Alloy 800 8.4
SS 405 / 410 2.8 70/30 Cu/Ni 8.5
SS 304 3.2 SS 904L 8.8
SS 304L 3.3 Alloy 20 11
Clad SS 316(L) 3.3 Alloy 400 (Monel 400) 15
CS, plastic lined 3.4 Alloy 600 15
SS 316 4.0 Alloy 825 17
SS 316L 4.1 Alloy 625 26
CS, rubber lined 4.4 Titanium 28
CS, glass lined 5.8 Alloy C (Hastelloy C) 29
Duplex SS 5.8 Zirconium 34
Clad alloy 400 6.4 Alloy B (Hastelloy B) 36
90/10 Cu/Ni 6.8 Tantalum 535
Suggested material cost factors, relative to carbon steel material [API 581, Table 7-26]. Note that the cost
factors may differentiate significantly over time as a result of market developments.
4.0 SET-UP FOR MATERIALS SELECTION REPORTS

Standard set-up for a Materials Selection Report.
Adjust as applicable for the project.
In the introduction of the report, the following shall be mentioned as a minimum:
In this materials selection report the material selection is given for mention Client & Project Name.
The plant produces Name products and feed.
The material selection philosophy is based on the process conditions, as indicated on the Process Flow
Diagrams and in the Material Balance, and the mechanical design conditions.
(Provide the document numbers and revision)
The design life taken into account for the material selection of piping is 10 / 15 / 20 years, for equipment 15
/ 20 / 25 years.
The minimum material requirements for piping and equipment are given in the material selection report. In
section 2 of the report, the applicable corrosion mechanisms are to be discussed. In section 3 and 4, the
background to the material selection for main equipment items and piping are to be given.

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The complete overview of selected materials for equipment, followed by the additional service requirements,
will follow in the concluding section.
The selected piping materials are indicated in material selection diagrams, which are marked-up (colored)
process flow diagrams.
5.0 MATERIAL DETERIORATION MECHANISMS
5.1 Overview of Corrosive Media in a Process Plant

The following corrosive media are present in the plant:
Select the applicable ones, and add when necessary:
Sulphur
Hydrogen sulfide
Naphthenic acids
Ammonia
Ammonium salts
Cyanides
Amines
Carbon dioxide
Chlorides
Organic acids
Oxygen
The presence of corrosive media and the applicable process and environmental conditions can result
in different kind of deterioration mechanisms for the materials of construction.
For a general impression, the following tables give a general overview of these phenomena.
Table 1: Material Thinning
Deterioration Description Behavior Key Variables Examples

Mechanism
Galvanic Occurs when two metals Localised Joined materials Seawater and some cooling
Corrosion are joined and exposed to of construction, water services.
an electrolyte. distance in
galvanic series
Ammonium Highly localized metal loss Localised NH4HS % in water Formed by thermal or
Bisulfide due to erosion corrosion in (Kp), velocity, pH catalytic cracking in
Corrosion carbon steel and admiralty hydrotreating,
brass. hydrocracking, coking,
catalytic cracking,
amine treating and sour
water effluent and gas
separation systems.

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Amine Used in gas treatment to General at Amine type and Amine gas treating units.
Corrosion remove dissolved CO2 and low concentration,
H2S acid gases. Corrosion velocities, material of
generally caused by localised construction,
desorbed acid gases or at high temperature,
amine deterioration velocities acid gas loading,
products.
velocity
Carbon Carbon dioxide is a weakly Localised Carbon dioxide Refinery steam condensate
Dioxide acidic gas which is concentration, system,
Corrosion corrosive when dissolved process hydrogen plant and
in water becoming conditions
the vapor recovery section
carbonic acid (H2CO3).
of catalytic cracking unit.
CO2 is commonly found in
upstream units. Aqueous
CO2 corrosion of carbon
and low alloy steels is an
electrochemical process
involving the anodic
dissolution of iron and the
cathodic evolution of
hydrogen. The reactions
are often accompanied by
the formation of films of
FeCO3 (and/or Fe3O4) that
can be protective or non-
protective depending on
the conditions.
Hydrochloric Typically causes localised Localised Acid %, pH, Crude unit atmospheric
Acid corrosion in carbon and materials of column
corrosion low alloy steel, particularly construction, overhead,
at initial condensation temperature Hydrotreating effluent
points (< 200C).
Austenitic stainless steels trains,
experience pitting and Catalytic reforming effluent
crevice corrosion. Nickel and regeneration systems.
alloys can corrode under
oxidizing conditions.
Sulfuric Acid Very strong acid that Localised Acid %, pH, Sulfuric acid alkylation
Corrosion causes metal loss in material of units, dematerialized water.
various materials and construction,
depends on many factors. temperature,
velocity, oxidants
Hydrofluoric Very strong acid that Localised Acid %, pH, Hydrofluoric acid alkylation
Acid causes metal loss in material of units,
corrosion various materials. construction, dematerialized water.
temperature,
velocity, oxidants

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Phosphoric Weak acid that causes Localised Acid %, pH, Water treatment plants.
Acid metal loss. Generally material of
corrosion added for biological construction,
corrosion inhibition in temperature
water treatment.
Phenol Weak organic acid causing Localised Acid %, pH, Heavy oil and dewaxing
(carbonic corrosion and metal loss in material of plants.
acid) various alloys. construction,
corrosion temperature
Atmospheric The general corrosion General Presence of This process is readily

Corrosion process occurring under uniform oxygen, apparent in high
atmospheric conditions corrosion temperature range temperature processes
where carbon and the availability where carbon steels have
steel (Fe) is converted to of water/moisture been used without
iron oxide (Fe2O3). protective coatings (steam
piping for example).
Corrosion CUI is a specific case of General to Presence of Insulated piping/vessels.
Under atmospheric corrosion highly oxygen,
Insulation where the temperatures localised temperature range
and the concentrations of and the availability
water/ moisture can be of water/moisture
higher. Often residual/ and corrosive
trace corrosive elements constituents within
can also be leached out of the insulation.
the insulation material
itself creating a more
corrosive environment.
Below the background is given to the most commonly encountered deterioration mechanisms, for
implementation in a Materials Selection Report, as is applicable for the project.
5.2 Sulfidation or Sulfidic Corrosion

(In the absence of hydrogen)
High temperature sulphur corrosion (sulfidation) is a common phenomenon in the petroleum refining
industry at temperatures typically above 240C. Sulphur compounds originate with crude oils and
may include poly-sulfides, mercaptans, aliphatic sulfides, etc. At elevated temperatures, these
sulphur compounds react with metal surfaces forming metal sulfides. Sulphur compounds may be
corrosive themselves as well as they are converted to hydrogen sulfide through thermal
decomposition.
Sulphur corrosion is normally in the form of uniform thinning. In case also naphthenic acids are
present, corrosion can be found in the form of localised attack or erosion-corrosion. Corrosion control
depends almost entirely on the formation of protective metal sulfide scales.
The corrosion rate in high temperature sulfidic environments is a function of sulphur concentration
(in wt%), temperature and material selected.
Above 300C the corrosion rate of carbon steel increases rapidly until around 400C. Above 400C
the corrosion rate decreases again as a result of coke formation. The coke together with the FeS will
form a dense, protective layer, which decreases the corrosion rate.

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The addition of chromium to steel increases its resistance to high temperature sulphidation, since
the resultant corrosion scale becomes more protective. This, however, is only valid when no
hydrogen is present in the process media.
To predict the corrosion rates in high temperature sulfidic environments, the modified Mc Conomy
curves, which apply to liquid crude oil streams, can be applied (J.Gutzeit, Process Industries
Corrosion-The Theory and Practice, NACE 1986). These curves, with a correction factor for the
sulphur content, are useful in the absence of naphthenic acid. More information can be found in
NACE publication 34103 item number 24222 dated February 2004.
In the presence of naphthenic acid, the estimated corrosion rates as tabulated in API 581, Appendix
G can be applied.
(If applicable) Experience for heavy hydrocarbons, as vacuum residue, however, has shown that
experienced corrosion rates are generally lower than predicted ones.
(If applicable) Experience for hydrocracking / isocracking units (especially units according
ChevronLummusTechnology design), however, has shown that experienced corrosion rates, in
cases with only traces of sulphur present, can be significantly higher than predicted ones.
5.3 High temperature H2S/H2 CORROSION

(Applicable in the presence of hydrogen:)
Corrosion by various sulphur compounds is a common problem above about 230C.
The presence of hydrogen, e.g. in case of hydrodesulfurising and hydrocracking operations,
increases the severity of high-temperature sulphur corrosion. Hydrogen converts organic sulphur to
hydrogen sulfide and corrosion becomes a function of the hydrogen sulfide concentration (or partial
pressure).
Medium alloys, e.g. 5Cr and 9Cr, provide limited corrosion resistance in H 2 / H2S environments. A
minimum of 12%Cr is required to provide a significant decrease in the anticipated corrosion rate.
To estimate the corrosion rate in H2 / H2S environments, the Couper - Gorman curves can be used.
These curves are based on a survey conducted by the NACE Committee T-8 on refining industry
corrosion. More information can be found in NACE publication 34103 item number 24222 dated
February 2004.
5.4 Naphthenic Acid Corrosion

Naphthenic acids are organic acids that occur naturally in many crude oils. The main acids of the
naphthenic acids are saturated ring structures with a single carboxyl group. Their general formula is
R (CH2)COOH, where R usually is a cyclopentane ring. The naphthenic acid content is expressed in
terms of neutralization number, i.e. Total Acid Number (TAN). This TAN is determined by titration
with potassium hydroxide (KOH), as described in ASTM standard test method D664 (potentiometric)
or D974 (calorimetric).
Naphthenic acid corrosion is only experienced at temperatures above approximately 230C. During
crude distillation, the naphthenic acids tend to concentrate in higher boiling point fractions, such as
heavy atmospheric gasoil, atmospheric residue, and vacuum gasoils. The acids may also be present
in vacuum residues, but often most of the naphthenic acids end up in the vacuum side streams.
Corrosion may appear either as pitting or grooving.
At any given temperature the corrosion rate is proportional to the TAN (a TAN value of 0.5 is normally
taken as threshold value below which no special material selection requirements are applicable).
High corrosion rates can occur in carbon steel piping and equipment between 230C and 400C,
since the formed iron naphthenics are soluble in the hydrocarbons, and thus non-protective.

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Especially high velocities and turbulence will increase the corrosion attack. Above 400C, the
naphthenic acids will either break down or distill into the vapor phase.
Alloying below 12% Cr has little benefit in naphthenic acid corrosion. SS type 304L offers some
resistance to naphthenic acid corrosion. However, in turbulent areas, a molybdenum containing
stainless steel, e.g. SS 316L, is normally required.
The amount of sulphur in the crude has some effect on the anticipated naphthenic acid corrosion.
Estimated corrosion rates for a combination of sulphur and acid corrosion can be found in tables G-
17 to G-25 in API 581 (ed. 2000).
(As applicable:)
- Sulphur and naphthenic acid corrosion is most commonly experienced in atmospheric and vacuum
crude distillation units and downstream systems.
- In hydrotreaters, naphthenic acid corrosion is not expected downstream of the hydrogen addition
point according API 571. However, plant experience has shown that naphthenic acid corrosion is not
reported downstream the reactor.
- In thermal crackers and delayed cokers, naphthenic acids decompose in the furnaces, and
downstream normally no naphthenic acid corrosion is reported.
5.5 High Temperature Hydrogen Attack

High temperature hydrogen attack (HTHA) only occurs in carbon and low-alloy steels exposed to a
high partial pressure of hydrogen at elevated temperatures. Gaseous hydrogen does not easily
permeate steel at normal ambient temperatures, even at high pressure. However, at elevated
temperatures, formed atomic hydrogen can permeate and causes steels to crack.
The damage by hot, pressurized, dry hydrogen gas is often referred to as hydrogen attack. According
to the Nelson diagram as per API 941, hydrogen attack occurs only in installations with operating
temperatures above approximately 230C. The Nelson curves are based on long-term refinery
experience and on results of laboratory tests.
High temperature hydrogen attack has only been detected in ferritic steels: carbon steel, C- Mo
steel and several Cr-Mo steels. Austenitic steels are considered to be resistant to hydrogen attack
irrespective of temperature and hydrogen partial pressure.
The Nelson diagram is not suitable for situations in which atomic hydrogen is released by a corrosion
reaction, e.g. wet H2S corrosion. In these cases the hydrogen partial pressure is unknown.
The mechanism by which hydrogen attack occurs consists of the following steps:
Dissociation of hydrogen molecules in the process gas into atomic hydrogen.
Adsorption of hydrogen atoms at the metal surface.
Diffusion of hydrogen atoms into the metal.
Reaction of hydrogen atoms with carbon. This reaction results in methane (CH4) molecules,
especially on grain boundaries along perlite grains.
Due to the formation of methane, decarburization of the steel occurs, causing a weakening of the
steel. Furthermore, the methane gas accumulates and due to its larger molecular size than
hydrogen, it cannot diffuse through the metal. This causes a high internal pressure, leading to micro-
cracks along the grain boundaries. In some cases also blistering may occur.
Hot hydrogen attack can be prevented by using steels that, based on the Nelson curves, have been
found to be resistant to this phenomena at the given process conditions.
The following general rules are applicable to high temperature hydrogen attack.

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Carbide forming alloying elements, such as chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium,

increase the resistance of steel to hydrogen attack.
Increased carbon content decreases the resistance of steel to hydrogen attack.
Heat-affected zones are more susceptible to hydrogen attack than the base or weld metal.
Usually low-alloy Cr-Mo steels are applied to prevent hot hydrogen attack.
Another phenomenon caused by pressurized hydrogen is surface decarburization. The continuous
lines in the Nelson diagram indicate whether internal decarburization will occur or not. The dashed
lines are an indication for surface decarburization. The mechanism is as follows: Carbon atoms
diffuse to the medium-side surface where methane is formed outside the metal. Due to the
decarburization, strength and hardness will decrease while ductility increases. No internal cracks
occur. As can be seen in the Nelson diagram, surface decarburization occurs at relatively low
hydrogen partial pressures and high temperatures.
5.6 Polythonic Acid Stress Corrosion Cracking

Polythionic acid stress corrosion cracking (PASCC) is a form of stress corrosion cracking that may
occur when oxygen (air), sulphur compounds, and moisture (steam) are present. This situation
generally arises during shutdown operation.
Polythionic acid can cause stress cracking in sensitized austenitic materials, e.g. stainless steels
type 304 and 316. Austenitic material may be sensitized to during fabrication or in-service.
Sensitization occurs when the material is subject to a temperature range of 450C to 825C.
Note: As the minimum practical sensitization temperature, 450C is used, however, RP-01-70
mentions 370C.
Sensitization is the precipitation of chromium-rich carbides on the grain boundaries leaving a
chromium depleted grain behind. Polythionic acid (H 2SxO6 where x may range from 3 to 6) is easily
formed during downtime periods as a result of exposure of equipment, which normally transports
sulphur-rich/H2S-rich feeds, to moisture and air. Attack only takes place on sensitized material.
To avoid sensitization, preferably stabilized stainless-steel grades like SS 321 or 347 are to be used,
stabilized annealed at 843-900C for 2 to 4 hours prior to welding. Also the application of low-carbon
grades, e.g. SS 304L, can delay or avoid sensitization.
For Shell projects the stabilizing heat treatment shall be 910C 10C for 4 hour minimum for Fired
Heater tubes before and again after welding (refer DEP 31.24.00.30-Gen).
Polythionic acid attack can also be prevented by excluding air and moisture, or by neutralization in
accordance to recommended practice as established by NACE publication RP0170, using a caustic
wash, i.e. 1-2% soda ash (Na2CO3) + 0.5% sodium nitrate. This washing action is considered not to
be required when thermally stabilized SS 321 or 347 has been applied, although for reactors this is
mostly executed as an extra safety precaution..
5.7 Wet H2S Damage

Aqueous hydrogen sulfide corrosion (sour water corrosion) will occur at temperatures near ambient.
Note: At higher temperatures, the formed corrosion product FeS is more adherent, more protective,
thus lowering the H2S activity. The NACE Publication 8X194, of June 1994, indicates that risk for
sulfide stress cracking is only present between ambient and 150C. Therefore, 150C can be applied
as a safe upper limit for wet H2S corrosion.
More background information can be found in the CLN Best Practice Tools standard PDES 04-3003-
02.004 Material Recommendations for Wet H2S.
Sour water corrosion consists of the following main three types:

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Sour water corrosion (including erosion-corrosion).

Sulfide Stress Cracking (SSC).
Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC).
5.7.1 Sour water Corrosion

Sour water corrosion is typically a concern for carbon steel. The corrosiveness of sour water
is depending on pH, temperature, velocity, and the presence of cyanides. Under low-flow
conditions (v < 1.5 m/s), the corrosion rate for carbon steels at ambient temperature will be
between 0.1-0.2 mm/y. In general, adequate corrosion protection is given by a corrosion
allowance of 3 mm for carbon steel piping containing sour water. For hydrocarbon lines
containing a small amount of sour water, a 1 mm corrosion allowance is generally sufficient.
For sour water containing both hydrogen sulfides and ammonia, the corrosiveness mainly
depends on the NH4HS concentration (see section 5.8 of this PDES).
5.7.2 Sulfide Stress Cracking

Sulfide stress cracking (SSC) is a form of hydrogen stress cracking resulting from the
absorption of atomic hydrogen that is produced by the wet H 2S corrosion process on the
metal surface. This hydrogen may diffuse to places as notches and other high-stress areas
where it can contribute to crack growth.
Sulfide stress cracking is defined as the cracking of a metal under the combined action of
tensile stress and corrosion in the presence of water and hydrogen sulfide.
Hence, for sulfide stress cracking, a critical combination of the following factors is required:
A hydrogen permeation flux in the steel.
A total tensile stress (applied plus residual) of critical magnitude.
A susceptible metallurgical condition in the steel.
SSC usually occurs in hard weld deposits or hard heat affected zones. For the steel base
metal, generally SSC has not been a concern, except when metal is improperly heat-treated.
The presence of as little as 1 ppm of H2S in the water has been found to be sufficient to
cause SSC.
Select the applicable case:
Prevention of SSC in Refineries
For resistance to SSC in sour petroleum refining and related processing plants, all materials
exposed to wet H2S shall fulfill the requirements as per NACE standard MR-0103.
Concerning the welding of carbon steels, welds and HAZ hardnesses shall be controlled to
prevent SSC as outlined in NACE standard RP-0472. For all other metals, the guidelines as
outlined in NACE MR-0103 shall be followed.
Since especially welds and heat-affected zones are susceptible to high hardness and stress
corrosion, hardness testing shall be included in all welding procedure qualifications. Also
spot checks shall be made on each piece of fabricated equipment.
Prevention of SSC in Oil&Gas facilities
For resistance to SSC in oil & gas production sour environments, all materials exposed to
the sour environment shall fulfill the requirements as per NACE standard MR-0175.
Concerning welding, all welds, including HAZs, shall comply with the same hardness
requirements as for its base metal. Since especially welds and heat-affected zones are
susceptible to high hardness and stress corrosion, hardness testing shall be included in all
welding procedure qualifications.

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5.7.3 Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC)

Similar to sulfide stress cracking, also hydrogen induced cracking is the result of atomic
hydrogen diffusing into the material as a result of the corrosion reaction between H 2S and
Fe. In this case, however, tensile stresses are not required.
Furthermore, this type of corrosion affects only plate and pipe materials with elongated non-
metallic inclusions, such as MnS. Atomic hydrogen will diffuse to these inclusions and
recombine to molecular hydrogen with a subsequent bigger volume. This will result in high
pressures at these spots. Near the surface this will lead to blistering. In deeper zones,
material separation in the form of stepwise cracking occurs.
The build up of internal pressure is related to the hydrogen permeation flux in the steel, and
the hydrogen permeation increase with H2S content. A concentration of 50ppmwt H2S has
been established as the threshold value for low pH and neutral aqueous solutions, below
which no hydrogen induced cracking will occur.
Note: For high pH solutions, the limit for HIC to occur is much higher, and the H2S threshold
value is about 2000 ppm.
To prevent hydrogen induced cracking for higher H2S concentrations, clean and
homogenous carbon steel materials shall be used, free from inclusions. Especially the
presence of elongated sulfides shall be prevented. HIC failures have mainly been reported
for welded pipe, not for seamless pipe. Therefore, it is recommended to use seamless ASTM
A106, grade B for pipe and fine grain CS with low sulphur contents for plates.
No additional requirements for forgings, castings and weld metal are necessary, since they
will not contain elongated sulfides.
Note: Especially for BDEPs, when no Engineering Specifications are prepared yet, it is
recommended to summarize the Sour Service and HIC requirements in the MSR, under
sections "sour service requirements" and "hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) requirements",
see section 8 of this guideline for typical example.
When a Wet H2S specification needs to be prepared there is a standard specification at
CLN available, refer to specification SM-622 as included in PDES 04-3003-02.014 Materials
Specifications SM-621 and SM-622.
5.7.4 Use of dissimilar metal welds (SS-CS) in wet H2S service
Dissimilar metal welds (SS-CS) which are welded with a stainless steel or a nickel based
alloy electrode have a chemical composition at the fusion line that may contain a small local
zone with a hard martensitic microstructure. The hardness can locally be higher than 400
HV. Due to the possible high hardness, dissimilar metal welds shall not be used. Thus no
welded stainless steel valves shall be installed in carbon steel lines in a wet H 2S
environment.
5.8 Erosion-Corrosion by Ammonium Salts

Ammonia and hydrogen sulfide gas can be released from the oil and, when cooled below 120C,
combine to ammonium bisulfide. High ammonia concentrations can saturate the process water (sour
water) with ammonium bisulfide (NH4HS) and/or ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and cause serious
erosion-corrosion.
Ammonia salts corrosion is a concern in many refining process units, notably hydrotreaters,
hydrocrackers, catalytic crackers, and sour water strippers. Proper material selection, sufficient
water wash injection, equal flow distribution and velocity considerations must be taken into account
to minimize the erosion-corrosion effect.

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As stated by R.L. Piehl (see "Survey of Corrosion in Hydrocracker Effluent Air Coolers", in Material
Performance 1, 1976), corrosion to carbon steels becomes severe above a concentration of 2wt%
NH4HS, especially at high flow rates. Estimated corrosion rates can be found in API 581, table G-45
(ed. 2000). To minimize erosion-corrosion, the velocity in the tubes should be limited to 6 m/s. A
minimum of 3 m/s is recommended, however, to minimize fouling and under deposit corrosion.
Above 2wt% NH4HS, heavy wall carbon steel or corrosion resistant steels can be considered. For
air cooler tubes, heavy wall carbon steel tubing can be considered when the chloride content is low.
The header can be CS with an additional erosion-corrosion allowance of 6 mm.
If besides NH4HS, also NH4Cl is present, there is an additional risk for chloride pitting corrosion, and
as a minimum duplex SS shall be applied.
For NH4HS concentrations above 8wt% and/or at high velocities (~10 m/s), alloy 825, or equivalent,
shall be considered.
For more background information on materials of construction, ammonium salts (erosion-) corrosion,
design and inspection of Reactor Effluent Aircooler (REAC) systems API RP 932-B can be consulted.
5.9 Cyanides in Sour Water

Normally, in the absence of cyanides, alkalic sour water solutions cause little corrosion due to the
formation of an iron sulfide film. This iron sulfide film reduces further corrosion provided that
velocities are low. Dissolved hydrogen cyanide, however, accelerates the corrosion by destroying
the protective FeS film and converting it into soluble ferrocyanide complexes:
FeS + 6 CN- Fe(CN)6-4+S-2
Now, fresh metal is exposed to further corrosion attack. In general, the greater the bisulfide and
cyanide concentrations, the greater the corrosion rate at a given pH. Contaminations such as
chlorides, free oxygen, phenols and carbon dioxide can further increase the corrosiveness of the
sour water.
There are several options to limit cyanide corrosion, e.g.:
Wash water:
Reduces corrosion by diluting the concentration of corrosive agents. Plant studies have shown that
this method is not very effective, because it does not remove the cyanides.
(Ammonium) polysulfide addition:
Its function is to lower corrosion rates by reducing cyanide ion concentration by the formation of
thiocyanate. Its secondary role is interacting with the iron sulfide corrosion product layer to inhibit
hydrogen generation. This method has, however, some disadvantages, i.e.:
Controlling the amount of polysulfide is very difficult but crucial.
High concentrations of polysulfide are required.
Often there is insufficient contact time in vessels to convert all cyanides to thiocyanides.
In addition wash water may be required to assure that the polysulfide stays in solution.
Note: As an indication (CLG experience), 5 times the stoichiometric quantity of polysulfides required
to react with the cyanides present must be injected, with a minimum of 50-100 ppmwt polysulfides
in the injection water.
Organic filming inhibitors:
Filming inhibitors form a molecular barrier between metal surface and the alkaline sour water
solution. Further, they modify the FeS film, i.e. making it more resistant to corrosion.

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Some good results have been reported, but it should be noted that application of these inhibitors is
expensive and that an inhibitor is only effective in the areas it can reach.
Using alloyed materials.
List of materials with decreasing corrosion resistance in H2O/NH3/H2S/HCN environments:
Zirconium or PTFE
Titanium alloys
Nickel alloys
Alloy 400
Austenitic stainless steels
Ferritic stainless steels
Carbon steel
Aluminum
5.9.1 Stress Corrosion

Another problem is that solutions containing both sulfides and cyanides have been shown
to be strong crack promoting agents, especially for carbon steel. To provide SSC, NACE
practice RP0472 advises to limit the hardness of carbon steel welds to 200 HB (200 HV).
The pH range where cyanides have the most negative influence on corrosion performance
of steel is 8<pH <13. It is advised to apply a post weld heat treatment for alkalic media (pH
> 7.5). For acidic media, HCN has no influence on the corrosion behavior, and a PWHT is
not required.
5.10 Alkaline Stress Corrosion Cracking (ASCC)

(or Carbonate Stress Corrosion Cracking)
This form of cracking is produced by the combined action of corrosion in an aqueous alkaline
environment containing H2S, CO2 and tensile stress. The cracking is branched and intergranular in
nature and typically occurs in non-stress relieved steels.
To minimize the risk, carbon steel welds shall receive a stress relief heat treatment.
Carbonate cracking has mostly been observed in catalytic cracking units: main fractionator overhead
and reflux system, the downstream wet gas compression system, and the downstream sour water
systems.
5.11 Ammonia Stress Corrosion Cracking of Copper Alloys

Copper base alloys can be subject to stress corrosion cracking in ammonia containing vapors and/or
solutions. The rate at which this failure mechanism occurs, incubation time and crack growth,
depends on many variables, such as:
Internal stress levels
External stress levels
Specific alloy
Oxygen concentration
pH
NH3 or NH4+ concentration
Temperature

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The values of above mentioned variables are difficult to quantify. Therefore, the use of copper alloys
in combination with ammonia containing media is normally avoided.
5.12 Cracking by Anhydrous Ammonia

Carbon steels and low-alloy steels can be subject to stress cracking in contact with anhydrous liquid
ammonia. Cracking is avoided by stress relief heat treatment or by adding minimum 0.2 wt% water,
which acts as an inhibitor in this case in the liquid phase only, to the ammonia.
Alternatively, stainless steel can be applied.

For more background information, see NACE publication 5A192 (2004 edition) Integrity of
Equipment in Anhydrous Ammonia Storage and Handling.
5.13 Amine Corrosion

Alkanol-amine solutions are widely used for the removal of H 2S and/or CO2 from acid gas since the
early 1950's. It is recognized that corrosion is not caused by the amine itself, but is caused by the
dissolved hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide gases, that are the reason of the existence of amine
units. The general corrosion in amine systems is a form of thinning, which occurs on carbon steels.
Carbon steel corrosion is a function of the combination of amine concentration, the acid gas loading,
the temperature, fouling products, and velocities (turbulence). The most important fouling products
are the amine degradation products, normally referred to as heat stable amine salts. The heat stable
salts reduce the amount of active amine and cause erosion-corrosion themselves. They shall be
regularly removed not to build up in large quantities.
Corrosion has been found to be most severe in units removing only carbon dioxide. High velocities
and turbulence can cause gas to evolve from the amine solution or disruption of protective iron
sulfide films, resulting in higher, localised corrosion attack. Typically, the velocity in liquid amine
streams is limited to 1.5 m/s.
Austenitic stainless steels are normally applied in areas that are corrosive to carbon steel.
5.13.1 Amine stress corrosion cracking

Amine stress corrosion cracking is considered a major concern in amine units. Following
some catastrophes, the NACE task group T8-14 conducted a world-wide survey on stress
corrosion cracking of existing amine plants (ref. API 945). The conclusion was that cracking
in MEA, DEA and other amine solutions was reported for all common operating temperatures
and that about 50% of the cracking cases occurred at temperatures below 65C. Cracking
occurred in all types of equipment at temperatures as low as ambient.
No cracking has been reported, however, for stress-relieved piping and equipment.
Therefore, all carbon steel equipment and piping in amine service shall be stress-relieved,
regardless of its operating temperature.
For more details on corrosion in amine treating units, see PDES 04-3003-02.008.
Estimated corrosion rates can be determined with the assistance of this PDES or directly via
API 581, appendix G.
5.14 Caustic Corrosion

Corrosion of steels in caustic soda solutions can be divided in:
General Corrosion
Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking

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5.14.1 General Caustic Corrosion

In caustic solutions, carbon steels and low-alloy steels are slowly corroded. In general, the
corrosion rate of carbon steels is less than 0.05 mm/y, since the formation of a protective
oxide film protects the steel. However, several things can change the nature of the corrosion
film and accelerate corrosion. This can be elevated temperature, the presence of carbon
dioxide, aeration, or turbulence.
Stainless steels are not corroded in caustic solutions.
For elastomers, used as O-rings and other specialty seals, Viton (FKM) does not perform in
caustic service and shall not be applied. As an alternative, EPDM rubber can be applied, as
long as no hydrocarbons are present.
5.14.2 Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking

Caustic stress cracking of metals may occur in the presence of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
at elevated temperature. The susceptibility for carbon steels and low alloys to caustic
embrittlement / stress corrosion cracking is expressed in the NACE Caustic Soda Service
graph. Depending on temperature and caustic concentration, carbon steel shall be stress
relieved at welds and bends to prevent embrittlement. Industry experience indicates that
some caustic cracking failures occur in a few days, others after one year or more. Increasing
the concentration or metal temperature accelerates the cracking rate.
At high temperatures stress relieving is not sufficient to prevent cracking of CS and nickel
alloy materials, such as Alloy 400, are most commonly used.
Austenitic stainless steels can be applied for certain services, but they are also susceptible
to stress corrosion cracking at elevated temperature. Care should be taken for selection of
austenitic SS in hot caustic solutions, since commercial caustic solutions are usually
contaminated with chlorides.
More information on Caustic Soda corrosion cracking can be found in the CLN Best Practice
Tools standard PDES 04-3003-02.011. Also see NACE RP0403 2005 (Avoiding Caustic
SCC of Carbon Steel Refinery Equipment and Piping).
5.15 Potassium Hydroxide Corrosion

The corrosiveness of potassium hydroxide (KOH) is comparable to that of sodium hydroxide. At
elevated temperatures it can also cause stress corrosion cracking.
For elastomers, used as O-rings and other specialty seals, Viton (FKM) behaves badly in alkalic
solutions and shall be avoided in KOH solutions. A suitable alternative is EPDM rubber, as long as
no hydrocarbons are present.
5.16 Methanol Induced Stress Corrosion of Titanium

Anhydrous methanol is unique in its ability to cause stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
of titanium and titanium alloys. Industrial methanol normally contains sufficient water to provide
immunity to titanium and therefore it is no problem in most practical applications.
Water has an inhibiting effect. Addition of 2% water is considered sufficient
to protect titanium from methanol SCC. However, the general recommendation is to have minimum
5% water content, in order to ensure effective cover for all conditions being encountered by titanium
alloys used in the offshore industry.
There are 2 slightly different mechanisms concerning SCC,

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- methanol containing some halides (Cl, Br), for which pure titanium (e.g. grade 1, 2)
are more susceptible
- pure methanol, for which titanium alloys, e.g. grade 5 and 9, are more susceptible.
5.17 CO2 Corrosion in an Aqueous Phase

In an aqueous phase containing CO2, the CO2 will react with unalloyed and low-alloyed steels,
releasing hydrogen in the process, causing a drop in the pH.
Corrosion rates in these cases can be estimated using the De Waard / Milliams nomogram. De
Waard, Lotz and Milliams state in their article on this subject "Predictive Model for CO 2 Corrosion
Engineering in Wet Natural Gas Pipelines" in Corrosion, December 1991, that the De Waard/Milliams
equation, which is the worst case corrosion rate prediction (V), is specified as follows:
logV 58
.
1710
T

0.67 * log PCO2
Where T is temperature in K, and PCO2 is partial pressure of CO2 in bara.
Benefit may be drawn from the following factors: (Select only the applicable ones)
Non-ideality of the Gas
High-temperature Protective Films
Contamination of the CO2 Solution with Corrosion Products
Presence of Heavy Hydrocarbon Liquids
Effect of Glycol
The influence of these factors can be put into the corrosion prediction formula above.
If the environment contains no free water, then there is no risk of CO2 corrosion. In gas piping, there
may be a risk of condensation of water if the temperature of the line drops below the water dew
point. Therefore, if possible, the piping should be insulated, or traced and insulated. Furthermore, it
should be sloped and without pockets to minimize corrosion.
Stainless steels as SS304(L), SS316(L) and also (lean) duplex stainless steels UNS S32001,
S32304, S32205 are completely resistant against CO2 corrosion and no corrosion allowance is
required.
For more background information refer to the CLN Best Practice Tools standard PDES 04-3003-
02.002 Materials Selection Guide For CO2 Containing Oil and Gas Facilities.
5.17.1 Non-ideality of the Gas

An increase in total pressure of the gas will lead to an increase in corrosion rate. However,
the increase in corrosion rate will be less than predicted by the De Waard/Milliams equation,
because the non-ideality of the gas will play an increasing role.
5.17.2 High-temperature Protective Films

The precipitation of the FeCO3 (or Fe3CO4) in itself does not necessarily result in the
formation of a protective film. At low temperatures (less than 60C) it is easily removed by
flowing liquids. At higher temperatures, the film is more protective and less easily washed
away. Further increase in temperature results in lower corrosion rates, which means the
corrosion rate goes through a maximum (scaling temperature).
At temperatures exceeding the scaling temperature, corrosion rates tend to decrease to
close to zero with time. When the scale is damaged by high-speed liquid droplets in a gas

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stream (velocity > 20 m/s), the effect of the protecting scale is lost and the full corrosion rate
according to De Waard / Milliams nomogram is to be expected.
5.17.3 Contamination of the CO2 Solution with Corrosion Products

The contamination of the CO2 solution with corrosion products reduces the corrosion rate.
5.17.4 Presence of Heavy Hydrocarbon Liquids

The presence of crude oil can have a beneficial effect in case of CO 2 corrosion by oil-wetting
the steel surfaces. However, if the flow rate of the oil is too low, water can separate and
cause corrosion on the bottom of the line. The critical flow velocity is about 1 m/s. At higher
flow rates the water will be kept dispersed in the oil phase. If the water cut, however, is more
than 30 wt%, the steel surface will be water wetted and corrosion can occur again.
For light hydrocarbon condensate (less than 50wt% C5 +), water wetting and corrosion may
occur at any velocity and any water content.
5.17.5 Effect of Glycol / Methanol

In wet, CO2 containing gas pipelines and flow lines glycol (or methanol) is often added to
prevent hydrate formation. Glycols and methanol have a significant inhibitive effect on
corrosion.
The presence of glycol acts on corrosion by CO2 in two ways:
By reducing the corrosiveness of the water phase it mixes with.
By absorbing water from the gas phase.
5.17.6 Condensation Factor

Corrosion rates of unalloyed steel exposed to a condensing water phase in a CO 2 containing
atmosphere quickly decreases over time.
For wet gas transport piping, cooling rates and flow rates are such that condensation rates
are low and the actual average corrosion rates will be approximately 1/10 of the calculated
corrosion rate.
5.17.7 Corrosion Inhibition

Inhibitor efficiency can be included in the corrosion model by dividing the calculated
corrosion rates by an inhibition efficiency factor. If an effective inhibition can be established,
the inhibitor efficiency is between 85 and 95%. This efficiency can be reached for annular
mist flows, from which little condensate is formed. However, if stratified wavy flow patterns
are present, surveys showed that only about 65% inhibitor efficiency in sweet gas lines was
obtained. For stratified flows, it is likely that the inhibitor will be practically absent in the top
of the line. Little benefit can then be expected for the top of the line corrosion rates.
5.17.8 Low pH media

Besides all the factors discussed above that reduce corrosion rate, there is one factor that
can increase the corrosion rate. When the actual pH is lower than the saturation pH, the
corrosion rate, in the temperature range 20 - 80C, can be a factor 2.2 to 3.3 higher, than
calculated with De Waard / Milliams equation.

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5.18 Mercury Embrittlement

In some natural gas receiving plants, the receipt of traces of mercury can not be excluded. This
means that alloys, which are susceptible to liquid mercury, e.g. aluminum alloys and copper alloys,
shall be avoided as much as possible. In case aluminum is still the preferred material of construction,
it should be coated and mercury draining provisions shall be taken.
5.19 Erosion
Erosion is the loss of material due to the abrasive effect of a fluid or a gas or fluid stream containing
particles, like sand, salt or solids. The main factors of influence on the erosion rate are:
Flow velocity and flow direction (impingement)
Hardness and strength of the material of construction
Hardness, size and geometry of solid particles
Concentration of the solid particles
Density and viscosity of the carrying medium
Erosion is primarily a concern in piping and equipment, where there is a change in flow direction,
e.g. elbow, tee, valve, or a constriction in flow, e.g. a choke. Erosion is less of a concern in straight
flow situation except in the case of a slurry.
A first tool to minimize the risk of erosion in mixed phase lines is the application of API RP-14E
guidelines. API RP-14E, however, does not account for solids, and incorrectly accounts for the effect
of fluid density.
Erosion can be divided in the following different categories:
Non-corrosive, no solids present
Non-corrosive, solids present
Corrosive service, no solids present
Corrosive service, solids present
The last two categories are also described as erosion-corrosion.
5.20 CO / CO2 Stress Corrosion

In an aqueous solution, at temperatures below 150C, stress corrosion cracking may occur in carbon
steel equipment, if both CO and CO2 are present. This may happen in about any wet mixture of CO
and CO2. The risk can be encountered in CO rich environments, as found in reforming gas, synthesis
gas, and partial oxidation processes. SCC is most prevalent in the temperature range of 20 to 60C
and, due to lowering of the CO solubility in water and reduced CO adsorption onto the metal surface,
cracking is unlikely to occur above 75C.
H2S in a CO / CO2 environment has an inhibitive effect on SCC.
A stress relief heat treatment (PWHT) reduces the SCC sensitivity of carbon steel. However, PWHT
is not a sufficient safeguard against SCC.
Stainless steels are immune to wet CO/CO2 SCC. Stainless steels are usually also required to resist
corrosion attack caused by aqueous CO2.
Hence, martensitic, austenitic, or duplex SS can be applied instead of carbon steels.
5.21 Combined Effect of OF CO / CO2 / H2S

The presence of both CO, CO2, and H2S has some impact on the formation of the respective
corrosion product layers.

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In general, the corrosion rate maintains about proportional to the CO 2 partial pressure. This means
that the calculation prediction as per the CO2 corrosion section remains the most reliable prediction
tool.
In CO2 / H2S systems, the co-formation of a more protective FeS scale can make the FeCO 3 scale
more stable, and hence lower the predicted corrosion rate.
At low temperatures (< 60C), the FeS film itself is also rather unstable, and gives no protection to
the FeCO3 scale. Sufficient CO can give a protective film under low wall shear stress conditions.
At high temperatures (>120C), the FeS film becomes porous and the high temperature protective
FeCO3 scale may locally be disturbed, increasing the corrosion rate.
5.22 Chloride Corrosion

In aqueous solutions containing chlorides, carbon steels are subject to general corrosion attack and
to localized pitting corrosion. The corrosion rate of carbon steels in chloride containing oxidized
aqueous solutions is fairly high. In reducing environments, the corrosion rates are lower, and also
pitting corrosion is suppressed.
The general corrosion rate for CS in saline water is about 0.2-0.3 mm/y. Pitting rates will be higher.
For austenitic stainless steels, the limiting factors determining the suitability are chloride stress
corrosion cracking (SCC), and the crevice and pitting corrosion resistance.
The standard austenitic stainless steels, e.g. SS 304L, 316L, are prone to stress corrosion cracking
(SCC) in chloride-bearing solutions at temperatures above 65C. Both oxygen and water must be
present along with chlorides for SCC to occur.
Chloride levels required to cause SCC vary according to temperature, stress level, steel type, etc.
SCC usually is found where some concentrating mechanism occurs such as crevices and vapor
traps in heat exchangers around baffles. In these areas high chloride concentrations (several
thousands ppm) have been found even though the nominal concentration is only a few ppm.
Typically, chloride concentrations of 25 to 50 ppm are considered acceptable if no accumulation
concentration of chloride is possible. However, even levels as low as 1 ppm can be hazardous if a
mechanism for concentration exists.
For hydrotests up to 200 ppm chlorides are acceptable, provided the vessel is flushed with demin
water afterwards.
It is not possible to guarantee that stainless steel will not be susceptible to SCC. Alloys containing
nickel in amounts greater than 42% are immune to chloride SCC, but expensive.
On the other hand, duplex SS type 2205 is resistant to ClSCC up to 100C, and superduplex SS
type 2507 up to 110C (see NORSOK M-001), in case a high strain level is present.
Other forms of chloride induced corrosion to consider are pitting and crevice corrosion.
For each alloy type, there is a critical crevice and a critical pitting temperature below which these
forms of attack will not occur. The resistance of an alloy to chloride pitting corrosion is given by its
Pitting Resistance Equivalent (PRE) number.
PRE = (% Cr) + (3.3% Mo) + (16% N)
5.23 Seawater Corrosion

In general the following corrosion phenomena can occur in saline water / seawater:
General corrosion
Pitting and crevice corrosion

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Galvanic corrosion
Erosion-corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking
5.23.1 General corrosion

The general corrosion rate for carbon steels in saline water / seawater will be about 0.1 - 0.3
mm/y depending on factors as salinity, oxygen content, pH, the presence of sulphur,
temperature, velocity, etc.
The corrosion rate increases with increasing salt content up to approximately 30,000 ppm
(30 gr/l) and decreases until saturation is reached. Note that saturated brine is less corrosive
than distilled water. This low corrosion rate is due to the reduced solubility of oxygen.
5.23.2 Pitting and crevice corrosion

This local type of corrosion is mainly related to stainless steels exposed to aqueous chloride
containing solutions, although carbon steels can also pit. At local spots the pitting rate of
carbon steel can exceed the general corrosion rate. Pitting mostly occurs in stagnant areas.
For stainless steels, pitting and crevice corrosion occurs under stagnant conditions and is
due to a local breakdown of its passive oxide film. Such a spot becomes a small anode,
which is surrounded by a large oxide covered cathodic area. Such galvanic action will
introduce high corrosion rates in the pit. Furthermore, chloride concentration and oxygen
depletion in the pit will introduce extra concentration cells, which again enhance the local
corrosion rate. To prevent pitting corrosion a minimum velocity of 1.5 m/s shall be maintained
for stainless steel. This, however, is not possible for constructions with built-in crevices, such
as flanged connections.
The resistance to crevice and pitting corrosion can be increased by increasing the amount
of Cr, Mo and N, as expressed in the following formula:
PRE = (% Cr) + (3.3% Mo) + (16% N)
A higher PRE shifts the critical temperature for pitting and crevice corrosion initiation to
higher temperatures.
5.23.3 Galvanic corrosion

When two different metals are joined in an electrolyte under aerated conditions, the
uncoupled corrosion rate of the most active material is increased and that of the most noble
material is decreased. Increased salinity will increase the electric conductivity of the water,
and thus the galvanic corrosion effect. Under de-aerated conditions, galvanic corrosion can
only occur in the presence of an oxidizing agent (e.g. CO2), but the galvanic corrosion rates
are significantly less than in aerated condition.
Non-compatible materials shall preferably not be coupled. On the other hand, dissimilar
materials can not always be prevented. As well as metal components, also some gasket
materials can create galvanic problems. Non-metallic gaskets are preferred in systems
subject to galvanic corrosion. Graphite gaskets should be avoided in (sea)water systems.
(If applicable):
A special type of galvanic corrosion is the dezincification of brass materials. This phenomena
is the preferential attack of zinc-rich areas. The zinc-rich areas form a galvanic couple with
areas containing less zinc. At higher pH values, as for seawater service, this effect will result
in a pitting type of attack, while at lower pH values, a more uniform attack is expected.

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5.23.4 Erosion-corrosion
Flow velocity has a pronounced effect on the corrosion rate of metals in saline water /
seawater.
For carbon steel exposed to flow rates above 1.5m/s, the corrosion rates will increase
drastically.
For austenitic stainless steels, pitting corrosion rates can occur under low velocities (<1.5
m/s). At average velocities corrosion rates in general are low, however, at higher velocities
(>40 m/s) corrosion rates will rapidly increase due to erosion-corrosion. This latter is
important for high speed pumps and control valves where high velocities can occur. In these
cases, higher alloys should be used. Furthermore, it should be noted that the critical velocity
for erosion-corrosion also depends on impurities such as sulphur.
Copper and copper-nickel alloys, although very resistant to seawater, will experience
erosion-corrosion if velocities are higher than about 3 m/s.
See also the appendices to this guideline.
5.23.5 Chloride stress corrosion cracking

Stress corrosion cracking in chloride containing solutions may occur for stainless steels
when metallurgical structure is austenitic and temperatures rise above 65C. Further, cast
stainless steels are more resistant to SCC than wrought stainless steels.
For duplex SS (type 2205) ClSCC may occur above 100C (as per NORSOK Standard M-
001), for superduplex SS (type 2507) above 110C (as per NORSOK Standard M-001).
5.24 Organic Acid Corrosion

Organic acids, such as formic, acetic, propionic and benzoic acids, are weak acids, but cause
corrosion to most metals. Most organic acids are neither oxidizing nor reducing to metals, hence
aeration and contaminants influence the behavior to metals.
The corrosiveness of organic acids depends on temperature, concentration and presence of water.
Other by-products, besides water, which influence the corrosiveness are polar organic compounds,
e.g. propylene glycol. They may be present as a separate phase and act as solvent for the acids.
Many anhydrous organic acids can be handled by carbon steel at moderate temperatures, while
diluted solutions can be highly aggressive.
Carbon steel is normally not sufficiently corrosion resistant in aqueous organic acid environment.
Only at very low acid concentrations and low temperatures, CS with a corrosion allowance can be
used.
Austenitic stainless steels are widely applied, since they are more corrosion resistant to aqueous
organic acids. For lower concentrations both 304 and 316 SS can be applied up to boiling
temperature of organic acids. To prevent intergranular attack of heat affected zones, low carbon
grades 304L and 316L are advisable for welded constructions. Type 316 has a somewhat better
resistance to concentrated acids at high temperature than type 304 SS. Contamination with
chlorides, however, can have a disastrous effect.
If better corrosion resistance is required, higher alloys, e.g. alloy 825, or 254 SMO can be selected.
5.25 Sulfuric Acid Corrosion

Corrosion of metals in sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is complex, since the corrosiveness of sulfuric acid varies
widely and depends on many factors. The corrosiveness mostly depends on temperature and acid
concentration. For carbon steels, the resistance depends on the formation of sulfate films on the

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steel surface. At low acid concentrations, the iron sulfate corrosion product readily goes into solution.
At high acid concentrations, corrosion is reduced due to accumulation of soft sulfate corrosion
product. This means velocity effects have a strong negative influence on the steel resistance. Steels
may only be suitable at concentrations between 93-98 wt%, at ambient temperatures (< 40C) under
low flow condition (< 0.5 m/s).
Stainless steels have also mixed behavior and are in general only applied in high acid concentration
(90-100 wt%), where a stable passive corrosion behavior can be reached. The addition of
molybdenum to SS increases the resistance. In general, higher alloyed materials, e.g. Alloy 20,
Monel Alloy 400, or other nickel alloys are required.
Aeration and impurities, especially halides, have strong effect on the corrosiveness of the acid.
Aeration in general reduces corrosion of Cr-containing alloys, such as stainless steels, and
accelerates corrosion of non-ferrous alloys.
Anticipated corrosion rates of different materials in sulfuric acid can be found in:
API 581, RBI Base Resource Document, Appendix G.9 (ed. 2000).
Dechema Corrosion Handbook, Volume 8, Sulfuric acid.
Teflon (PTFE, FEP), Kynar (PVDF), and Halar (ECTFE) are examples of sulfuric acid resistant lining
materials. Coatings, in general, can only be applied for dilute sulfuric acid. One exception are hot-
baked phenolic coatings, which are suitable for concentrated acid solutions also.
Kalrez, Aflas, and Viton are examples of elastomer materials that may be applied for sealing rings,
etc. EPDM should only be applied for sulfuric acid concentrations below 60 wt%.
For sulfuric acid piping gaskets, metallic and graphite gaskets are not recommended. Mineral filled
PTFE gaskets are the best solution for concentrated acid lines.
For further reading on Sulfuric Acid corrosion, see PDES 04-3003-02.006.
5.26 Hydrochloric Acid Corrosion

Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is corrosive to many materials of construction across a wide range of
concentrations and the corrosion attack is often localised in nature, especially when it is associated
with localised condensation or with the deposition of chloride containing ammonia salts. Austenitic
stainless steels will often suffer pitting attack and may experience crevice corrosion and/or chloride
stress corrosion cracking. Some of the nickel based alloys may experience accelerated corrosion if
oxidizing agents are present or if the alloys are not in the solution annealed condition. Typically, non-
metallic linings, e.g. rubber or PTFE, are applied.
The primary refining units where HCl corrosion is a concern are crude distillation (see PDES 04-
3003-02.010), hydrotreating, and catalytic reforming.
(Select what is applicable:)
In crude units, HCl is formed by the hydrolysis of magnesium and calcium chloride salts and results
in dilute HCl in the overhead system.
In hydrotreating units, HCl may form by hydrogenation of organic chlorides in the feed or can enter
the unit with the hydrogen feed. HCl will condense with water in the effluent train.
In catalytic reforming units, chlorides may be stripped off of the catalyst and hydrogenate resulting
in HCl corrosion in the effluent train or regeneration systems.
Estimated corrosion rates in dilute hydrochloric acid can be found in API 581, Tables G-12 until G-
15 (ed. 2000).
For concentrated hydrochloric acid (typically between 27 and 37 wt%), the selection of non-metallic
materials is typically the most suitable solution.

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Teflon (PTFE, FEP), Kynar (PVDF), and Halar (ECTFE) are examples of hydrochloric acid resistant
lining materials. PP linings are chemically resistant up to about 65C. Coatings that can be
considered for storage tanks are vinylester and hot-baked phenolic coatings.
Kalrez, Aflas, and Viton are examples of elastomer materials that may be applied for sealing rings,
etc. EPDM and butyl rubber (IIR) should only be considered for hydrochloric acid solutions below
60C. Neoprene and nitrile rubber seals shall not be applied.
For hydrochloric acid piping gaskets, metallic and graphite gaskets are not recommended. Mineral
filled PTFE gaskets are the best solution for concentrated acid lines.
When metallic alloys have to be applied, Alloy B-2 (N10665) is suitable for all acid concentrations,
also at elevated temperatures. Alloy C-276 (N10276) and Alloy 625 (N06625) should only be applied
at moderate temperatures (ambient, 30C max operating).
5.27 Phosphoric Acid Corrosion

Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) is corrosive to steels. Austenitic stainless steels are suitable to handle
phosphoric acid for full range of concentrations up to about 65C. At elevated temperatures, type SS
316L shows a better corrosion resistance than type 304L.
For elastomers, used as O-rings and other specialty seals, natural rubbers or for example NBR are
not resistant against concentrated phosphoric acid, however EPDM and Viton (FKM) are suitable.
5.28 Nitric Acid Corrosion

Nitric acid (HNO3) is a strong oxidizing acid. Carbon steels shall not be applied. Alloys, which form
protecting oxide films, e.g. austenitic stainless steels and aluminum alloys are suitable to handle
nitric acid. At ambient conditions, stainless steels can be applied up to about 95 wt% acid
concentration. Aluminum alloys can only be applied for strong acid concentrations above 80 wt% at
ambient conditions.
5.29 Molten Sulphur

In principle molten sulphur is not corrosive to carbon steel. Only when water is also present,
excessive corrosion to carbon steel might occur. A straight corrosion reaction without water
(condensate) is not possible.
In principle two different corrosion reactions may be active in an aqueous environment. One is a H 2S
assisted corrosion process and will occur in case the amount of H2S exceeds 10ppm. The other
corrosion mechanism is a reaction involving sulphur oxide.
Sulphur lines are normally steam jacketed to avoid that sulphur solidifies. Further, in a sulphur-
degassing vessel (or pit) normally a steam coil is present. Such a degassing vessel shall never be
operated without the steam coil; else excessive corrosion might occur to the coil and connected
pumps.
5.30 Atmospheric Corrosion

External corrosion is related to the atmospheric conditions, such as humidity and presence of salts.
Since carbon steel will corrode due to atmospheric corrosion, a suitable coating system shall be
applied.
No additional corrosion allowance for external corrosion, above the specified corrosion allowances
in this report, is required.
Austenitic stainless steels will not corrode due to atmospheric conditions, but they are susceptible
to chloride stress corrosion cracking at temperatures above 65C.

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Since chloride and water ingress can occur under insulation, all insulated austenitic stainless steel
piping and equipment, which operates above 65C shall also be coated to minimize the risk for stress
cracks.
For non-insulated austenitic stainless steel piping, there is little risk for water and chloride
concentration and coating is in general not required, except for some sites in marine environments
with high humidity.
(If applicable):
Duplex stainless steels will not corrode due to atmospheric conditions, and has a high chloride
resistance. Duplex stainless steel, insulated and non-insulated, do normally not require external
coating.
5.31 Corrosion Under Insulation

Insulated systems can be prone to corrosion under insulation (CUI). In recent years external
corrosion under insulation has been a major cause for concern in contributing to unexpected failures
and increasing operating costs. Corrosion of this type has been reported from plants all over the
world and in many cases it has led to replacement of piping and vessels or at least substantial parts
of vessels.
Special attention to protection against external corrosion is required for piping and equipment, which
operate below the atmospheric dew point. Unseen corrosion can occur under the insulation, and
eventually cause a sudden failure.
The most affected materials are externally insulated ferritic steels operating at about -10C to 120C
(ref. API 570, Piping Inspection Code and API 510, Pressure Vessel Inspection Code). In addition,
chloride stress corrosion cracking has been reported for austenitic stainless steels under insulation.
To further minimize the risk for chloride ingress under insulation, chloride free (< 10 ppm) insulating
materials are required for stainless steel piping.
A good overview of the CUI problems is given by the ASTM special technical publication 880, API
570 and by NACE RP0198. From these publications, it can be concluded that the cause of the
corrosion is typically related to:
Inadequate design.
Poor installation.
Lack of maintenance of the weatherproofing.
Corrosion under insulation can be prevented by applying good insulation practices. The insulation is
to be kept dry. Adequate weatherproofing, therefore, is a must. Properly installed insulation prevents
the ingress of water, however, in the course of time, sometimes small quantities of water will get
through. Therefore, paint is required as part of the defense against corrosion under insulation. The
application of TSA (Thermal Sprayed Aluminum) is recommended from a life cycle point of view.
5.32 Liquid Metal Enbrittlement

In general, liquid metal embrittlement (LME) can be defined as a reduction in ductility and tensile
strength of a solid metal in contact with a liquid metal. Sufficient tensile stresses must be present to
initiate and propagate cracking. Further, for LME to occur, the need for direct contact between the
liquid and the solid metal is essential. Metal oxide films, which prevent direct liquid/metal contact,
can thus delay or prevent embrittlement. Experiments have shown that liquid metal must be present
at the crack tip for growth to occur. Cracking is intergranular.
The occurrence of LME is different for each combination of materials. Certain combinations, which
are highly susceptible to LME, are austenitic stainless steels in contact with zinc above 750C, and
steels, including stainless steels, in contact with molten aluminum.

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If applicable:
For bolting, the use of cadmium plated bolts/nuts shall be restricted to 170C, for zinc plated
(galvanized) bolts/nuts, the maximum temperature is 280C.
5.33 Low Temperature Fracture

Ferritic steels undergo a ductile-to-brittle transition at some temperature below room temperature.
Small changes in chemical composition, grain size, the degree of plastic constraint caused by a
notch or a flaw, and even the rate at which a load is applied, can all have a marked effect on the
strength, toughness and the temperature at which the ductile-to-brittle transformation occurs. The
use of ferritic steels at low temperatures has to be undertaken with considerable care.
In general, most metallurgical and other factors, which strengthen the material, e.g. cold work,
increased alloy additions, or precipitation hardening, also lower its toughness. The only exception to
this rule is the action of grain refinement as this increases both strength and toughness. Therefore,
grain refinement is one of the most important methods of obtaining toughness in ferritic steels at low
temperatures. This is achieved principally by increasing the manganese concentration relative to
that of the carbon.
The degree to which the steel is deoxidized or killed, by the addition of silicon and aluminum, is also
important, fully killed steels being more ductile.
Niobium and vanadium are also added to high grade steels to produce additional grain refinement,
while careful control of the aluminum, nitrogen and vanadium concentrations can lead not only to
enhanced grain refinement but also to precipitation hardening by their resultant nitrides and carbides.
An effect similar in some respects to grain refinement is obtained by varying the microstructure in
quenching and tempering treatments. The best way, however, to obtain a ferritic steel with a good
low-temperature ductility is the addition of nickel as an alloying element. Various nickel alloyed steels
for low-temperature service have been developed, containing up to 9% Ni.
To determine if a material has sufficient ductility, a Charpy-V impact test is typically performed.
For details on design code requirements for low temperature applications, see PDES 04-3003-
02.005.
5.34 Elevated Temperature Creep

Carbon steel is mostly used in non-corrosive environments up to a temperature 425C. Although
there are allowable stresses for temperatures higher than 425C, it must be noted that prolonged
exposure at these higher temperatures may result in the carbide phase of the carbon steel being
converted to graphite (graphitization). The result is a weakening of the steel.
Carbon steels are also increasingly affected by creep at temperatures above 400C. Because the
creep strength (for 100,000 hours) at 400C and above rapidly decreases, unalloyed steels are
normally not used above 400-425C. Unacceptable heavy constructions would be needed.
All carbide forming elements, e.g. Mo, V, and Ti, increase the resistance against creep. The fine
carbides reduce deformations. Above 400C, Mo is added; an addition of 0.5% increases creep
resistance four times compared to unalloyed steels.
Additions of 2 to 3% Cr to Mo steel, further increase creep resistance; higher additions decrease
creep resistance again.
Low-alloyed steels, e.g. 1Cr- Mo, 1Cr- Mo and 2Cr- 1Mo steels, are used from 400C to
550C. Above 550C the oxidation resistance of these low-alloyed steels is too low.
Up to 650C, 5Cr-Mo steel has still sufficient oxidation resistance, and can thus be applied instead
of lower alloyed steels.

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5.35 Temper Enbrittlement

Temper embrittlement can occur for Cr-Mo steels containing 1 to 3% chromium exposed for a
prolonged time to temperatures in range the 350C to 575C. As a result of temper embrittlement,
the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature is shifted upwards. The reduction in toughness is
especially important when equipment operates at lower temperatures, such as during start-up.
Temper embrittlement is caused by segregation of certain elements along grain boundaries in the
steel. The phosphor and tin content are of particular importance, and their effect is worsened by
silicon and manganese, which are important alloying elements. To avoid temper embrittlement,
1Cr-Mo and 2Cr-1Mo base materials that operate in the susceptible range shall be quenched
and tempered and the base metal chemistry shall typically be controlled as follows (in %wt):
J-factor: (%Si + %Mn)*(%P + %Sn) x 104 < 100
%Cu < 0.20
%Ni < 0.30
%Mn + %Si < 1.10
Also the weld metal can show tendency for embrittlement, and to control the susceptibility for the
weld metal, the chemistry shall typically be controlled as follows:
X-factor: (10P + 5Sb + 4Sn + As) / 100 < 15 (in ppm)
%Mn + %Si < 1.20
5.36 Fatigue
Fatigue is the phenomenon of repeated or fluctuating stresses leading to fracture. The stresses are
relatively low, i.e. lower than the tensile strength of the material.
The fatigue life is the number of cycles that can be sustained before the component will fail. The
fatigue life is depending on the stress value and the time between cycles. The repeated stress can
be caused by difference in thermal expansion coefficient of connecting materials. In this case, we
speak of thermal fatigue.
Besides this, the repeated stress can result from rotating parts, such as in compressors.
5.36.1 Fatigue due to Vibrations

This high cycle fatigue is fatigue, which is caused by a rotational movement, which results
in vibrations. High cycle fatigue is possible in compressor parts, or in other vibrating
equipment. In general, compressors are vibration monitored to prevent excessive vibration
and premature fatigue damage. Vibration limits shall be provided by the compressor
manufacturer based on his fatigue design (amplitude, number of cycles).
5.36.2 Thermal Fatigue

Thermal fatigue is fatigue under thermal cycling (low cycle fatigue). Thermal fatigue can
occur for equipment and piping which operate under cyclic conditions, i.e. varying operation
conditions, or frequent change over from operation mode to stand-by situation.
Thermal fatigue can also occur at areas where free expansion is no longer possible. This
can be the case when sliding points or pipe hangers are defect, or when expansion bellows
are plugged.

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5.37 High Temperature Oxidation

Oxidation is the most common form of high temperature corrosion. Alloys rely on the formation of
oxide film to provide corrosion resistance. Increase chromium content is the most common way to
improve the oxidation resistance. Increasing the nickel content of austenitic alloys reinforces the
effect of chromium on oxidation resistance.
(External) oxidation can occur to CS if the temperature exceeds 500C. For Cr-Mo alloys the starting
temperature will be higher. For estimated oxidation rates, see Table G52A&B in API 581 (ed. 2000).
In furnaces, the metal skin temperature of coils and coil supports should not exceed the following
values to avoid severe scaling by external oxidation:
Material Skin Temperature
Carbon steel 565 C

1 (1.25) Cr 0.5Mo 595 C
2.25 Cr 0.5Mo 625 C
5Cr 0.5Mo 650 C
9Cr 1Mo 705 C
SS type 316, 321 870 C
5.38 Carburization
Carburization can occur when metals are exposed to carbon monoxide, methane, ethane, or other
hydrocarbons at elevated temperatures. Carbon from the environment combines with chromium and
other carbide formers present in the alloy. Carbides form within the grains and along grain
boundaries. The carbides are strong and hard but very brittle.
The overall effect is that the ductility is drastically reduced at temperatures up to about 500C.
Carburization also reduces oxidation resistance and creep strength.
Nickel in combination with chromium is the most effecting element in controlling carburization. In
addition, silicon and aluminum have a beneficial effect.
5.39 Metal Dusting

Metal dusting can be seen as a form of carburization, however it differs from carburization by effect
of very rapid loss of metal, and the shallow depth of carburization in advance of the metal loss. Metal
dusting is mostly found in CO rich CO/CO 2/H2 environments, as found in reforming, synthesis gas,
and partial oxidation processes.
It typically occurs in the temperature range 480-870C, with peak reaction rate at 700-750C. The
damage usually looks like rounded pits with a dusty surface. Metal dusting is rather unpredictable
and most of the low-alloy steels, stainless steels and heat resistant alloys can be attacked.
Inhibitors, if they can be added, are steam, sulphur (H2S) or ammonia. Another cure is to adjust the
gas composition and reduce the CO partial pressure.

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5.40 Fuel Ash Corrosion

Some fuels, particularly low-grade fuel oils, contain elements that can cause accelerated high-
temperature corrosion in heaters and boilers. The major contaminants are vanadium and sodium.
At temperatures above 650C, vanadium oxide vapor and sodium sulfate react to form sodium
vanadate, which in turn can react with metal oxides. The mechanism is further accelerated by the
presence of sulphur. Sulphur contributes by sulphidation and by lowering the melting point of the
vanadium oxide flux. The 50Ni-50Cr-Nb alloy is about the only alloy that can be used for hangers,
tube sheets, supports, etc when the operating temperature exceeds 650C.
Else, like in reformers and ethylene furnaces, only clean fuels shall be used.
Concentration threshold values are not well defined. However, concentrations less than 5 ppmwt V
appear to have little effect. Concentrations up to 20 ppmwt seem to be safe up to 845C, excess of
20 ppmwt only up to about 650C.
5.41 Failure of Dissimilar Metal Joints

Joining carbon or low-alloy steel to an austenitic stainless steel in for instance a Hydrotreater unit
cannot be avoided. The options for these connections are either to use dissimilar metal flanged
connections or dissimilar metal welds. Both types of connection have some disadvantages.
Disadvantage flanged connection:
The relatively great difference in thermal expansion coefficient between CS and SS has often lead
to rotation of the flange resulting in flange leakage (sizes >24 inch). Also cracking of the weld overlay
of the counter flange especially in the RTJ-groove of the sealing gasket is often experienced.
Disadvantage dissimilar metal weld:
At the interface between stainless steel or nickel alloy weld metal and the carbon steel base metal,
the formation of brittle phases may occur which can lead to failures. Studies indicated that, for fusion
welds, the same basic metallurgical processes occur near the fusion line in the carbon or low alloy
steel regardless of the weld filler metal used, i.e. stainless steel or nickel alloy. Further the relatively
great difference in thermal expansion coefficient may initiate thermal fatigue cracking.
It shall be recognized that both types of connections are not without risk. Therefore, the dissimilar
welds should be inspected at every shutdown, as a minimum, as part of the plants normal
maintenance and inspection procedures. Inspection monitoring during turnarounds using liquid
penetrant examination and shear wave ultrasonic examination to verify that there are no thermal
fatigue and hot hydrogen attack problems.
The dissimilar metal flange connections shall be visually inspected for leakage while in service on a
regular basis. If the equipment is opened, the weld overlay in the RTJ-groove of the carbon steel or
low alloy steel counter flange shall be inspected by dye penetrant.
Known problems with dissimilar welds are:
- wet H2S service when stainless steel is welded to carbon steel.
- hydrogen service when 3.5%Ni / 9%Ni steels are welded with austenitic stainless steel welding
consumables.
6.0 DESCRIPTION FOR MAIN EQUIPMENT

In a materials selection report, as a minimum the following components per type of equipment shall be
addressed.
SHELL & TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER Shell side

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Tube side (Channel)

Tubes
Tube sheet
AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGER Header
Tubes
PLATE-TYPE HEAT EXCHANGER * End plates / Nozzles
Plates
Gaskets
VESSEL/COLUMN OR REACTOR Shell
Internals, standard philosophy:
For CS columns: min. choice is:
Trays SS 410
Schoepentoeter SS 304L
Mellapack SS 304
Demister SS 304
Grating SS 410
Internal pipes CS
Welded-on parts,
e.g. supports CS
For SS 304L columns: min. choice is:
Trays SS 304
Mellapack SS 304
Demister SS 304
Grating SS 304
Internal pipes SS 304L
Welded-on parts,
e.g. supports SS 304L
For SS 316L columns: min. choice is:
Trays SS 316
Mellapack SS 316
Demister SS 316
Grating SS 316
Internal pipes SS 316L

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Welded-on parts,
e.g. supports SS 316L
COMPRESSOR/PUMP
Centrifugal Casing
Impeller
Reciprocating Cylinder
Piston
FILTER Casing
Elements (screen, basket, cartridge)
EJECTOR Casing
Nozzle/Diffuser
* Concerning Plate type HE gasket materials:
The gasket materials generally are available in nitrile rubber (NBR), butyl rubber (IIR), EPDM rubber, and
Viton (FKM). If none of these elastomers is suitable to handle the process environment, then it shall be
requested if PTFE covered gaskets are available, for example PTFE coated NBR or EPDM (SIGMACOAT).
Otherwise, a semi-welded plate type exchanger shall be proposed to the Process Engineer. For a semi-
welded plate exchanger, however, it shall be determined if the process fluid is fouling, and if special cleaning
precautions have to be taken.
* Concerning Plate type HE plate materials:
Since the plate pack is composed of a number of very thin (0.5-0.6 mm) corrugated heat transfer plates, the
minimum to be specified material is austenitic stainless steel. Typical available plate materials are SS 316,
Incoloy (alloy 825), Hastelloy (alloy C-276), and Titanium (grade 1 or 2).
7.0 DESCRIPTION FOR PIPING, INSTRUMENTATION
7.1 Piping Materials

The selected materials of construction for piping will be indicated in the materials selection diagrams
/ metallurgical flow diagrams, which are marked-up process flow diagrams. In the materials selection
report, the materials selection is explained, specific additional requirements are highlighted, and also
piping that is not on the diagrams, like utility piping, is addressed.
7.2 Specific Requirements for Instrumentation

Where relevant, also the requirements for instrumentation must be addressed in the materials
selection report. This is the case when for example the process service requires special materials,
like high alloys or erosion/corrosion resistant internal coatings/linings, when special demands are
required for the applied instrumentation, e.g. no internal pockets or full bore, or when it is anticipated
that delivery times are long or costs will be high.
Specific attention to materials and requirements for instrumentation is recommended in:
- oil&gas piping, in erosive service due to high velocities, sand.
- seawater service.
- amine services, e.g. DEA, DIPA, etc.
- sulfuric acid service, or other mineral acids.

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- caustic soda service.

- chemical plants processing solvents, e.g. styrene, benzene.
- control valves with high pressure drop.
- areas where lined piping is applied, e.g. rubber-lined or PTFE lined piping.
8.0 CLN BEST PRACTICE TOOLS PROCESS DESIGN AND ENGINEERING STANDARDS
For more specific corrosion issues & materials guidelines in specific process units and process media, the
following PDESs are available at CLN:
04-3003-02.002 Material Selection Guide for CO2 containing Oil&Gas Facilities (U.D.)
04-3003-02.003 Material Selection Guide for Visbreaker Units
04-3003-02.004 Material Recommendations in wet H2S Service
04-3003-02.005 Design code aspects for low temperature applications
04-3003-02.006 Sulfuric Acid Material Selection Guide
04-3003-02.008 Material Selection Guide for Amine Units
04-3003-02.009 Material Selection Guide for Sour Water Strippers
04-3003-02.010 Material Selection Guide for Crude Distillation Overhead Systems
04-3003-02.011 Material Selection Guide for Caustic Soda
04-3003-02.013 Material Selection Guide for SSCO Units
9.0 ADDITIONAL SERVICE REQUIREMENTS

In addition to identification of the applicable material degradation mechanisms and selection of the suitable
materials of construction, additional service requirements may need to be addressed in the materials
selection report.
The following items are normally included in a MSR prepared for BDEP. In an EPC project, these service
requirements are normally included in the applicable Project (Client) engineering specifications.
9.1 Typical Sour Service Requirements

Material requirements shall be as per NACE standard MR0103-2007 (or MR0175-2003)
For carbon and low-alloyed steels:
No elements to improve machinability shall intentionally be added.
Cold deformation 5%. When outer fiber deformation is greater than 5%, steel must be
thermally stress relieved.
Carbon steels shall have a maximum hardness of 22 HRC (237 HB).
For weldability, carbon steels shall have C content 0.23%, Ceq 0.43.
Weldments in carbon steels shall be as per NACE RP0472-2005.
V+Nb 0.03 wt%, Ti 0.02 wt%, B 0.0005 wt%
For austenitic stainless steels:
Stainless steel to be in the solution annealed condition.
Hardness 22 HRC ( 248 HV10).
Cold deformation to enhance mechanical properties, or above 5% for formed heads and U-
tubes, shall be followed by a re-solution anneal heat treatment.

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Welds between stainless steel and carbon steel are not permitted, because these always
contain local zones of high hardness. Therefore, only flanged connections shall be used.
9.2 Typical Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC) Requirements

For CS plate:
Vacuum treated, fine grain steels shall be applied.
S 0.002%. Alternatively: Through thickness ductility ASTM A770-S3 (minimum 35%), or
SEL 096 Z35. For wall thickness < 15 mm (< 25 mm according to A770) testing may be
executed on thicker plate of same heat.
P 0.01%
US inspection for laminations as per A578 including S1, acceptance level C, or EN 10160,
acceptance criteria S1 and E2.
For CS pipe:
Seamless pipe material ASTM A106, grade B; S 0.01%.
For CS forgings, castings and weld metal:
No additional requirements.
For CS Fittings:
Fittings shall fulfill requirements of base material, i.e. plate, pipe or forging.
9.3 Typical Requirements for Clad Material:

Cladding shall be in accordance with ASTM A264 (for SS, or A263 for 12%Cr steels, A265 for Ni-
alloys), including shear strength test, with a minimum cladding thickness of 3 mm.
Cladding shall be US tested as per ASTM A578, level S 6.
Instead of an integral cladding, for equipment or part of the equipment, weld overlay may be applied.
Loose liners are not acceptable. Weld overlay deposits shall be applied in two layers minimum.
First layer : AISI 309L or 309LMo SS.
Second and other layers : AISI 304L, 347, or 316L.
A minimum of 2 mm 304L, 347 or 316L chemical composition is required. To be checked with random
chips to be removed from the actual weld overlay for wet chemical analysis of C, Cr, and Ni (for 316L
also Mo).
The carbon content shall be 0.035% for L-grades.
For weld overlay, the ferrite content shall be between 3 to 8% before heat treatment. Further, the
weld overlay shall not contain a continuous ferrite network after heat treatment.
The weld overlay shall be 100% liquid penetrant inspected.
The surface shall be free of cracks.
As an alternative to a two-layer weld overlay, a single weld overlay may be applied if supplier can
show previous experience. A detailed description with proposed weld procedure specification, and
previous weld qualification test results shall be submitted.
Option for severe corrosive services:
Back welding and weld overlay procedure qualifications shall be subjected to an intergranular
corrosion test in accordance with ASTM A262 practice E, or DIN 50914.

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9.4 Typical Requirements for High Strength Steels in Steam Service

When a high strength steel is applied for HP boiler vessels, to apply steel (WB36) in accordance
with requirements of VdTV 377. In addition, the following material and fabrication requirements
should be included in requisition:
Fabrication
Material shall be tempered at the mill in the highest temperature range, i.e. 660 - 680C.
The Post-weld heat treatment shall be executed in the temperature range of 610 - 620C.
The total heat treatment shall be simulated for each heat at the mill on a test piece, with full
mechanical testing afterwards.
The minimum weld preheat temperature shall be 200C (d>30 mm) or 150C (d30mm).
Each material heat number shall be checked for its hardness in the welded condition after post weld
heat treatment. This check shall be done, on weld test plates (of same heat), which received a
simulated post weld heat treatment, prior to fabrication.
Weld tests are required for each welding procedure. Hardness will be checked on the side to be
exposed to the steam/water environment in the HAZ and weld. A traverse shall be made as per API
582 figure 12-1. Maximum hardness 300 HV 10.
The weld consumable material to be used shall be of the lowest strength still suitable. Weld materials
with ultrahigh strengths shall not be used. SMAW, GTAW and SAW may be used. Welding materials
shall be approved by contractor.
All longitudinal and circumferential welds shall be ground flush on inside and outside to prevent
crack initiation points. All nozzle attachment welds and fillet welds shall not contain notches,
undercutting, etc. In general the weld quality shall be in accordance with IIS/IIW-778-83 for stringent
requirements or EN 25817 class B. All corners shall be rounded off with minimum R = 5 mm.
All nozzles shall in principle be welded-in. Only small size nozzles ( 2 inches) may be set on. For
set-on nozzles the drum material shall be ordered with mechanical properties in the "Z" direction as
per ASTM A770 S3 (minimum 25%) or SEL 096, gteklasse Z25, to prevent lamellar tearing.
Non-destructive Testing
All weld preparations shall be magnetic particle inspected.
All welds shall be 100% ultrasonic inspected after post-weld heat treatment in accordance with
ASME, division 2, appendix 9.3.
All welds shall be 100% magnetic particle inspected on inside and outside after hydrotesting. Testing
shall be performed wet in accordance with ASTM E709. Acceptance as per ASME VIII, division I,
appendix 6.4.
9.5 Typical Fabrication Requirements for Deaerators

Base metal and weld filler metal with minimum specified tensile strength not to exceed 460
MPa shall be specified.
Base metal shall be killed CS; C content 0.23%.
All pressure retaining welds, and internals and attachments welded to pressure retaining
parts, shall be full penetration.
Welds shall be ground flush.
100% MPI shall be done for part below waterline, 10% MPI for part above waterline.
The deaerator shall be post weld heat treated (PWHT).
For more information see NACE RP0590.

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3 24 Jul 2009
9.6 Typical Design Requirements for Sulphuric Acid Service

For Sulfuric acid concentrations of 93-98 wt%, and operating temperature below 40C,
CS can be applied, with the following restrictions:
Velocity shall be restricted to maximum 0.50 - 0.75 m/s.
Sudden changes in flow direction, turbulence, and sudden changes in velocity should be
avoided.
Long radius bends (5D) and elbows (1.5D) shall be applied.
For branch connections, 90 tees should be avoided; 45 laterals, Y-type or sweep-in branch
connections should be applied.
On/off valves shall have alloy 20 trim.
Control valves shall be PTFE lined.
For mixing points, and points of high turbulence, PTFE lined (or Alloy 20) spool pieces shall
be applied.
For piping less than 4 nominal diameter, or piping where inspection access is not possible, SS 316L
or Alloy 20 materials should be considered.
9.7 Typical PSA System Requirements

Material selection for equipment in Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) systems is manufacturer
proposal. The PSA system is subject to pressure cycles as part of the normal operating cycle. This
may result in fatigue cracking, which is accelerated by the presence of hydrogen. Therefore, stress
raisers should be avoided in the equipment design.
Minimum design and inspection requirements for PSA vessels are:
The design should be based on 300,000 cycles minimum, a fatigue analysis is required for
nozzles and other welded attachments.
Use fine grain steels, such as ASTM A516 (normalized).
Do not weld internal supports to the pressure shell or if required apply full penetration welds
and ground smooth afterwards.
Nozzles shall be integrally reinforced types. Welds shall be dressed and contoured by
grinding to prevent stress raisers.
Apply PWHT.
All welds shall be ground smooth (i.e. weld reinforcing < 1 mm), and free of undercut (i.e.
EN 25817 class B, or equal). All corners shall be rounded off with minimum R = 5 mm.
All root passes and finished welds shall be 100% magnetic particle tested on inside and
outside.
All welds shall be 100% radiographed or UT inspected, including nozzle attachment welds.
Plates shall be free of laminations and therefore UT tested as per A578 including S1,
acceptance level C (or EN 10160 level S1 E2) or equal.
Weld bevels shall be 100% magnetic particle inspected.
Weld peaking shall be restricted to 1.5 mm for both inward and outward. Double-sided welds
shall be used.
Unroundness shall be restricted to maximum of 1% of the diameter.
Heads shall be without longitudinal welds and the shell shall only have one longitudinal weld.
All repairs during fabrication shall be documented.

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3 24 Jul 2009
9.8 Typical P91 Requirements

9.8.1 Specification for Welding of Pressure Piping - Amendments to API RP582
Additional requirements specifically for P91
Welding shall be with welding consumables E9015-B9-H4 / ER90S-B9 type. The application
of E9018 electrodes requires prior approval from the Principal.
Preheat 200C minimum.
Interpass temperature 300C maximum.
The weld shall be allowed to cool below 100C before a PWHT.
The PWHT shall be done directly after the welding and cooling.
Heat input shall be monitored during welding procedure qualification and during production
welding. The heat input used during production welding shall not be higher than 115% of the
value recorded during PQR welding.
On the Procedure Qualification Record(s) the following shall be covered.
Base Material, HAZ and Weld shall adhere to the following additional requirements:
Transverse Charpy impact test at 20 deg C; minimum 40J
Hot yield test at 1000F (transverse). Acceptance criteria 40.2 ksi yield strength minimum
Hardness maximum 290HV10, minimum hardness 200HV10
Micro examination which indicates a structure of 100% tempered martensite.
The Post Weld Heat Treatment temperature shall be aimed between 745 - 760C, but at
least 15C below the tempering temperature of the base materials (note that base materials
have been ordered with a minimum tempering temperature of 760C).
The PWHT time shall be 2 hours minimum. The aim tempering parameter (Hollomon-Jaffe)
is 20.5 - 21. This translates to min. 2.75hr@730C.
All buttwelds shall be 100%RT examined
All fillet welds and branch welds 100%MT
All shop and field welds shall be hardness tested by Telebrineller equipment (or equivalent).
Maximum hardness is 275HBN. Minimum hardness is 190HBN.
Hot bending shall be followed by a normalizing and tempering heat treatment of the entire
workpiece. Local or partial heat treatment is not permitted.
9.8.2 Pipe Specification (base materials)

9.8.2.1 Welded Pipe
ASTM A691-91-52 or A691-91-42
The nitrogen content shall be 1.5 times higher than the aluminum content
(N/Al> 1.5)
minimum tempering temperature 760C
Supplementary Requirement S2 Impact testing with 40J@+20C
Supplementary Requirement S3 Hardness testing, maximum hardness
241HBN, minimum hardness 190HBN.
Supplementary Requirement S5 Metallography, 100% tempered martensite
Supplementary Requirement S7 MT of weld metal
Supplementary Requirement S11 Approval required for repair welding.
Hot yield test at 1000F. Acceptance criteria 40.2 ksi yield strength minimum,
specimen to include base metal, HAZ and weld metal. Extent of testing shall
be the same as for other mechanical tests.
Welding Procedure Specifications and Procedure Qualification Records
shall be submitted to Customer for review.

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Base Material, HAZ and Weld shall adhere to the following additional
requirements:
Hot yield test at 1000F. Acceptance criteria 40.2 ksi yield strength minimum
Micro examination which indicates a structure of 100% tempered
martensite.
Every pipe shall be PMI checked. Acceptance of the method and equipment
at the discretion of the Principal.
Welded pipe shall be supplied with type 3.2 certificate to EN 10204.
In case of weld repair the following shall be adhered to:
Repair welding shall not start until customers inspector or his representative
has inspected the defect and customer has approved the repair procedure.
Welding shall be with welding consumables E9015-B9-H4 / ER90S-B9 type.
The application of E9018 electrodes requires prior approval from the
Principal.
The weld shall be allowed to cool below 100C before a Reheat treatment.
Heat input shall be monitored during welding procedure qualification and
during production welding. The heat input used during production welding
shall not be higher than 115% of the value recorded during PQR welding.
On the Procedure Qualification Record(s)the following shall be covered.
requirements:
Hardness maximum 290HV10, hardness minimum 200HV10
martensite.
9.8.2.2 Seamless Pipe
ASTM A335-P91
(N/Al> 1.5)
minimum tempering temperature 760C
pipes shall be hydrotested and UT examined
Supplementary Requirement S5 Metallography, 100% tempered martensite
Hot yield test at 1000F. Acceptance criteria 40.2 ksi yield strength minimum.
Extent of testing shall be the same as for other mechanical tests.
Transverse impact test 40J@+20C. Extent of testing shall be the same as
for other mechanical tests.
Any repair welding is not permitted without prior approval from Contractor.
In that case Welding Procedure Specifications and Procedure Qualification
Records shall be submitted to Contractor for review.
Every pipe shall be PMI checked. Acceptance of the method and equipment
Pipe shall be supplied with type 3.2 certificate to EN 10204.
Hardness shall be tested on minimum one (1) pipe per charge and per size.
Minimum hardness 190 HBN.
9.8.2.3 Seamless Fittings

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3 24 Jul 2009
ASTM A234-WP91
(N/Al> 1.5)
Minimum tempering temperature 760C
Fittings shall be ordered with 100%PT for 10% of the fittings as per ASTM
E165. Acceptance criteria as per ASME VIII div 1.
Extent of testing shall be the same as for other mechanical tests.
martensite.
Hardness shall be tested on minimum 1 per charge and per size. Maximum
hardness 248HBN, minimum hardness 190HBN.
Every fitting shall be PMI checked. Acceptance of the method and
equipment at the discretion of the Principal.
Fitting shall be supplied with type 3.2 certificate to EN 10204.
9.8.2.4 Welded Fittings
ASTM A234-WP91
(N/Al> 1.5)
Fittings shall be ordered with 100%PT for 10% of the fittings as per ASTM
Specimen to include base metal, HAZ and weld metal. Extent of testing shall
be the same as for other mechanical tests.
martensite.
Every fitting shall be PMI checked. Acceptance of the method and
equipment at the discretion of the Principal.
Principal.
Before PWHT the weld shall be allowed to cool below 100C.
Heat input shall be monitored. The heat input used during production
welding shall not be higher than 115% of the value recorded during PQR
welding.
Welding Procedure Specifications and Procedure Qualification Records
shall be submitted to Contractor for review.
requirements:
martensite.
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3 24 Jul 2009

In case of weld repair after tempering the following shall be adhered to:
Repair welding shall not start until customers inspector or his representative
has inspected the defect and customer has approved the repair procedure.
Principal.
Heat input shall be monitored during welding procedure qualification and
during production welding. The heat input used during production welding
shall not be higher than 115% of the value recorded during PQR welding.
On the Procedure Qualification Record(s)the following shall be covered.
requirements:
martensite.
The Post Weld Heat Treatment temperature shall be between 730 - 760C,
but at least 15C below the tempering temperature of the base materials
9.8.3 Forgings
ASTM A182 F91
The nitrogen content shall be 1.5 times higher than the aluminum content (N/Al>
1.5)
Forgings shall be ordered with 100%PT for 10% of the fittings as per ASTM
Any repair welding is not permitted without prior approval from Contractor. In that
case Welding Procedure Specifications and Procedure Qualification Records
shall be submitted to Contractor for review.
Extent of testing shall be the same as for tension tests required by A182.
Transverse impact test 40J@+20C. Extent of testing shall be the same as for
tension tests required by A182.
Extent of testing shall be the same as for tension tests required by A182.
Every forging shall be PMI checked. Acceptance of the method and equipment
9.8.4 Castings
ASTM A217-C12A
The nitrogen content shall be 1.5 times higher than the aluminum content (N/Al>
1.5)
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A703 S4 Magnetic Particle Inspection as per ASME B16.34 for Special Class
Valves. Radiographic Examination as per ASME B16.34 for Special Class
Valves.
A703 S8 Charpy Impact Testing at 20 deg C; minimum 40J
A703 S13 Hardness Testing, Maximum hardness 248HBN, minimum hardness
175HBN.
A703 S10 Examination of Weld Preparation.
A703 S14 Tension test from each heat and heat treatment charge.
A703 S21 Heat Treatment Furnace Record
A703 S22 Mandatory Post Weld heat treatment (of repair welds).The Post Weld
Heat Treatment temperature shall be aimed between 745 - 760C, but at least
15C below the tempering temperature of the base materials
Extent of testing shall be the same as for tension tests required by A703 S14.
Every casting shall be PMI checked. Acceptance of the method and equipment
For every weld repair Welding Procedure Specifications and Procedure
Qualification Records shall be submitted to Contractor for review.
In case of weld repair the following shall be adhered to:
Welding shall be with welding consumables E9015-B9-H4 / ER90S-B9 type. The
application of E9018 electrodes requires prior approval from the Principal.
Heat input shall be monitored during welding procedure qualification and during
production welding. The heat input used during production welding shall not be
higher than 115% of the value recorded during PQR welding.
On the Procedure Qualification Record(s)the following shall be covered:
requirements:

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3 24 Jul 2009
APPENDIX 1 BASIC MATERIAL TESTING - THEORY
Tests are developed to check whether a certain material has the required properties. These properties include
strength, toughness, hardness etcetera.
Tensile test
A tensile test measures the resistance of a material to a static or slowly applied force. Ultimate tensile strength
(UTS), often shortened to tensile strength (TS) or ultimate strength, is the maximum stress that a material can
withstand before necking, which is when the specimen's cross-section starts to significantly contract. The UTS is
usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the stress versus strain; the highest point of the stress-
strain curve is the UTS. It is an intensive property, therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test
specimen. However, it is dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen and the temperature
of the test environment and material.
Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as force per unit area. In the SI system, the unit is
pascal (Pa) or, equivalently, newtons per square meter (N/m). The customary unit is pounds-force per square inch
(lbf/in or psi), or kilo-pounds per square inch (ksi), which is equal to 1000 psi; kilo-pounds per square inch are
commonly used for convenience when measuring tensile strengths.
Many materials display linear elastic behavior, defined by a linear stress-strain relationship, as shown in appendix
2, in which deformations are completely recoverable upon removal of the load - that is, a specimen loaded
elastically in tension will elongate, but will return to its original shape and size when unloaded. Beyond this linear
region, for ductile materials, such as steel, deformations are plastic. A plastically deformed specimen will not return
to its original size and shape when unloaded. Note that there will be elastic recovery of a portion of the
deformation. For many applications, plastic deformation is unacceptable, and is used as the design limitation.
After the yield point, ductile metals will undergo a period of strain hardening, in which the stress increases again
with increasing strain, and they begin to neck, as the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases due to plastic
flow. In a sufficiently ductile material, when necking becomes substantial, it causes a reversal of the engineering
stress-strain curve (curve A); this is because the engineering stress is calculated assuming the original cross-
sectional area before necking. The reversal point is the maximum stress on the engineering stress-strain curve,
and the engineering stress coordinate of this point is the tensile ultimate strength, given by point 1.
Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials science test in which a sample is
subjected to uniaxial tension until failure. The results from the test are commonly used to select a material for an
application, for quality control, and to predict how a material will react under other types of forces. Properties that
are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area.
A tensile specimen is a standardized sample cross-section. It has two shoulders and a gage section in between.
The shoulders are large so they can be readily gripped, where as the gage section has a smaller cross-section so
that the deformation and failure can occur in this area.
Impact test (Charpy impact test)

The Charpy impact test, also known as the Charpy v-notch test, is a standardized high strain-rate test which
determines the amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture. This absorbed energy is a measure of a
given material's toughness and acts as a tool to study temperature-dependent brittle-ductile transition. It is widely
applied in industry, since it is easy to prepare and conduct and results can be obtained quickly and cheaply. But a
major disadvantage is that all results are only comparative.
The apparatus consists of a pendulum axe swinging at a notched sample of material, see appendix 3. The energy
transferred to the material can be inferred by comparing the difference in the height of the hammer before and after
a big fracture.

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The notch in the sample affects the results of the impact test, thus it is necessary for the notch to be of a regular
dimensions and geometry. The size of the sample can also affect results, since the dimensions determine whether
or not the material is in plane strain. This difference can greatly affect conclusions made.
The "Standard methods for Notched Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials" can be found in ASTM E23, ISO 148-
1 or EN 10045-1, where all the aspects of the test and equipment used are described in detail.
Hardness test
Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation, usually by penetration.
Hardness is not an intrinsic material property dictated by precise definitions in terms of fundamental units of mass,
length and time. A hardness property value is the result of a defined measurement procedure.
The usual method to achieve a hardness value is to measure the depth or area of an indentation left by an indenter
of a specific shape, with a specific force applied for a specific time. There are three principal standard test methods
for expressing the relationship between hardness and the size of the impression, these being (see appendix 4 and
5):
- Brinell (round, hardened steel ball),
- Vickers (four sided diamant pyramid), and
- Rockwell (coned diamant).
Each method has its pros and cons, being:

- Brinell is most suitable for softer materials, e.g. carbon steels. However, this method is time consuming
and leaves relative large indentations;
- Rockwell is most suitable for hard materials and large amount of measurements (fast measurements
possible)
- Vickers is the most exact measurement, but requires well prepared (polished) surface.
For production hardness measurements on equipment and piping there are portable hardness measurement
devices available. In the old days this was the Poldi hammer. Nowadays the Telebrineller and Microdur are applied.
The Equotip shall normally not be used.
Creep Test
Creep occurs under load at high temperature. Boilers, gas turbine engines, and ovens are some of the systems
that have components that experience creep. An understanding of high temperature materials behavior is
beneficial in evaluating failures in these types of systems.
High temperature progressive deformation of a material at constant stress is called creep. High temperature is a
relative term that is dependent on the materials being evaluated. A typical creep curve is shown in appendix 6.
In a creep test a constant load is applied to a tensile specimen maintained at a constant temperature. Strain is
then measured over a period of time. The slope of the curve, identified in appendix 6, is the strain rate of the test
during stage II or the creep rate of the material.
Primary creep, Stage I, is a period of decreasing creep rate. Primary creep is a period of primarily transient creep.
During this period deformation takes place and the resistance to creep increases until stage II. Secondary creep,
Stage II, is a period of roughly constant creep rate. Stage II is referred to as steady state creep. Tertiary creep,
Stage III, occurs when there is a reduction in cross sectional area due to necking or effective reduction in area due
to internal void formation.
Stress Rupture
Stress rupture testing is similar to creep testing except that the stresses used are higher than in a creep test.
Stress rupture testing is always done until failure of the material. In creep testing the main goal is to determine the

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minimum creep rate in stage II. Once a designer knows the materials will creep and has accounted for this
deformation a primary goal is to avoid failure of the component.
Non Destructive Testing

Next to the mechanical destructive testing, which give the suitability of a material for a certain application, also the
fabrication method needs to be verified. This shall be done without damaging the product (i.e. non destructive
testing).
The most well known non destructive testing methods are:

a- Liquid Dye Penetrant Testing (PT)
b- Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
c- Radiographic examination (RT)
d- Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
All these methods aim to check for material flaws, which occur due to rolling, casting, welding, heat treatments etc.
The usability of the non destructive testing methods depends on the construction and its material of construction.
For example it is very difficult to do UT on stainless steel welds. Non ferrous materials cannot be magnetic particle
tested.
Ultrasonic Inspection (UT)

Ultrasonic inspection use beams of sound waves (vibrations) of short wavelength and high frequency, transmitted
from a probe and detected by the same or other probes. Usually, pulsed beams of ultrasound are used and in the
simplest instruments a single probe, hand held, is placed on the specimen surface. An oscilloscope display with a
time base shows the time it takes for an ultrasonic pulse to travel to a reflector (a flaw, the back surface or other
free surface) in terms of distance traveled across the oscilloscope screen. The height of the reflected pulse is
related to the flaw size as seen from the transmitter probe. The relationship of flaw size, distance and reflectivity
are complex, and a considerable skill is required to interpret the display. Complex mutiprobe systems are also used
with mechanical probe movement and digitization of signals, followed by computer interpretation are developing
rapidly.
Ultrasonic examinations are performed for the detection and sizing of internal defects, flaws or discontinuities in
piping, castings, forgings, weldments or other components. Exact sizing techniques have been developed to detect
and monitor progressive cracking in a variety of equipment.
Liquid Penetrant Examination (PT)

This method employs a penetrating liquid, which is applied over the surface of the component and enters the
discontinuity or crack. Subsequently, after the excess penetrant has been cleared from the surface, the penetrant is
drawn back out of the crack to make the crack visible. Liquid penetrant testing can be applied to any non-porous
clean material, metallic or non-metallic, but is unsuitable for dirty or very rough surfaces. Penetrants can contain a
dye to make the indication visible under white light, or a fluorescent material that fluoresces under suitable ultra-
violet light. Fluorescent penetrants are usually used when the maximum flaw sensitivity is required.
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

The Magnetic Particle testing is a method for locating surface and sub-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic
material. It depends for its operation on the fact that when the material or part under test is magnetized,
discontinuities that lie in a direction generally transverse to the direction of the magnetic field, will cause a leakage
field. And therefore, the presence of the discontinuity is detected by use of finely divided ferromagnetic particles
applied over the surface. Some of these particles are being gathered and held by the leakage field. This
magnetically held collection of particles forms an outline of the discontinuity and indicates its location, size, shape
and extent.

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Dry magnetic particle examinations and wet fluorescent magnetic particle examinations are performed on
ferromagnetic materials to detect surface and slight subsurface discontinuities. Specialized wet fluorescent
magnetic particle techniques are available for black light internal examinations of equipment through borescopes.
Radiographic examination (RT)

Radiographic Testing (RT), or industrial radiography, is a nondestructive testing (NDT) method of inspecting
materials for hidden flaws by using the ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiation (high energy photons)
to penetrate various materials.
Either an X-ray machine or a radioactive source (Ir-192, Co-60, or in rare cases Cs-137) can be used as a source
of photons. Neutron radiographic testing (NR) is a variant of radiographic testing which uses neutrons instead of
photons to penetrate materials. This can see very different things from X-rays, because neutrons can pass with
ease through lead and steel but are stopped by plastics, water and oils.
Since the amount of radiation emerging from the opposite side of the material can be detected and measured,
variations in this amount (or intensity) of radiation are used to determine thickness or composition of material.
Penetrating radiations are those restricted to that part of the electromagnetic spectrum of wavelength less than
about 10 nanometres.
The beam of radiation must be directed to the middle of the section under examination and must be normal to the
material surface at that point, except in special techniques where known defects are best revealed by a different
alignment of the beam. The specimen to be inspected is placed between the source of radiation and the detecting
device, usually the film in a light tight holder or cassette, and the radiation is allowed to penetrate the part for the
required length of time to be adequately recorded.
The result is a two-dimensional projection of the part onto the film, producing a latent image of varying densities
according to the amount of radiation reaching each area. It is known as a radiograph, as distinct from a photograph
produced by light. The radiograph is examined as a negative, without printing as a positive as in photography.
Defects such as delaminations and planar cracks are difficult to detect using radiography, which is why penetrants
are often used to enhance the contrast in the detection of such defects. Penetrants used include silver nitrate, zinc
iodide, chloroform and diiodomethane. Choice of the penetrant is determined by the ease with which it can
penetrate the cracks and also with which it can be removed. Diiodomethane has the advantages of high opacity,
ease of penetration, and ease of removal because it evaporates relatively quickly. However, it can cause skin
burns.

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GUIDELINE

Guideline Material Selection Doc Number:

B1 Issued for Review

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1.0 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 4

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5.40 Fuel Ash Corrosion ..................................................................................................................... 38

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IIR Isobutene-isoprene rubber (Butyl)

3.0 FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIAL SELECTION

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3.1 Unalloyed Steels

3.2 Low-alloyed Steels

3.3 Alloyed Steels

3.3.1 AISI 400 Series Stainless Steels

3.3.2 AISI 300 Series Stainless Steels

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3.3.3 Duplex Stainless Steels

3.4 Nickel Alloys

3.5 Copper Alloys

3.6 Aluminum Alloys

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3.7 Titanium Alloys

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3.8 Table of most commonly encountered materials

Name UNS /other Wst. nr Brand name(s) Composition Remark

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Name UNS /other Wst. nr Brand name(s) Composition Remark

DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS

Alloy 59 UNS N06059 2.4605 59%Ni-22%Cr- Resistant to mineral

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Name UNS /other Wst. nr Brand name(s) Composition Remark

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Name UNS /other Wst. nr Brand name(s) Composition Remark

Gun metal UNS C90500 Tin bronze 88%Cu- valves

In the table below, relative material costs can be determined.

Material Cost Factor Material Cost Factor

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Carbon steel 1.0 Clad alloy 600 7.0

4.0 SET-UP FOR MATERIALS SELECTION REPORTS

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5.0 MATERIAL DETERIORATION MECHANISMS

5.1 Overview of Corrosive Media in a Process Plant

Deterioration Description Behavior Key Variables Examples

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Atmospheric The general corrosion General Presence of This process is readily

5.2 Sulfidation or Sulfidic Corrosion