The behaviour of embankments on clay foundations

F. TAVENAS
Departmetlr of Civil Etlgineeritlg, Laval University, Qllebec, P.Q., Carlada G I K 7P4
AND
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Terratecl~Lid., 275 B e t ~ j a t ~ Hlrdorl

ir~ of Civil Etzgitzee~.itlg,
St., Morztreal, P.Q., Carzarla H4N I J l and Departt~~erzt
Laval Utziversity, Quebec, P.Q., Carzada G I K 7P4
Received August 23, 1979
Accepted January 23, 1980

The present design practice for embankments on clay foundations is reviewed and its short-
comings are evidenced.
A detailed analysis of field observations shows that the actual foundation behaviour differs
significantly from the postulated sequence of undrained construction reponse and drained
long-term consolidation. In particular a significant consolidation occurs during the very first
stages of embankment construction.
Design methods are reviewed and modified if necessary to account for this phenomenon. The
new design approach, while largely empirical, is simpler and more reliable than existing
methods.

Les techniques courantes de dimensionnement des remblais sur fondations argileuses sont
revues et leurs limitations sont mises en Cvidence.
Une analyse dCtaillCe des observations d'ouvrages montre que le comportement riel des
For personal use only.

fondations est nettement diffirent de l'hypothkse courante d'une reaction non drainCe en cours
de construction suivie d'une consolidation 2 long terme. En particulier le diveloppement d'une
importante consolidation au tout dCbut de la construction du remblai est mis en evidence.
Les mCthodes de dimensionnement sont examinCes et Cventuellement modifiCes pour tenir
compte de ce phknomkne. La nouvelle mCthodologie de calcul, bien que largement empirique,
est plus simple et fiable que les mithodes existantes.
Can. Geotech. J., 17, 236-260 (1980)

Introduction they have been developed on the basis of experience.

With the development of communication networks,
as well as of river control and water retention struc-
tures, the design and construction of embankments
on soft clays have become a problem of major im-
portance to geotechnical engineers throughout the
world. In Canada, soft sensitive clays cover a large
part of the populated areas in Quebec and eastern
Ontario, where they affect the construction of high-
ways; they also occur in the lower and southern
regions of the James Bay area where they increase the
difficulties involved in the present development of the
hydro-electrical potential of the rivers; clay deposits
are further encountered in the southern regions of the
Prairies as well as locally in British Columbia. The
capacity to design an embankment economicaljy on
a clay foundation and to predict its behaviour is thus
of general interest to the profession.
As usual in geotechnical engineering, the methods
for the design of embankments on clay foundations
have been developed from simplified assumptions
and empirical approaches. They have been in exist-
ence for periods of 20 years or more during which
0008-3674/80/020236-25$01.00/0
@ 1980 National Research Council of Canada/Conseil national de recherches du Canada
The last major review of design practice was made by
Bjerrum (1972). It was based on a series of well-
documented case histories, pointing cut a necessity
to improve the methods of stability analysis. Con-
sequently Bjerrum suggested important empirical
adjustments for the stability analysis but otherwise
confirmed the apparent validity of the assumed
undrained behaviour of clay foundations during con-
struction as well as the applicability of the various
methods available for the prediction of settlements.
Since then many new case histories have been pub-
lished and new interpretations of the field observa-
tions have been developed, particularly in the
Canadian literature. In parallel, new progress has
been made in the understanding and description of
clay behaviour. As a result, it has become evident
that some fundamental aspects of the design practice
summarized by Bjerrum (1972) required reexamina-
tion and that significant phenomena, which occur
during and after construction of an embankment on
a clay foundation, were not properly understood or
accounted for.
 TAVENAS AND LEROUEIL

The purpose of the present paper is to show the hand of vour

limitations of present practice, to make use of avail-
able field observations to develop a new understand-
ing of the behaviour of clay foundations during and
after embankment construction, and, finally, to pro-
pose the necessary adjustments of the design methods
for evaluating the stability and deformations of the valve is closed
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clay foundations. +=o Cu

v =0.5 Eu
Limitations of the Present Practice AC;,~ = o
The present practice of the design of embankments
on soft clays is based on an oversimplistic model of
the behaviour of clay foundations. This model,
formulated initially by Skempton (1948), implies that
two successive phases of behaviour can be dis-
tinguished (Fig. 1):
(1) During construction, due to a fast rate of load
application and the low permeability of clays, an
undrained response prevails. the valve is open
(2) After the end of construction, consolidation C' , +'
develops with associated variations in pore pres-
sures, effective stresses, deformations, and available
strengths.
For personal use only.

Accordingly the design of an embankment con-
sists of an "undrained analysis" of the deformations
and stability conditions during construction, and a
"drained analysis" of the long-term stability as well
as the consolidation settlement. The acceptance of
this dual approach has been made easier by the fact
that each analysis corresponds to specific classical
laboratory or in situ tests: undrained triaxial and in
situ vane shear tests for the undrained analysis;
drained triaxial and oedometer tests for the long-term
conditions. One additional advantage is the simplifi-
cation in the use of the theory of elasticity for the
analysis of stresses and deformations, with the
possible assumptions of a Poisson's ratio of v = 0.5
in undrained condition, and of zero lateral strain as
in the oedometer during consolidation. The clear-cut
distinction between undrained construction and
drained long-term behaviour has now become nearly
dogmatic and all methods of analysis presently in
use are based on it.
Precliction of Construction Behavioztr
Since it is admitted that clay foundations have an
undrained behaviour during construction, the pre-
dictions of all parameters of this behaviour are based
on the results of undrained tests in the laboratory or
in situ. Four different parameters are commonly
predicted: construction pore pressures, settlements,
lateral displacements, and the factor of safety.
Constrriction Pore Pressures
The prediction of pore pressures generated during
FIG.1. Common caricature of the behaviour of clay founda-
tions. ( a ) Stage l+onstruction. (b) Stage 2-long term.
embankment load application is routinely based on
one of the two following methods.
According to Skempton (1954)ithe excess pore
pressure Au produced by total stress variations Aal
and Ao3 may be obtained from:
where the pore pressure parameters B and A are
obtained from undrained triaxial tests. B is generally
equal to 1.0 since soft clays are saturated-in most
field situations. The pore pressure parameter A is
known to vary with the overconsolidation ratio
(OCR), the stress path, and the stress level; a com-
mon practice is to take the value of A at failure in
undrained triaxial tests reconsolidated to the in sitrc
stresses. The major problem with [l] is that it applies
strictly to axisymetric stress states whereas a plane
strain condition most commonly prevails in situ.
A more general solution has been proposed by
Henkel(1960) in the form of:
Equation [2] applies to all stress states and therefore
avoids the limitation of Skempton's equation. If clays
were saturated and had a perfectly elastic behaviour,
[2] would reduce to: .
 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 17, 1980
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For personal use only.

meosured pore pressure, KPa

FIG. 2. Comparison of predicted and observed construction pore pressures.

which is frequently used in present analysis. Detailed
laboratory studies show that can be assumed equal
to 1.0 but that a varies with the OCR, the stress path,
and the stress level. Law and Bozozuk (1979) have
pointed out the variation of a associated with triaxial
versus plane strain conditions as well as withthe stress
level. However, the values of a remain generally
small for clays with a low to medium preconsolida-
tion so that [3] may be preferred to [2] without intro-
ducing errors of great significance.
Other methods, supposedly accounting for the
development of local failure (Hoeg et al. 1969) or of
yielding and failure (Burland 1971), have been pre-
sented. They are not widely used. None of the
methods presently available accounts for the effect of
stress axis rotation; yet such rotation was shown
(Broms and Casbarian 1965) to have a very significant
effect on pore pressures. Therefore, pore pressure
predictions are, at present, feasible only at locations
where the stress axes remain unchanged throughout
construction, i.e., under the center line of the em-
bankment.
To assess the quality of the pore pressure predic-
tions, a series of published comparisons between
observations at various locations in clay foundations
and predictions based on the different methods has
been compiled in Fig. 2. It must be emphasized that
all predictions in this figure are of the C-1 type pro-
posed by Lambe (1973); i.e., they are actually "post-
dictions," the observations being already known. In
spite of this, the agreement with the observations is
not very good. There is a tendency to overpredict
 TAVENAS AND LEROUEIL 239

pore pressures in excess of 20 kPa. As we shall see

later, this tendency may be associated with the lack
of consideration for the consolidation developing
during the construction period.
Construction Settlements
According to Bjerrum (1972) the construction
settlement may be associated with the undrained,
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elastic deformation of the foundation, and may be

computed from:

in which q is the applied embankment load; b is the

width of the embankment; E and v are the elastic
parameters of the clay deformability; and I is a stress
influence factor obtained, for example, from Giroud
(1973).
The common practice is to assume a Poisson's
ratio v = 0.5, consistent with the hypothesis of a
constant volume of the undrained foundation. As
for the modulus E it is taken equal to the undrained
modulus Eu obtained from laboratory triaxial or
plane strain tests. However, the proper selection of
For personal use only.

Eu is made difficult by the stress path, stress level, and

strain rate dependence of Eu (Ladd 1964; Tavenas
1975). Another approach has been to relate Eu
empirically to the undrained shear strength; values
of Eu/cu ranging from 80 to 2000 have been pub-
lished, leading D'Appolonia et al. (1971) to conclude
that a value of 1200 would be a representative aver-
age for clays of low plasticity.
In recent years the practice of relating the un-
drained modulus Eu to cu or to o', has been formal-
ized in the SHANSEP1 approach proposed by Ladd
and Foott (1974). Summarizing the accumulated
knowledge, Ladd et al. (1977) show that Eu is a
function of the plasticity of the clay, the shear stress
level, the undrained shear strength, and, thus, the
preconsolidation of the clay; they confirm the valid-
ity of the SHANSEP approach in the case of unstruc-
tured clays but they point out its inapplicability to
structured materials. Unfortunately, natural clays
are generally structured.
The introduction of the finite element method
(FEM) in geotechnical engineering has resulted in a
great development of the analysis of construction
settlements. The merit of this method is to account
for the true geometry of the problem, the stratifica-
tion of the foundation, the interaction between the
embankment and its foundation, and the eventual
nonlinear or anisotropic behaviour of the clay. The
number of embankment case histories analysed by
means of the FEM since 1970 has been extremely
'Stress history and normalized soils engineering parameters.
FIG.3. Comparison of simultaneous predictions and ob-
servations of construction settlements s and lateral displace-
ments y.
large. All types of undrained stress-strain relation-
ships have been considered: elastic-plastic, multi-
linear elastic-plastic, hyperbolic, plastic - work hard-
ening, etc. The undrained moduli Eu were determined
from tests ranging from simple UU2 tests to a com-
bination of compression, extension, and simple shear
tests using the SHANSEP approach, while Poisson's
ratio was systematically taken close to 0.5. As a
result a wide number of comparisons between pre-
dicted and observed settlements have been published.
A few examples are shown in Fig. 30, suggesting a
remarkable ability to predict construction settle-
ments. However, all predictions are of type C-1.
Considering the number of assumptions and param-
eters left to the choice of the analyst and thus subject
to a biased selection or to adjustments for a better
fir, the apparent quality of these "postdictions"
should be viewed with suspicion. Indeed the few true
type A predictions (Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
Wnconsolidated undrained.
 240 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 17. 1980
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FIG.4. Predicted and observed distribution of the lateral
displacement with depth under the toe of an embankment
(after Poulos 1972).
For personal use only.
nology (MIT) 1975) and the total lack of success at
the simultaneous prediction of other deformations,
as discussed hereunder, confirm the questionable
validity of settlement analysis based on the present
state of development of the FEM and the associated
rheological models.
Lateral Deformations
The prediction of lateral displacement under the
toe of an embankment during construction has be-
come possible with the introduction of the FEM.
However, experience to date has not been very
successful. Indeed, the available literature clearly
evidences the systematic failure to predict simul-
taneously and with equal success construction settle-
ments and lateral displacements by means of an
undrained FEM analysis. Figure 3 presents a few
examples of simultaneous predictions: although the
settlements are generally in agreement with the ob-
servations, the lateral displacements are grossly
overpredicted in all cases. Confronted with this
systematic problem, Poulos (1972) suggested tentative
explanations related to the nonlinear or anisotropic
behaviour of natural clays, but recent experience
(Tavenas et 01. 1974; Stille et al. 1976) has shown that
these did not resolve the difficulty.
A further problem with the FEM is that it often
fails to predict correctly the distribution with depth
of lateral displacements at the end of construction.
A typical example is shown in Fig. 4. As we shall see,
these difficulties are directly related to the dogmatic
assumption of an undrained response of clay founda-
tions during construction.
FIG.5. Vane correction factor p = f(I,) (after Bjerrum
1972).
End of Construction Stability
The origin of the present practice of stability
analysis is the work of Skempton (1948) who sug-
gested that the "rate of consolidation of clays is so
small that, in most cases, the change in water content
during construction is negligible. . .the (/, = 0 an-
alysis applies almost exactly to the conditions ob-
tained immediately after construction."
The ($ = 0 analysis, routinely used in practice, is
simple in its formulation and analytical development.
The factor of safety is expressed as an explicit func-
tion of the undrained shear strength c, of the clay.
The research effort in the last 30 years has been aimed
at the determination of c,. There is now a wide
variety of techniques used to evaluate the undrained
shear strength of clays for the analysis of embank-
ment stability.
The most common practice is based on the in situ
vane test. Until 1972 the vane shear strength was
used as such in stability analysis. However, a number
of embankments failed at computed factors of safety
much in excess of 1.0, indicating that the vane test
may overestimate the strength available in embank-
ment foundations. Compiling all available case
histories, i.e., 14 well-documented failures, Bjerrum
(1972) proposed his vane correction factor p., which
is a function of the plasticity of the clay (Fig. 5). The
correction factor i ~was
. stated by Bjerrum to account
for the effects of strain rate, anisotropy, and pro-
gressive failure, which differ strongly in the vane test
and in the embankment foundation. Pursuing this
approach, Bjerrum (1973) tried to identify the effects
of strain rate and anisotropy. This second analysis
was not very conclusive since contradictory results
were obtained, for example, from the analysis of the
failure of cuts and unsupported excavations, but
 TAVENAS A N D LEROUEIL
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in sensitive clays (Doscal 8 Tournier 1975 )
I I I I I
FIG.6. Detailed vane correction factors for time effect,
anisotropy, and progressive failure (after Dascal and Tournier
1975).
indications obtained from laboratory investigation
led Bjerrum to propose a breakdown of the p. correc-
tion as shown in Fig. 6. However, the overall
correction 1~.was not really changed in this process.
Based on the experience with test embankments in
the James Bay area, Dascal and Tournier (1975)
For personal use only.
introduced a new correction factor to account for
progressive failure in sensitive clays, as shown in
Fig. 6.
To assess the validity of these refinements of the
original empirical correction, all available case his-
22
I I
I Bjerrum ( 1 9 7 2 )
FIG. 7. Factors of safety at failure from all published case histories (as of 1979).
241
tories have been compiled in Fig. 7. Although the
average F = ,f(I,) correlation first proposed by
Bjerrum (1972) is indeed in the middle of the data
points, the scatter of the individual data is far from
negligible. It is not really surprising since the equip-
ment and technique for carrying out both the vane
test and the determination of the liquid and plastic
limits vary greatly within the geotechnical com-
munity. This scatter has been pointed out by Ladd
(1975). It does not necessarily disqualify the vane
shear test and the y correction factor as a means of
evaluating the stability of embankment foundations,
but it certainly indicates that the subsequent refine-
ment o f ? in separate effects of time, anisotropy, and
progressive failure, as shown in Fig. 6, may be too
far reaching. The approach presented by Bjerrum
(1972) should be taken and used for what it is, namely
a relatively crude, strictly empirical approach with a
significant expected variability when applied to any
one particular design problem. In this sense it seems
more logical to use the F =.f(Ir,) linear relation
shown in Fig. 7, with a full knowledge of its possible
variability, rather than the smooth curve of Fig. 5,
which may lead the designer to lose the proper pre-
spective on the reliability of his computations.
In Sweden (Andreasson 1974) and France (Pilot
1972), the vane strength correction has been related
to the liquid limit rather than the plasticity index of
I
o Floate B Preber ( 1974
0 Codling LI Odenstad ( 1 9 5 0 )
Milligon ( 1 9 7 2 )
A Helenelund ( 1 9 7 7
A North American cases
+ European cases
x Asian cases
 242 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 17, 1980

'\

F r o m Bjsrrurn - '
\
(1972) 1

P
06
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o simple shear
FIG. 8. Vane strength correction factors according to
Bjerrum, the Swedish Geotechnical Institute, and Pilot (after
0
Helenelund 1977).
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 K )

overconsolidation r a t i o . OCR

FIG. 10. Normalized strength parameters for the SHANSEP

undrained strength approach (after Lacasse et al. 1977).
Trok et al. ( 1 9 7 9 )

in Fig. 9. However, the measurement of the large

strain strength is associated with difficulties related
For personal use only.

to the magnitude of the corrections for cross-sectional

variation of the sample and membrane effects in
triaxial tests.
The latest development in the 6 = 0 analysis of
embankment stability is the SHANSEP method pro-
posed by Ladd and Foott (1974). This method is
based on the assumption that the strength c, of clays,
at a given consolidation pressure o,,', is a function of
the overconsolidation ratio o,'/o,,' so that it can be
normalized in the form of c,/o,,' = ,f(OCR). The
SHANSEP method then consists of the following
FIG. 9. Factors of safety at failure based on the undrained steps :
shear strength at large strains (after Trak 1975). (I) Obtain good undisturbed samples and define
the vertical profiles of the effective overburden
the clay. As noted by Helenelund (1977) and as pressure o,,' and the preconsolidation pressure '0,
shown in Fig. 8, the resulting corrections are not from which the range of OCR is determined.
fundamentally different from those proposed by (2) Select the type of test best representing the field
Bjerrum. For practical reasons the vane correction t ~ , loading conditions. A combination of compression,
should preferably be obtained from the correlation extension, and direct shear tests has been suggested
with W L since the measurement of W L requires only a as the best representative of the stress conditions
single test and is both faster and subject to less errors under embankments (Ladd and Foott 1974).
than that of I,. (3) Determine the normalized strength parameters
La Rochelle et al. (1974) have suggested that the by first consolidating the samples to stresses in excess
strength available at failure under embankments is of 1.5-2 u,' and then unloading them to initial con-
equal to the undrained shear strength measured at solidation stresses u,,' corresponding to OCR of
large strains in U U or CIU3 triaxial tests. Developing about 2, 4, and 6. The normalized strength param-
this approach further, Laverdikre (1975) and Trak eters cu/uv,' are then plotted against OCR as shown
(1975) have shown that this large strain strength is in Fig. 10.
close to the strength available at failure in situ and is (4) Determine the undrained shear strength profile
independent of the plasticity of the clay as indicated from the u,,' profile and the OCR by direct reading
on the cu/ovol versus OCR curves.
3Consolidated isotropically, undrained. Ladd and Foott (1974), Ladd et al. (1977), and
 TAVENAS Al\ID LEROUEIL 243

vertlcol effective stress ( log scale )

Lacasse et al. (1977) all report computed factors of
safety at failure close to 1.0 for a variety of embank-
ment foundations. However, the SHANSEP method
is subject to a strong limitation, pointed out by Ladd
and Foott (1974): the method is applicable only to
clays exhibiting little "structural effect"; it is not
applicable to quick clays or naturally cemented clays
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or generally to all natural clays in which the stress-

strength relationship is changed when the clay is first
consolidated beyond its original preconsolidation
pressure. Mesri (1975) suggested that most natural
clays have developed structure so that the applica-
bility of the SHANSEP approach may be extremely
limited.
The effective stress method of stability analysis has
not found a widespread application in embankment
design up until now. This may be associated with the
difficulty of predicting the magnitude of construction
pore pressures. The only situation where it has been
utilized with benefit is during the stage construction
of high embankments. A typical case history has been
recently presented by Tavenas et al. (1978). They
suggest the use of effective strength parameters ob-
For personal use only.

tained from CIU tests on the normally consolidated

clay in connection with the pore pressures observed
in situ. This has also been suggested by Rivard and
Lu (1978) as a result of their reanalysis of a series of
embankment failures in the Prairies. It is consistent
with the effects of the effective stresses on the strength
behaviom of clays in sitlr evidenced by Tavenas and
Leroueil (1977)and Leroueil et al. (1978a,b). Table 1
summarizes the experience with the effective stress
analysis of embankment failures. In those cases
where reasonable pore pressures and the strength
parameters of the normally consolidated clay were
considered, the computed factors of safety varied
between 0.8 and 1.24 for an average of 1.07. This
favorable experience could be interpreted as an indi-
cation of the quality of the method proposed by
Tavenas et al. (1978). However, Trak (1979) and
Tavenas et al. (1979n, 1980) pointed out that the an-
alytical methods presently ava~lablefor effective stress
analysis are affected by important fundamental
errors, as discussed later in this paper. Consequently,
the success of the c'+' stability analysis evidenced in
Table 1 may be questionable and the method should
be used with caution, at least during the design stage
where the prediction of pore pressure is an additional
difficulty.However, the c'+' method used as proposed
by Tavenas et al. (1978) remains the best tool for the
stability analyses required during stage construction.
Prediction of the Long-term Behaviour
It is well established that the strength of clay
FIG.11. One-dimensional settlement behaviour of clays.
foundations increases with time as a result of the pore
pressure dissipation (Bishop and Bjerrum 1960). Con-
sequently the long-term stability of embankments on
soft clays is not considered in design analysis except
in the case of water retention structures where per-
manent flow or rapid drawdown pore pressure condi-
tions need be taken into account.
The only element of the long-term behaviour of
embankment foundations routinely subjected to de-
sign analysis is the settlement, considered to consist
of the primary consolidation settlement and the
secondary or creep settlement.
Magnit~rcleof the Final Settlement
The magnitude of the final settlement is estimated
from oedometer test results as indicated in Fig. 11.
In routine practice, the total settlement of a layer
of thickness D due to primary consolidation and pre-
sumed to occur after the end of construction is
computed from:
where C, and C, are the recompression and com-
pression indices and eo is the initial void ratio of the
clay'; it is added to the undrained settlement obtained
from [4].Skempton and Bjerrum (1957) have rightly
pointed out the error resulting from the direct addi-
 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 17, 1980

TABLE
1. Effective stress analysis of failed embankments

Strength parameters
Case and reference Method of clay Pore pressures F
Scrapsgate Fellenius CID triaxial Arl = 0 1.3
(Golder and Palmer 1955) Circular arc c' = 0
4' = 21-24"
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Thames Bank - - Field observation 1.2

(Marsland 1957)
Seven Sisters Dyke Fellenius CIU triaxial Alr from Skempton's equation 1.4
(Peterson er al. 1957) Circular c' = 15 kPa
4' = 24"
North Ridge Dam Fellenius CIU triaxial Field observation 1.14
(Peterson er al. 1957) Circular c' = 10 kPa
4' = 19"
New Liskeard Bishop CIU triaxial Field observation 1.00
(Lo and Stermac 1965) Circular c' = 0
4' = 24"
Scottsdale Bishop CIU triaxial Field observation on adjacent fill 1.24
(Parry 1968) Circular c' = 2 kPa
4' = 23"
Portsmouth Bishop CID triaxial Field observation 0.8-1.15
(Ladd 1972) Circular c' = 0
4' = 20-25"
For personal use only.

Bangkok Fellenius CIU triaxial Lab tests 1.10

(Janbu 1975) Circular
Cuyahoga Morgenstern and Price Simple shear Field observation 1.13
(Wu e t al. 1975) Noncircular
Seven Sisters Dyke Bishop CIU triaxial nc From flow net 0.97
(Rivard and Lu 1978) Circular c' = 0
4' = 16"
North Ridge Dam Bishop CIU triaxial nc Field observation 0.96
(Rivard and Lu 1978) Circular c' = 0
4' = 25"
Red River Dyke Bishop CIU triaxial nc Field observation 1.27
(Rivard and Lu 1978) Circular c' = 0
4' = 18"
Shellmouth Dam Bishop CIU triaxial nc Field observation 1.08
(Rivard and Lu 1978) Circular c' = 0
+'= 25.8"
La Salle Dam No. 2 Bishop CIU triaxial nc Assumed from flow condition 0.88
(Rivard and Lu 1978) Circular c' = 0
4' = 17"
Saint-Alban Bishop CIU triaxial nc Field observation during failure 0.95
(Pilot et al. 1979) Circular c' = 1.4kPa
4' = 26.6"
Narbonne Bishop CIU triaxial nc Field observation 1.05
(Pilot er al. 1979) Circular c' = 0
4' = 27-33"
Lanester Bishop CIU triaxial nc Field observation during failure 1.13
(Pilot et 01. 1979) Circular c' = 7-8 kPa
4' = 33-35"
Cubzac A Bishop CIU triaxial nc Field observation during failure 1.24
(Pilot et al. 1979) Circular c' = 10 kPa
4' = 24-28"
NOTES: CID = consolidated isotropically drained; CIU = undrained.
 TAVENAS A N D LEROUEIL

tion of the settlements computed from [4] and [5].

This matter will be discussed later in this paper.
The secondary settlement is sometimes taken into
account. It is usually computed, from the coefficient During consolidation the void ratio e, the effective
of secondary consolidation c, measured in long-term stress a', the hydraulic conductiv~tyk = f(e), and the
oedometer tests, using the equation: compression index C, = .f(o') all vary so that c, is
definitely not a constant. Moreover, in stratified
D + t deposits, the techniques applied to account for the
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ti
sse, = -c, log -
[6]
+
1 eo 1% variations of c, with depth are highly empirical.
Terzaghi's solution is therefore only a crude approxi-
where ti is an origin of time and t is the expected mation of the in situ behaviour.
lifetime of the embankment. A major theoretical The second practical problem is related to the
question, still unresolved, is whether secondary con- definition of the drainage boundary conditions, in
solidation takes place during primary conso1idatio.n particular in thick, stratified deposits such as those
or only once the pore pressures are dissipated. The encountered in the St. Lawrence Lowlands. Thin
literature presents statements in favour of one or the sand layers, which can act as drainage boundaries,
other solution (Ladd et 01. 1977) but there is no cannot be easily detected by normal boring tech-
conclusive experimental evidence available to define niques, or, if detected, their continuity and their
the actual behaviour, which is probably intermediate. possible role as drainage layers are difficult to assess.
At present, this unresolved question results in a Consequently, the selection of the stratigraphy for
necessity to select ti arbitrarily. The most common the purpose of analysis is a subjective matter and the
solution is to assume ti = I day as in the oedometer, source of large errors in time-settlement predictions.
but a value of 0.1 year has also been used. Another In view of the number of parameters to be selected
For personal use only.

procedure for determining S,,, has been proposed by and thus of the degree of freedom given to the
Bjerrum (1972) but it is questionable from a practical analyst, the explanation of time-settlement observa-
point of view and, at best, applicable strictly to tions by means of Terzaghi's theory has often been
normally consolidated aged clays. The Gibson and apparently successful (Devata and Darch 1973;
Lo (1961) theory has been used on a few occasions Samson and Garneau 1973). Yet there have been
(Lo et al. 1976) but its complexity as well as the cases where the calculations could not be made to fit
necessary specialized testing techniques make it the observations, even when accounting for the
difficult to consider for routine applications; in secondary settlement (Dascal et al. 1973). The
addition its validity has been questioned (Berre and Berthierville case history (Samson and Garneau 1973)
Iversen 1972). is a good example of the present limitations of time-
There is little, if any, possibility of checking the settlement predictions: although the settlement of an
validity of total settlement predictions in practice upper thin layer of clay with well-defined drainage
since such settlements occur after extended periods boundaries could be successfully computed, the
of time and are therefore seldom observed or analysis failed at predicting the long-term develop-
reported. ment with time of the settlement in the deep marine
clay layer.
Development of Settlements witlz Time Garlanger (1972) has developed a numerical solu-
The one-dimensional consolidatibn theory pro- tion for the time-settlement relationship that ac-
posed by Terzaghi is the basis of time-settlement counts for the simultaneous development of primary
analyses in practice. In addition to the limitations and secondary consolidation but not the actual
imposed by the hypothesis of one-dimensional drain- variations of c, during consolidation. The use of this
age and settlement, the use of this method in design solution (Dascal el al. 1973) has not improved the
involves two practical difficulties. quality of the predictions significantly.
In the classical consolidation solution, the soil's Long-term Lateral Defortnations
behaviour is characterized by the coefficient of con- Consistent with the assumption of one-dimensional
solidation c,,. The value of c, is determined from consolidation, lateral deformations are generally not
oedometer tests for the range of stresses correspond- considered to develop in the long term in embank-
ing to the final effective stress under the embankment, ment foundations. They are generally ignored in
and is considered a constant. Unfortunately c,is not routine design. Moreover, no method is presently
an intrinsic soil parameter but rather a combination available in the literature with which we can analyse
of permeability and deformability, with the form: them.
 246 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 17, 1980
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FIG.12. Comparison between predictions and observations

for the MIT test section (MIT 1975).

Present Ability to Make Good Predictions

The present ability of the geotechnical profession
to make good, type A predictions (Lambe 1973) is
For personal use only.

FIG. 13. Compilation of observed pore pressures in clay

probably best illustrated by the results of the "Foun- foundations at the beginning of embankment construction.
dation Deformation Prediction Seminar" held at
MIT (1975). The results of a series of predictions by haviour of clay foundations during and after em-
specialists are compared with the actual field observa- bankment construction.
tions in Fig. 12. The agreement is poor, and mainly
there is no consistency in the quality of the predic- Behaviour at tlze Beginning of' Constrrrction
tions of the various parameters by any of the special- The situation prior to any construction must first
ists. The only general conclusion to draw from such be established. All natural clays, as they occur in situ,
experience is that our ability to predict the behaviom have developed some preconsolidation as the result
of embankment foundations is questionable. of past loading and er;sion, thixotropic hardening or
Considering this state of the "Art," it seems appro- cementation, aging, water table fluctuations, or snow
priate to take a new look at the fundamental aspects loads. Consequently, it is logical to admit that any
of foundation behaviour, based on factual data and natural clay is initially characterized by the typical
detailed field observations, to see whether this be- properties of overconsolidated soils, i.el, a relatively
haviour is compatible with the basic assumptions high stiffness, represented by a small recompression
implied in the present methods of analysis and index C,, and a resulting high coefficient of consoli-
eventually to define the necessary corrections. The +
dation since c, = kd(1 eo)/0.434ywC,.
following sections of this paper are an attempt at As the first lifts of an embankment are placed on
this approach. such a foundation, total stresses are induced, causing
an immediate pore pressure buildup, possibly follow-
ing [2]. A pore pressure gradient is created between
Actual Behaviour of Clay Foundations the interior of the clay foundation and its boundaries,
Applying the principles of limit and critical states initiating a consolidation process. Since the coeffi-
relevant to natural clays (Tavenas and Leroueil 1977), cient of consolidation of the overconsolidated clay is
a thorough reexamination and interpretation of all relatively high, the rate of pore pressure dissipation
field observations available in the literature as well as should be high. Indeed, Leroueil et al. (19780) have
in the files of the Laboratoire Central des Ponts et shown this important initial rate of pore pressure
Chausskes, Paris and of the Geotechnical Group of dissipation for the Saint-Alban test fills, and Leroueil
Lava1 University have recently been carried out by et al. (19786) have confirmed its general occurrence
Leroueil et al. (1978a,b)and by Tavenas et al. (1979b). in all types of clays and for all rates of embankment
It results in a new understanding of the actual be- construction. Figure 13 is a compilation of pore
 TAVENAS A N D LEROUEIL
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4 0 ci ( u,'+u;),2
FIG.14. Total and effective stress paths under the center of embankments.

pressure observations available in the literature for 350

the early stage of construction of embankments. In

spite of some scatter, the B = f(z) relationship
clearly assumes the shape of a consolidation iso-
chrone and the average value of I?, of the order of
For personal use only.

0.4, is significantly below the theoretical value 250 A15 < O C R 625

corresponding to an undrained behaviour. 0 2 5 < OCR

As a consequence of this rapid consolidation, the :

I2O0
effective stress path strongly differs from the theoreti-
cal path O'U' and is more like O'P', very close to a b=
KOstress path (Fig. 14). The corresponding deforma-
tion behaviour of the foundation should be that of an
overconsolidated clay in KOconsolidation, i.e., with
small settlements and limited lateral displacements. loo

It should thus strongly differ from the behaviour

implied in the elastic 'undrained solution [4]. 50

ThresholE Height of Embankment

Due to the rapid pore pressure dissipation, the
effective stresses increase rapidly along O'P' in the o SO 100 150 ZOO 250 300 350

clay foundation and a state is achieved, early in v; oodomoI*r kPo

embankment construction, where the effective stress
state reaches the limit state curve of the clay at P'. In
most practical cases, this condition is achieved when
the vertical effective stress a,' becomes eaual to a,'.
The corresponding embankment height kill be ;e-
ferred to as the threshold height H,,,.
As the clay becomes normally consolidated its
properties are significantly modified. In particular its
coefficient of consolidation is reduced by a factor of
10-50. As a result the consolidation process is
blocked for all practical purposes and continuing
construction occurs under undrained conditions. The
pore pressure buildup is changed accordingly. The
pore pressure versus embankment load observations
allow the determination of the threshold vertical
effective stress. Compiling the data from 30 case
FIG. 15. Threshold effective vertical stress from pore pres-
sure observation and preconsoltdation pressure in embankment
foundations (after Leroueil et al. 19786).
histories, Leroueil et al. (1978b) have compared this
threshold a,,,' with the preconsolidation pressure
0,
'. The results are shown in Fig. 1 5 ; the remarkable
agreement between a,,,' and a,' for all cases where
the OCR is less than 2.5 confirms the general validity
of the schematic behaviour implied in Fig. 14. The
deviations for OCR in excess of 2.5 have been ex-
plained by Leroueil et al. (1978b).
Ruin of the Clay Structure
When the clay becomes normally consolidated, its
initial structure is partly destroyed and its mechanical
 * CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 17, 1980
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A u v threshold
upl - u;,, Amve = I Y l
Applied v e r t i c a l stress ~ a= ;I ( y H
FIG. 16. Typical Air = ,f(Ao,) relationship.
For personal use only.
properties are modified accordingly. This process has
been investigated in natural clays by Leroueil et al.
(1979).
The shape of the limit state surface ismodified and
the strength envelope originally represented by FIYo
(Fig. 14) is changed into F'R' on the Mohr-Coulomb
envelope of the normally consolidated clay. A major
consequence is that the peak strength of the intact
clay as measured on the limit state surface Yo by any
of the common laboratory or in situ tests is destroyed
as soon as the clay foundation becomes normally
consolidated at P'; it can no longer be mobilized at
failure. This could be the justification for the correc-
tion of the vane shear strength proposed by Bjerrum
(1972).
The stress-strain characteristics of the clay are also
affected by the ruin of the clay structure. In particular
the undrained modulus is reduced by a factor of two
or more, and, during further undrained loading along
a stress path such as P'F' the stress-strain behaviour
actually corresponds to a plastic flow of the normally
consolidated clay (Roscoe and Burland 1968).
Behavioltr clltring Lnter Stages of Construction
Once parts of the foundation have become nor-
mally consolidated, their consolidation characteristics
are reduced by a factor of 10-50 and further con-
struction occurs under undrained conditions.
According to the limit state theory (Roscoe and
Burland 1968), the effective stress path then follows
the limit state curve. In natural clays this curve will
be similar to P'F' (Fig. 14), corresponding t o
0,' = C , = 0,'. It follows that the pore pressure
increment should be equal to the embankment load
increment. Indeed, compiling the available observa-
tions, Leroueil et al. (1978b) have systematically
observed the pore pressure response shown in Fig. 16
and they found that Bz = (Alt/Ao,) = 1.05 ri: 0.15.
It appears that the occurrence of B = 1.0 in the later
stages of construction at certain locations in clay
foundations is not due to the development of confined
failure at these locations, as suggested by Hoeg et al.
(1969), but merely to the passage of the clay to a
normally consolidated state.
As for the deformation behaviour during this phase
of construction, the clay is submitted to an undrained
distortion in a normally consolidated state. The
deformation increments should reflect the reduced
stiffness of the clay and be larger than initially, and
the undrained response should correspond to settle-
ments and lateral deformation increments of about
the same magnitude (Tavenas et al. 1979b). Unfor-
tunately, none of the analytical methods presently
available allows for an analysis of this foundation
response.
Behavioztr during Failure
If the embankment is built up to failure, local
failure will be initiated when the effective stress path
reaches the Mohr-Coulomb envelope of the now
normally consolidated clay at point F' (Fig. 14).
Strain softening will then develop along the Mohr-
Coulomb envelope towards the critical state condi-
tion at point R'. The total vertical stress being
imposed, the effective stress path FIR1 can be fol-
lowed only as a result of an increase of the total
horizontal stress and a large increase of the pore
pressure. Therefore, prior to failure, one should
observe Br > 1.0 as shown in Fig. 16.
The in situ deformation behaviour during this stage
cannot be predicted at present since the stress condi-
tions are totally different from those prevailing during
strain softening in laboratory tests.
The type and magnitude of the shear strength
mobilized at failure in the clay foundation are shown
in Fig. 14. Local failure develops at F' on the Mohr-
Coulomb envelope of the normally consolidated clay
and the minimum shear strength is achieved at the
critical state R'. Therefore, the strength mobilized a t
any point and any time along a potential failure
surface is governed by the effective strength param-
eters c' and 4' or by the critical state strength
r,, =.f(e) of the clay. The mobilized strength is
definitely different from the undrained shear strength
of the intact clay.
 TAVENAS A N D LEROUEIL
Conseqirence on Design
The detailed analyses of foundation behaviour
during embankment construction carried out by
Leroueil et al. (1978b) and by Tavenas et 01. (1979b),
and summarized herein, demonstrate a phenomenon
of overwhelming significance in the proper analysis
of the response of clay foundations to embankment
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loadings:
A significant consolidation develops during the
early stages of construction, leading to the rapid
passage of the clay to a normally consolidated de-
structured state. Only after this change in state has
occurred does the foundation response become un-
drained but it is then characterized by the undrained
stress-strain-strength properties of the normally con-
solidated destructured clay.
Therefore, any undrained analysis based on the
properties of the intact clay is h u n d to be non-
representative of the actual foundation behaviour
during construction. This is the reason for the poor
quality of present design methods, as shown in the
first part of this paper.
Knowledge of the true response of clay foundations
For personal use only.
provides the necessary basis for the development of
improved design methods. In the following sections,
tentative solutions are proposed for various design
problems.
Prediction of Construction Pore Pressures
The method for predicting construction pore pres-
sures presented herein is applicable only to areas of
the foundation where no rotation of the principal
stress axes occurs during construction, i.e., under the
center of the fill. Our present ignorance of the effects
of stress axis rotation on the behaviour of natural
clays prohibits the application of any of the presently
available relationships between pore pressures and
applied stresses at any location where such rotation
occurs.
A typical variation of the excess pore pressure Au
with the vertical total stress induced by an embank-
ment Au, = IyH, where I is the stress influence
factor obtained from any elastic solution, is shown
in Fig. 16.
The initial rate of pore pressure set up is defined by
the value of El = (Au/A u,). This value could possibly
be obtained from analysis, but it is best selected
empirically from Fig. 13 or from the average equation
where z is the depth of the point at which B is com-
puted and D is the thickness of the clay deposit. The
249
excess pore pressure is then obtained from:
Equation [9] applies until the local vertical effective
stress reaches the preconsolidation pressure IT,,', i.e.,
up to the threshold height of embankment. Accord-
ing to Leroueil et al. (1978b), this threshold height
H,, may be obtained from:
Beyond H,,, B2 is essentially equal to 1.0 and
As can be seen in Fig. 16, the final excess pore pres-
sure at any location where the clay has become
normally consolidated can be obtained from:
However, the excess pore pressure cannot be pre-
dicted once local failure occurs and strain softening
starts to develop.
In stage construction of high embankments, the
clay in parts of the foundation is normally consoli-
dated during later construction stages. The excess
pore pressure increments are given by [ l l ] for loca-
tions under the center of the embankment. Predic-
tions of the excess pore. pressures are possible at
other locations if the pore pressures generated during
earlier stages have been observed. The technique to
apply in this case has been described by Tavenas
et al. (1978).
Evaluation of the Stability
The foundation behaviour shown earlier implies a
process of strength mobilization at failure quite
different from that assumed in the 4 = 0 methods of
stability analysis.
In the present method of stability analysis an un-
drained behaviour is assumed and an effective stress
path such as O'U' is implied (Fig. 14). The strength
mobilized in situ is presumed at U' or any similar
point on the limit state surface of the intact clay and
its magnitude is determined using a variety of tech-
niques: UU triaxial tests, a combination of triaxial
compression and extension tests, simple shear tests,
and in situ vane tests. The resulting strength profile
c, =.f(z) is used in a so-called 4 = 0 stability
analysis. The problems associated with this approach
have already been mentioned.
Now it was shown that the effective stress path
followed in sit11 is such as O'P'F'R' (Fig. 14). Once
the clay has become normally consolidated at P', the
limit state surface is modified from F'Yo to F'R', so
 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 17, 1980
vane strength Cuvone
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FIG.17. Strength profile in the weathered crust.
that the undrained shear strength of the intact clay is
For personal use only.
significantly changed and is no longer available for
mobilization at failure. Initial failure at any point in
the foundation occurs at F' when the effective stress
path reaches the Mohr-Coulomb envelope of the
normally consolidated clay and strain softening
develops along FIR' until a critical state condition
R', function of the void ratio of the clay, is finally
achieved. As a result of the nonuniform stress dis-
tribution under the embankment, local failure does
not occur at the same time at all points along the
potential failure surface. Therefore, at failure, the
effective stress conditions and the corresponding
mobilized shear strengths along the failure surface
correspond to a variety of situations along F'R'. A
representative analysis of stability should account for
this situation and thus be made in terms of effective
stresses, using the strength parameters correspond-
ing to FIR', i.e., the c', +' values of the Mohr-
Coulomb envelope of the normally consolidated clay.
It could also be based on the average strength
mobilized at failure, z,f, in the form of a = 0 or + (2) Compute the factor of safety F from this pro-
rather a r,f = f(z) analysis.
Stability Analysis Based on n Fixecl Strength Profile
A stability analysis based on the critical state
strength profile z,, =.f(z) would give an absolute
minimum, and probably too conservative, value of
the factor of safety of the embankment. A stability
analysis based on the strength available at failure mf
is more representative. Unfortunately an experi-
mental determination of r,f is impossible at present
WL %
FIG.18. Proposed correction of the factor of safety com-
puted from the vane strength.
inasmuch as the strength mobilized in sitir at any
~ o i n tof the failure surface is a function of the
stress-strain behaviour of the clay foundation prior
to failure and of the processes of progressive failure.
Consequently, the only practical way of evaluating
r,i is by means of empirical methods based on past
experiences with embankment failures.
In recent years, two empirical methods, with the
same experimental basis but different formulations,
have been developed to evaluate r,f in natural clay
deposits. A first method is that proposed by Bjerrum
(1972) and outlined in Figs. 5-8: the strength avail-
able at failure z,f may be obtained from the in situ
vane strength profile c, = .f(z) by applying a correc-
tion factor p,, i.e., ~ , f = PC,,. In view of the scatter of
the experimental data from which p, was derived, the
vane correction should preferably be applied in the
manner it was developed originally, i.e., on the com-
puted factor of safety. To this end, the following
design procedure is suggested.
(1) Determine the vane strength profile. In the
weathered clay crust this strength must be reduced,
for example, according to the empirical procedure
shown in Fig. 17.
file, assuming the full mobilization of the strength in
the embankment (La Rochelle et al. 1974).
(3) Obtain the corrected factor of safety F c from
the computed value, according to:
where Ff is the empirical factor of safety at failure
shown in Fig. 18. To define Ff, the weighted average
of the liquid limit along the computed failure surface
 TAVENAS AND LEROUEIL
must be determined. In highly sensitive clays, the
upper limit of Ffshould preferably be used to account
for the experiences reported by Dascal and Tournier
(1975).
The second method evolves from the analysis of
Mesri (1975). Combining the empirical correlations
between c,, o,,', the correction factor p,. and I, pro-
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posed by Bjerrum (1972), Mesri (1975) pointed out
that the strength mobilized at failure in clay founda-
tions can be considered as a unique function of o,,',
in the form :
Developing this approach, Trak et a/. (1979) indicate
that [14] may be used to obtain the strength profile
for foundation stability analysis in Canadian sensi-
tive clays. However, the strength obtained from [I41
may be too low in very young, nearly normally con-
solidated, organic clay deposits.
Considering the scatter of the original data (Fig. 7)
on which these two methods are based, they should
be used with caution and differences between the
estimated and the actual values of ~ , t should be
For personal use only.
expected in some cases. Local or regional justification
and eventual adjustments of the Ff= f(w1,) relation-
ship (Fig. 18) or of [14] are recommended.
For preliminary design purposes, the stability
charts proposed by Pilot and Moreau (1973) may be
used; these charts are particularly useful for the
preliminary definition of the geometry of embank-
ments with berms.
Stability in Terms of EfSective Stresses
From the earlier discussion on the actual behaviour
of clay foundations and from the effective stress path
presented in Fig. 14, it follows that the strength
mobilized during the development of failure is
governed by the Mohr-Coulomb envelope of the
normally consolidated clay and by the local values
of the effective stresses. Therefore, as suggested by
Tavenas et al. (1978) or by Rivard and Lu (1978), an
effective stress stability analysis based on these
strength parameters and on pore pressure observa-
tions in situ should normally provide the best evalua-
tion of the true stability condition of the foundation.
Unfortunately, effective stress methods of stability
analysis, as they exist now, are affected by significant
shortcomings, pointed out by Trak (1979) and in
more detail by Tavenas et al. (1979a, 1980). These
shortcomings may be summarized as follows.
(1) The effective normal stress considered in the
stability analysis is obtained from a crude evaluation
of equilibrium. It may significantly differ from the
stresses prevailing in the foundation prior to failure
251
and it does not account for the necessary continuity
in the stress-strain behaviour of the clay up to failure.
(2) The indiscriminate use of a simple Mohr-
Coulomb criterion results in ignoring the existence of
both limit and critical states and the corresponding
effects of preconsolidation and void ratio on the
strength available in the clay foundation. The analysis
of the stress path in Fig. 14 indicates that the strength
considered in the analysis should be limited by
(Tavenas et al. 1980):
[15] T,, = f(e) <T
= ont tan 4' < o,'(l - sin 4') tan +'
Yet the value of T computed in stability analysis does
not account for these boundary values, as indicated
in Fig. 19.
(3) The degree of mobilization of the clay strength
is expressed mathematically in a way that implies a
very specific stress path up to failure, entirely differ-
ent from that followed in sitn.
(4) The general practice of equating the local and
overall factors of safety is valid only under particular
conditions, which are generally impossible to meet.
As a result, the effective stress methods of analysis
presently available must be considered as highly
questionable. The good experience accumulated to
date (Table 1) must be considered as partly for-
tuitous, particularly since the exact pore pressures
acting on the failure surface were generally not
measured. It is suggested that the procedures for
effective stress stability analyses described by Tav-
enas et al. (1978) or by Rivard and Lu (1978) are
essentially of an empirical nature and should be
considered as such in design.
Stability during Stage Constr~rction
When a high embankment must be built on a soft
clay foundation, it is a common practice to proceed
in stages, allowing consolidation of the foundation
following each stage of construction. In this way the
shear strength of the foundation is progressively
increased as a result of the increasing effective stresses
in the foundations. A detailed analysis of this pro-
cedure has been recently presented by Tavenas et al.
(1978).
Figure 20 presents a typical stress path during a
two-stage construction. During the initial construc-
tion stage the effective stress path is similar to
O'P'A'; the clay becomes normally consolidated and
destructured at P'. Its new limit state surface is
represented by P'Fo'Ro' (Yd) and the strength avail-
able at local and complete failure would be at Fo' and
Ro' if construction were continued beyond the con-
dition A'. During the consolidation period the pore
 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 17, 1980
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+-+ lorge strain s t r e n g t h

c--4 upper limit T = ob ( I - sin 4' ) ton +'

FIG. 19. Effective normal stress it2 sirrr and in the stability analysis (after Tavenas et al. 1980).
For personal use only.

FIG.20. Typical effective stress path during stage construction.

pressures are dissipated and the effective stresses
increase along a path similar to A'B'. The limit state
surface is correspondingly displaced to Y1B'F1'R1,
the shape of which is similar to that of (Yd). When
construction is resumed at B', the response of the
normally consolidated clay is essentially undrained
and the effective stress path follows the new limit
state surface as indicated by B'F;. If the construction
is now continued to failure, local failure develops at
F; when the effective stress path reaches the Mohr-
Coulomb envelope of the normally consolidated clay
and, after strain softening, the new critical state
R1' = f(arll) is reached. It is clear from Fig. 20 that
the strengths available in the foundation either at the
onset of local failure, or at complete failure, have
been necessarily increased as a result of the consolida-
tion between the two construction stages. It is also
clear that the strength at complete failure, which is a
function of uVl1,may be greater, smaller, or equal t o
the undrained shear strength of the intact clay
depending on the shape of (Yo) and the Mohr-
Coulomb envelope (CSL) and on the magnitude of
uV1' - 0,'. We find here a clarification of the state-
ments by Lefebvre et al. (1974) and an explanation of
 TAVENAS AND LEROUEIL

the accumulated experience with vane tests carried

out under embankments.
The analysis of stability at various stages of con-
struction may be carried out in the same manner as
discussed above. When using the r,fl approach, [14]
should be changed to r,r = 0.220,' where 5,' may be
obtained from an elastic stress analysis combined
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with in situ pore pressure observations. If the strength

is to be estimated from in situ vane tests carried out
under the embankment, the fact that the limit state
surface in the normally consolidated clay is already
coincident with the critical state line must be ac-
counted for. Based on the experience reported by
Tavenas et 01. (1978) it appears that the c,/url
ratios under embankment assume values of the order FIG.21. Effective stress path during and after construction.
of 0.2-0.25, i.e., close to 0.22, so that the application
of a p. correction factor to such vane test results is not clay is strained in undrained shear under constant
justified. The factor of safety should thus be obtained effective vertical stress.
directly from the uncorrected vane strength. How- The stress path O'P' is sufficiently close to the KO
ever, the use of vane tests for estimating the gain in stress condition for the settlement behaviour to be
strength during consolidation may be associated with properly represented by the results of oedometer tests
problems as pointed out by Law (1979). on the overconsolidated clay. Bjerrum (1972) sug-
In most practical cases of stage construction, the gests that the settlement in this case may be con-
For personal use only.

clay foundations are instrumented for pore pressure
measurements. It appears logical to analyse the
stability in terms of effective stresses making use of
the pore pressure observations. This procedure has
been proposed by Tavenas et al. (1978). However,
the shortcomings of the effective stress methods,
already mentioned, may limit the validity of this
approach. On the other hand, the accumulated ex-
perience to date suggests that it may still be consid-
ered as a good engineering tool, provided the results
of the analysis are supported by careful pore pressure
interpretation. In this respect, it is pointed out that
pore pressure increments in excess of the total stress
increments are an indication of local failure whereas
At/ = A 5, merely corresponds to the response of the
normally consolidated clay.
Evaluation of Settlements
A typical effective stress path followed during con-
struction and consolidation in a clay foundation is
shown in Fig. 21. It differs significantly from that
implied in the common settlement analysis. A new
approach to the evaluation of settlements is thus
warranted.
Constr~rctionSettlements
The construction settlements develop in two differ-
ent stages. Initially, an effective stress path such as
O'P' is followed in the overconsolidated clay, corre-
sponding to a consolidation of the partially drained
foundation. Beyond P' the normally consolidated
sidered as a linear function of the applied effective
stresses. More generally, according to Janbu (1967),
the deformation of an overconsolidated clay may be
written :
where the modulus of compressibility M = mu,'.
The modulus number nz is of the order of 25-80 in
intact Champlain clays. It was pointed out earlier
that the vertical effective stress generally becomes
equal to u,,' during construction. Therefore, [16] can
be interpreted to obtain the first part of the construc-
tion settlement produced by an increase of the
vertical effective stress from o,,' to 5,'; it takes the
form :
where Dncis the depth of clay in a normally consoli-
dated state (Dncmay be evaluated from the combined
consideration of the total stress increment, of [9], and
of the o,' profile). This settlement may be about
0 5 3 % of the thickness of the clay foundation.
The undrained shear distortion corresponding to
the stress path P'A' (Fig. 21) cannot be analyzed
with the methods presently available. However, a
review of available case histories indicates that the
settlement increments during this later stage of con-
struction may be related to the increment in the
 254 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 17, 1980

height of fill beyond the threshold height by: k, e, a,', and the length of the drainage path are con-
sidered. The CONMULT program is one such
solution (Magnan et al. 1979) that has been success-
where H,, can be obtained from [lo]. fully used to analyze the settlements of highway
embankments on the deep Champlain clay deposits
Long-term Settlements along Highway A-40 between Montrtal and Trois-
The long-term settlement, developing as a result Rivibres (Brucy 1977).
of consolidation after the end of construction, corre-
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 01/17/13

The two main problems in the analysis of con-

sponds to a stress path such as A'C'. It may therefore solidation are the determination of the clay per-
be estimated from: meability and of the drainage boundary conditions.
[19] Sc=-
D + +
a,ro' A a,
C, log t)
There are no satisfactory solutions for these prob-
lems yet. In situ permeability measurements such as
I + eo 0P'
those described by Mieussens and Ducasse (1977)
where D is the thickness of the clay foundation; C, is may be affected in unknown but possibly significant
the compression index representative of the clay for amounts by the clogging of the filters during the
the stress range from o', to a,,' + Aa,; C, is the installation of the equipment. Laboratory tests are
corresponding coefficient of secondary consolidation ; subject to errors resulting from temperature effects
and t is the expected lifetime of the embankment as well as from the large difference between the
(in days). As noted by Mesri and Godlewski (1977), gradient in situ (which seldom exceeds 1) and in the
C, may be estimated from: lab (where it is generally in excess of 5 and usually of
the order of 50). As for the drainage boundary con-
ditions, careful boring is required but the static cone
The secondary consolidation term C, log t should be penetration tests or the piezo-penetrometer probe
For personal use only.

considered with caution. It is based on an assumed (Torstensson 1975) may prove to be the best tools
constant value of C, for the full duration of the available for detecting the occurrence, the thickness,
process (i.e., for the lifetime of the embankment the permeability, and the continuity of drainage
after the end of construction). However, C, is known layers. Yet, a large degree of uncertainty will prob-
to vary with the effective stresses; it should thus be ably persist in future in the definition of the boundary
variable during the period of primary consolidation. conditions in stratified deposits such as those en-
Laboratory tests further indicate that C, may vary countered in the Lake St. Peter region.
with time after the end of primary consolidation.
Therefore the combined use of [I91 and [20] should
result in a crude approximation of the secondary Evaluation of Lateral Displacement
consolidation settlement. The effective stress path corresponding to the
The development of this settlement with time after construction and the long-term consolidation periods
the end of construction may be roughly estimated provides the necessary basis for an interpretation of
from the classical Terzaghi solution of the one- the lateral displacements occurring under the toe of
dimensional consolidation. To this end the coefficient embankments. Compiling the field data available in
of consolidation c, should be taken as that corre- the literature as well as in the files of the Laboratoire
sponding to the final value of the vertical effective Central des Ponts et Chausstes, Paris, and of Lava1
stress; the relevant c, may be either measured under University, Quebec, Tavenas et al. (19796) have used
that stress in oedometer tests, or it may be computed this approach to develop an empirical method of
from [7] with the appropriate values of k, e, a,', and predicting lateral displacements in clay foundations.
C,. However, the Terzaghi solution is based on a The effective stress path shown in Fig. 21 implies
constant c , whereas this parameter actually varies that the deformation behaviour of the foundation
during consolidation. The time-settlement relation- consists of three successive stages. Initially (O'P'),
ship computed from this solution can thus be only a the response is that of a drained, overconsolidated
crude approximation. In any case, where the ex- clay, submitted to a stress path close to a KOcondi-
pected lifetime of the embankment is less than the tion; during this stage the lateral displacement
computed duration of the primary consolidation or should, therefore, increase linearly with the applied
where the pore pressures must be estimated at load, be relatively small, and represent only a small
various locations during consolidation, it is recom- fraction of the settlement. Near the end of construc-
mended that a numerical solution of the consolida- tion (P'A'), significant parts of the foundation have
tion equation be used in which the true variations of become normally consolidated and exhibit an un-
 TAVENAS A N D LEROUEIL

Kalix
o King's Lynn
A Tickton
Development of 0 nor-
mally consolidated sta-
te a s Indicated by po-
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S , construction settlement. cm

FIG. 22. Lateral displacement y, versus settlement during the construction of four test embankments (after Tavenas et al. 19796).

drained response; the corresponding lateral displace-

ment should reflect the reduced rigidity of the now
normally consolidated clay and the undrained re-
sponse, by increasing more rapidly with the embank-
For personal use only.

ment load and by being more or less equal to the

settlement increment. After the end of construction,
the consolidation develops along a stress path possi-
bly such as A'B'C'. The increments of the lateral
displacement Ay and the settlement As should reflect
the drained behaviour, i.e., Ay should remain much
smaller than As.
In the analysis of available field data, it has been
found appropriate to describe the lateral displace-
ment behaviour by means of the relation of the
maximum lateral displacement y, below the toe of
the embankment to the settlement s under the center
line, as well as by means of the distribution of the
lateral displacement with depth, expressed in the FIG. 23. Average correlation between y , and s during
construction.
form of y / y , = ,f(z/D) where y is the displacement at
the depth z and D is the depth of clay. rence of this behaviour in overconsolidated clays. As
Lateral Displacements cl~rringConstruction indicated in Fig. 23, the initial response for embank-
Figure 22 shows the variations of y, with the ments with slopes of the order of 1.5-2.5 horizontal
settlement s during the construction of four test to 1 vertical may be represented by:
embankments on a variety of clays. The sequence of
behaviour discussed above is clearly evidenced. Ini- [21a] Ay, = (0.18 f 0.09)As
tially y , remains small and corresponds to 19-36% and the response in the final stages of construction
of the settlement. Beyond a stage that corresponds to corresponds to :
the passage of parts of the foundation to a normally
consolidated state, Fig. 22, the slope of y , = f(s) [21b] Ay, = (0.91 f 0.2)As
becomes practically equal to 1.0, reflecting the un- The change in behaviour (point P') occurs at the
drained distortion of the normally consolidated clay threshold height of embankment, determined from
foundation. [ l o ] .Figure 23, combined with the settlement analysis
Analyzing all available field observations, Tavenas described earlier, provides an empirical tool for the
et al. (1979b) have confirmed the systematic occur- evaluation of y,. A more accurate prediction of y,
 256 CAN. GEOTECH. 3. VOL. 17, 1980

U; ,kPo ~ . c m
O z0 40 HI 8o o 2 will hardly be possible since it would require a
stress-strain analysis accounting for the effects of
stress axis rotation throughout construction, of the
initial drained response, and of the passage of the
clay to a normally consolidated state, as well as a
prediction of the rate of construction and pore
pressure dissipation.
The distribution of lateral displacements with
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 01/17/13

depth at the end of construction is directly dependent

on the effective stress condition in the foundation, as
shown in Fig. 24. If the clay has become normally
consolidated over the full depth of the deposit, the
(a) displacement curve y = f(z) reflects this homoge-
v:?P.
00 40 80 160 neous condition and it corresponds roughly to the
classical theoretical solution (cf. Fig. 4); this was the
\
2$~$;F- case
depths.
situ for
effective
the
On Cubzac
the
stresses
other
A test
hand,
a,' fill
correspond
where
if onlythe
atomeasured
part
a,' of
at the
all
in
'-\ foundation has become normally consolidated, the
\
- -
y = f(z) reflects the resulting nonuniform condition:
small deformations develop in the lower, overconsoli-
:6- \- \\I
\-
\ :
u;
\- .,
dated clay and large deformations occur only in the
upper, normally consolidated clay, as was the case
For personal use only.

\v&
"
\,' for the St-Alban B test fill.
M \ The failure to predict properly the magnitude and
\ \- -,>*'

distribution of lateral displacements at the end of

I? construction is thus due to the assumption of an
(b) undrained response of the clay foundations. On the
FIG.24. Dlstrlbutlon of the lateral displacement wtth depth other hand, by accounting for the initial drained
at the end of construct~onfor two test embankments (after response of the clay foundation, a logical explanation
Tavenas et a/. 19796). (a) Cubzac-Ies-Ponts A. ( b ) Saint-Alban of the field observations is possible.
B.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 00
A S, consolidation settlement cm

FIG.25. Relation between Aym and A s during the long-term consolidation of embankment foundations.
 TAVENAS A N D LEROUEIL
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 01/17/13
FIG.26. Relation between A j , / A s and the angle of em-
bankment slope.
For personal use only.
I Long-term Lateral Displacements
I
It is commonly assumed that long-term lateral
displacements are small as compared with the con-
struction deformations, unless the stability of the
embankment is so low as to result in shear creep
deformations. However, the analysis carried out by
Tavenas et 01. (1979b) indicates that this assumption
does not conform to field behaviour.
Compiling all available field observations, Tavenas
et al. (19796) have observed a more or less linear
relationship between the maximum lateral displace-
ment and the settlement developing after the end of
construction, as shown in Fig. 25. This relationship
may be expressed as:
[22] Ay, = (0.16 & 0.02)As
for the geometry and stability conditions noted in
Fig. 25. The similarity between 1221 and [21a] con-
firms the drained nature of the foundation response
at the beginning of construction.
The linear relationship between Ay,, and As has
also been observed for other conditions but the value
of the ratio 6 = Ay,/As is apparently affected by the
factor of safety or the geometry of the embankment.
For example, as shown in Fig. 26, the ratio 5 is more
or less a linear function of the slope inclination tan P
for slopes of 1.5-4 horizontal to 1 vertical.
The linear increase of Ay, with As has been ob-
served in 13 case histories over a period of up to 6
years after the end of construction, and it seems to be
a general occurrence in the initial period of consolida-
257
tion. However, it may not be applicable to the entire
duration of the primary consolidation. Indeed, for the
only case history where long-term observations are
available, at the Ski%Edeby Vagbanken (Holtz and
Lindskog 1972), the ratio Ay,/As, initially equal to
0.22, has decreased to about 0.06 after 17 years of
consolidation.
An upper limit of the maximum lateral displace-
ment developing after the end of construction during
the lifetime of an embankment can thus be obtained
from :
where So is the final settlement under the embank-
ment computed from [19] or preferably from an
analytical solution; S is the observed settlement at
the end of construction; and 4 is obtained from
Fig. 26.
Another interesting result of the analysis by
Tavenas et al. (1979b) is that the distribution of the
lateral displacements with depth, expressed in the
form of y/y, = f(z/D), is not changed during
consolidation. Figure 27 shows three typical ex-
amples. Consequently, if the lateral displacements
are observed at the end of construction under the toe
of a given embankment, the combination of the
observed y/y, = ,f(z/D) distribution with [23] pro-
vides a means of predicting the long-term lateral
displacements at any depth and time.
Conclusion
Important progress has been made in recent years
in the understanding and analysis of the behaviour
of clay foundations during and after embankment
construction.
The main finding of an analysis of available case
histories is that the clay response to construction is
not truly undrained as implied in all design methods
presently in use. Rather, a significant consolidation
develops initially in the overconsolidated natural
clay, which becomes normally consolidated during
construction. An undrained behaviour develops only
in the normally consolidated clay during the final
stages of construction.
This sequence of behaviour has important conse-
quences in all aspects of the design analysis of em-
bankments. Revised methods of predicting pore
pressures, stability conditions, settlements, and lateral
displacements have been presented. They are believed
to be not only more representative of the actual field
behaviour but also simpler than the methods pres-
ently in use.
 258 CAN. GEOTECH. J. VOL. 17. 1980
Can. Geotech. J. Downloaded from www.nrcresearchpress.com by NC STATE UNIVERSITY on 01/17/13
ST-ALBAN B CUBZAC-LES-PONTS
FIG. 27. Distribution with depth of the long-term lateral displacement under three embankments.
Acknowledgments
The authors are indebted to L. Andrtasson,
R. Garneau, P. La Rochelle, J. P. Magnan, C.
Mieussens, G. Pilot, and B. Trak for making avail-
able many of the necessary field data as well as for the
discussions that have contributed to the development
For personal use only.
of the ideas presented in this paper.
The research activities on the behaviour of em-
bankments on soft clays at Laval University are
supported by grants from the CRSNG, the Ministry
of Education, and the Ministry of Transport of
Quebec. The cooperation with the Laboratoire
Central des Ponts et Chausstes, Paris, developed
within a France-Quebec integrated cooperation
project. The preparation of this paper has been sup-
ported by grant number A7724 from the CRSNG.
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