FOREWORD - SI UNITS...............................................................................2
2.1 MATTER..................................................................................................4
2.1.1.1 The Nature of Matter......................................................4
2.1.2.1 Chemical compounds....................................................5
2.1.3.1 states of matter..............................................................6
2.1.4.1 Changes between states...............................................7
2.2 MECHANICS...........................................................................................9
2.2.1 STATICS......................................................................................9
2.2.1.1 FORCES........................................................................9
2.2.1.2 CENTRE OF GRAVITY..................................................17
2.2.1.3 STRESS........................................................................20
2.2.1.4 PROPERTIES OF MATTER..........................................26
2.2.1.5 PRESSURE AND BUOYANCY IN LIQUIDS..................28
2.2.2 KINETICS....................................................................................30
2.2.2.1 LINEAR MOVEMENT....................................................30
2.2.2.2 ROTATIONAL MOTION.................................................35
2.2.2.3 PERIODIC MOTION......................................................36
2.2.2.4 SIMPLE THEORY OF VIBRATION, HARMONICS AND
RESONANCE..............................................................................37
2.2.2.5 VELOCITY RATIO, MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE AND
EFFICIENCY...............................................................................38
2.2.3 DYNAMICS.................................................................................41
2.2.3.1 MASS............................................................................41
2.2.3.2 MOMENTUM.................................................................43
2.2.4 FLUID DYNAMICS......................................................................50
2.2.4.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND DENSITY.............................50
2.2.4.2 VISCOSITY...................................................................52
2.3 THERMODYNAMICS..............................................................................57
2.3.1.1 TEMPERATURE............................................................57
2.3.1.2 HEAT.............................................................................58
2.3.2.1 HEAT capacity...............................................................58
2.3.2.2 HEAT TRANSFER.........................................................59
2.3.2.3 VOLUMETRIC EXPANSION..........................................60
2.3.2.4 THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS...........................62
GASES 64
2.3.2.6 ISOTHERMAL AND ADIABATIC PROCESSES.............66
2.3.2.7 HEAT OF FUSION.........................................................70
2.4 OPTICS (LIGHT).....................................................................................72
2.4.1.1 SPEED OF LIGHT.........................................................72
2.4.2.1 LAWS OF REFLECTION AND REFRACTION...............72
2.4.3.1 FIBRE OPTICS..............................................................77
2.5 WAVE MOTION AND SOUND.................................................................79
2.5.1.1 WAVE MOTION.............................................................79
2.5.2.1 Sound............................................................................85
Introduction
Matter is the word used to described what things or objects are made of. Matter
can be solid, liquid or gaseous. Energy is that which causes things to happen.
As an example, electrical energy causes an electric motor to turn, which can
cause a weight to be moved, or lifted.
As more and more 'happenings' have been studied, the subject of physics has
grown, and physical laws have become established, usually being expressed in
terms of mathematical formula, and graphs. Physical laws are based on the
basic quantities - length, mass and time, together with temperature and electrical
current. Physical laws also involve other quantities which are derived from the
basic quantities.
What are these units? Over the years, different nations have derived their own
units (e.g. inches, pounds, minutes or centimetres, grams and seconds), but an
International System is now generally used - the SI system.
The SI system is based on the metre (m), kilogram (kg) and second (s) system.
base units
Basic SI Units
Length (L) Metre (m)
Mass (m) Kilogram (kg)
Time (t) Second (s)
Derived SI Units
Area (A) Square Metre (m2)
Volume (V) Cubic Metre (m3)
Density () Kg / Cubic Metre (kg/m3)
Velocity (V) Metre per second (m/s)
Acceleration (a) Metre per second per second (m/s2)
Momentum Kg metre per second (kg.m/s)
derived units
Some physical quantities have derived units which become rather complicated,
and so are replaced with simple units created specifically to represent the
physical quantity. For example, force is mass multiplied by acceleration, which is
logically kg.m/s2 (kilogram metre per second per second), but this is replaced by
the Newton (N).
Examples are:
Force (F) Newton (N)
Pressure (p) Pascal (Pa)
Energy (E) Joule (J)
Work (W) Joule (J)
Power (P) Watt (w)
Frequency (f) Hertz (Hz)
Note also that to avoid very large or small numbers, multiples or sub-multiples
are often used. For example;
element Charge
- Electrons negative
P - Protons positive
N - Neutrons neutral
8xP
8xN
Hydrogen
1x P
Oxygen
The particles in the nucleus each carrying a positive charge are called protons.
In addition to the protons the nucleus usually contains electrically neutral particles
called neutrons. Neutrons have the same mass as protons whereas electrons
are very much smaller, only of the mass of a proton.
There are currently 111 known elements or atoms. Each has an identifiable
number of protons, neutrons and electrons. Every atom has its own atomic
number, as well as its own atomic mass (refer to Fig.2). The atomic number is
calculated by the element number of protons, and the atomic mass by its number
of nucleons, (protons and neutrons combined).
1 Atomic no.
Symbol
H Atomic
1.00 mass
3 4
Li Be
6.94 9.01
11 12
Na Mg
22.9 24.3
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co
39.0 44.0 44.9 47.8 50.9 52.9 54.9 55.8 58.9
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh
85.4 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 95.9 98.0 101.1 102.9
Neutrons
The neutron simply adds to the weight of the nucleus and hence the atom. There
is no simple rule for determining the number of neutrons in any atom. In fact
atoms of the same kind can contain different numbers of neutrons. For example
chlorine may contain 18 20 neutrons in its nucleus.
The atoms are chemically indistinguishable and are called isotopes. The weight
of an atom is due to the protons and neutrons (the electrons are negligible in
weight), thus the atomic weight is virtually equal to the sum of the protons and
the neutrons.
Electrons
The electron orbits define the size or volume occupied by the atom. The
electrons travel in orbits which are many times the diameter of the nucleus and
hence the space occupied by an atom is virtually empty! The electrical properties
of the atom are determined by how tightly the electrons are bound by electrical
attraction to the nucleus.
When atoms bond together they form a molecule. Generally there are two types
of molecules. Those molecules that consist of a single type of atom, for example
the hydrogen normally exists as a molecule of two atoms of hydrogen joined
together and has the chemical symbol H2. A molecule that consists of a single
element is called a monatomic molecule. All other molecules are made up of two
or more atoms and are known as chemical compounds.
When atoms bond together to form a molecule they share electrons. Water (H2O)
Physics by COBC - Issue 1 - 26 May, 2017 Page 5
is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. In the example of
H2O the oxygen atom has six electrons in the outer or valence shell (refer to Fig.
3). As there is room for eight electrons, one oxygen atom can combine with two
hydrogen atoms by sharing the single electron from each hydrogen atom.
ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE
Px1
Px6
Px1
Nx6
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
Oxygen
All matter exists in one of three physical states, solid, liquid and gas. A physical
state refers to the condition of a compound and has no affect on a compound's
chemical structure. So ice water and steam are all H2O, and the same type of
matter appears in all these states.
All atoms and molecules in matter are constantly in motion. This motion is
caused by the heat energy in the material. The degree of motion determines the
physical state of the matter.
Liquid. A liquid has definite mass and volume but takes the shape of its
container.
The molecules in a liquid are slightly farther apart than in a solid but close
enough together to have a definite volume. As well as vibrating they are free to
move over short distances in all directions.
Gas. A gas has definite mass but takes the volume and shape of its
container.
The molecules in a gas are much farther apart in a gas than in solids or liquids.
They dash around at very high speeds in the space available to them and it is
only when they impact on the walls of their container that the molecular forces
are seen to act.
If a Force is applied to a body it will cause that body to move in the direction of
the applied force, a force has both magnitude (size) and direction. Normally
more than one force acts on an object. An object resting on a table is pulled
down by its weight W and pushed back upwards by a force R due to the table
supporting it. Since the object is stationary the forces must be in balance, i.e. R
= W, see figure 4.
(a) (b)
Downward force of gravity Downward force of gravity
on the glass
W
W Constant speed
Push force (in a straight line)
glass
W
Constant speed
Push force (in a straight line)
force of friction
table with friction
R
Friction and air resistances are the forces that cause an object to come to rest
when the force causing the movement stops, figure 4(c). If these forces were
absent, then a object, once set in motion would continue to move with constant
speed in a straight line, figure 4(b). This is summarised by Newtons first law of
motion:
Vector quantities possess both magnitude AND direction, and if either change the
vector quantity changes. Vector quantities include force, velocity and any quantity
formed from these.
A force is a vector quantity, and as such possesses magnitude and direction. The
most convenient method is to represent the force by means of a vector diagram
as shown in figure 5.
F
10 units
=
2N 1N 3N
=
2N 3N 1N
If the forces are do not act in a straight line then they can be added together
using the parallelogram law.
If two forces acting at a point are represented in the size and direction by the
sides of a parallelogram drawn from the point, their resultant is represented in
size and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the point, see
figure 7.
Spring balance
(0-10 N)
7N
3N R
P P
Q Q
O O
Figure 7. Two spring balances, P and Q, are use to exert an angular pull on a
point O. The actual force exerted on O, the resultant, is equal in size and
direction to the diagonal of the parallelogram formed from P and Q, where the
length of P and Q represent the strength of the force applied.
Find the resultant of two forces of 4.0 N and 5.0 N acting at an angle of 450 to
each other.
Using a scale of 1.0 cm = 1.0 N, draw parallelogram ABCD with AB = 5.0 cm, AC
= 4.0 N and angle CAB = 450, see figure 8.
C D
4.0 N
450
A
5.0 N B
Figure 8
By the parallelogram law, the diagonal AD represents the resultant in magnitude
and direction; it measures 8.3 cm and angle BAD = 210. Therefore the resultant
is a force of 8.3 N acting at an angle of 210 to the force of 5.0 N.
Triangle of Force
C 5.0 N
D
4.0 N
8.3 N
210
A
Equilibrium
If a third force, equal in length but opposite in direction to the resultant is added
to the resultant, it will cancel the effect of the two forces. This third force would
be termed the Equilibrium, see figure 10.
C 5.0 N
D
Figure 10
R2
F3
R1
F1
F2
Mathematical solution
Force
Vertical
component
Horizontal component
So if there are several vectors each can be resolved into two components.
e.g. F1 in direction 1, gives F1 sin 1, and F1 cos 1
F2 in direction 2, gives F2 sin 2, and F2 cos 2
F3 in direction 3, gives F3 sin 3, and F3 cos 3
and so on
Once all the forces have been resolved their components can then be added
F1 F2
1 2 F3
3 Datum
FR
FR sin R FR cos R = F1 cos 1 + F2 cos 2 + F3 cos 3
First resolve each force into its vertical and horizontal components.
F1 = 4 N
53o 45o
F2 = 5 N
F3 = 3 N
FR = 9.9 N
F=5N
Hinge (fulcrum)
DOOR
Direction of
3m rotation
5N 3m 3m 5N
- +
When two equal but opposite forces are present, whose lines of action are not
coincident, then they cause a rotation.
6m 5N
+ +
F =5 N
Where more than one force acts on a body, the total turning effect is the algebraic
sum of the moments of the forces. For example, suppose it is necessary to
calculate the resultant moment of a pivot acting on a bell crank lever, refer to
diagram below.
AO = 100 mm
OC = 20 mm
BC = 20 mm
AA
5N
10 N
B
3N
The force of 10 N tends to rotate the lever clockwise, whereas the other two
forces tend to rotate the lever anti-clockwise. Clearly, the 10 N force is in
opposition to the other two and must therefore be regarded as negative.
Note that the direction as well as the magnitude of the total moment is given, and
that the unit of a moment is the product of the unit of force, the Newton (N) and
the unit of length, the metre (m).
have different lines of action. There must be datum position, such that the total
moment to one side, causing a clockwise rotation, is balanced by a total moment,
on the other side, which causes an anticlockwise rotation. In other words, the
total weight can be considered to act through that datum position.
- +
If the body is considered in two different positions, the weight acts through two
lines of action, W1 and W2 and these interact at point G, which is termed the
Centre of Gravity (c of g).
c of g
P1 P2
G
W1
W2
W1
Position 1 Position 2
A regular lamina, such as a rectangle, has its centre of gravity at the intersection
of the diagonals.
G
A triangle has its centre of gravity at the intersection of the medians, i.e. at the
midpoint of each side.
X2
W1
X3
W2
W3
As already stated the centre of gravity of a solid object is the point about which
the total weight appears to act. Or, put another way, if the object is balanced at
that point, it will have no tendency to rotate. In the case of hollow or irregular
shaped objects, it is possible for the centre of gravity to be in free space and not
within the objects at all. The most important application of centre of gravity for
aircraft mechanics is the weight and balance of an aircraft.
C of G
If an aircraft is correctly loaded, with fuel, crew and passengers, baggage, etc. in
the correct places, the aircraft will be in balance and easy to fly. If, for example,
the baggage has been loaded incorrectly, making the aircraft much too nose or
tail heavy, the aircraft could be difficult to fly or might even crash.
It is important that whenever changes are made to an aircraft, calculations MUST
be made each time to ensure that the centre of gravity is within acceptable limits
set by the manufacturer of the aircraft. These changes could be as simple as a
new coat of paint, or as complicated as the conversion from passenger to a
freight carrying role.
Force in newtons 25 N
= 2 = 2 = 5 N m-2.
area in metre 5m
So long as the external forces acting on the ball, i.e. atmospheric pressure, do
not exceed the internal forces then the ball will maintain its shape.
There are five different types of stress in mechanical bodies.
1. Tension
2. Compression
3. Torsion
4. Bending
5. Shear
Tension forces
Compression
Compression is the resistance to an external force that tries to push an object
together. Aircraft rivets are driven with a compressive force. When compression
stress is applied to a rivet, the rivet firstly expands until it fills the hole and then
the external part of the shank spreads to form a second head, which holds the
sheets of metal tightly together.
Snap
Rivet head
Rivet shank
Reaction block
Force from
reaction block
Bending
In flight, the force of lift tries to bend an aircraft's wing upward. When this
happens the skin on the top of the wing is subjected to a compressive force,
whilst the skin below the wing is pulled by a tension force. When the aircraft is on
the ground the force of gravity reverses the stresses. In this case the top of the
wing is subjected to tension stress whilst the lower skin experiences compression
stress.
Compression
Torsion Bending
SHEAR
The third stress that combines tension and compression is the shear stress,
which tries to slide an object apart. Shear stress exists in a clevis bolt when it is
used to connect a cable to a stationary part of a structure. A fork fitting, such as
drawn below, is fastened onto one end of the cable, and an eye is fastened to the
structure. The fork and eye are held together by a clevis bolt.
When the cable is pulled there is a shearing action that tries to slide the bolt
apart. This is a special form of tensile stress inside the bolt caused by the fork
pulling in one direction and the eye pulling in the other.
Physics by COBC - Issue 1 - 26 May, 2017 Page 23
Clevis Bolt
STRAIN
Stress is a force inside an object caused by an external force. If the outside force
is great enough to cause the object to change its shape or size, the object is not
only under stress, but is also strained.
If a length of elastic is pulled, it stretches. If the pull is increases, it stretches
more; if the pull is reduced, it contracts.
Hookes law states that the amount of stretch (elongation) is proportional to the
applied force.
The degree of elongation or distortion has to be considered in relation to the
original length. the graph below shows how stress varies with stress when a
steel wire is stretched until it breaks.
elastic plastic
deformation deformation E
D
yield
C point
B
stress elastic
A limit
permanent
Hookes law deformation
limit
0 x strain
x
L x
L
Tensile strain
If a cable of 10 m length is loaded with a 100 kg weight so that it is stretched to
11 m, what is the strain placed on the cable?
X 1m 1
= L
= 10 m = 10 = 0.1 x 100 % = 10 %
Example 2
Compressive strain
A 25 cm rod is subjected to a compressive load so that its length changes by 5
mm. How much strain is the rod under when loaded?
5 mm is equivalent to 0.5 cm, therefore
X 0.5 cm 0.5
= L = 25 cm = 25 = 0.02 x 100 % = 2 %
Strain occurs in each of the stresses already mentioned in the previous section.
However, the strain involved with shearing and torsional stresses is not
expressed in the same manner above. Both these stresses give rise to shearing
action when one layer of material moves relative to another in the direction of the
applied force. In shear strain this a straight motion in torsional strain it is a
rotational motion.
SHEAR
Shearing occurs when the applied load causes one 'layer' of material to move
relative to the adjacent layers etc.
When a riveted joint is loaded, it is a shear stress and shear strain scenario. The
rivet is being loaded, ultimately failing as shown.
F
F
F
F
If a torque, or twisting action is applied to the bar shown, one end will twist, or
deflect relative to the other end.
Obviously, the twist will be proportional to the applied torque. Torque has the
same effect and therefore the same unit as a Moment, i.e. Newton metres.
If the bar is considered as a series of adjacent discs, what has happened is that
each disc has twisted, or moved relative to its neighbour, etc, etc. Hence, it is a
shearing action.
The shear strain is equal to the angular deflection multiplied by radius r divided
by the overall length L,
=
DIFFUSION
The spreading of a substance of its accord is called diffusion and is due to
molecular action, e.g. a smell, whether pleasant or not, travels quickly from its
source to your nostrils where it is detected.
Diffusion occurs in liquids and gases but not in solids. In these two states the
molecules are free to move, it is this property that allows diffusion to occur.
SURFACE TENSION
A needle, though made of steel which is denser than water, will float on a clean
water surface. This suggests that the surface of a liquid behaves as if it is
covered with an elastic skin that is trying to shrink.
This effect is called surface tension and it explains why small liquid drops are
always nearly spherical, i.e. a sphere has the minimum surface area for a given
volume. The surface tension can be reduced if the liquid is contaminated,
adding a detergent to the water will cause our needle to sink.
In a liquid, the molecules still partially bond together. This bonding force is known
as surface tension and prevents liquids from expanding and spreading out in all
directions. Surface tension is evident when a container is slightly over filled.
Surface Tension.
CAPILLARITY
If a glass tube of small bore is dipped into water , the water rises u the tube a few
centimetres. The narrower the tube the greater the rise . The adhesion between
the glass and the water exceeds the cohesion of the water molecules, the
meniscus curves up , and the surface tension causes the water to rise. The
effect is called capillary action.
Physics by COBC - Issue 1 - 26 May, 2017 Page 27
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
When selecting a material for a job need to know how it will behave when a force
acts upon it, i.e. what are its mechanical properties.
Strength. A strong material requires a strong force to break it. The strength of
some materials depends on how the force is applied. For example, concrete is
strong when compressed but weak when stretched, i.e. in tension.
Stiffness. A stiff material resists forces which try to change its shape or size. It is
not flexible.
Elasticity. An elastic material is one that recovers is original shape and size after
the force deforming it has been reformed. A material that does not recover, but is
permanently deformed is plastic.
Ductility. Materials that can be rolled into sheets, drawn into wires or worked into
other useful shapes, without breaking are ductile. Metals owe much of their
usefulness to this property.
Brittleness. A material that is fragile and breaks easily is brittle, e.g. glass and
cast iron are brittle.
throughout the fluid. This pressure acts on area A2, and hence an output force F2
is generated.
If the pressure P is constant, then = and if A2 is greater than A1, the output
force F2 is greater than F1.
A mechanical advantage has been created, just like using levers or pulleys. This
is the principle behind the hydraulic jack.
But remember, you don't get something for nothing; energy in = energy out or
work in = work out, and work = force x distance. In other words, distance moved
by F1 has to be greater than distance moved by F2.
UNITS OF PRESSURE
Pressure is the measurement of a force exerted on a given area. In the SI
system pressure is expressed in Pascals (Pa) being derived from force per unit
area (Nm -2). Atmospheric pressure is usually measured in milli-bars (mb) or
pounds per square inch (psi).
At sea level standard atmospheric pressure equals 1013.2 milli-bars or 14.69 psi
at 15C.
BUOYANCY
For example, when a 100 cubic centimetre (cm 3) block weighing 1.5 kilograms
(kg) is attached to a spring scale and lowered into a full container of water, 100
cm 3 of water overflows out of the container. The weight of 100 cm 3 of water is
100 grams (g), therefore the up-thrust acting on the block is 100 g and the spring
scale reads 1.4 kg.
If the object immersed has a relative density that is less than the liquid, the object
displaces its own weight of the liquid and it floats. The effect of up-thrust is not
only present in liquids but also in gases. Hot air balloons are able to rise
because they are filled with heated air that is less dense than the air it displaced.
If you run from your house to a friends house and travel a distance of 1500m in
1500
500 s, then your average speed is = 3 ms-1.
500
Similarly, if you travel 12 km to work and the journey takes 30 minutes, your
12
average speed is = 24 km h-1
0.5
VELOCITY
Velocity is similar to speed, but not identical. The difference is that velocity
includes a directional component; hence velocity is a vector (it has magnitude
and direction - the magnitude component being speed).
If a vehicle is moving around a circular track at a constant speed, when it reaches
point A, the vehicle is pointing in the direction of the arrow which is a tangent to
the circle. At point B it's speed is the same, but the velocity is in the direction of
the arrow at B.
Similarly at C the velocity is shown by the arrow at C.
Note that the arrows at A and C are in almost opposite directions, so the
velocities are equal in magnitude, but almost opposite in direction.
In the case of the car, v1 = 0 kmh-1 and v2 = 96 kmh-1, therefore the rate of change
of velocity = 96.
96
Acceleration = = 9.6 kmh-1s-1
10
Note that as acceleration = rate of change of velocity, then it must also be a
vector quantity. This fact is important when we consider circular motion, where
direction is changing.
If the final velocity v2 is less than v1, then obviously the body has slowed.
This implies that the acceleration is negative. Other words such as
deceleration or retardation may be used. It must be emphasized that
acceleration refers to a change in velocity. If an aircraft is travelling at a
constant velocity of 600 km/h it will have no acceleration.
a = or,
v -u
a=
t
V = u + at equation 1
s = ut + at2............................... equation 2
v2 = u2 + 2as .............................equation 3
55.55 - 0
a= = 2.22 m s-2
25
If an aircraft slows from 160 km/h to 10 km/h with a uniform retardation of 5 m s-2,
how long will take?
44.44 2.78
t= = 8.332 sec
5
What distance will the aircraft travel in the example of retardation in example 2?
We can use either
v 2 - u2
s = ut + at2 or s=
2a
1963.7
=
10
= 196.37 m
the aircraft through the air), but while flying towards B the effect of the wind
vector BC was to 'blow' the aircraft off-course to C. So how is the pilot to fly to B
instead of C?
Obviously, the answer is to fly (head) towards D, so that the wind blows the
means that to an observer moving at velocity V1, the object moving at velocity V2
appears to be moving at that relative velocity. (V1 relative to V2 is the apparent
movement of V1 relative to V2).
CIRCULAR MOTION
Rotational motion means motion involving curved paths and therefore change of
direction. As with linear - motion, it may analysed mathematically or graphically
and both types of motion are very similar in this respect, but employ different
symbols. Again, only cases of constant acceleration are considered here, and
cases involving linear translation and rotation are definitely ignored!
Firstly, consider the equation representing rotation. They are equivalent to those
linear equations of motion.
Linear Rotational
v2 = v1 + at 2 = 1 + t
s = (v1 + v2)t 2 = (1 + 2)t
s = v1t + at2 = 1t + t2
N.B. It is important to realise that the angular units here must employ
measurements in radians.
CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Consider a mass moving at a constant speed v, but following a circular path. At
This can be shown by a diagram, with a person holding a string tied to a mass
which is rotating around the person.
Tensile force in string acts inwards to provide centripetal force acting on mass.
Tensile force at the other end of the string acts outwards exerting centrifugal
reaction on person.
(Note again - cases involving changing speeds as well as direction are beyond
the scope of this course)
Some masses move from one point to another, some move round and round.
These motions have been described as translational or rotational.
Some masses move from one point to another, then back to the original point,
and continue to do this repetitively. The time during which the mass moved away
from, and then returned to its original position is known as the time period and
the motion is known as periodic.
Many mechanisms or components behave in this manner - a good example is a
pendulum.
PENDULUM
If a pendulum is displaced from its stationary position and released, it will swing
back towards that position. On reaching it however, it
will not stop, because its inertia carries it on to an equal
but opposite displacement. It then returns towards the
stationary position, but carries on swinging etc, etc.
Note that the time period can be measured from a any
position, through to the next time that position is
reached, with the motion in the original direction
VIBRATION THEORY
Vibration Theory is based on the detailed analysis of vibrations and is essentially
mathematical, relying heavily on trigonometry and calculus, involving sinusoidal
functions and differential equations.
The simple pendulum or spring-mass would according to basic theory, continue
to vibrate at constant frequency and amplitude, once the vibration had been
started. In fact, the vibrations die away, due to other forces associated with
motion, such as friction, air resistance etc. This is termed a Damped vibration.
If a disturbing force is re-applied periodically the vibrations can be maintained
indefinitely. The frequency (and to a lesser extent, the magnitude) of this
disturbing force now becomes critical.
Depending on the frequency, the amplitude of vibration may decay rapidly (a
damping effect) but may grow significantly.
This large increase in amplitude usually occurs when the frequency of the
disturbing force coincides with the natural frequency of the vibration of the system
(or some harmonic). This phenomenon is known as Resonance. Designers
carry out tests to determine these frequencies, so that they can be avoided or
eliminated, as they can be very damaging.
A machine is any device which enables a force (the effort) acting at one point to
overcome another force (the load) acting at some other point. A lever is a simple
machine , as are pulleys, gears, screws, etc.
In the diagram below a lever lifts a load of 100 N through 0.50 m when an effort is
applied at the other end. The effort can be taken from the principle of moments
about the pivot O as effort just begins to raise the load.
clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
the lever has enabled an effort (E) to raise a load (L) twice as large, i.e. it is a
force multiplier, but E has had to move twice as far as L. the lever has a
mechanical advantage (MA) of 2 and a velocity ratio (VR) of 2 where
L distance moved by E
MA = and VR =
E distance moved by L
load 100 N
O
1m
0.5 m
lever
pivot effort 50 N
Machines make work easier and transfer energy from one place to another. No
machine is perfect and in practice more work is done by the effort on the machine
than is done by the machine on the load. Work measure energy transfer and so
we can also say that the energy input into a machine is greater than its energy
output. Some energy is always wasted to overcome friction and some parts of
the machine itself.
A lever is in balance when the algebraic sum of the moments is zero. In other
words, a 10 kilogram weight located 2 metres to the left of the fulcrum has a
negative moment (anti-clockwise), 20 kilogram metres. A 10 kilogram weight
located 2 metres to the right of the fulcrum has a positive moment (clockwise), of
20 kilogram metres. Since the sum of the moments is zero, the lever is
balanced.
I L
Although less effort is required to lift the load, the lever does not reduce the
amount of work done. Work is the result of force and distance, and if the two
items from both sides are multiplied together, they are always equal.
R
Second Class Lever
L
I
2.2.3.1 MASS
Contrary to popular belief, the weight and mass of a body are not the same.
Weight is the force with which gravity attracts a body. However, it is more
important to note that the force of gravity varies with the distance between a body
and the centre of the earth. So, the farther away an object is from the centre of
the earth, the less it weighs. The mass of an object is described as the amount of
matter in an object and is constant regardless of its location. The extreme case of
this is an object in deep space, which still has mass but no weight.
Another definition sometimes used to describe mass is the measurement of an
object's resistance to change its state of rest, or motion. This is seen by
comparing the force needed to move a large jet, as compared with a light aircraft.
Because the jet has a greater resistance to change, it has greater mass. The
mass of an object may be found by dividing the weight of an object by the
acceleration of gravity which is 9.81 m/s2
Mass is usually measured in kilograms (kg) or, possibly, grams (gm) for small
quantities and tonnes for larger, The Imperial system of pounds (Ibs.) can still be
found in use in aviation, for calculation of fuel quantities, for example.
FORCE
Force has been described earlier, force is the vector quantity representing one or
more other forces, which act on a body. In this section we will see the effect of
forces when they produce, or tend to produce, movement or a change in
direction.
INERTIA
Inertia is the resistance to movement, mentioned earlier when discussing the
mass of objects. This means that if an object is stationary it remains so, and if it is
moving in one direction, it will not deviate from that course. A force will be needed
to change either of these states; the size of the force required is a measure of the
inertia and the mass of the object.
WORK
Work is done when a force moves. Consider the case where a man applied a
force to move a small car. The initial force that he applies overcomes the cars
inertia and it moves. The work that the man has done is equal to:
If the man continues to push the car a farther distance then the distance moved
will increase and so he will have done more work.
The unit of work is the Newton metre (Nm) or the joule, where
1 joule = the work done when a force of 1 Newton is applied through a distance
of 1 metre
POWER
Recalling the man pushing the car, it was stated that the greater the distance the
car was pushed, the greater the work done (or the greater the energy expended).
But yet again, another factor arises for our consideration. The man will only be
capable of pushing it through a certain distance within a certain time. A more
powerful man will achieve the same distance in less time. So, the word Power is
introduced, which includes time in relation to doing work.
Physics by COBC - Issue 1 - 26 May, 2017 Page 42
work done
Power =
time taken
The S.I. unit of power is the Watt (W), and it is the rate of work done when 1 joule
is achieved in one second
ENERGY
Now clearly the man pushing the car will become progressively more tired the
further he pushes the car, the more work he does the more energy he expends.
The potential energy of a raised body is easily calculated. If it falls, the force
acting will be its weight and the distance acted through; its previous height.
Hence, the work done equals the weight times the height. This is also the
potential energy held.
Another form of energy is that due to the movement of particles of some kind.
This can be the water flowing in a river, driving a mill or turbine. The moving air
driving a wind turbine which is producing electricity; or hot gasses in a jet engine,
driving the turbine, are both forms of energy due to motion, which is known as
kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy is energy of motion. The kinetic energy of an object is the energy
it possesses because of its motion. The kinetic energy of a point mass m is given
by:
vf vf
Work done on mass = Fd = mad = m x x x t = mv2 = kinetic energy
t 2
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
One important principle underlies the conversion of one form to another. It is
known as the Conservation of Energy, which is:
Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be changed from one form to
another
Efficiency =
HEAT
Heat is defined as the energy in transit between two bodies because of a
difference in temperature. If two bodies, at different temperatures, are
bought into contact, their temperatures become equal. Heat causes
molecular movement, which is a form of kinetic energy and, the higher the
temperature, the greater the kinetic energy of its molecules.
Thus when two bodies come into contact, the kinetic energy of the
molecules of the hotter body tends to decrease and that of the molecules
of the cooler body, to increase until both are at the same temperature.
2.2.3.2 MOMENTUM
Momentum is a word in everyday use, but its precise meaning is less well-known.
We say that a large rugby forward, crashing through several tackles to score a
try, used his momentum. This seems to suggest a combination of size (mass)
and speed were the contributing factors.
The time duration of the impact force may be in doubt and, in the absence
of special equipment, may have to be estimated. Forces of this type,
having a short time duration, are called impulsive forces and their effect
on the body to which they are applied, that is the change of momentum
produced, is called the impulse.
If the impact duration is very small, the impulsive force is very large for any
given impulse or change in momentum. This can be shown by substitution
into equations.
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
The principle of the Conservation of Momentum states:
When two or more masses act on each other, the total momentum of the
masses remains constant, provided no external forces, such as friction,
act.
Study of force and change in momentum lead to Newton defining his Laws of
Motion, which are fundamental to mechanical science.
The First law states a mass remains at rest, or continues to move at constant
velocity, unless acted on by an external force.
The Second law states that the rate of change of momentum is proportional to
the applied force.
The Third law states if mass A exerts a force on mass B, then B exerts an equal
but opposite force on A.
CHANGES IN MOMENTUM
What causes momentum to change? If the initial and final velocities of a mass
are u and v,
then change of momentum = mv - mu
= m (v - u).
Does the change of momentum happen slowly or quickly?
The rate of change of momentum = m
Inspection of this shows that force F (m.a) = m , so, a force causes a change in
momentum.
UA UB F VA VB
A
impact, A and B will have some new velocities vA, and vB. By calculation, it can
be proven that the momentum before the impact equals the momentum after the
impact.
MOMENT OF INERTIA
Moment of Inertia considers the effect of mass on bodies whose moment is
rotational. This is important to engineers, because although vehicle move from
on place to another (i.e. the moment of the vehicle is translational) many of its
components are rotating within it.
Consider two cylinders, of equal mass, but different dimensions, capable of being
rotated.
It will be easier (require less torque) to cause the LH cylinder to rotate. This is
because the RH cylinder appears to have greater inertia, even through the
masses are the same.
Gyroscopes are used in several of an aircrafts instruments, which are vital to the
safety of the aircraft in bad weather. There are many different components that
will not operate correctly if they are not perfectly balanced. For example wheels,
engines, propellers, electric motors and many other components must run with
perfect smoothness.
The gyroscope is a rotor having freedom of motion in one or more planes at right
angles to the plane of rotation. With the rotor spinning, the gyroscope will
possess two fundamental properties:
2. Gyroscopic precession
A gyroscope has freedom of movement about axes BB and CC, which are at 90
to the axis of rotation AA .
Rigidity
This maintains the axis of rotation constant in space. So if a gyroscope is
spinning in free space and is not acted upon by any outside influence or force, it
will remain fixed in one position. This facility is used in instruments such as the
artificial horizon, which shows the location of the actual horizon outside, even
when the aircraft is in poor visibility.
The mounting frame can be rotated about axes AA and BB. The gyroscope will
remain fixed in space in the position it was set, and this is known as rigidity. If
the frame is rotated about axis CC, the gyroscope will rotate until the axis of
gyroscopic rotation is in line with the axis of the frame rotation and is known as
precession.
C A
A
C A
Gyroscope Precession
The eccentricity of the rotating masses cannot be removed, as they are either a
result of the design of the mechanism, such as a crankshaft, or are due to
unavoidable manufacturing imperfections. The problem is solved, or at least
minimised, by the addition of balance weights, whose out of balance centrifugal
force is exactly equal and opposite to the original out of balance force. A
common example of this is the weights put on motor car wheels to balance them,
which makes the car much easier to drive at high speed.
FRICTION
Friction is that phenomenon in nature that always seems to be present and acts
so as to retard things that move, relative to things that are either stationary or
moving slowly. How large that frictional force is depends on the nature of the two
surfaces of the object concerned. Rough surfaces generally produce more
friction than smooth surfaces, and some materials are naturally 'slippery'. Friction
can operate in any direction, but always acts in the sense opposing motion.
The diagram shows a body (mass m) on an inclined plane. As the angle of the
plane () is increased, the body remains stationary, until at some particular value
of , it begins to move down the plane. This is because the frictional force (F)
opposing motion has reached its maximum value.
Fmax = mg sin ,
and the normal reaction between the body and the plane
R = mg cos .
= = tan
Fluid is a term that includes both gases and liquids; they are both able to flow.
We will generally consider gases to be compressible and liquids to be
incompressible.
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. The density of solids and
liquids varies with temperature, and the density of a gas varies with both
temperature and pressure. The symbol for density is the Greek symbol Rho ()
To find the density of a substance, divide its mass by its volume, which will give
you the mass per unit volume, or density.
mass
Density () =
volume
For example, the liquid that fills a certain container has a mass of 756 kilograms.
The container is 1.6 metres long, 1.0 metre wide and 0.75 of a metre deep and
we want to find the liquids density. The volume of the container is 1.6 x 1.0 x
0.75 = 1.2 m3 and the density is
756
= = 630 kg m -3
1.2
The same formulas are used to find the density of gases by substituting air for
water. As relative density is a ratio it has no units. For example, if a certain
hydraulic fluid has a relative density of 0.8, then 1 litre of the liquid weighs 0.8
times as much as 1 litre of water table of typical relative densities. Remember
that the relative density of both water and air is 1.
Hydrometer
Graduated
scale
Float
Electrolyte
Discharged
Fully charged electrolyte
electrolyte
Principle of an Hydrometer
Liquids such as water flow very easily whilst others, such as treacle, flow much
slower under the same conditions. Liquids of the type that flow readily are said
to be mobile, and those of the treacle type are called viscous. Viscosity is due to
friction in the interior of the liquid.
Just as there is friction opposing movement between two solid surfaces when
one slides over another, so there is friction between two liquid surfaces even
when they consist of the same liquid. This internal friction opposes the motion of
one layer over another and, therefore, when it is great, it makes the flow of the
liquid very slow.
Even mobile liquids possess a certain amount of viscosity. This can be shown by
stirring a container of liquid, with a piece of wire. If you continue to stir, the
contents of the container will eventually be spinning. This proves that the
viscosity of the layers immediately next to the wire have dragged other layers
around, until all the liquid rotates.
The viscosity of a liquid rapidly decreases as its temperature rises. Treacle will
run off a warmed spoon much more readily than it will from a cold one. Similarly
when tar (which is very viscous) is to be used for roadway repairs, it is first
heated so that it will flow readily.
Some liquids have such high viscosity that they almost have the same properties
as solids. Pitch, which is also used in road building, is a solid black substance. If
we leave a block of the material in one position, it will, eventually begin to spread.
This shows it to be a liquid with a very high viscosity.
Time = 0 Time = 1 hr
An even more extreme case is glass. A sheet of glass stood up on end on a hard
surface, will eventually be found to be slightly thicker at the bottom of the sheet
than at the top. So although we could call glass a liquid with an exceedingly high
viscosity, we normally consider it a solid.
The surface roughness has an effect on the streamlines that are away from the
surface and if the surface can be made smoother, the overall friction or drag can
be reduced.
The second form of resistance is known as eddies or turbulent airflow. This can
be demonstrated by placing the flat plate at right angles to the flow. This causes
a great deal turbulence behind the plate and a very high resistance, which is
almost entirely due to the formation of these eddies.
Direction
of
Airflow
The introduction of smoke into the airflow in a wind tunnels or coloured jets into
water tank experiments, makes it is possible to see these streamlines and
Physics by COBC - Issue 1 - 26 May, 2017 Page 54
eddies.
When a fluid flows slowly along pipe, the flow is said to be steady and lines,
called streamlines, are drawn to represent it as in part a of the diagram below.
If the flow is very fast and exceeds a certain critical speed, the flow becomes
turbulent and the fluid is churned up. The streamlines are no longer straight and
parallel, and eddies are formed as in part b of the diagram. The resistance to
flow increases as a results.
a. pipe
fluid
flows
slowly
steady
flow
b. pipe
fluid
flows
quickly
turbulent flow
If the object, e.g. a small sphere , moves slowly, then streamlines similar to those
in part a of the diagram below, will show the apparent motion of the fluid around
the object. It will be a steady flow. If the speed of the sphere increases, a critical
speed is reached when the flow breaks up and eddies are formed behind the
sphere as in part b, the flow becomes turbulent and the viscous drag on the
sphere increases sharply.
a. b.
c.
The critical speed can be raised by changing the shape of the object, so reducing
drag and causing steady flow to replace turbulent flow. This is called streamlining
the object and part c shows how this done for a sphere. Streamlining is
especially important in the designing of high speed aircraft and other fast moving
vehicles.
In this diagram, the pressure acting on x x1 is due to the weight of the fluid (in this
case a liquid) acting downwards.
This is the static pressure acting at depth h within a stationary fluid of density p.
This is straightforward enough to understand as the simple diagram
demonstrates, we can "see" the liquid.
But the same principle applies to gases also, and we know that at altitude, the
reduced density is accompanied by reduced static pressure.
We are not aware of the static pressure within the atmosphere which acts on our
bodies, the density is low (almost 1000 times less than water). Divers, however,
quickly become aware of increasing water pressure as they descend.
Note how the pressure is proportional to the square of the air velocity.
Bernoullis principle can be found in a carburettor and paint spray gun. Air
passing through a venturi creates a rapid drop in pressure, which enables the
V P V P
V P
atmospheric pressure to force the fluid into the venturi, and out of the tube in the
form of a fine spray and the theory of flight.
Heat is a form of energy that causes molecular agitation within a material. The
amount of agitation is measured in terms of temperature, which is a measure of
the kinetic energy of molecules.
In establishing a temperature scale, two conditions are chosen as a reference.
These are the points at which pure water freezes and boils. In the Centigrade
system the scale is divided into 100 graduated increments known as degrees ()
with the freezing point of water represented by 0C and the boiling point 100C.
The Centigrade scale was named the Celsius scale after the Swedish astronomer
Anders Celsius who first described the centigrade scale in 1742.
In 1802 the French chemist and physicist Joseph Louis Gay Loussac found that
when you increased the temperature of a gas by one degree Celsius, it expands
by 1/273 of its original volume. He reasoned that if a gas was cooled, its volume
would decrease by the same amount. So if the temperature was decreased to
273 degrees below zero, the volume of the gas would also decrease to zero, and
there would be no more molecular activity. This point is referred to absolute
zero.
On the Celsius scale absolute zero is - 273C. On the Fahrenheit scale it is
460F.
In the Fahrenheit system, water freezes at 32F and boils at 212F. The
difference between these two points is divided into 180 increments. Conversion
between temperature scales. An engineering student should be able to convert
from one temperature to another:
e.g. convert F to C - Subtract 32, then multiply by
convert C to F - Multiply by , then add 32
convert C to K - add 273
Note also that when thermodynamic principles and calculations are considered, it
is usually vital to perform these calculations using temperatures expressed in
Kelvin.
Pure Water Boils 373 100 212 672
Heat is one of the most useful forms of energy because of its direct relationship
with work. When an aircrafts brakes are applied, the kinetic energy of the
moving aircraft is changed into heat energy by the rubbing action of the brake
friction material against the brake discs. This slows the wheels and produces
additional friction between the wheels and the ground, which, finally slows the
aircraft.
There are a number of different units used in the relationship between heat and
work. The SI system uses the Joule (J), and the Imperial system, the British
thermal unit (Btu), whilst a third unit, the calorie (cal), is also still in use. Below
are some conversion factors between these units.
The phase changes mentioned above are the transitions between solid, liquid,
and gaseous matter. They typically involve large amounts of energy compared to
the specific heat and are called the latent heat of fusion and latent heat of
vaporisation which will be discussed later.
There are three methods by which heat is transferred from one location to
another or from one substance to another. These three methods are conduction,
convection and radiation.
CONDUCTION
Conduction requires physical contact between a body having a high level of heat
energy and a body having a lower level of heat energy. When a cold object
touches a hot object, the violent action of the molecules in the hot material
speeds up the slow molecules in the cold object. This action spreads until the
heat is equalised throughout both bodies.
Cooling Fins
Piston
Connecting Rod
Various metals have different rates of conduction. In some cases, the ability of a
metal to conduct heat is a major factor in choosing one metal over another.
Liquids are poor conductors of heat in comparison with metals. This can be
observed by boiling water at one end of a test tube whilst ice remains at the other
end. Gases are even worse conductors of heat than liquids, which is why we can
stand quite close to a fire or stove without being burned.
Insulators are materials that reduce or prevent heat conduction. A wooden
handle on a pot or soldering iron serves as a heat insulator. Materials such as
finely spun glass, are particularly poor heat conductors and are commonly used
in many types of insulation.
CONVECTION
Convection is the process by which heat is transferred by the movement of a
heated fluid. For example, when heat is absorbed by a free-moving fluid, the fluid
closest to the heat source expands and its density decreases. This less dense
Example of Convection
RADIATION
Radiation is the only form of energy transfer that does not require the presence of
matter. The heat you feel from an open fire is not transferred by convection
because hot air over the fire rises. The heat is not transferred through
conduction because the conductivity of air is poor, and the cooler air moving
towards the fire overcomes the transfer of heat outwards. So there must be
some way for heat to travel across space other than by conduction or convection.
The term radiation refers to the continual emission of energy from the surface of
all bodies. This energy is known as radiant energy of which sunlight is a form.
This is why you feel warm standing in front of a window whilst it is very cold
outside.
But how much does a component expand? The answer should be obvious.
Expansion is proportional to the increase in temperature to the original dimension
and depends on the actual material used.
LINEAR
So L2 - L1 = L1 (2 - 1)
EXPANSION OF FLUIDS
Liquids behave in a similar way to solids when heated, but (a) they expand more
than solids, and (b) they expand volumetrically. Note that when heated, the
containers tends to expand as well, which may or may not be important to a
designer.
A very simple device that can convert heat into potential energy is a rubber band.
Unlike most other substances, rubber contracts when heated. We can therefore
lift an object by heating a rubber band. Heat is converted into gravitational
potential energy
How much work can we possible get out of heat? Energy conservation limits the
amount of work we can get out of a certain amount of heat.
The change in internal energy of a system is equal to the heat added to the
system minus the work done by the system.
The first law makes use of the key concepts of internal energy, heat, and system
work. It is used extensively in the discussion of heat engines.
Problem:
Assume you are running an electric space heater. Let the space heater be the
system under consideration. It has warmed up and is now running at a constant
temperature. It consumes 500 Watts of electrical power. How much electrical
energy is converted into heat per hour?
Answer:
U = Q - W. U = 0 since the temperature of the heating element is constant.
Physics by COBC - Issue 1 - 26 May, 2017 Page 63
Therefore Q = W. W is the electrical energy put into the system. It is
negative. Q must be negative. It is the heat leaving the system. 500 J of heat
are leaving the system per second. 500 J / s 3600 s = 1.8 MJ of electrical
energy are converted into heat every hour. All the electrical energy put into the
system is converted into heat. ( Any form of ordered energy can be completely
converted into heat.)
An ideal gas can be characterised by three state variables: absolute pressure (P),
volume (V), and absolute temperature (T). The relationship between them may
be deduced from kinetic theory and is called the
Note: this law is stated here for completeness only. The variables within
the formula are beyond the scope of this course, it is not examinable
however the gas laws that follow are.
The ideal gas law can be viewed as arising from the kinetic pressure of gas
molecules colliding with the walls of a container in accordance with Newton's
laws. But there is also a statistical element in the determination of the average
kinetic energy of those molecules. The temperature is taken to be proportional to
this average kinetic energy; this invokes the idea of kinetic temperature.
For the purpose of calculations, it is convenient to place the ideal gas law in the
form:
P1V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2
where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the initial and final states respectively of
some process. If the temperature is constrained to be constant, this becomes:
P1V1 = P2V2
which is referred to as Boyle's Law.
If the pressure is constant, then the ideal gas law takes the form
V1 V2 V2
= or V2 = V1 x
T1 T2 T1
which has been historically called Charles' Law. It is appropriate for experiments
performed in the presence of a constant atmospheric pressure. Calculations
involving this law must have temperatures must be expressed in degrees Kelvin,
K).
Cp is the specific heat of the gas which is maintained at constant pressure, but
allowed to expand.
In the first case, the heat input raises the temperature, and causes the gas to
expand, during which the gas does work (gives out energy).
In the second case, the heat input only raises the temperature.
The ratio of the specific heats, symbol = , in which Cp is greater than Cv, hence
1.
The exact amount of work depends on the exact nature of the expansion /
compression, i.e. is the relevant gas law pv = constant or pvn = constant or pv
= constant?
Physics by COBC - Issue 1 - 26 May, 2017 Page 66
These different equations give different curves, and hence different work values,
but this is beyond the scope of this module.
Note also that an expanding gas tends to cool; a gas being compressed tends to
heat-up.
PV DIAGRAMS
Pressure-Volume (PV) diagrams are a primary visualisation tool for the study of
heat engines. Since the engines usually involve a gas as a working substance,
the ideal gas law relates the PV diagram to the temperature so that the three
essential state variables for the gas can be tracked through the engine cycle.
Since work is done only when the volume of the gas changes, the diagram gives
a visual interpretation of work done. Since the internal energy of an ideal gas
depends upon its temperature, the PV diagram along with the temperatures
calculated from the ideal gas law determine the changes in the internal energy of
the gas so that the amount of heat added can be evaluated from the first law of
thermodynamics. In summary, the PV diagram provides the framework for the
analysis of any heat engine which uses a gas as a working substance.
Heat Engines
A heat engine typically uses energy provided in the form of heat to do work and
then exhausts the heat which cannot be used to do work. Thermodynamics is
the study of the relationships between heat and work. The first law and second
law of thermodynamics constrain the operation of a heat engine. The first law is
the application of conservation of energy to the system, and the second sets
limits on the possible efficiency of the machine and determines the direction of
energy flow.
The result of a heat engine process leading to expansion from to gives the work
expression below.
Since for an ideal gas the internal energy is proportional to temperature, it follows
there is no change in the internal energy of the gas during an isothermal process.
All the heat added to the system is used to do work.
Engine Cycles
For a constant mass of gas, the operation of a heat engine is a repeating cycle
and its PV diagram will be a closed figure. The idea of an engine cycle is
illustrated below for one of the simplest kinds of cycles. If the cycle is operated
clockwise on the diagram, the engine uses heat to do net work. If operated
counter-clockwise, it uses work to transport heat and is therefore acting as a
refrigerator or a heat pump.
CARNOT CYCLE
The most efficient heat engine cycle is the Carnot cycle, consisting of two
isothermal processes and two adiabatic processes. The Carnot cycle can be
thought of as the most efficient heat engine cycle allowed by physical laws. When
the second law of thermodynamics states that not all the supplied heat in a heat
Physics by COBC - Issue 1 - 26 May, 2017 Page 68
engine can be used to do work, the Carnot efficiency sets the limiting value on
the fraction of the heat which can be so used.
In order to approach the Carnot efficiency, the processes involved in the heat
engine cycle must be reversible and involve no change in energy available to do
work. This means that the Carnot cycle is an idealisation, since no real engine
processes are reversible and all real physical processes involve some increase in
energy available to do work .
Refrigerator
A refrigerator is a heat engine in which work is done on a refrigerant substance in
order to collect energy from a cold region and exhaust it in a higher temperature
region, thereby further cooling the cold region.
Although this process works very well and has been in place for decades, the bad
news about it is that fluorinated hydrocarbons released into the atmosphere are
potent agents for the destruction of the ozone in the upper atmosphere.
Therefore tighter and tighter restrictions are being placed on their use.
HEAT PUMP
A heat pump is a device which applies external work to extract an amount of heat
QC from a cold reservoir and delivers heat QH to a hot reservoir. A heat pump is
subject to the same limitations from the second law of thermodynamics as any
other heat engine and therefore a maximum efficiency can be calculated from the
The energy required to change a gram of a substance from the solid to the liquid
state without changing its temperature is commonly called it's "heat of fusion".
This energy breaks down the solid bonds, but leaves a significant amount of
energy associated with the intermolecular forces of the liquid state.
HEAT OF EVAPORATION
The energy required to change a gram of a liquid into the gaseous state at the
boiling point is called the heat of evaporation. This energy breaks down the
intermolecular attractive forces, and also must provide the energy necessary to
expand the gas (the PV work). For an ideal gas , there is no longer any potential
energy associated with intermolecular forces. So the internal energy is entirely in
the molecular kinetic energy.
The answer is that it was used, not to raise the temperature, but to change the
state from water into steam. This is termed latent heat, and also features when
ice melts to become water.
So latent heat is the heat required to cause a change of state, and sensible
heat is the heat required to cause a change of temperature.
THERMAL ENERGY
The average translational kinetic energy possessed by free particles is
sometimes called the thermal energy per particle. It is useful in making
judgements about whether the internal energy possessed by a system of
particles will be sufficient to cause other phenomena, e.g. their use as a fuel.
HEAT OF COMBUSTION
Any organic substance contains energy that can be released in the form of heat
when it is burned in the presence of oxygen. This process is a chemical reaction
called combustion. It requires three essential inputs, a fuel (the organic
substance), oxygen and heat. It is combustion that occurs in aero engines and
any occur heat engine.
REFLECTION
Light can also be reflected, usually by mirrors, which are made by depositing a
thin layer of metal on one side of a piece of glass. Some interesting facts may be
obtained.
When you look in a mirror, you see a reflection, usually termed an image. The
diagram above shows 2 reflected rays, viewing an object O from two different
angles. Note the reflected rays appear to come from I which corresponds to the
image, and lies on the same normal to the mirror as the object, and appears the
same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front.
Note also that the image is a virtual image, it can be seen, but cannot be shown
on a screen.
Note also that it appears the same size as the object, and is laterally inverted.
These are features of images in plane mirrors.
Mirrors can also be curves, sometimes they are spherical, sometimes parabolic.
The basic law, incidence equals reflection - still holds, but the curved surface
allows the rays to be focussed or dispersed.
Physics by COBC - Issue 1 - 26 May, 2017 Page 73
FP is known as the focal length.
Note the rays actually pass through F, and a
real image can be formed.
FP is still
the focal
length, but
the image
is virtual.
The
image may be smaller or larger.
Magnification =
Concave mirrors (e.g. shaving mirrors) give a magnified, erect (right way up)
image, if viewed from close-to.
Convex mirrors (e.g. driving mirrors) give a smaller, erect image, but with a wide
field of view.
Parabolic reflectors can focus a wide parallel beam. By placing the bulb at the
focus, they can produce a strong beam of light. (Conversely, they can focus
microwave signals when used as an aerial).
REFRACTIVE INDEX
The angles of incidence and refraction are not equal, but they are related, shown
as:
= a constant =
Another phenomena may occur. In the diagram, ray (1) has been refracted
across the boundary, but ray (2) has been internally reflected at the boundary.
Refraction is the basic principle which explains the workings of prisms and
lenses.
n the diagram above, the ray APB is refracted away from the normal. For any
rarer medium the angle of refraction is always greater than the angle of
incidence. By increasing the angle of incidence, the angle of refraction will
eventually become 90, as in the case of the ray AP'D. A further increase in the
angle of incidence should give an angle of refraction greater than 90, but this is
impossible and the ray is reflection at the boundary, remaining within the denser
medium, this is 'total internal reflection'. None of the light passing through the
boundary.
As with mirrors, images can be real or virtual, erect or inverted, and larger or
smaller. The nature of the image will depend on the type of lens, and the position
of the object in relation to the focal length of the lens, (the focal length is a
function of the curvature of the lens surfaces).
The field of fibre optics depends upon the total internal reflection of light rays.
Light can be trapped by total internal reflection inside a bent glass rod and piped
along a curved path as in the diagram below. a single, very thin glass fibre
behaves in the same way. If several thousand such fibres were bundled together
a flexible light pipe is obtained that can be used from many different applications,
e.g. doctors or engineers Endo-scopes. The latest telephone cables are often
optical (very pure glass) fibres carrying information as pulses of laser light.
The fibres are so small that once the light is introduced into the fibre with an
angle within the confines of the numerical aperture of the fibre, it will continue to
reflect almost losslessly off the walls of the fibre and thus can travel long
distances in the fibre. Bundles of such fibres can accomplish imaging of
otherwise inaccessible areas.
For many people, the first thought concerning waves conjures up a picture of a
wave moving across the surface of an ocean, lake, pond or other body of water.
The waves are created by some form of a disturbance, such as a rock thrown into
the water. The water wave has a crest and a trough and
travels from one location to another. One crest is often
followed by a second crest which is often followed by a
third crest. Every crest is separated by a trough to
create an alternating pattern of crests and troughs. A
duck or gull at rest on the surface of the water is
observed to bob up-and-down at rather regular time
intervals as the wave passes by. The waves may
appear to be plane waves which travel together as a
front in a straight-line direction, perhaps towards a
sandy shore. Or the waves may be circular waves
which originate from the point where the disturbances occur; such circular waves
travel across the surface of the water in all directions.
Another picture of waves involves the movement of a
slinky or similar set of coils. If a slinky is stretched out from
end to end, a wave can be introduced into the slinky by
either vibrating the first coil up and down vertically or back
and forth horizontally. A wave will subsequently be seen
travelling from one end of the slinky to the other. As the
wave moves along the slinky, each individual coil is seen
to move out of place and then return to its original position.
The coils always move in the same direction that the first coil was vibrated. A
continued vibration of the first coil results in a continued back and forth motion of
the other coils. If looked at closely, one notices that the wave does not stop when
it reaches the end of the slinky; rather it seems to bounce off the end and head
back from where it started.
CATEGORIES OF WAVES
Waves come in many shapes and forms. While all waves share some basic
characteristic properties and behaviours, some waves can be distinguished from
others based on some very observable (and some non-observable)
characteristics. It is common to categorise waves based on these distinguishing
characteristics.
One way to categorise waves is on the basis of the direction of movement of the
individual particles of the medium relative to the direction which the waves travel.
Categorising waves on this basis leads to three notable categories: transverse
waves, longitudinal waves, and surface waves.
A transverse wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium are displaced in
a direction perpendicular to the direction of energy transport. A transverse wave
can be created in a rope if the rope is stretched out horizontally and the end is
vibrated back-and-forth in a vertical direction. If a snap-shot of such a transverse
wave could be taken so as to freeze the shape of the rope in time, then it would
look like the following diagram.
The dashed line drawn through the centre of the diagram represents the
equilibrium or rest position of the string. This is the position that the string would
assume if there were no disturbance moving through it. Once a disturbance is
introduced into the string, the particles of the string begin to vibrate upwards and
downwards. At any given moment in time, a particle on the medium could be
above or below the rest position. Points A and F on the diagram represent the
crests of this wave. The crest of a wave is the point on the medium which
exhibits the maximum amount of positive or upwards displacement from the rest
position. Points D and I on the diagram represent the troughs of this wave. The
trough of a wave is the point on the medium which exhibits the maximum
amount of negative or downwards displacement from the rest position.
The wave shown above can be described by a variety of properties. One such
property is amplitude. The amplitude of a wave refers to the maximum amount of
displacement of a particle on the medium from its rest position. In a sense, the
amplitude is the distance from rest to crest. Similarly, the amplitude can be
measured from the rest position to the trough position. In the diagram above, the
amplitude could be measured as the distance of a line segment which is
perpendicular to the rest position and extends vertically upward from the rest
position to point A.
It was mentioned earlier that a wave is created in a slinky by the periodic and
repeating vibration of the first coil of the slinky. This vibration creates a
disturbance which moves through the slinky and transports energy from the first
coil to the last coil. A single back-and-forth vibration of the first coil of a slinky
introduces a pulse into the medium. But the act of continually vibrating the first
coil with a back-and-forth motion in periodic fashion introduces a wave into the
slinky.
Suppose that a hand holding the first coil of a slinky is moved back-and-forth two
complete cycles in one second. The rate of the hand's motion would be 2
cycles/second. The first coil, being attached to the hand, in turn would vibrate at a
rate of 2 cycles/second. The second coil, being attached to the first coil, would
vibrate at a rate of 2 cycles/second. In fact, every coil of the slinky would vibrate
at this rate of 2 cycles/second. This rate of 2 cycles/second is referred to as the
frequency of the wave.
The frequency of a wave refers to how often the particles of the medium vibrate
when a wave passes through the medium.
Period refers to the time which it takes to do something. When an event occurs
repeatedly, then we say that the event is periodic and refer to the time for the
event to repeat itself as the period. The period of a wave is the time for a particle
on a medium to make one complete vibration cycle. Period, being a time, is
measured in units of time such as seconds, hours, days or years.
Frequency and period are distinctly different, yet related, quantities. Frequency
refers to how often something happens; period refers to the time it takes
Physics by COBC - Issue 1 - 26 May, 2017 Page 83
something to happen. Frequency is a rate quantity; period is a time quantity.
Mathematically, the period is the reciprocal of the frequency and vice versa. In
equation form, this is expressed as follows.
1 1
period = and frequency =
frequency period
Since the symbol f is used for frequency and the symbol T is used for period,
these equations are also expressed as:
1 1
T= AND f=
f T
INTERFERENCE PHENOMENA
Wave interference is the phenomenon which occurs when two waves meet
while travelling along the same medium. The interference of waves causes the
medium to take on a shape which results from the net effect of the two individual
waves upon the particles of the medium.
To begin our exploration of wave interference, consider two pulses of the same
amplitude travelling in different directions along the same medium. Let's suppose
that each crest has an amplitude of +1 unit (the positive indicates an upward
displacement as would be expected for a crest) and has the shape of a sine
wave. As the sine crests move towards each other, there will eventually be a
moment in time when they are completely overlapped. At that moment, the
resulting shape of the medium would be a sine crest with an amplitude of +2
units. The diagrams below depict the before- and during interference snapshots
of the medium for two such crests. The individual sine crests are drawn in red
and blue and the resulting displacement of the medium is drawn in green.
This type of interference is sometimes called constructive interference.
When two waves interfere, the resulting displacement of the medium at any
location is the algebraic sum of the displacements of the individual waves
at that same location
V=f.
The above equations are useful for solving mathematical problems related to the
speed, frequency and wavelength relationship. However, one important
misconception could be conveyed by the equation. Even though wave speed is
calculated using the frequency and the wavelength, the wave speed is not
dependent upon these quantities. An alteration in wavelength does not effect (i.e.,
change) wave speed. Rather, an alteration in wavelength effects the frequency in
an inverse manner. A doubling of the wavelength results in a halving of the
frequency; yet the wave speed is not changed. The speed of a sound wave
depends on the properties of the medium through which it moves and the only
way to change the speed is to change the properties of the medium.
INTENSITY
The amount of energy which is transported past a given area of the medium per
unit of time is known as the intensity of the sound wave. The greater the
amplitude of vibrations of the particles of the medium, the greater the rate at
which energy is transported through it, and the more intense that the sound wave
is. Intensity is the energy/time/area; and since the energy/time ratio is equivalent
to the quantity power, intensity is simply the power/area.
Energy Power
Intensity = or Intensity =
Time x Area Area
Typical units for expressing the intensity of a sound wave are Watts/meter2.
# Times
Intensity
Source Intensity Greater Than
Level
TOH
Threshold of Hearing (TOH) 1*10-12 W/m2 0 dB 100
Rustling Leaves 1*10-11 W/m2 10 dB 101
Whisper 1*10-10 W/m2 20 dB 102
Normal Conversation 1*10-6 W/m2 60 dB 106
Busy Street Traffic 1*10-5 W/m2 70 dB 107
Vacuum Cleaner 1*10-4 W/m2 80 dB 108
Large Orchestra 6.3*10-3 W/m2 98 dB 109.8
Walkman at Maximum Level 1*10-2 W/m2 100 dB 1010
Front Rows of Rock Concert 1*10-1 W/m2 110 dB 1011
Threshold of Pain 1*101 W/m2 130 dB 1013
Military Jet Takeoff 1*102 W/m2 140 dB 1014
Instant Perforation of Eardrum 1*104 W/m2 160 dB 1016
While the intensity of a sound is a very objective quantity which can be measured
with sensitive instrumentation, the loudness of a sound is more of a subjective
response which will vary with a number of factors. The same sound will not be
perceived to have the same loudness to all individuals.
PITCH
The ears of humans (and other animals) are sensitive detectors capable of
detecting the fluctuations in air pressure which impinge upon the eardrum. The
human ear is capable of detecting sound waves with a wide range of frequencies,
ranging between approximately 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
Such sound waves form the basis of intervals in music. For example, any two
sounds whose frequencies make a 2:1 ratio are said to be separated by an
octave and result in a particularly pleasing sensation when heard; that is, two
sound waves sound good when played together if one sound has twice the
frequency of the other. Similarly two sounds with a frequency ratio of 5:4 are said
to be separated by an interval of a third; such sound waves also sound good
when played together. Examples of other sound wave intervals and their
respective frequency ratios are listed in the table below.
We are most familiar with the Doppler effect because of our experiences with
sound waves. Perhaps you recall an
instance in which a police car or
emergency vehicle was travelling
towards you on the highway. As the car
approached with its siren blasting, the
pitch of the siren sound (a measure of
the siren's frequency) was high; and then
suddenly after the car passed by, the
pitch of the siren sound was low. That
was the Doppler effect - an apparent
shift in frequency for a sound wave
produced by a moving source.
The Doppler effect is observed because the distance between the source of
sound and the observer is changing. If the source and the observer are
approaching, then the distance is decreasing and if the source and the observer
are receding, then the distance is increasing. The source of sound always emits
the same frequency. Therefore, for the same period of time, the same number of
waves must fit between the source and the observer. if the distance is large, then
the waves can be spread apart; but if the distance is small, the waves must be
compressed into the smaller distance. For these reasons, if the source is moving
towards the observer, the observer perceives sound waves reaching him or her at
a more frequent rate (high pitch); and if the source is moving away from the
observer, the observer perceives sound waves reaching him or her at a less
frequent rate (low pitch). It is important to note that the effect does not result
because of an actual change in the frequency of the source. The source puts out
the same frequency; the observer only perceives a different frequency because
of the relative motion between them.